essay role of media in social development

Essay on Role of Social Media

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100 Words Essay on Role of Social Media

Introduction.

Social media is a powerful tool in our modern world. It connects people globally, allowing us to share ideas, news, and personal updates.

Connecting People

Social media platforms like Facebook, Instagram, and Twitter connect us with friends and family. They help us stay informed about their lives.

Information and Awareness

Social media is a great source of news and updates. It helps raise awareness about social issues and events happening around the world.

Education and Learning

Social media can be educational. Many educators and experts share knowledge and resources, aiding in learning.

While social media has its drawbacks, its role in connecting people, spreading information, and aiding education is undeniable.

250 Words Essay on Role of Social Media

The advent of social media.

Social media, a revolutionary tool of the 21st century, has transformed the way we communicate, share information, and perceive the world. It has woven itself into the fabric of our daily lives, becoming an indispensable part of our society.

Communication and Information Dissemination

Social media platforms like Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram have made global communication seamless. They allow for instantaneous sharing of ideas, news, and personal experiences. This has democratized information, making it accessible to all, but also poses challenges regarding the spread of misinformation.

Social Activism and Awareness

Social media has become a powerful tool for social activism. Movements like #BlackLivesMatter and #MeToo have utilized these platforms to raise awareness, mobilize people, and effect change. However, the risk of ‘slacktivism’ – passive activism without real-world action – is a concern.

Marketing and Business Strategies

Businesses have leveraged social media for marketing, customer engagement, and brand visibility. They can interact directly with consumers, gather feedback, and tailor their strategies accordingly. The rise of influencer marketing is a testament to this new era of digital commerce.

The Double-Edged Sword

While social media has numerous benefits, it also has its drawbacks. Issues such as privacy breaches, cyberbullying, and the detrimental effects on mental health cannot be overlooked.

In conclusion, the role of social media in our lives is multifaceted. It has the potential to be a force for good, fostering global connections, social change, and business innovation. Yet, we must also be mindful of its pitfalls and strive to use it responsibly.

500 Words Essay on Role of Social Media

In the contemporary world, social media has become an integral part of our lives. It has transformed the way we communicate, interact, and perceive the world around us. This essay explores the role of social media, focusing on its impact on personal relationships, public discourse, and business.

Personal Relationships

Social media has drastically altered how we maintain and form relationships. It has enabled us to stay connected with loved ones, irrespective of geographical boundaries. We can share our experiences, milestones, and everyday moments, fostering a sense of closeness. However, this digital connection also has its pitfalls. It can lead to an over-reliance on virtual interactions, potentially undermining the value of face-to-face communication. Moreover, the constant comparison with others’ curated lives can lead to feelings of inadequacy and anxiety.

Public Discourse

Social media has democratized information dissemination, changing the dynamics of public discourse. It has given a platform to voices that were previously marginalized, leading to greater inclusivity. Social movements like #BlackLivesMatter and #MeToo have been amplified through social media, leading to significant societal change. However, this freedom also comes with the risk of misinformation and fake news, which can polarize societies and disrupt democratic processes.

Business and Marketing

In the business world, social media has revolutionized marketing strategies. Businesses can now directly engage with their customers, understand their needs, and tailor their services accordingly. It also provides a cost-effective platform for advertising and brand promotion. However, the use of personal data for targeted advertising raises ethical concerns about privacy and consent.

Social media has also played a pivotal role in education, especially during the COVID-19 pandemic. It has facilitated remote learning, enabling students and teachers to stay connected. It also provides a platform for collaborative learning and knowledge sharing. However, the digital divide and the risk of cyberbullying are significant challenges that need to be addressed.

In conclusion, social media, with its profound impact on personal relationships, public discourse, business, and education, has undeniably reshaped our world. Its role is multifaceted and complex, offering both opportunities and challenges. As digital citizens, it is incumbent upon us to navigate this landscape responsibly, leveraging its potential while being mindful of its pitfalls. The future of social media is dynamic and evolving, reflecting our collective aspirations and challenges as a society. As we move forward, it is crucial to foster a balanced and informed approach to social media use, ensuring it serves as a tool for positive change.

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INTRODUCTION

Merriam-Webster (2019) described social media “Forms of electronic communication (such as websites for social networking and micro blogging) through which users create online communities to share information, ideas, personal messages, and other content (such as videos)”. Ajijola (2022) posits that it is a portal that attracts so many internet users for the purpose of entertainment, dissemination of news, sending messages and other forms of expression through the media.

Social media are the interactive media of mass communication that gives chance for the two way communication process and defeats the one way (incomplete) communication process that is available on the Print and Electronic media whereby the feedback is delayed, slow or is not received. However, social media gives room for immediate feedback from the receiver of the message (Information, culture, tradition e.t.c) sent. Social media is a useful networking service for young people when used purposively. For instance, According to Faudree (2009) as cited by Damota (2019) lists the following five advantages of Facebook: (1) Facebook is a social networking site that students frequently use when they are bored, (2) Facebook is a way for students to communicate with other members, (3) Facebook is a place where students can unwind, (4) Facebook enables students to support one another and discover their individual identities.

Social media can be also a source of mutilation. Sander and Thomas (2013) cited in Mulugeta (2019) in their study identified two types of mutilation: Cultural, social-psychological and cognitive: forms of “Attention Deficit (Disorder)” and Business and macro-economic: forms of “Financial Deficit”. Nowadays, the majority of teenagers across all age groups are quickly switching from using electronic media like television and radio to social media. Adolescents who use and experiment with social media run some danger due to their low ability to self-regulate and vulnerability to peer pressure. Recent studies show that offline behaviors like bullying, clique formation, and sexual experimentation are frequently expressed online. This has led to issues like cyber bullying(Ige & Adewale, 2022b), privacy concerns as data could be mined from the cloud(Ige & Adewale, 2022a) for malicious use, sexting, Internet addiction, and sleep deprivation. (Patchin et al., 2006).

The general purpose of this review is to provide detail information about the Impact of Social Media on Societal Development.

The general objective

To analyse the influence of social media on society
To identify the positive and dark sides of social media
To recommend some measures for proper use of social media

Concept of Communication

According to Ajijola Isaac (2022) Communication is the transfer of ideas, opinion and information from one person to another. it is dual in nature , on one hand is the speaker and on the other is the receiver. Akande (2022) sees communication as a process of transferring information, ideas, knowledge, emotions, beliefs or perception from one person to another. Similarly Sheikh Shariq Vohra sees it as the process of sending information from one person to another. It is the act of sharing ideas, facts, opinions, thoughts, messages, or emotions to others, both inside and beyond the organization, through a channel to foster mutual understanding and trust.

Richard Nordquit (2021) Speech, or oral communication; writing and graphical representations (such as info graphics, maps, and charts); and signs, signals, and behavior are all examples of communication. Communication can be defined as “the formation and interchange of meaning.”

Concept of Social Media

According to Kietzmznn (2011) Social media are interactive digital channels that allow people to share information, ideas, and other kinds of expression through virtual communities and networks. Merriam-Webster (2019) described social media “Forms of electronic communication (such as websites for social networking and micro blogging) through which users create online communities to share information, ideas, personal messages, and other content (such as videos)”.It is also seen as “s group of Internet-based applications that build on the ideological and technological foundations of Web 2.0, and that allow the creation and exchange of User Generated Content”,(Kaplan & Haenlein, 2010; 61). “Social media uses mobile and web-based technology to build highly interactive platforms where people can share, co-create, discuss, and alter user-generated content.” Given the widespread coverage of social media in today’s news, it appears that we are in the midst of a completely new communication landscape.” (Kietzmann, et al, 2011; 241)

Ajijola (2022) posits that it is a portal that attracts so many internet users for the purpose of entertainment, dissemination of news, sending messages and other forms of expression through the media, and the mind behind this portal is a brilliant one who is ever innovative, always coming up with new ideas to keep the audience glued.

There are three types of media

The ones people don’t notice
The ones people go to once because of one juicy information
And the ones that keep people glued to their screen because it has all the things to keep its audience occupied for example TikTok, Instagram, Facebook, Twitter e.t.c.

There is also an option of Mobile use of social media which entails the use of social media on mobile devices such as smart phones and tablet computers. Because the creation, exchange, and circulation of user-generated content can help organizations with marketing research, communication, and relationship development, mobile social media are important applications of mobile marketing. Mobile social media differs from other forms of social media in that it takes into account the user’s current location (location-sensitivity) as well as the time between sending and receiving messages. (Kaplan 2012)

Types of Social Media

Social Networks: Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn, Whatsapp
Media Sharing Networks: Instagram, Snapchat, YouTube, TikTok
Discussion Forums: Reddit, Quora, Digg
Bookmarking & Content Creation Networks: Pinterest, Flipboard
Consumer Review Networks: Yelp, Zomato, TripAdvisor
Blogging & Publishing Networks: WordPress, Tumblr, Medium, Blogger
Social Shopping Networks: Kara, JiJi, Jumia
Interest-Based Networks: Goodreads, Houzz, Last.fm

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

Agenda Setting Theory

The agenda-setting theory of media, in contrast to the extreme views of the direct effects model, states that mass media define the topics that interest the public rather than the population’s views. According to this hypothesis, the problems that receive the greatest media coverage are the ones that the public debates, discusses, and demands action on. This implies that the media shapes public perceptions of topics and stories. As a result, when the media fails to discuss a topic, it becomes marginalized in the public’s perception (Hanson).

This theory is used by critics who claim that a particular media outlet has an agenda. Agendas can range from the spread of cutthroat capitalist ideals in films to a perceived liberal slant in the news media. The agenda-setting hypothesis, for example, explains occurrences like the growth of anti-smoking sentiment. Smoking was considered a personal health concern before the media took an anti-smoking position. The mass media made smoking a public health concern rather than a personal health issue by spreading antismoking emotions through commercials, public relations initiatives, and a variety of media channels (Dearing & Rogers, 1996).

Natural catastrophe coverage has become more prominent in the news recently. However, when news coverage decreases, public interest decreases. Media scholars who specialize in agenda-setting research look at an issue’s salience, or relative significance, and then try to figure out what makes it so. The relative importance of an issue affects its location on the public agenda, which influences the development of public policy. Agenda-setting study follows public policy from its inception as an agenda, through mass media promotion, and eventually to its final form as a law or policy (Dearing & Rogers, 1996).

Cultivation Analysis

According to the cultivation analysis hypothesis, persons who are exposed to a lot of media acquire an illusory sense of reality based on the medium’s most recurrent and consistent messages. Because of the pervasiveness and repetition of Social Media Network, this theory is most typically applied to its analysis. According to this hypothesis, someone who spends a lot of time on social media platforms may build an image of reality that isn’t accurate. Violent or Degrading comments and the popular fake lifestyle on these platforms, much exceed violence, degrading and fake lifestyle acts that most people witness in their everyday lives. As a result, someone who is always glued to their social media may come to believe that the world is more violent and dangerous than it really.

Cultivation analysis studies include a variety of study topics, including as the variations in perception between heavy and light media consumers. To use this theory, an individual’s usual media consumption must be examined for various sorts of messages. Then, researchers must analyze the cultural background of the particular media consumer in order to accurately establish additional aspects that are involved in his or her view of reality.

METHODS OF RESEARCHING MEDIA EFFECTS

There are various ways of researching Media Effect, they include Content Analysis, Archival Research, Surveys, Social Role Analysis, Depth Interviews, Rhetorical Analysis, Focus Groups, Participant Observation and others.

These Methods are further spited into two for more clarifications

Media research methods are the practical procedures for carrying out a research project. These methods include content analysis, surveys, focus groups, experiments, and participant observation.
Research methods generally involve either test subjects or analysis of media. Methods involving test subjects include surveys, depth interviews, focus groups, and experiments. Analysis of media can include content, style, format, social roles, and archival analysis.

The use of social media is prevalent among teenagers. A 2018 Pew Research Center study of roughly 750 13- to 17-year-olds revealed that 97% of them use social media sites like YouTube, Facebook, Instagram, and Snapchat, and that 45% of them spend practically all of their time online.

But what effect does teen use of social media have?

Social media benefits

Teenagers can develop social networks, engage with others, and construct online personas thanks to social media. Social networks can be a great resource for youth, especially for those who struggle with marginalization, impairments, or chronic diseases.

Teenagers also utilize social media for self-expression and entertainment. Additionally, the platforms can inform teenagers about current events, enable cross-border communication, and impart knowledge on a range of topics, including good habits. Teenagers may even benefit from using social media that is amusing, entertaining, or that offers a meaningful connection to peers and a large social network. Teenagers can develop social networks, engage with others, and construct online personas thanks to social media.

Social media harms

So far, kids’ usage of social media can also have a detrimental impact on them by diverting their attention, preventing them from sleeping, and exposing them to bullying, rumors, unrealistic expectations of other people’s lives, and peer pressure.

High levels of social media usage have been linked in studies to depression or anxiety symptoms. More frequent social media usage, nocturnal social media use, and emotional involvement in social media, such as being upset when you can’t log on, were all associated with poorer sleep quality and higher levels of anxiety and despair, according to a 2016 study of more than 450 teenagers.

The impact of social media among teenagers could also vary. A 2015 study discovered a connection between teen use of social media and cellphones for social comparison and feedback seeking and depressive symptoms. However, a tiny 2013 study discovered that the life satisfaction of older teenagers who used social media passively—for example, by only browsing others’ photos—declined. These declines didn’t affect people who utilized social media to communicate with others or upload their own content.

Experts contend that kids who post content on social media run the risk of disclosing intimate images or extremely personal stories due to their impulsive natures. Teenagers may experience bullying, harassment, or even blackmail as a result of this. Teenagers frequently post online without thinking about these repercussions or privacy issues.

Social Media’s Impact on Societal Issues

Social networking and social media play such a significant role in contemporary societal concerns that we witness today, such as the black lives matter protest, Missouri massacre, the End Sars Movement, #OccupyNigeria, #BringBackOurGirls, Sex for Grades, and the popular ALS Ice Bucket Challenge fundraising. With all of the societal challenges that we encounter in today’s society, social networking and social media assist in bringing all of the current concerns to our attention. According to current research, social networking sites (SNS) provide “a mechanism for individuals to communicate in any manner they think suitable with the online community” (Saini and Moon, 2013, p. 3).

The three most popular SNSs in today’s society are Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram, and they supply everyone of us with our general understanding of our present social difficulties. Facebook has ensured its long-term viability by evolving with the times (Saini and Moon, 2013). On a typical day, 15% of Facebook users post their own status on the platform (Hampton, Goulet, Rainie, & Purcell, 2011). Twitter has also grabbed our contemporary SNS users by storm by allowing many people to voice their problems and ideas about social issues in only 140 characters. Instagram has enabled its users to swiftly post images, instantaneously allowing all of its users to share photos that, often times, may add to the understanding of our social concerns more quickly in today’s culture rather than waiting for pictures from a major news article. Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram are all substantially responsible for raising social awareness and effecting change for all of our daily professional, personal, and public societal challenges.

Facebook and Social Connections

Mark Zuckerbug founded Facebook in 2004 as a social networking tool for the Harvard community. Since then, it has grown to become one of the largest social networking sites, with over 400 million visitors per month. As the number of visitors on Facebook has increased, it has become a powerful tool for the organization and coordination of groups seeking social change. During the Arab Spring uprisings in Tunisia, one example may be observed. In 2008, there were less than 30,000 Tunisians on Facebook. There were nearly 2 million, or one-fifth of Tunisia’s population, at the time of the uprising in December 2010. During the revolt, protest footage, photos, and locations were uploaded to the internet. One Tunisian resident referred to Facebook as the “GPS for this revolution,” implying that it offered direction for the movement.

In 2012, Facebook group sites were established to mobilize Nigerians worldwide in opposition to the regime of gasoline subsidy elimination. One of these, titled “Nationwide Anti-Fuel Subsidy Removal: Strategies & Protests,” was founded on January 2, 2012, and had over 20,000 members by January 9, 2012. Student websites and blogs are reporting on the Occupy Nigeria events, and student delegates are giving live photographs of the continuing demonstrations.

Twitter: The Power of the @ and hashtag(#)

There are several methods for communicating what is going on in our environment. Twitter is another famous social networking platform that has revolutionized the way many people interact. With a modest restriction on how much you may say, this website allows for rapid and ongoing contact. Individuals have 140 characters to publish in each distinct tweet, and with the capacity to do this frequently, information may be transmitted quickly to millions of people in a short amount of time.

Twitter was created in March 2006 by Evan Williams, Noah Glass, Jack Dorsey, and Biz Stone, all of whom had similar ideas about providing a free and speedy means to transmit messages to people all over the world.

Another example of the impact Twitter had on society can be seen by the #OccupyNigeria protest, it began on January 1, 2012, and Nigerians were greeted with a stunning start to the year when Nigeria’s former President, Dr. Goodluck Ebele Jonathan, announced the withdrawal of the gasoline subsidy. Following this news, the price of gasoline at the pump surged instantly from 65 to 141 cents per litre, and on the black market from 100 to 200 cents. The next day, the entire nation was stirred up, and Twitter’s #OccupyNigeria became a significant igniting point where grievance torches were kindled. The government responded by lowering the price of gasoline at the pump by 30%, bringing it down to 97 cents. Nigerians, like the renowned Oliver Twist, demanded more. Some saw the Occupy Nigeria protest as more than just a campaign for gasoline subsidies.

Another impact can be seen during the #BringBackOur Girls This is undoubtedly the most significant and well-known Nigerian fad that originated on Twitter. On the night of April 14, 2014, only 24 hours after the Abuja bombings, around 276 female students were forcibly removed from the Government Girls Secondary School in Chibok, Borno State. The terrorist organization Boko Haram claimed responsibility for their kidnapping. With the first hectic and frantic speed of the adventure, about 57 of them escaped from the vehicles, while the terrorists abducted 219 pupils. However, like the people of ancient times who ate and drank ignorant to the impending flood, the then-President, Dr. Goodluck Ebele Jonathan, was at a campaign rally in Kano, and subsequently, images of him at a birthday celebration in Ibadan were circulated on Twitter. Nigerians’ reactions were obviously filled with shock and fury at the government’s apparent insensitivity. Then followed a tweet ascribed to Oby Ezekwesili, former minister of education during the Olusegun Obasanjo government, by Ibrahim M. Abdullahi, a two-time Nigerian minister during the Obasanjo regime. In solidarity, world leaders like Wife of the Former American President Mitchell Obama, celebrities (Ellen DeGeneres of the The Ellen Show, Mary J. Blige and the host of others), and international organizations joined the movement. According to an investigation, the hashtag #BringBackOurGirls was tweeted in six languages, including English and Spanish. Don’t forget the First Lady, Dame Patience Jonathan’s, dramatic emotional collapse. As of October 2019, 107 females had been reported found, with 112 remaining missing. Five years later, the hunt is still ongoing, with many unsolved questions.

Another example s also the #ENDSARS movement, The Nigeria Police Force established the Special Anti-Robbery Squad (SARS) in 1992 as a crime-fighting organization. However, by 2017, there has been a steady stream of instances of brutality, extortion, high-handedness, and illegal arrests. What occurred on Twitter : The End Special Anti-Robbery Squad (#ENDSARS) movement, spearheaded by the famous Segun Awosanya (@segalink), began on Twitter in mid-2017, with calls for the government to abolish SARS. As Segun’segalink’ Awosanya gave a venue for individuals to voice their tales, an internet petition calling for the reform of the Nigeria Police was launched. There were significant effects as the government signed a number of legislation into law to assist combat the threat.

#SexForGrades At the month of October, the topic of rape and other types of sexual harassment moved from the holy grounds of the church to the citadels of learning in West African colleges. On October 7, 2019, BBC Africa Eye, the BBC’s investigative arm in Africa, aired an hour-long video documenting allegations of sexual harassment by academics at two West African institutions, the University of Lagos and the University of Ghana. The documentary’s impact, which implicated four academics at these universities, was felt immediately. The movie brought to light the ubiquitous threat of sexual harassment at most Nigerian campuses, and Nigerian Twitter erupted, with some claiming that the documentary was only the top of the iceberg. And the ramifications for the professors were virtually immediate.

Dr. Boniface, the pastor of Foursquare and #UNILAG, has been suspended from ministry until the outcome of an inquiry. #BBCAfricaEye #SexForGrades pic.twitter.com/sDcrYObo79

— Charlie Northcott (@CNorthcott1) Saturday, October 7, 2019

On November 16, 2019, the Nigerian Senate began work on a bill for an Act to prevent, ban, and remediate sexual harassment of students in tertiary educational institutions.

As Kietzmznn earlier identified social media as interactive digital channels that allow people to share information, ideas, and other kinds of expression through virtual communities and networks which include Whatsapp, Facebook, Youtube, Linkden, Jiji, Nairaland etc. Social networking and social media play such a significant role in contemporary societal concerns that we witness today, such as the Ferguson, Missouri massacre, the End Sars Movement, #OccupyNigeria, #BringBackOurGirls, Sex for Grades, and the popular ALS Ice Bucket Challenge fundraising. With all of the societal challenges that we encounter in today’s society, social networking and social media assist in bringing all of the current concerns to our attention. According to current research, social networking sites (SNS) provide “a mechanism for individuals to communicate in any manner they think suitable with the online community” (Saini and Moon, 2013, p. 3). The roles that were stated in this research has showed how much the social media has been doing on the path of social development.

RECOMMENDATION

Instead of Government banning the use of social media like in the case of Nigeria with twitter, the government should find a way to work with the social media expert to make use of the trends to carry the youths along with the social development process.
It is advisable for the youths that Although everyone have a reason to be online they should find and engage in more educative trends so they can be more useful to the society instead of using it to while away precious time.
The programmers should find a way to restrict adult content to adults users by verifying the user’s identity.
The programmers should also try to make the platform more social and educative.
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Review Article
Open access
Published: 21 February 2018

Media use and brain development during adolescence

Eveline A. Crone 1 &
Elly A. Konijn 2

Nature Communications volume 9 , Article number: 588 ( 2018 ) Cite this article

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Cognitive neuroscience

The current generation of adolescents grows up in a media-saturated world. However, it is unclear how media influences the maturational trajectories of brain regions involved in social interactions. Here we review the neural development in adolescence and show how neuroscience can provide a deeper understanding of developmental sensitivities related to adolescents’ media use. We argue that adolescents are highly sensitive to acceptance and rejection through social media, and that their heightened emotional sensitivity and protracted development of reflective processing and cognitive control may make them specifically reactive to emotion-arousing media. This review illustrates how neuroscience may help understand the mutual influence of media and peers on adolescents’ well-being and opinion formation.

Diverse adolescents’ transcendent thinking predicts young adult psychosocial outcomes via brain network development

Rebecca J. M. Gotlieb, Xiao-Fei Yang & Mary Helen Immordino-Yang

essay role of media in social development

Windows of developmental sensitivity to social media

Amy Orben, Andrew K. Przybylski, … Rogier A. Kievit

Associations between social behaviors and experiences with neural correlates of implicit emotion regulation in middle childhood

Keara C. Geckeler, Deanna M. Barch & Nicole R. Karcher

Introduction

Media play a tremendously important role in the lives of today’s youth, who grow up with tablets and smartphones, and do not remember a time before the internet, and are hence called ‘digital natives’ 1 , 2 . The current generation of the adolescents lives in a media-saturated world, where media is used not only for entertainment purposes, such as listening to music or watching movies, but is also used increasingly for communicating with peers via WhatsApp, Instagram, SnapChat, Facebook, etc. Taken together, these media-related activities comprise roughly 6–9 h of an American youth’s day, excluding home- and schoolwork ( https://www.commonsensemedia.org/the-common-sense-census-media-use-by-tweens-and-teens-infographic ) 3 , 4 . Social media enable people to share information, ideas or opinions, messages, images and videos. Today, all kinds of media formats are constantly available through portable mobile devices such as smartphones and have become an integrated part of adolescents’ social life 5 .

Adolescence, which is defined as the transition period between childhood and adulthood (approximately ages 10–22 years, although age bins differ between cultures), is a developmental stage in which parental influence decreases and peers become more important 6 . Being accepted or rejected by peers is highly salient in adolescence, also there is a strong need to fit into the peer group and they are highly influenced by their peers 7 . Therefore, it is imperative that we understand how adolescents process media content and peers’ feedback provided on such platforms. Adolescents’ social lives in particular seem to occur for a large part through smartphones that are filled with friends with whom they are constantly connected (cf. “A day not wired is a day not lived” 5 , 8 ). This is where they monitor their peer status, check peers’ feedback, rejection and acceptance messages, and encounter peers as (idealized) images 9 on screens 5 , 8 , 10 . Likely, this plays an important role in adolescent development, and we therefore focus primarily on adolescents’ social media use 11 . Most media research to date is based on correlational and self-report data, and would be strengthened by integrating experimental paradigms and more objectively assessed behavioral, emotional, and neural consequences of experimentally induced media use.

Recently, cognitive neuroscience studies have used structural and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to examine how the adolescent brain changes over the course of the adolescent years 6 . The results of several studies demonstrate that cognitive and socio-affective development in adolescence is accompanied by extensive changes in the structure and function of the adolescent brain 6 . Structurally, white matter connections increase, allowing for more successful communication between different areas of the brain 12 . The maturation of these connections is related to behavioral control, for example, connections between the prefrontal cortex and the subcortical striatum mediate age-related improvements in the ability to wait for a reward 13 . In addition to these changes in white matter connections, neurons in the brain grow in number between conception and childhood, with greatest synaptic density in early childhood. This increase in synaptic density co-occurs with synaptic pruning, and pruning rates increase in adolescence, resulting in a decrease in synaptic density in late childhood and adolescence 14 . Structural MRI research revealed that the peak in grey matter volume probably occurs before the age of 10 years, but dynamic non-linear changes in grey matter volume continue over the whole period of adolescence, and the timing is region-specific 15 . Interestingly, changes in grey matter volume are observed most extensively in brain regions that are important for social understanding and communication such as the medial prefrontal cortex, superior temporal cortex and temporal parietal junction 16 . Figure 1 displays the extensive changes in the human cortex during adolescence.

Longitudinal changes in brain structure across adolescence (ages 8–30). a Consistent patterns of change across four independent longitudinal samples (391 participants, 852 scans), with increases in cerebral white matter volume and decreases in cortical grey matter volume (adapted from Mills et al., 2016, NeuroImage 105 ). b Of the two main components of cortical volume, surface area and thickness, thinning across ages 8 to 25 years is the main contributor to volume reduction across adolescence, here displayed in the Braintime sample (209 participants, 418 scans). Displayed are regional differences in annual percentage change (APC) across the whole brain, the more the color changes in the direction of green to blue, the larger the annual decrease in volume (adapted from Tamnes et al., 2017, J Neuroscience 15 )

Given that brain regions involved in many social aspects of life are undergoing such extensive changes during adolescence, it is likely that social influences—which also occur through the use of social media as the internet connects adolescents to many people at once—are particularly potent at this age in coalescence with their media use. Also, subcortical brain regions undergo pronounced changes during adolescence 17 . There is evidence that the density of grey matter volume in the amygdala, a structure associated with emotional processing, is related to larger offline social networks 18 , as well as larger online social networks 19 , 20 . This suggests an important interplay between actual social experiences, both offline and online, and brain development.

This review brings together research on media use among adolescents with neural development during adolescence. We will specifically focus on the following three aspects of media exposure of interest to adolescent development 21 : (1) social acceptance or rejection, (2) peer influence on self-image and self-perception, and (3) the role of emotions in media use. Finally, we discuss new perspectives on how the interplay between media exposure and sensitive periods in brain development may make some individuals more susceptible to the consequences of media use than others.

Being accepted or rejected online

Experiencing acceptance or rejection when communicating via digital media is an impactful social experience. Extensive research, including large meta-analyses, has demonstrated that social rejection in a computerized environment can be experienced similarly as face-to-face rejection and bullying, although the prevalence of cyberbullying is generally lower 22 , 23 (and studies vary widely: prevalence rates depend on how cyberbullying is defined and measured). In all, cyberbullying peaks during adolescence 24 and large overlap has been found between victims and bullies. In part, this overlap could be explained by victimized adolescents seeking exposure to antisocial and risk behavior media content 25 . The next subsections will describe recent discoveries in neuroscience on the neural responses to online rejection and acceptance.

Neural responses to online social rejection

The emotional and neural effects of being socially excluded have been well captured by research involving the Cyberball Paradigm 26 ( https://cyberball.wikispaces.com/ ). Cyberball is a virtual ball-toss game in which the study participant tosses a ball with two simulated players (so-called confederates) via a screen. After a round of fair play, the confederates, who only throw the ball to each other, exclude the participant in the rejection condition. This results in pronounced negative effects on the participants’ feeling to belong, ostracism, sense of control, and self-esteem 26 . Even though the paradigm was not designed to study online rejection as it occurs today on social media, the findings of prior Cyberball studies may provide an important starting point for understanding the processes involved in online rejection. In fact, inspired by Cyberball, a Social Media Ostracism paradigm has recently been developed by applying a Facebook format to study the effects of online social exclusion 27 .

Using functional MRI (fMRI), researchers have observed increased activity in the orbitofrontal cortex and insula after participants experienced exclusion, possibly signaling increased arousal and negative affect 28 . In addition, stronger activity in the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) is observed in adolescents and young adults with a history of being socially excluded 29 , maltreated 30 , or insecure attachment, whereas spending more time with friends reduced ACC response in adolescents to social exclusion 31 . This may possibly protect adolescents against the negative influence of ostracism or cyberbullying, although all these studies are correlational. Therefore, it remains to be determined whether environment influences brain development or vice versa. Moreover, ACC and insula activity have also been explained as signaling a highly significant event because the same regions are also active when participants experience inclusion 32 . Furthermore, studies with adolescents observed specific activity in the ventral striatum 33 , and in the subgenual ACC when adolescents were excluded in the online Cyberball computer game 34 , 35 , the latter region is often implicated in depression 36 . Thus, being rejected was associated with activity in brain regions that are also activated when experiencing salient emotions 37 , 38 . These studies may indicate a specific window of sensitivity to social rejection in adolescence, which may be associated with the enhanced activity of striatum and subgenual ACC in adolescence 33 , 36 .

Social rejection has also been studied using task paradigms that mirror online communication more specifically. In the social judgment paradigm, participants enter a chat room, where others can judge their profile pictures based on first impression 39 . This can result in being rejected or accepted by others in a way that is directly comparable to social media environments where individuals connect based on first impression (for example,’liking’ on Instagram). A developmental behavioral study (participants between 10 and 23 years) showed that young adults expected to be accepted more than adolescents. Moreover, these adults, relative to adolescents, adjusted their evaluations of others more based on whether others accepted or rejected them, possibly indicating self-protecting biases 40 (Fig. 2 ). Neuroimaging studies revealed that, being rejected based only on one’s profile pictures resulted in increased activity in the medial frontal cortex, in both adults 41 and children 42 , and studies in adolescents showed enhanced pupil dilation, a response to greater cognitive load and emotional intensity, to rejection 43 .

Adolescents’ expectations and adjustments of being liked and liking others. Social evaluation study in which participants between ages 10 and 23 years rated other peers on whether they liked the other person, whether they believed the other would like them, and a post scan rating of liking the other person after having received acceptance or rejection feedback from the other person. The faces used in this adaptation of figure are cartoon approximations of the original stimuli used in ref. 40 ; to see the original stimuli, please refer to ref. 40 . The left graph shows that adolescents expect least to be liked by the other before receiving feedback (question B). The right graph shows a developmental increase in distinguishing between liking and disliking based on feedback from the other person (question D). (Adapted with permission from Rodman, 2017, PNAS 40 )

Taken together, these studies suggest that adolescents show stronger rejection expectation than adults, and subgenual ACC and medial frontal cortex are critically involved when processing online exclusion or rejection. In the next section, we describe how the brain of adolescents and adults respond to receiving positive feedback and likes from others.

Neural responses to online social acceptance

The positive feeling of social acceptance online is endorsed through the receipt of likes, one’s cool ratio (i.e., followers > following; Business Insider, 11 June 2014: http://www.businessinsider.com/instagram-cool-ratio-2014–6?international=true&r=US&IR=T .) or popularity, positive comments and hashtags, among other forms of reward 44 , 45 . Neuropsychological research showed that being accepted evokes activation in similar brain regions, as when receiving other rewards such as money or pleasant tastes 38 . Most pronounced activity was found in the ventral striatum, together with the ventromedial prefrontal cortex and ventral tegmental area, which is consistently reported as a key region in the brain for the subjective experience of pleasure and reward 46 , including social rewards 47 . Likewise, being socially accepted through likes in the chat room task resulted in increased activity in the ventral striatum in children 42 , adolescents 48 , 49 and adults 41 , 50 . This response is blunted in adolescents who experience depression 36 , or who have experienced a history of maternal negative affect 51 . Apparently, prior social experiences—such as parental relations—are an important factor for understanding which adolescents are more sensitive to the impact of social media 51 . In this regard, media research showed that popularity moderates depression 10 and that attachment styles and loneliness increases the likelihood to seek socio-affective bonding with media figures 52 .

Interestingly, several studies and meta-analyses using gambling and reward paradigms have reported that activity in the ventral striatum to monetary rewards peaks in mid-adolescence 53 , 54 , 55 (Fig. 3 ; see Box 1 for views on adolescent risk taking in various contexts). These findings may suggest general reward sensitivity in adolescence such that reward centers that respond to monetary reward may also show increased sensitivity to social reward in adolescence. Social reward sensitivity may be a strong reinforcer in social media use. A prior study in adults showed that activity in the ventral striatum in response to an increase in one’s reputation, but not wealth, predicted frequency of Facebook use 56 . In a similar vein, adolescents showed sensitivity to “likes” of peers on social media 44 , 57 . In a controlled experimental study, adolescents showed more activity in the ventral striatum when viewing images with many vs. few likes, and this activation was stronger for older adolescents and college students compared to younger adolescents 57 . Thus, the same region that is active when being liked on the basis of first impression of a profile picture 48 , is also activated when viewing images that are liked by others, especially in mid-to-late adolescence, possibly extending into adulthood 57 (see also ref. 58 for similar findings on music preference). These findings suggest that heightened reward sensitivity in mid-adolescence that was previously observed for monetary rewards 53 may also be present for social rewards such as likes on Instagram. However, further research is needed to examine whether this is a specific sensitivity in early, mid or late adolescence, or perhaps this social reward sensitivity emerges in adolescence and remains in adulthood.

Longitudinal neural developmental pattern of reward activity in adolescence. Longitudinal two-wave neural developmental pattern of nucleus accumbens activation during winning vs. losing, based on 249, and 238 participants who were included on the first and second time point, respectively (leading to 487 included brain scans in total). A quadratic pattern of brain activity was observed in the nucleus accumbens for the contrast winning > losing money in a gambling task, with highest reward activity in mid-adolescence. (Adapted with permission from Braams et al. 55 )

Online peer influence

In addition to adolescents’ sensitivity to the feeling of belonging to the peer group 59 , the peer group also has a strong influence on opinions and decision-making 60 . Peers can exert a strong influence on adolescents through user-generated content on social media 5 , 61 . Co-viewing, sharing, and discussing media content with peers is common practice among adolescents in line with their developmental stage in which peers become more important than others. For example, adolescent girls often share pictures and comment on the “ideal” degree of slimness of the models they see via media when deciding how a ‘normal’ body should actually look 62 , 63 . Several recent neuroimaging studies, summarized below, have examined how the adolescent brain responds to peer comments about others and self, and subsequent behavioral adjustments and opinion changes. Even though not all of these designs were specific for online environments, the findings provide important starting points for understanding how adolescents are influenced by peer feedback in an online environment.

Neural responses to online peer feedback

Neuroimaging studies in adolescents showed that peer feedback indeed influences adolescents’ behavior. Neural correlates may provide more insight in the specific parts of the feedback that drives these behavioral sensitivities 64 . One way this is demonstrated is by having individuals rate certain products such as music preference or facial attractiveness. After their initial rating, participants received feedback from others, which was either congruent or incongruent with their initial rating. Afterwards, individuals made their ratings again, and the researchers analyzed whether behavior changed in the direction of the peer feedback. Indeed, both adults and adolescents adjusted their behavior towards the group norm 58 , 64 , demonstrating general sensitivity to peer influence. Furthermore, when receiving peer feedback that did not match their own initial rating, participants showed enhanced activity in the ACC and insula, two regions involved in detecting norm violations 58 , 65 . More specifically, increased ACC activity was associated with more adjustment to fit peer feedback norms in adolescents 58 .

Peer feedback effects are not only found for how individuals rate products, but also can strongly influence how they view themselves. Girls are especially sensitive to pressure for media’s thin-body ideal, and peer feedback supporting this ideal is associated with more body dissatisfaction 62 , 63 . We recently showed that norm-deviating feedback on ideal body images resulted in activity in the ACC-insula network in young females (18–19-years), which was stronger for females with lower self-esteem 66 (Fig. 4 ). Interestingly, the girls also adjusted their ratings on what they believed was a normal or too-thin looking body in the direction of the group norm. Together, these findings suggest that peer feedback through social media can influence the way adolescents look at themselves and others.

The Body Image Paradigm to study combined media and peer influence. This paradigm is designed for experiments to study the influence of peers on body image perception. a Participants are presented with a bikini model, and they can make a judgment whether the model is too thin or of normal weight. Their response appears on the left side of the model. Then, they are presented with ostensible peer feedback (the peer norm). b When this feedback deviates from their own judgment, this is associated with increased activity in dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC) and bilateral insula, regions often implicated in processing norm violations. c Responses are larger for participants with lower self-esteem (Adapted from Van der Meulen et al. 66 )

Neural responses to prosocial peer feedback

Interestingly, however, we also found that peer feedback can influence social behavior in a prosocial direction, for example, by having peers positively evaluate prosocial behavior that benefits the group. Neuroimaging studies of social cognition have demonstrated that thinking about other peoples’ intentions or feelings is associated with activity in a network of regions, including medial prefrontal cortex, the superior temporal sulcus and the temporal parietal junction, also referred to as the social brain network 67 . In an online peer influence study, adolescents could donate money to the group, which would benefit not only themselves but also others. Prior to the study, the participants met the other participants (confederate peers) that were not part of the group that was dividing the money. These peers, however, gave online feedback through likes on the participants’ choices. More likes were given when participants donated more to the group. This feedback was followed by higher donations 68 , and was associated with enhanced activation in the social brain network, such as the medial frontal cortex, temporal parietal junction and superior temporal sulcus 69 . Notably, the change in social brain activity in the peer feedback condition was more pronounced for younger adolescents (ages 12–13-years) compared to mid-adolescents (15–16-years) 69 . Together, these studies suggest that early adolescence may be an especially sensitive period for social media influences in risk-perception 60 as well as prosocial directions 69 . These findings fit well with Blakemore and Mills’ 6 suggestion that, adolescence may be a sensitive period for social reorientation and social brain development, although results vary regarding whether sensitive periods are more pronounced in early or mid-adolescence. Understanding the specific sensitive windows may be important to target future interventions. Therefore, future research is needed to examine whether this is a specific sensitivity in early-to-mid-adolescence, or whether and how social reward sensitivity remains in adulthood.

Precedence of emotions and impulsivity

A third factor that affects how adolescents process (social) media relates to the intense emotional experiences that usually accompany adolescence 70 . Emotional needs may guide adolescents’ media use and processing; for example, feeling lonely may ease the path to connect to a media figure or to rely on social media for one’s social interaction 52 , 71 , 72 . Furthermore, being engaged in media fare may evoke strong emotional reactions, such as when playing violent video games or when experiencing online rejection 73 , 74 . Adolescents in particular appear to be guided by their emotions in how they use and process media 5 . For example, the degree of anger and frustration experienced by early-to-mid adolescent victims of bullying was associated with increased exposure to media fare portraying antisocial, norm-crossing and risk-taking behaviors over time, making these youngsters more likely to become bullies themselves 25 . Another study showed that anger instigated a more lenient moral tolerance of antisocial media content in early adolescents but not in young adults 74 . Furthermore, adolescent victims of bullying who regulated their anger through maladaptive strategies (e.g., other-blame, rumination) showed higher levels of cyberbullying themselves 25 .

Neural responses related to retaliation and emotion regulation

Neuroscience studies can potentially provide more insight in the moral leniency following adolescents’ anger. Neuroscience research on adolescent development has shown that the development of the prefrontal cortex, an important region for emotion regulation, matures until early adulthood 15 , 75 . A better understanding of the interactions between brain regions that show direct responses to emotional content, and brain regions that help to regulate these responses can possibly elucidate how adolescents regulate their behavior related to media-based interactions.

Several studies examined this question by focusing on anger following rejection. Rejected-based anger often leads to retaliatory actions. Several paradigms have also shown that adolescents are more aggressive after being rejected online. For example, they gave longer noise blasts and shared less of their resources with people who previously rejected them in an online environment 41 , 73 , 76 . More activity in dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) after rejection was associated with less subsequent aggression 41 and more giving 76 , possibly indicating that increased activity in the DLPFC helps individuals to control their anger following rejection. Other research showed changes in neural coupling when young men played violent video games 77 . Thus, social rejection can evoke anger, but some adolescents may be better at regulating these emotions than others. Adolescents who regulate these emotions better show stronger activity in DLPFC, a region known to be involved in self-control 41 , 75 .

Applying adaptive emotion regulation strategies (e.g., putting into perspective, refocusing, reappraisal) possibly requires enhanced demands on DLPFC 78 . Possibly, the late maturation of the DLPFC, together with heightened emotional reactivity, may make adolescents more likely to be influenced by media content. For example, research showed that emotional experiences biased participants’ perception of media footage: despite being told beforehand that the footage contained fiction-based materials, they attributed significantly higher levels of realism to it under conditions of emotional arousal than in a neutral state 79 . Subsequently, participants attributed more information value to the fiction-based footage up to similar levels as to the reality-based clip.

One possible direction to better understand how adolescents deal with emotional media content is by examining parallel processes. It is likely that engaging in media is associated with multiple processes 79 such as the fast processing of emotions associated with engagement, sensation-seeking and emotional responses to media content, as well as more reflective and relatively slower processes, such as perspective taking and emotion regulation 80 . We interpret such parallel processing as coordinated networks of an inter-related imbalance between heightened emotional responsivity and protracted development of reflective processing and cognitive control 75 . For example, adolescents show a peak in neural responsivity to emotional faces in the ventral striatum and anterior insula, compared to children and adults 81 , 82 . In addition, adolescents show protracted development of social brain regions implicated in perspective taking 6 , 83 , and flexible engagement of lateral prefrontal cortex, possibly depending on personal goals 84 . When media encounters are emotionally gripping, such parallel processing may explain why people may take (fake) information from media as real—‘it just feels real’ 79 . The emotional response seems to blur the borders between fact and fake; the instantaneous response based on emotional or accompanying sensory feedback apparently takes (momentary) control precedence over cognitive reflection and biases subsequent information processing 79 . These findings may perhaps also explain how social reality can be perceived in accordance to how the world is represented in emotion-arousing, sensationalist or populist media messages, even when it concerns so-called “fake news”. In all, these suggestions call for further empirical testing, specifically also comparing adolescents and adults, in which the pattern of brain changes is combined with behavioral research and opinion formation.

Another intriguing question for future research is whether regulation or control of media-generated emotions can be trained. It was previously found that training of executive functions is associated with increased activity in DLPFC 85 , but it remains an open question whether activity in DLPFC can be influenced by (aggression) regulation training and behavioral control, and whether this results in changes in the functional and structural properties of the brain. If such training were possible, video games and immersive virtual environments might provide even more useful training environments. In this respect, promising projects are ongoing, testing the use of biofeedback videogames to help youth cope with stress and anxiety and identify physiological markers, and patterns of emotion regulation 86 . Game interventions are also developed to help children to cope effectively with anxiety-inducing situations 87 . These enrichment and training programs may also be useful to test specific media sensitivities by controlling the amount of media exposure. Such designs will have important benefits over studies examining correlations between naturally occurring behaviors and developmental outcomes, which often do not allow for control of other variables such as temperament or environmental changes.

Taken together, individuals differ in how they respond to media content, especially when these evoke emotional responses or are evaluated in an emotion-aroused state. There are only preliminary studies available that link these individual differences to brain development, but possibly the regulating role of DLPFC is important to control emotional responses to rejection, fake news, violent video games, or appealing ideals. These are all questions that need to be addressed in future research, but are highly relevant given the developmental stage and time adolescents engage with these prevalent forms of media.

Outlook for future studies

We described research in three directions that we believe are crucial in understanding how the omnipresent use of (social) media among today’s adolescents may influence them, through the following: (1) social rejection and acceptance, (2) peer influence on opinions of self and others, and (3) emotion precedence in media use and effects. We have provided a first overview of how neuroscience research may aid in a better understanding of these influences in a mediated context. However, study results appear to vary regarding the specific adolescent age ranges; sometimes effects seem specific for early- or mid-adolescents, while in other studies adolescents and (young) adults do not differ and the indicated age ranges also vary widely (e.g., for some, ‘late adolescence’ is between 13 and 17 years old, whereas in other reports, 17–25 years of age is referred to as ‘late’, see also ref. 88 ). Most adolescent samples are relatively older, whereas early adolescents (aged 10–15) are understudied and seem of particular interest in regards of sensitivity in these three areas. Therefore, further research is needed to align specific age ranges to developmental stages.

Current media technology opens possibilities to understand sensitivities to media and peers in adolescence. For example, YouTube, Facebook, and Instagram provide excellent environments to study combined with media content and peers’ feedback in adolescence 27 , 89 . Moreover, such social media platforms introduced so-called user-generated content 90 and options to present and express oneself in media environments have increased tremendously, thereby increasing media’s social functions. Taking the ethical aspects of performing social media research into account, as it can impinge on users’ privacy, social media devices also provide great opportunities to understand how media exposure affects day-to-day fluctuations in mood and self-esteem.

A critical question that remains largely unanswered is how adolescents’ abundant media use may impact them developmentally in terms of structural brain development, functional brain development, and related behavior. The scientific evidence thus far is still scarce and results are mixed 91 , 92 . For example, digital-screen time and mental well-being appear to be best described by quadratic functions with moderate use not intrinsically harmful 93 . Several recent studies have shown that habitual use is associated with a reduced ability to delay gratification 94 , but can also have positive consequences such as increased ability to flexibly switch between tasks 95 and feeling socially connected 96 . Adolescents who spend more time on their mobile devices may engage less in ‘real’ offline social interactions and the consequences of these communication changes are not yet well understood. Perhaps, consequences differ among those who experience their online interactions as similar to their offline interactions, or as separate worlds. Important moderators and mediators should also be taken into account to understand how online communication is processed. Finally, being constantly online also affects sleep patterns, which impacts mood as well 97 . In all, the majority of these studies are based on self-reported new media use and outcomes. Integrating both experimental methods and neuroscientific insights may advance our understanding of who is susceptible under which circumstances to which effects, positive or negative.

In this review, we described the emerging body of research focused on how new media use is processed by the still developing adolescent brain. In particular, we highlighted the neural systems that are associated with behaviors that are important for social media use, including social reward processing, emotion-based processing, regulation, and mentalizing about others 98 . As these neural systems are still underdeveloped and undergoing significant changes during adolescence, they may contribute to sensitivity to online rejection, acceptance, peer influence, and emotion-loaded interactions in media-environments. In future research, it will be important to understand these processes better, especially the specific developmental sensitivities, as well as to understand which adolescents are more and less susceptible for beneficial or undesirable media influences.

The review of the literature suggests that peer sensitivities are possibly larger in adolescents than in older age groups. Peer influence effects have been well demonstrated in adolescent decision-making research, showing that adolescents take more risks in the presence of peers and when peers stimulate risk-taking 99 . This seems to hold similarly for peer influence online through online comments, also with less risky behaviors 62 . These findings have been interpreted to suggest that adolescents have a strong need to follow norms of their peer group and show in-group adherence 100 . There is a strong need for studies that experimentally test whether increased influence of peers, possibly through developing social brain regions, combined with strong sensitivity to acceptance and rejection, makes adolescence a tipping point in development for how social media can influence their self-concept and expectations of self and others. It is likely that these sensitivities are not related to one process specifically, but the combination of developmental brain networks and associated behaviors 75 , 84 . A critical question for future research is how neural correlates observed in this review predict future behavior or emotional responses in adolescents.

Social media have at least the following two important functions: (i) socially connect with others (the need to belong) and (ii) manage the impression individuals make on others (reputation building, impression management, and online self-presentation) 98 . The emerging trajectory of acceptance sensitivity, peer ‘obedience’, and emotion precedence may make adolescents specifically susceptible to sensationalist and fake news, unrealistic self-expectations, or regulating emotions through adverse use of media. Important questions for future research relate to unraveling whether adolescents are more sensitive to these news items than children and adults, who is most sensitive to which kind of media influence, how (one-sided) media use may influence adolescent development over time, and understand not only the risks but also how media provides opportunities for positive development, such as engaging with friends, forming new peer relations, and experiment with uncertainties or overcoming fears. Studying the interplay between media use and sensitive periods in brain development will provide important directions for understanding how media may impact youth and who is most vulnerable and under which conditions. Key questions for future research are to understand whether recent changes in media usage, delivery, dosage, and levels of engagement (e.g., as more active creators and participants, for example) are leading to different or amplified neural responses in adolescents relative to adults. Using longitudinal research, it will be important to test whether there is evidence that the still developing adolescent brain is more sensitive to, or more likely to be shaped by these changing patterns of media usage. 1

Box 1 Multiple perspectives on adolescent risk-taking

Adolescence is often defined as a period of increased risk taking and sensation-seeking, this is observed across cultures 101 and across species 102 . However, the way risk-taking is expressed differs across generations. In middle ages, risk-taking in adolescence took place through reckless fights and wars. In contrast, in the late 20th century and early 21st century, adolescents were more prone towards risk-taking in context of alcohol, sex, and drug experimentation 103 . Recently, through social media, new forms of risk-taking are expressed, such as excessive or unlimited self-disclosure or sexting 104 . These observations suggest that social media may be the new way in which sensation-seeking behavior is expressed, which is possibly an adolescent-specific tendency to explore and learn to adapt to new social environments.

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We thank the reviewers for their detailed and insightful comments on the manuscript, and Lara Wierenga for providing helpful comments on previous versions of the manuscript. This work was supported by The Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (NWO-VICI 453-14-001 E.A.C.) and by an innovative ideas grant of the European Research Council (ERC CoG PROSOCIAL 681632 to E.A.C.). Both authors were supported by the Netherlands Institute for Advanced Study in the Humanities and Social Sciences (NIAS: September 2013–September 2014).

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The Role of Social Media Essay

Introduction, role of social media in contemporary organisations: advantages and disadvantages, reference list.

Social media is becoming a major force in the world of business. Human beings have created social networks to exchange ideas, views, concepts, and information (Bradley & McDonald 2013). Social media increases the level of interaction among individuals in many societies.

Social media platforms ensure communities, organisations, and individuals create and share user-generated ideas or content ( What Role Can Social Media Play For Your Business Organisation? 2014). Social media continues to change the way people and communities communicate between themselves.

The role of social media and internet-based applications in organisations is immeasurable. Many businesses have succeeded because of their continued use of social media. This essay highlights the unique roles of social media in modern organisations.

Many corporations have succeeded because of new technological applications and resources. Companies are using modern technologies to create the best plans and strategies. Information technology (IT) has helped many firms address most of their problems. This approach has increased the level of communication and decision-making.

The internet is ‘a powerful invention because it supports many operations and activities in every firm’ (Harris & Rae 2009, p. 29). The globe is embracing the use of these modern technologies to provide quality customer services. Leaders and business managers are using new technologies to support their consumers. Every successful company uses new technologies to achieve its goals.

Social media is a fundamental area of technology. Social media can take ‘different shapes such as social networks, internet blogs, online forums, wikis, photographs, book-markings, and podcasts’ (Miner, 2007, p. 73). Many people are currently using social media to exchange photos and information. Many societies and agencies are currently using social media to spread new ideas to their audiences (Miner 2007).

Mobile devices and cell phones are making social networking possible. Businesses also stand to gain a lot from these modern technologies. The approach will ‘equip employees with skills, opportunities, information, and resources to improve performance’ (Harris & Rae 2009, p. 29).

Ulrich identifies the best framework to support organisational performance. Businesses are always focusing on the best practices to achieve their goals. Managers can use Ulrich’s framework to make their firms successful. According to this framework, technological innovations can promote human resource (HR) practices (Luthans & Youssef 2007).

The organisational process should identify the targeted objectives and goals. A collaborative approach will ensure every HR manager mentors and supports his or her employees (Armstrong 2006). The strategic focus will place the firm on the right path.

The approach will also encourage more companies to embrace the use of social media. The above discussion explains how social media empowers both managers and workers. The HR team will also address the challenges affecting every employee in the firm.

Scholars have used Strategic Choice Theory to support the use of social media in every business firm. The theory examines every force in the business environment. Social media is a powerful external factor that affects the effectiveness of every firm. Companies should make the best adjustments in order to achieve their potentials. Social media is currently becoming a critical force in every environment.

The theory ‘offers three approaches towards adapting every feasible option’ (Pearlman & Gates 2010, p. 252). Every business should consider the best strategy to become profitable. Strategic Choice Theory encourages leaders to consider every viable approach. The decision depends on the existing factors or forces in the society.

The above theories support the use of social media in businesses towards better performances and HR practices. Social media supports many practices in a business. Human Resource Management (HRM) is a critical practice in every firm. HRM seeks to improve the level of business performance by supporting the changing needs of every worker.

HR managers ensure every employee gets the best support and remuneration. The department formulates the best systems, strategies, and policies depending on the nature of the organisation (Bradley & McDonald 2013). Social media is a critical tool towards better HR practices. HR managers can train, monitor, and recruit new workers using such social media resources.

Social media promotes collaboration between employees and HR managers. The practice ensures every worker is contented with his or her working environment. Many HR managers have gained their objectives because of these social networks (Hausman & Siekpe 2009).

Social media also improves the quality of communication in every firm. Modern technologies ‘allow staff and managers to communicate using video-conferencing, online chats, and social networks’ (Bradley & McDonald 2013, p. 63). The practice has helped managers monitor their employees and address the issues affecting their working environments (Bradley & McDonald 2013).

Social media discourages the formation of organisational hierarchies. Every employee wants to interact with his or her boss. The approach will ensure such employees engage in immediate decision-making processes. Social media promotes the level of interaction between leaders and their employees.

The practice has created new situations in many organisations. Many employees are now able to support their business goals using social media (Harris & Rae 2009).

The other benefit of social media is the ability to promote marketing. Companies can use mobile networks and social media resources to inform their customers about every new service or product. Such companies will attract more customers and eventually achieve their objectives.

Companies can use different platforms such as Facebook.com and Google+ to improve their marketing strategies. Wal-Mart ‘uses social media to inform more consumers about its services’ (Moth, 2013, p. 2). Many companies ‘are now embracing social media to promote their products’ (Taufique & Shahriar 2011, p. 18).

Social media also encourages and supports electronic commerce (e-commerce). The internet has increased the number of services and goods purchased online. This practice explains why e-commerce is common in many countries (Harris & Rae 2009). Companies such as eBay and Amazon.com use social media to inform their customers about every new product.

A large number of companies are using social media networks to achieve their targets. Every customer wants to buy his or her product via the internet. Online business practices are becoming common today than ever before (Taufique & Shahriar 2011). The above advantages explain why social media is relevant for every organisation. Social media is a major strength because it promotes business productivity.

Social media has reduced the costs incurred by many organisations. Companies can use social media to support their employees. Every HR manager can use social media to empower his or her employees. This situation explains why social media remains critical for many businesses. Marketers and manufacturers can use the internet to communicate with their stakeholders and customers.

The customers can provide immediate feedbacks about every service or product. Firms can use social media to identify the best market segments. Online marketing and targeting identifies various customers ‘depending on their needs and expectations’ (Kaplan & Haenlein 2010, p. 64).

Marketers use such segments to market their commodities successfully. Such firms can use ‘consumer behaviours, psychographics, and demographics to market their products’ (Singh 2009, p. 24).

Business managers should consider the best strategies in order to place their organisations on the right path. Social media transforms every business practice and decision-making process. This discussion explains why many organisations are embracing the use of various online-based applications.

Social media also has its share of weaknesses. According to Pearlman and Gates (2010), social media increases chances of hacking. Hackers can launch virus attacks or commit detrimental frauds. Such malpractices will affect the performance of every firm.

Analysts have identified how social media can potentially reduce the level of employee commitment and productivity. Some employees will use social media applications for their personal gains. These employees ‘will become less productive if they are busy chatting with their friends or updating their statuses’ (Taufique & Shahriar 2011, p. 16).

Hackers can deceive most of these employees using various online traps. Such strategies will eventually result in identify theft or data loss. This practice can have detrimental impacts on the performance of every business. Social media can tarnish the image of an organisation (Norton 2011). Some employees may post new tweets or comments that might affect the company’s image.

Wal-Mart Corporation is one of the primary retailers in many parts of the globe. The retailer focuses on the best opportunities and environmental forces in order to attain its business potentials (Pan & Li 2011).

Wal-Mart uses different social networks such as Facebook.com and Twitter.com to increase its online activities and presence. The HR managers at Wal-Mart use social media to communicate with their workers. This practice has ‘supported the relationships between the employees and managers at Wal-Mart’ (Moth 2013, p. 2).

The current use of social networks has become a mandatory practice for many entrepreneurs and firms. Wal-Mart Corporation has remained a leading retailer in many nations across the world. The company also improves its HR practices using social networks such as Twitter and Facebook.com.

The above discussion explains why companies should use social media to improve their HR practices and business performances. Social media has become a requirement for many corporations. Social media has made Wal-Mart a leading competitor in its industry. Marketers can use social media to increase their sales and profits. According to Abraham (2012), social media increases the level of business profitability.

Companies can create dynamic teams using social media applications. Corporations can also use social networks to make accurate and realistic HR decisions. Every business should also evaluate the challenges associated with social media such as hacking and data loss. This practice will improve the level of productivity.

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The role of media within young people’s socialization: A theoretical approach

Researching the role of media within young people’s socialization requires an integrative approach that understands socialization as a contextual, interlinked process in which children construct their approach to life against the background of ‘developmental tasks’ and of the relevant social contexts. This article presents a praxeological approach that combines subjective and structural components of practice and that has been put into practice by means of a qualitative longitudinal-panel study on children’s socialization. The approach is based on three analytical concepts, options for action, outlines for action, and competences for action, and advances an interlinkage of subjective perception, action-driving orientations, and everyday-life practices against the backdrop of (changing) socio-structural conditions.

Acknowledgement

I would like to thank Uwe Hasebrink for constructive discussions during the process of writing this article. I also thank the reviewers for their helpful comments and suggestions.

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Role of media in development: which media; what approach?

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The Role of Media in Promoting Social Development

The case study of snnpr (debub fm 100.9 radio) in hawassa town three sub cities, master's thesis, 2020, tefera geleso genemo (author), table of contents.

Acknowledgement

Author’s Biography

Table of Contents

List of Tables

List of Figures

List of Appendices

CHAPTER ONE 1. INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background of the Study 1.2 Statement of the Problem 1.3 Objectives of the Study 1.3.1. General Objective 1.3.2. Specific Objectives 1.4. Research Questions 1.5 Scope of the Study 1.6. Limitation of the Study 1.7 Significance of the Study 1.8. Organization of the Paper 1.9. Definition of Key Terms

CHAPTER TWO 2. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 2.0 Introduction 2.1 Media effects and Social Change: Theoretical Framework 2.1.1 Effects of Media – Theories 2.1.1.1 Two-step flow Theory 2.1.1.2 Cultivation Theory 2.1.1.3 Bullet Theory 2.2 Development as a Concept 2.3 Development Media as Theory 2.4 The Social Responsibility Theory 2.5 Empirical Data 2.5.1 Research on FM radios for Social Development 2.6 Ethiopian Mass Media-An Overview 2.6.1 Broadcast Media in Ethiopia 2.7 Historical Development of Radio Broadcasting in Ethiopia 2.8 FM Radio as an Understanding 2.9 SNNPR (Debub FM 100.9 Radio) 2.10 Development Communication: - Overview 2.10.1 Participatory Communication as a Theory 2.10.2 Communication for Social Change (CFSC) 2.11 Modernization 2.11.1 Development Journalism 2.11.2 Diffusion of Innovation 2.12 Paradigm of Contemporary Global Development 2.12.1 Democracy and Diversity of Radio 2.12.2 Radio as Participatory Communication 2.12.2.1 Entertainment – Education 2.12.2.2 Social Marketing 2.13 Conceptual Framework of the Study

CHAPTER THREE 3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 3.0 Introduction 3.1 Research Design 3.2 Operational Definitions of Variables 3.3 Population and Sample 3.3.1 Sample Design 3.4 Data collection Techniques 3.4.1 Qualitative Study 3.4.1.1. Focus Group Discussion 3.4.1.2. Interview 3.4.2 Quantitative Study 3.4.2.1 Questionnaire 3.5 Data Analysis 3.6. Source of Data 3.7 Description of the Study Area

CHAPTER FOUR 4. DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION 4.1 Introduction 4.2. Response Rate 4.3 Respondents Background 4.4 Reliability of the Instruments 4.5 Validity of the Instrument 4.6 Analysis and Interpretation 4.7 Data Analysis and Interpretation of Findings 4.7.1 Effectiveness and quality 4.7.2. Media Quality 4.7.3. Media accessibility 4.7.4 Challenges of Media 4.7.5 Prospects of Media 4.7.6 Open Ended Questions 4.8 Forms and Degrees of Audience Participation 4.9 Educational Development Program types 4.10 Total Summation of Frequencies and Percentages of Respondents’ Opinion 4.11 Finding of the Research

CHAPTER FIVE 5. SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Summary 5.3 Conclusions 5.4 Recommendations 5.4.1 Public 5.4.2 SNNPR Radio and Television Agency 5.4.3 SNNPR Communication Affairs 5.4.4 Public at Large 5.4.5 Further Study

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First and foremost, I would like to thank the almighty God who made me exceed the challenges and obstacles faced throughout my life by hearing more than I say, by answering more than I asked, and by giving more than I imagined. The almighty God, I really thank you for the time being you created and help me to be strong, visionary and bold enough to knock and open the doors those seems unocked and unopened.

I would like to express my sincere and heartfelt appreciation to my advisor Senait Haileselase (PhD candidate) for her close supervision, valuable ideas and invaluable contribution that helped me a lot in preparing my thesis. Really, I admire her optimist behavior, kindness and patience to see my thesis deeply and for her sincerely guidance. Likewise, I would like to express my warm gratitude for my friends Dr. Asfaw Yilma, who is working in commercial Bank of Ethiopia at head office, for his advice and review my thesis. Also Ato Hussen Nuredin the head of SNNPR Communication Affaire office who has helped me in materials and financial during my study; I will never forget, Ato Tamene Tessema, the head of the SNNPR State Office of the President, for his heart full help & encouraging activities to join the University. In addition, Ato Ayalew Arja (SNNPR, South Ethiopian people’s Democratic movement Office) for his valuable support in my research. I also want to thank Ato Aman Nurhussen (a lecturer in Arbaminch University) for reviewing my paper.

I would also like to express my deepest gratefulness to my lovely and self-reliant wife Etenesh Harka for her tireless support; strong moral and tolerance in encouraging me were long-sufferingly isolated with me to make finalizing my endeavor successfully through her encouragement, appreciation and support until the end of this study during my stay in the campus. Moreover, I would like to extend my thanks to all SNNPR media managers Ato Yohaness Ture, Ato Semnegus Sheno, and Tadesse Abate, and all the journalists and editors, Leku kebele, Philadelphia and Gebeyadar Kebele participants in this study.

Finally, I would like to thank Ato Merkneh Yacob, Hawassa town Mehal Sub city administrator during the beginning of my research that made convenient situation for my research in the sub city. Lastly, I would like to thank Markos Tantu the chairman of Mehal sub city Youth’s association and Dessalegn Dawit who were supporting me in collecting questionnaires during my study.

AUTHOR’S BIOGRAPHY

The Author was born in 1973 at Hawassa town Leku Kebele, in SNNPR region, in Ethiopia. After the completion of high school, he studied and graduated his Bachelor of Education Degree (BED) at Debub University – Dilla in English, 2003.

Thereafter, he has served as a teacher of English for the last ten and half years in Gedio Zone (Dilla), a year in Aleta Wondo town administration as an information officer, three years as mass media team leader in Sidama zone Government Communication affairs and now working for eight years in SNNPR regional Communication affairs as a public relation officer in Hawassa and totally served in government activities for twenty years and above. He has joined the Institute of Leadership and Good Governance, Ethiopian Civil Service University for his post – graduate studies in Leadership and Good Governance in September 2013.

LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1: SNNPR Branch Radio Stations and Broadcast Languages

Table 2.2: Branch Radio Stations and Their Wave Length

Table 3.1: Population and Sample Size

Table 4.1: Response Rate

Table 4.2: Respondents Profile by age, sex, education and Categories

Table 4.3: Instrument Reliability

Table 4.4: Media Contents

Table 4.5: Processed Data summary of Media quality

Table 4.6: Processed Data summary of Media Accessibility

Table 4.7: Media Challenges

Table 4.8: Kruskal-Wallis test of Media Prospects

Table 4.9: Kruskal- Wallis test of Open Ended Questions

Table 4.10: Forms and Degrees of Audience Participation

Table 4.11: Some Educational Development programs on Debub FM 100.9 radio

Table 4.12: Feeling of the respondents on the appropriateness of the contents, quality, access, challenges and prospects

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1: (Researcher’s Own Source), Media not Effective

Figure 2.2: Effective Media

Figure 2.3: Conceptual Framework of the Study

Figure 3.1: Administrative Map of Hawassa City Administration

Figure 4.1: Media Prospects

Figure 4.2: Open Ended Questions

LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix – I: Questionnaires for Respondents

Appendix – II: Interview Questions for Radio Journalists and Editors

Appendix – III: Interview Questions for Media Managers

Appendix – IV: Focus Group Discussion Questions for Listeners

Appendix - V : Focus Group Discussion Participants

Abbildung in dieser Leseprobe nicht enthalten

The purpose of this study was to examine the challenges and prospects, quality and effectiveness of media. In the methodology of the study, by using randomly techniques 137 questionnaires were distributed to 3 kebeles participants. Out of these, for Leku kebele 46, for Philadelphia 46 and for Gebeyadar kebele 45 questionnaires were distributed to the respondents for quantitative study. For interview,20 participants were selected purposely from SNNPR Media institution of Debub FM 100.9 radio case. Out of 20, 16 were journalists, 2 editors, and 2 Media managers. In focus group discussion, 30 participants were selected purposely and participated in the discussion, of these, 10 from Leku kebele, 10 from Philadelphia and 10 from Gebeyadar kebele. This study treated the types of educational development programs that the FM radio broadcast. In the study totally 187 participants were participated. According to the findings of this study show that using a radio broadcast mainly as a tool of motivation rather than as a tool of development which is one of the impediments and threatening aspects of the growth of broadcast system in the region. The results of the study demonstrated that the effectiveness of media, challenges and prospects that hinders practicing of media, this revealed that the perception and attitudes of all respondents did not significantly vary across their responses. The major findings of the study discloses that FM100.9 radio has created programs that are not entertaining, and not preferable to listen as Fana FM 103.4 and Hawassa University FM 97.7 radio. The FM radio station devotes a reasonable percentage of their broadcasting time to the discussion of public issues of interest, i.e. educational and socially relevant issues but the audiences were not needed to listen the media. The study employed a descriptive statistics survey method and used both qualitative and quantitative approaches. Media managers, reporters, editors, and Hawassa town three sub cities of three kebeles local people were sources of data for the study. Using randomly techniques, questionnaires were distributed to three kebele’s people and were selected using simple random sampling techniques to distribute the questionnaires prepared for them. Besides, for purposefully selected respondents for qualitative interviews were made. The quantitative data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, frequencies, percentages, tables and bar charts. For data organization, the quantitative data analysis was used by coding them and analyzed through the software of SPSS 20 computer assisted programs. Respondents in their perceptions and attitudes towards the role of Media in promoting social development (educational development) were requested. Finally, the researcher recommended that media managers, journalists and editors, regional communication affairs and the public (audiences) have to build best practices of exemplary in reducing the problem of media effectiveness (contents, quality, access) and challenges and prospects.

Key words : Social Development, Educational Development, Challenges, and Prospects of media.

CHAPTER ONE

1. introduction.

This chapter lays the foundation for the rest of the thesis. From the background, and a statement of the problem, it proceeds to the objective of the study, research questions, the scope and limitations of the study, the significance of the study and organization of the paper, then it concludes with an outline of the subsequent chapters.

1.1. Background of the Study

The media plays a big role in empowering citizens to participate in all the processes of socio-economic development.

According to Steeves (2008) the media’s role in social development for the Third world countries like Ethiopia has an excellent solution for the problem of poverty and related causes such as backwardness, hunger, diseases, injustice and exploitation. The use of mass media and its effectiveness is a prerequisite for communication and attitudinal change which are very crucial in the process of social development.

In Africa, one of the main challenges for developing contents of radio is the need to produce programs on tight budget which has an impact on educational programs like, dramas- which require retaining dedicated teams of writers, technicians, editors, the prevailing culture of African radio is that of the live broadcast, rather vehicles, etc. - are housed and funded by donor aid. These are produced in separate production houses and funded by donor aid. Much development content is produced in this way, by charging airtime to NGOs and civil society organizations to broadcast their programs. Because of this reason, the researcher expects that developmental issues are not seriously aired on the radio without tight budget; even it may affect development issues and the effectiveness of media too. On the other side, which affect the effectiveness of media, is the preparation of journalists towards media contents (Mayers, 2008). These affect the effectiveness of media.

Similarly, the effectiveness of media is growing from time to time, however, still it needs a lot to do on this agenda Servaes (2008) showed that when one sees the effectiveness of the Ethiopia media, the main factors that make the media effective is in producing better social, economic and political outcomes, but there is still a gap in reaching the society due to lack of infrastructure to access the information. In relation to the mass media landscape of Ethiopia, there are sub cities very high expectations for radio to play the central role in the dissemination of development information, among urban and rural dwellers simply because, compare to other mass media (television, newspaper or internet), “Radio is much more pervasive, accessible and affordable”. But, in the context of Ethiopia, there are some basic problems which can deter the effective and efficient use of radio for social development.

Development towards media have been witnessed that during the last ten - twelve years it has a rapid growth in the broadcasting industry of Ethiopia. The trend is mainly a result of the forces of globalization, chiefly liberalization, privatization and the free market economy. Government sets the regulatory bodies to regulate the operation of the electronic media that are also being charged with enforcing an ethical code of broadcasting. Some FM radio stations to air the programs related to the community based problems and issues, but many depend on entertainment without logical reasons. The governments of Ethiopia maintained the monopoly of the airwaves always viewed radio as an indispensable instrument in the processes of national integration. In this country where gaps existed between the illiterate and literate in both rural and urban areas, radio was/is seen as a vehicle for cultivating national consciousness (Tadesse, 2005).

The Debub FM 100.9 radio station is one of FM radios, established on March 1, 2005 by Southern Nations, Nationalities and People’s Media Agency in Hawassa, and is controlled by the Southern Nations, Nationalities and People’s Government. In the region, it has 14 Zones and 4 Special woredas’ the access of south media information has different from Zones to Zones and special Woredas’. The Media Organization has recently broadened its horizon by upgrading the quality and diversity of its services. The main Radio Station and the transmitters’ have links by 10KW and 5KW with 1500 MHZ wave length. But to strengthen its effectiveness still it has a gap to fill it. Now a day, the radio station has main radio station in Hawassa and it has 8 branch stations which broadcast programs for 18 hrs per day by Amharic language from the main station and about 47 languages out of 56 national languages in the region broadcast their programs by their own language for one hour per day on average by this channel every morning. The television station is in the way to establish in the region (SNNPR Mass Media Organization, 2012).

Even though the SNNPR FM 100.9 Radio has eight sub FM radio stations, the stations and their staff, lack special social development programming approaches. Effective FM radio broadcasting should promote social development issues, which is relevant to the community totally. In spite of the fact that development implies change and the first change that takes place is the attitude of the people who are directly affected by the development. In this case, the city of Hawassa’s three sub cities, communities are directly affected by development, if they did not bring attitudinal change.

For change radio plays a vital role in the process of development. Therefore Debub FM 100.9 radio can be trusted as a source of information and a vital player of development in the Urban and rural community. This is only possible if the broadcast content is prepared strategically and appropriately to prompt to the people to be socially engaged in development activities. The study attempts to explore the role of media in promoting the social development issues like educational development programs on the media and there are needs to be filled the gap and researched. Through this, the researcher would like to see the challenges, quality and effectiveness of FM 100.9 radio in the process of social development in the selected three sub cities of three Kebeles.

1.2. Statement of the Problem

The effectiveness of media growing is changing from time to time, however still it needs a lot to do on this agenda. Any mass media are used to educate, inform and encourage people to build a national consensus and the public also evaluates any mass media output and the extent of its influence on society or, in other words, its educational value (Nigussie, 2006). Mass media plays a great role in solving the problem of the public in the process of social development. The FM radio has benefited to the public in social development issues, when broadcasted quality contents of media messages effectively. Today the FM radio stations are established in Ethiopia, but the effectiveness of the media is different from place to place.

According to the Ethiopian Broadcasting Authority (EBA), it requires each station should air educational and socially relevant themes. Thus, they are expected to integrate educational messages into an entertainment format with the purpose of informing the audiences about development issues in the country. Additionally, any broadcasting media has the basic roles of educating; informing and entertaining people as it is known from the classic theories of public service (McLeish, 2005).

Effective media is instrumental for building democratic governance and human centered poverty reduction endeavor of a poor country like Ethiopia as state media development in Ethiopia (2007). Media effectiveness depends on the context of access to information, autonomy, reach and quality. FM radio stations are established, but today the effectiveness of the media is highly in question in demanding. Media plays a great role in promoting about social development programs and has an impact on social relations. In the recent study of Zerihun (2012), the effectiveness, challenge and prospect of electronics media is addressed the problem of media (Debub FM 100.9 radio) accessibility to the public.

Similarly, according to Aderaw ( 2008) large scale surveys, conducted by either program producers or hired external evaluators, have not been sufficient to collect detailed individual response data on the effects of radio program such as serial dramas.

In this research, the study is focused on “the role of media in promoting social development” in reference to SNNPR Radio and Television Agency of Debub FM 100.9 radio as a case study of Hawassa town three sub cities.

Therefore, the researcher has taken the following points as the rationale behind to study this research and has no detail written on this issue in the region. Hence, it is necessary to assess the effectiveness, quality of content, challenges and prospects of the media (FM 100.9 radio) experiences in promoting social development programs like education and health programs by taking sample areas as a case study of the region. The quality of the program content and the professionals that understand the environment should be considered in the study.

But today, the quality and the effectiveness of media messages have a problem in solving social development issues of the audiences as expected and the public are not benefited as well from social development programs of the radio. Because, it lacks the quality contents and its effectiveness of media message to the audiences. Because of this, the social development issues of the public are not solved in different places. The researcher hopes that, the study contributes a lot to FM radio station. But, there are many challenges to sustain its contribution like quality, contents and its effectiveness.

So, it needs to analyze what impacts it brought on people’s attitude the quality, contents and effectiveness of broadcasting message of FM 100.9 radio and what challenges and prospects are considered in the media station. The reason of the study is there are qualit y and effectiveness gap in the media institution.

1.3. Objectives of the Study

1.3.1. general objective.

The main objective of the study is:

To examine the challenges and prospects of mass media in promoting social development using the case of SNNPR Radio and Television Agency of Debub FM 100.9 radio in Hawassa town 3 sub cities.

1.3.2.Specific Objectives

The specific objectives of this study are:-

- To assess the quality and the effectiveness of FM 100.9 radio in promoting social development issues. - To identify the challenges of FM 100.9 radio programs of social development.

1.4. Research Questions

The study attempts to find out answers to the following research questions.

- To what extent FM 100.9 radio is qualified and effective in promoting social development issues? - What are the challenges of FM 100.9 radio to improve the quality, and its effectiveness?

1.5. Scope of the Study

The scope of the study encompasses the city of Hawassa which has eight sub cities and of these three sub cities is selected (Mehal, Addis ketema and Haikdar). From these sub cities the study examines three Kebeles like Leku from (Mehal), Philadelphia (Addisketema), and Gebeyadar (Haikdar) are the study settings.

The study is limited to examining the extent of the challenges and prospects of Debub FM 100.9 radio broadcasting in promoting social development issues in focusing on Hawassa city as a case study. The study also covers the perception of the radio audiences on the issues of educational and development themes aired on. In this study, from three sub cities, the researcher had taken one Kebele from each sub cities. The selected areas had taken as a sample for the whole region. The reason why these areas and the region selected that in the selected area as urban base the audiences have many opportunities to listen FM radio because of this vast audiences tilt to listen another FM radio. The audiences complain that FM 100.9 radio has given much air time to music and western cultural activities than social development issues like educational development program and also the effectiveness of FM 100.9 radio quality, content and its impact on social welfare are into consideration and allotted time to development issues are not enough. This is limited on a monthly report of SNNPR Radio and Television Agency (Debub FM 100.9 radio).

1.6. Limitation of the Study

During the time of data collection the researcher encountered some limitations such us shortage of time, respondents like journalists, editors, and media managers were busy because of different activities and meetings and some of the respondents were not willing to cooperate with the researcher to respond to the questions.

1.7 Significance of the Study

This study tried to respond how much the government/public FM Radio addresses the social development issues which meet the need of people. This research paper helps to mass media organization to improve its challenges, effectiveness and quality of the media service.

FM radios have in mobilizing the public for nation building, prepare them mentally for the changes that accompany development and reinforce national unity. In the study area, there has not been through researched in this area in SNNPR region; this study might fill the gap and can provide a point of references for similar interests in the study of FM radio’s role and its challenges and effectiveness in addressing social development issues.

As stated in to Zerihun (2012), Electronics media is one of the important tools for democratic society building. It plays an important role in all facets of social, cultural, political and economic life. But there is no enough research on the issue of improving its effectiveness and quality media service in SNNPR. Due to this reason the study has the following importance for regional government and for other stakeholders. First, it helps to afford written document/paper to SNNPR Radio and Television Agency to look towards their organization and to improve the challenges and effectiveness of the media. Second, it helps to motivate other researchers to conduct further study in the area and the third, it is hoped to become an input for the regional government to design/formulate a policy from the studied material.

1.8. Organization of the Paper

In this research thesis, it has five chapters, including the introductory chapter. Chapter two of this study organized as the relationship of development and the mass media and particularly the role of (effectiveness) of government FM radio in promoting social development, and the concepts of different scholars were seen in the organization. Chapter three of the study expresses about research methodology, the data collection and the analysis of these methods, and description of the selection of samples were gathered. Chapter four expresses about data presentation or the discussion and interpretation. At last, chapter five presents the conclusion and recommendation of the thesis.

In conclusion, the study basically focuses on three selected sub cities of Hawassa city: Mehal, Addis ketema, and Haikdar. Of these, Leku kebele from Mehal Subcity, Philadelphia kebele from Addisketema and Gebeyadar kebele from Haikdar were selected as the setting of the study. The study wants to assess the challenges and prospects of FM 100.9 radio quality and effectiveness by the basic variables: FM 100.9 radio effectiveness in its promotion of social development issues, its impacts on social development (educational development programs), quality, and the contents of the radio.

1.9 Definition of Key Terms

Educational Development Programs : The educational, instructional or informational radio programs concerning socioeconomic problems based on identifiable audience needs.

FM Radios : Frequency Modulation (FM) radio stations which have narrow and localized broadcasting, normally covering a radius of not more than 100 miles.

Social Development: is a type of social change in which new ideas are introduced in social systems. It refers to the improvement of human life condition of individual and social levels.

Effectiveness: is the extent to which the respondents have benefited immensely from mass media in terms of social development like – from educ ational development programs.

CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.0 Introduction

In this chapter it has seen the development and the mass media relationship in general and radios in particular, the theoretical framework which is related to radio and development, media effects and social change (development) theory is also undertaken. The theoretical framework of media effects and social change begins with the influence of media on masses and the different scholars’ definition of social change theories has been shown, and proceeds to see development as a concept and media theory, social development responsibility theory. The empirical data and the most critical dimensions of development, including mass media in Ethiopia and FM radio’s concept and effectiveness is included, communication for development and social change, and participatory communication is under this chapter is shown. Also, it looks development paradigm with regard to development.

2.1 Media Effects: Theoretical Framework

2.1.1 effects of media - theories, 2.1.1.1 two-step flow theory.

Bob (2005: p266) explained about “a two-step’’ flow of media messages and that the audience has the ability to “select and interpret media messages”. The media messages filtered through the mass media to opinion leaders, peers or relatives, who then play roles in decisions that people make after being exposed to media messages. The radio influences the minds of the masses aroused numerous social inquiries. This theory is a popular media effects theory, and to some extent is related to the diffusion of innovation hypothesis. This theory is still a relevant theory for studying the relationship between FM radios and the development in the developing countries.

2.1.1.2 Cultivation Theory

George (1994, p17-41) said that media shape the people’s view of the world. It explains about the passage of time, the usages of media will “cultivate” inside users a distinct view of the world. This theory helps to understand that how a person’s perception shapes or sometimes it is distorted by the media. The media can be a source to change in the perceptions, attitudes and behavior of the people.

2.1.1.3 Bullet Theory

According to Melvin (2008,p163), in this theory people who are watching different movies become influenced by those movie messages. If they watch violent movies become violent and those who read immoral comic books become morally wrong. This theory shows that media effects flow directly from the media to an individual like a bullet.

2.2 Development as a Concept

Waisboard (2011) said that development has no single definition, because of different factors of the nature of concepts, the different physical environment, culture, natural resources and general ways of life.

Matterlart (1998) defines development, it is synonymous with “growth’’, “modernization”, and “social change’’. In the middle of the 20th century.

According to Servaes, et al. (1996, p82-83), development can be defined as: “a multidimensional process that involves change in social structures, attitudes, institutions, economic growth, the reduction of inequality, and the eradication of poverty”

2.3 Development Media as Theory

According to Denis McQuil (1984), the development media theory is appropriate to the media situation in developing countries for economic, political and social requirements and also the media should be constructive instead of being destructive.

The theory shows that the relationship between the national government and mass media to promote national development. The media organizations, professional, governmental agencies and officials are expected to work closely together to achieve national goals rather than assume an antagonistic relationship.

2.4 The Social Responsibility Theory

The free market approach to press freedom had only increased the power of a single class and has not served the interests of the less well-off classes. The emergence of radio, TV and film suggested the need for some means of accountability. Thus, this theory advocated some obligation on the part of the media to society. One pivotal characteristic of the view which is an emphasis on the media’s responsibility to use its powerful position to ensure appropriate delivery of information to audiences, furthermore, if the media fails in carrying out its responsibility, it may be relevant to have a regulatory instance enforce it. The power and near monopoly position of the media impose on them an obligation to be socially responsible, to see that all sides are fairly presented and that if the media do not take on themselves it may be necessary for some other agency of the public to enforce it (Seibert et al.,1956).

2.5 Empirical Data

As we know that Fm radio is the new phenomenon in our country, not many research have been conducted related the contribution of effectiveness of FM radio in social development– like education. However, the researcher wishes to cite a few local and international studies whose findings and conclusion are relevant to this research.

2.5.1 Research on FM Radios for Social Development

According to Milkissa(2010), educational and development themes and social analysis have been disseminated /aired through many popular programming formats such as talk shows, chat shows, commentaries, the magazine reports, radio drama news, phone-ins and music and special thematic programs. Of course, there are some weaknesses for which the FM radios are accused very often. Because of its Private FM radios, their profit motives, they feed the audience with too many advertisements, music and DJ jokes. In fact, these privately owned radio stations rely on local and nationally significant businesses for ad revenue. The researcher recommends that analyzing the content of FM radios in quantitative research is better to reach good performance and fill the gaps.

Similarly, in the recent study of Zerihun (2012), the problem addressed about effectiveness, challenge and prospect of electronics media in SNNPR. There has been an argument regarding the problem of accessibility of media to the public and the context in which information is disseminated by electronic media to the public especially in common consensus and democratic society building. There has been a suggestion concerning media in the region in the quality of content, professionalism, understanding the environment in which the message is transmitted, etc. Based on this, the researcher recommends that audience analysis of FM 100.9 radio needs to assess and fulfill the problem is preferable.

2.6 Ethiopian Mass Media-An Overview

Mass media are playing a great role in information dissemination. Our time witness that again and again, we hear that information is power, power to achieve sustainable development. The Ethiopian mass media are a century old, with the print media taking up the leading role in the history. The demand to be informed properly for the sake of achieving sustainable economic, political and social development and lay down a strong foundation for democracy is growing. However, the mass media are not showing a significant development, possessing a number of problems that occurred in its life cycle. Nevertheless, it is worth mentioning the historical background, in order to understand the present status of the mass media in Ethiopia, with special reference to the widely popular medium in the country, i.e. radio (Gissila, 2008).

2.6.1 Broadcast Media in Ethiopia

According to Ministry of Information of Ethiopia (1996), broadcasting, primarily the radio, reaches a much larger part of the population, both literate and illiterate, than does print, though the distribut ion is limited. Radio was first introduced in 1935, prior to the Italian invasion. However, the Ethiopian soldiers broke down the installation, so that it won’t be used by the Italian invaders. Following this, the Italians installed radio service for their propaganda, which was later on overtaken and restored by the Ethiopians after the victory, in 1941. Gradually, its transmission capacity, facilities and programming were expanded during the imperial era. In 1960, for the first time it was possible to start international broadcast to Europe, West Africa and Middle East. Meanwhile, its capacit y and quality of transmission was upgraded in reception of domestic services.

Radio Voice of the Gospel, owned by the Lutheran World Federation, operated prior to the overthrow of the Emperor in 1974. Their facilities were seized under the Derg, and it turned out to function as the voice of revolutionary Ethiopia international service. Some documents show that there is no significant difference in broadcast media, between the previous regime and Derg, mainly in contents. Compared to the development of media globally, it was mentioned as ‘backward’, monotonous and unbalanced in content (Gissila, 2008).

2.7 Historical Development of Radio Broadcasting in Ethiopia

Media has a long history in Ethiopia when we compare the history of the media establishment in Africa. During the regime of Emperor Menelik II (1885-1913) which is considered as the first legal domestic media. The Ethiopian Radio was introduced to Ethiopia in 1936 since then the station has been trying to redesign the organizational structure in order to accommodate new technology and provide quality services.

Makuria (2005:10) stated that in 1936 the Radio Ethiopia started its transmission with a 7 kilowatt short wave transmitter and hardly covered the scale of Addis Ababa. Immediately, the Italians took control of the station and used it as an instrument of propaganda. In 1941, after the withdrawal of Italian troops, the Ethiopian government used the Radio for disseminating Amharic news, government statements, declarations and music (Basic Information’s of Ethiopian Radio and television, 2000:4).

In 1963, Foreign and Domestic Broadcast Services started. For example: the Ethiopian Radio for the first time broadcast news in English to West Africa, Europe, in French, in the Middle East, East and North Africa and in Arabic to the Middle East audiences. After 1970, the Radio Ethiopia made changes by overcoming the problems of its formative years with coverage of 40 percent of the people in all major cities, towns and villages of the country under the direction and guidance of the Ministry of Information. Following the 1974 Revolution, the Dergue regime changed the name from ‘Radio Ethiopia’ to ‘Voice of the Revolut ionary Ethiopia’ so as to fit the name into the revolut ionary changes which occurred at that time. As Makuria (2005:10) indicated the name Radio Ethiopia was restored soon after the incumbent government came to power 1991.

In the regime of Haile Sellassie, Radio broadcasting was started in Addis Ababa in 1941. Shortwave broadcasting was resumed in 1941 and then in the subsequent years Radio Ethiopia operated from three locations: Addis Ababa, Harar and Asmara broadcasting in six languages and the first provisional radio station was inaugurated in 1933 in a contract signed with an Italian company (Tadesse, 2005). The first airwaves came to Ethiopian earth from their native soil at the time of Emperor Haile Silassie (1930-1974) in 1935. At the time of the Emperor, however, radio broadcasting was employed as an instrument of unification, “to help overcome the internal linguistic and ethnic divisions which geography has perpetuated over Ethiopia’s long history of independence” (Negussie, 2006: 10). Though by the late 1960s the country’s radio system had been organized under the imperial government’s Ministry of Information, radio broadcasting (as this was also true to the other mass media) was neither employed as a means of development nor in a position to exercise freedom of expression as the government was an absolute, undemocratic monarchy (Brook, 2000: 18-19).

During a Mengistu’s regime (1974-1991), the radio was employed as a major tool for propaganda and counter-propaganda purposes since “Broadcast played a primarily propaganda role, aimed at promoting national unity under state socialism” (Brook, 2000: 19). It was very negligible, radio was “used for education purposes to promote literacy campaigns, health and farming”.

At the time of the Derg virtually there had never been any remarkable change or even improvement in the landscape of Ethiopian mass media. From the technical perspective, they were still backward; from a professional point of view they were still monotonous and filled with imbalanced reports. Inefficient and slow reporting, a lack of interesting news and analysis, and insufficient technical means needed for the proper functioning of newspapers, all helped explain why the Ethiopian press was not considered a significant social institution compared with the press of other developing countries (Negussie, 2006: 13).

Since 1991, Up to 2005, there were only three broadcasting stations in the media landscape of the country, i.e. Radio Ethiopia, Radio Fana and the Voice of Wayane Tigray. It was after this time that Regional States started to establish local radio stations.

According to the report that the researcher obtained from the Ethiopian Broadcast Authority, up to February 2012, there were 26 radio stations that were operating in the country. From these seven radio stations are belonged to state media; they are owned either by the Federal Government or Regional States. In Ethiopia, there were no regional broadcast media before 1991, but now there are many government and private broadcast media, which were established in different regions like FM 97.1, 98.1, 102.1, 90.4, 96.3 in Addis Abeba and FM 100.9 of Hawassa, FM radio of Dire Dawa, Bahirdar, Mekele (dimtse weyane), and oromiya TV station of Nazret are some examples of broadcasting media established.

To put in place the legal and regulatory frameworks and institutional arrangements for media development, and broadcast law has recently been endorsed broadcasting authority was reestablished. The 1992 press proclamation, which abolished censorship, has been revised. The private print media, FM radios and community radio were granted licenses. Moreover, a number of national and regional states owned broadcast media have expanded their reaches and language diversity. Today there are many FM radio stations are established, but today the effectiveness of the media in governance is highly demanded.

2.8 FM Radio as an Understanding

The first FM station was launched in Ethiopia in June 2000, established under Radio Ethiopia. FM Radio is a device that can influence to its listeners in worldwide areas. It has the capacity to increase one’s knowledge, ideas, and understanding of any issue while maintaining personal relationships with its transmission. Its listeners interact with their environmental subjects. It can also be noteworthy, such as bringing change in a person’s attitudes, culture and can cause for social change. This study would call attention to the effectiveness of FM Radio in promoting and causing the development (Social development). The drawback of the medium is that they mostly focus kill the air time on traditional and Western music transmission. Radio has proved itself as a powerful medium in all over the world where it has become also a tool for disaster management (Sadaf Naqvi, 2011).

FM Radio can be a trusted source of information for the people, this is only possible if the broadcast content is prepared strategically and appropriately prompts for the people to be economically aggressive and engage in self-income generating activities. There is a need for the radio stations to provide development related programs and content rather than allocating a lot of time for mere music and entertainment. This means that the staffing (journalist/editors) at these local stations require special skills to design programs to accelerate development. Radio enables communities to articulate their experiences and to critically examine issues and policies affecting their lives, for example, a communit y can use the radio to highlight new educational policies. These policies can be debated upon and discussed using the radio and immediate feedback can be given to relevant authorities to take action (Amany, 2011).

2.9 SNNPR (Debub FM 100.9 Radio)

SNNPR Media Organization was established in March 1, 2005. The organization has recently broadened its horizon by upgrading the quality and diversity of its services. Now a day, the radio station has main radio station in Hawassa and it has 8 branch stations broadcasting about 47 languages of the region. The main Radio Station and the transmitters’ have links by 10KW and 5KW with 1500 MHZ wave length (SNNPR Mass Media, 2012) (See Table 2.1 below).

Source: SNNPR Mass Media Organization, January 29, 2012

The Radio Expansion Project of FM 100.9 consists of 8 additional branch stations which covers 80% of the target population. Each branch station has its own Wave length or MHZ (See Table 2. 2 below).

2.10 Development Communication: - Overview

According to Thomas (2009:3) development communication is intervening in a systematic or strategic manner with either media (print, radio, telephony, video, and the Internet), or education (training, literacy, schooling) for the purpose of positive social change. Develop communication, particularly radio, was viewed as being central to improving the economic and social lot of the poor in the southern hemisphere. Theorists like Daniel Lerner, Wilbur Schramm, Paul Deutschmann, Walter Rostow, Everett Rogers, Luis Beltran, Michel Foucault, along with other scholars, as well as agencies such as the Ford and Carnegie Foundations, UNESCO, and the UN’s Department of Economic Affairs looked at development issues, some cautiously, some critically, and others creatively.

Of these, Daniel Lerner and Wilber Schramm were influential in this regard because their work stressed the role of communication in development (Servaes, 2002, P 15-16). They theorized that communication was the transmission of information from the Western World to the Third World. They had strong belief that if traditional societies were exposed to the mass media, they would also be exposed to modern western attitudes which would make them change (Servaes& Melkote & Steeves, 2002: 15-16; 2007: 71).

2.10.1 Participatory Communication as a Theory

This focuses on the effects of individuals on mass communication with special emphasis placed on the development of the third world. Unlike other mass communication theories which deal with the effects of the few and powerful with the masses via vertical diffusion. Waisboard (2001) as cited in Ocwich (2004) defines participatory communication as the process by which people within a particular community “create and share information with one another in order to reach a mutual understanding (Ocwich 2004, p20).In the case of radios, it means debates or other active forms of participation in the decision making, production and the trashing out of numerous diverse ideas over radio. This can be on any pertinent issue affecting the community’s welfare (Thomas, 2009, p3).

2.10.2 Communication for Social Change (CFSC)

According to Elizabeth (2011) communication for Social Change uses participatory approaches. This is stressing the importance of horizontal communication, the role of people as agents of change, and the need for negotiating skills and partnerships. It focuses on dialogue processes through which people can overcome obstacles and identify ways to help them achieve the goals they set for themselves through better life.

2.11 Modernization

The concept of modernization refers to the fundamental proposition that people in traditional societies should adopt the characteristics of the modern societies in order to modernize their social, po litical and economic institutions. Studies about development were heavily dominated by modernization theory which applied insights from communication models to address the shortcoming of development and modernization in Third World countries. The modern mass media supplement and complement as mobilit y multipliers, the oral channels of traditional society, radio. As to Servaes, the mass media could speed up and ease the long, slow transformation that was necessary for economic growth and the mobilization of human resources ” (Servaes, 2002 : p20).

2.11.1 Development Journalism

Analysts and scholars who propound this idea believe that the media could be harnessed to promote social, and political development, as well as national or community building. This perspective became consistent with the dominant communication paradigm advanced by Western, mainly American communication scholars, which urged that “the mass media could play a crucial role in society and, by implication, could be an agent in the ‘modernization’ of the Third World” (Thussu, 2000: p325). This scholarship emphasizes the importance of development news on radios and other media, as opposed to infotainment (Waisbord, 2001).

The issues addressed by the media must affect the lives of the ordinary people or the majority (Fisher, 2001). The modern mass media are dousing the public with too much entertainment, sex, fashion, food, celebrity story travels and sensationalism Nordenstreng (1975) ;Thussu (2000: p325-341); (Waisboard, 2001).

2.11.2 Diffusion of Innovation

Everret Rogers defined modernization as a process of diffusion where individuals move from a traditional way of life to a different, more technically developed and more rapidly changing life. In this model an innovation, which is a new idea or practice, is communicated through certain media over time, among members of a social group with the aim of changing their way of thinking and doing things.

The model sees development as a type of social change in which new ideas are introduced into a social system to improve agriculture, health, education and politics. To put it in Roger’s own words, “development communication is a process by which an idea is transferred from a source to a receiver with the intent to change his/her behavior Rogers (1962 & 1983)developed the diffusion of innovations theory as another communication model of modernization.

2.12 Paradigm of Contemporary Global Development

Development might mean different things, to different people. But of late, global development organizations like the United Nations (UN), the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund, have codified standard indicators of development. For this study, we refer to this as ‘contemporary paradigm of development’. The UN Development Program (UNDP) has a Human Development Index (HDI), a composite indicator which it uses to measure and rank the progress in different countries every year- which findings are published in its annual Human Development Report (HDR).

The HDI covers three broad dimensions of human welfare: income, education and health. These are then broken down to numerous significant indicators of human development. They include life expectancy, adult literacy, enrollment in schools, gender equality, infant mortality, maternal mortality, access to information, health services, transport and communication, child rights, democracy and food security. Other elements encompass employment, capital intensive technology, investment, and access to water and electricit y (Zinnabauer Norris, 2002).

2.12.1 Democracy and Diversity of Radio

There are key elements that determine whether a society is democratic or not. These include the rule of law, respect for human rights, transparency and accountability of local leaders, regular and free elections of leaders, freedom of expression and of the press, justice and equal opportunity for all members of the community (White, 2001). As the UNDP puts it in its annual HDR 2005: Democracy is a fundamental aspect of human development. It is both intrinsically valuable, and therefore a human development indicator in its own right, and a means towards wider human development goals (UNDP, 2005:p20). It is important to study the relationship between radio and democracy because, as Hendy (2000:p139) explains, “Radio imbues itself with an aura of democracy.”In a free society, the multiplicity of opinions and expressions through debates, talk shows, phone- in etc on radio is good for the community.

2.12.2 Radio as Participatory Communication

According to Hendy(2000: p195) quot es German playwright, Bertolt Brecht to have once urged against radio being a channel through which homes passively received information and entertainment: If listeners could transmit as well as receive, he argued, then they would become producers of radio as well as consumers, and it would be a truly public, two way forum of communication.

2.12.2.1 Entertainment – Education

An entertainment, education strategy is being implemented in much of the world is because of its grounding in development theory. It is a communication strategy to disseminate information through the media.

It is not a theory, but a strategy to maximize the reach and effectiveness of development messages through the combination of entertainment and education. The fact that its premises are derived from socio- psychology, human communication theories place entertainment-education in the modernization/diffusion theory trunk. Like diffusion theory, it is concerned with behavior change through the dissemination of information. It is based on Stanford professor Albert Bandura’s (1977) social Learning theory, a framework currently dominant in health promotion.

Entertainment-education is premised on the idea that individuals learn behavior by observing role models, particularly in the mass media. Imitation and influence are the expected outcomes of interventions. This process depends on the existence of role models in the messages: good models, bad models and those who are in transition from bad to good (Waisboard, 2002: p13). Entertainment–education refers to “the process of purposely designing and implementing a media message to both entertain and educate, in order to increase audience knowledge about an educational issue, create favorable attitudes, and change overt behavior”. Some of the educational development programs which are airing by the media are like, health education, cultural practices, agricultural development programs, etc.

2.12.2.2 Social Marketing

It is one of the approaches that have carried forward the premises of diffusion of innovation and behavior change models. Since the 1970’s, social marketing has been one of the most influential strategies in the field of development communication (Waisboard, 2002: p6).

In this marketing is an advertising technique used for selling social messages. Such campaigns can address a variety of development needs, from health issues to environmental issues. It is marketing’s response to the need to be socially relevant and socially responsible. It is the reaction of marketing as both discipline and industry to be sensitive to social issues and strive towards the social good.

Social marketing consisted of putting into practice standard techniques in commercial marketing to promote pro-social behavior. One of the standard definitions of social marketing is the one given by Andreasen (1994:110) as quoted by Waisboard. He defines social marketing as the adaptation of commercial marketing technologies to programs designed to influence the voluntary behavior of target audience to improve their personal welfare and that of the society of which they are a part.

Concept Note

It is better to check up FM 100.9 Radio whether it plays significant roles or not, or it addresses Social development issues. FM 100.9 radio gives considerable time to educate and social development issues, but, according to its contents and quality of message, it is questionable. Most programs conform to the parameters of development, when we say development, we should not only think of agriculture, health programs. Even the fact that FM radio stations have broadened the people’s horizon to access to information is in itself an aspect of development is necessary.

Effectiveness of media depends upon the context of access to inform, autonomy, reach and quality. To enhance development, promoting development issues to specific community, the media plays a significant role.

1. Media (FM 100.9 radio) 2. Social development programs (educational development) /themes/ like, health, education etc 3. Context and quality of media is/ not attractive 4. Public participation becomes less/more 5. Media does/doesn’t bring any change and people’s attitude is changed/not changed. 6. Media is not effective/most effective

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Title: The Role of Media in Promoting Social Development

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Glob Pediatr Health

Effect of Media Exposure on Social Development in Children

Sung koo kim.

1 Hallym University Dongtan Sacred Heart Hospital, Hwaseong, Republic of Korea

Kyung Mi Kim

The prevalence of autism spectrum disorder in children, who show problems in social development, is increasing rapidly. If children watch media at an early age, they lose the time to interact with their parents and will not be able to play creatively, which can have a negative impact on social development. This study was performed to evaluate the association of media exposure with social developmental delay.

The sample consisted of 96 patients with social developmental delay who visited the developmental disorder clinic from July 2013 to April 2019. The control group included 101 children who visited our developmental clinic with normal developmental screening test results during the same period. The data were collected using self-reported questionnaires with questions regarding media exposure time, content, background media or foreground media, the age of first exposure, and media exposure with or without parents.

In regard to media exposure time, 63.5% of the social developmental delay patients were exposed to media for more than 2 hours a day compared to 18.8% of the control group ( P < .001, [OR] = 8.12). In the risk factor analysis of media exposure on social development, male gender, media exposure before 2 years of age, exposure for more than 2 hours, and exposure alone without parents were statistically significant.

Media exposure was a significant risk factor for social developmental delay.

Introduction

Currently, with the development of media devices such as smartphones and built-in DVDs, more children than any previous generation have been exposed to media for long periods at very early ages, including 90% of children before the age of two. 1 - 3 The prevalence of autism spectrum disorder (ASD), in which children have problems with social development, is also increasing rapidly. 4 Many studies on the media exposure of children have been conducted, but debate continues about the effects of media on neurocognitive development such as social, language, and cognitive development in preschool children, especially before the age of two. 3 , 5 - 8

Exposure to media at an early age can have a negative impact on social development due to the loss of time to communicate and interact with parents and play creatively. 1 Media is known to negatively affect the development of children even if they are exposed to media their parents are watching in the background. It has been suggested that watching media programs before 2 years of age has a negative effect on early brain development due to infants’ limited memory, attention, and cognition. 9 Others have argued that viewing high-quality educational programs with caregivers can help development. However, the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) does not recommend media exposure before the age of two. 1

ASD is characterized by verbal and nonverbal communication, social deficits, limited interests, and stereotypic behavior in early childhood. ASD is known to be caused mainly by the interaction of genetic factors and environmental influences. In 2000, the prevalence of ASD in 8-year-old children was 1 per 150 children in the United States, but in 2014 it increased rapidly to 1 per 59 children. 10 Although there is a possibility that the prevalence rate increased as the diagnostic criteria widened and awareness of the disease increased, other causes may have contributed to the actual increase in the incidence rate.

Media exposure can lead to the loss of time for parental interaction and creative play necessary for social development 10 and forming new network processes that hinder social development, which may induce ASD-like symptoms. 11 Research on the influence of media exposure before the age of 2 is limited, and many studies have reported results on the relationship between media exposure and language and social development, obesity, and sleep problems, but the causal relationship is not clear. 11 , 12 Recently, as the use of smartphones increases, young infants are exposed more easily and for a long time. Due to the built-in artificial intelligence(AI) function, they are repeatedly exposed to similar contents, which can negatively affect especially social development.

Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate the effect of digital media exposure including TV, video, and smartphone on social development.

Three hundred thirty-nine patients visited our clinic for developmental delay from July 1, 2013, to March 31, 2019. Among the patients, delays in motor and specific language development were excluded, and 125 patients showed social development delay. Of these, 29 were excluded because they did not answer the media exposure questionnaire.

The remaining 96 patients underwent comprehensive developmental tests including the childhood autism rating scale (CARS), the modified checklist for autism in toddlers (M-CHAT), the autism behavior checklist (ABC) test, Korean-Bayley scales of infant and toddler development-II, and language development tests such as the sequenced language scale for infants (SESLI), and preschool receptive-expressive language scale (PRES). Through analysis of these tests and interviews recorded with caregivers by pediatric neurologists and psychologists, the patients who showed poor social development included the social development delay group. This group included a provisional diagnosis of ASD (26 patients) and patients with impairment of reciprocal social communication and social interaction who did not fully meet the diagnostic criteria for ASD as a clinical diagnosis with poor social development (70 patients). In the same period, 101 patients with normal findings in the Korean Developmental Screening Test for Infants and Children (K-DST) were used as controls.

During the outpatient visits of these patients, media exposure questionnaires ( Table 1 ) were used for caregivers to investigate the age of onset of media exposure, exposure time, exposure programs, exposure type (foreground exposure or background exposure), exposure location, and whether the caregiver was present during the exposure. During the same period, the same questionnaire survey was administered to children who showed normal findings in the Korean Developmental Screening Test conducted when visiting the hospital for regular health checkups.

Abstracted Media Exposure Questionnaire.

Statistical Analyses were performed using SPSS-Version 22 (IBM, Armonk, NY, USA)21.0. The t -test was used for continuous variables, the chi-squared test was used for non-continuous variables, and logistic regression analysis was used for risk factors for language development delay. A P -value value of .05 or less was considered statistically significant.

Clinical Characteristics of Patients in the Social Developmental Delay Group and Control Group (Age, Gender Distribution, and Education of Parents)

There were 96 patients in the social developmental delay group and 101 patients in the control group. The average age was 33.52 months (range 15-63 months) and 36.44 months (6-84 months), respectively. The male-to-female ratio was 2.6 to 1 in the social developmental delay group, which had significantly more males. The mean mental developmental index (MID) and psychomotor developmental index (PD) of the Korean-Bayley scales of infant and toddler development-II were 116.20 ± 17.61 and 85.59 ± 16.38, respectively. Childhood autism rating scale (CARS), the modified checklist for autism in toddlers (M-CHAT), the autism behavior checklist (ABC) test for social development evaluation in patients were 25.23 ± 5.16 and 7.24 ± 4.19, 36.59 ± 20.33 respectively ( Table 2 ).

Clinical Characteristics of Social Developmental Delay (SDD) Patients and Control Group.

Abbreviations: SDD, social developmental delay; MDI, mental developmental index; PDI, psychomotor developmental index; CARS, childhood autism rating scale; M-CHAT, modified checklist for autism in toddlers; ABC, autism behavior checklist.

Age at Onset of Media Exposure

The majority of the children in the social developmental delay group (95.8%) were exposed to media before 2 years of age, which is not recommended by the AAP. The proportion of children exposed in the control group was 59.4% ( Figure 1 ).

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Comparison of media exposure before 24 months between social developmental delay and control group.

Media Exposure Time

In the comparison of media exposure time, the exposure time was significantly longer in the group with social development delay group compared to the control group. In the comparison of media exposure time of more than 2 hours, 63.6% of the delayed social development group had significantly more exposure than 18.8% of the control group.

Whether Children Are Accompanied by Caregivers When Exposed to Media

At the time of media exposure, 77.1% of the social developmental delay group and 38.6% of the normal group watched media alone without parental supervision ( Figure 2 ).

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Comparison of media exposure with parents or alone between social developmental delay and Control group.

Exposure Program

In the comparison of viewing program types, educational programs such as English education and fairytale programs were higher in the control group than in the social development delay group.

Media Exposure Reason

The reasons for exposure to the media were soothing children (26.5%) and reasons related to depression, health, and both parents working (55%) in the social developmental delay group, which were significantly higher than 7.4% and 41.3%, respectively, in the control group ( Figure 3 ).

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Reason to allow media exposure.

Exposure Type (Foreground or Background Exposure)

The media exposure type was classified into foreground exposure and background exposure. In the patient group, foreground exposure was 55.4% and background exposure 44.6%, and in the control group, foreground exposure was 58.3% and background exposure 41.7%, and there was no statistically significant difference

Exposure Location

The exposure places were classified into children’s room, living room, kitchen, and others, and the living room was the highest at 89.1% for the control group and 82.3% for the patient group, respectively, and there was no statistically significant difference between the 2 groups.

Risk Factors for Social Developmental Delay

In the analysis of the risk factors of media exposure that influenced social development, male gender (odds ratio [OR] = 5.61), media exposure before 2 years old (OR = 14.63), exposure over 2 hours (OR = 8.12), and exposure alone without a parent (OR = 6.15) were statically significant ( Table 3 ).

Risk Variables of Social Developmental Delay (SDD) Patients and Control Group.

Recently, with the rapid development of various media devices, especially smartphones, it has become common for infants and toddlers to be exposed to media for long periods at a very early age. 2 , 3 Although there is debate about the relationship between media exposure and the neurodevelopment of children, it is known that media exposure is mainly comprised of visual stimuli at this age and has negative effects, especially before the age of 2 because it is still difficult for this age children to understand the media contents. There have been reports that media exposure is related to delays in language development. 9 , 13 - 15

Studies using functional magnetic resonance imaging showed that interaction with humans activated brain development in children much more than media exposure because it mainly stimulated the visual cortex without stimulating cognitive processes. 13 , 14 It has been suggested that media exposure could hinder brain development related to social development and create a new brain pathway that leads to further immersion in the media. 16

Thus, as the prevalence of ASD, which is associated with problems with social development, is rapidly increasing, the negative effects on media exposure and social development need to be investigated. 4

This study found that patients with delayed social development were more frequently exposed to media for more than 2 hours a day and had early media exposure before 24 months compared to normal development children. It also showed that letting children watch media alone without interaction with their caregivers could have a negative impact on social development.

Some studies have shown that watching educational and quality programs by children over 2 years of age improved their social and language skills and helped them prepare to go to school.

Accordingly, parents are highly interested in education using videos. In contrast, other studies reported that exposure to media during the early childhood period affected obesity, sleep patterns, and aggressive and distracting behavior. 12 However, studies on children younger than 2 years of age are insufficient, and in particular, there have been rare studies showing a clear relationship between cognitive and emotional development in children. 17 According to the recommendation of the AAP, media viewing should be restricted in children under the age of two. 18 In a recent study, the relationship between media exposure, play, and reading interaction with caregivers at 12 months, and autism spectrum symptom scores evaluated by the M-CHAT test at 2 years of age was evaluated. According to the results, the M-CHAT scores were higher from media exposure and less interaction with caregivers through play and reading. 11 In this study, only media exposure and M-CHAT scores were compared. However, our study targeted a group of patients with social development delay diagnosed by a clinician using various evaluation tools such as Bayley scales, CARS, M-CHAT, and ABC test. The relationship between media exposure and social development was evaluated in these patients group compared to the normal development group.

In our study, most of the social developmental delay group (95.8%) were exposed to media before 2 years of age, which was significantly higher than that of the control group at 59.4%. In this study, patients with social developmental delay had significantly longer exposure times than the control group. In the comparison of the media exposure time of more than 2 hours, 63.5% of the social development delay group had over 2 hours compared to 18.8% of the control group.

The reason why patients with social developmental delay are exposed to the media for longer periods earlier than the control group may be presumed from the lack of sociality, the characteristics of diseases that seek visual stimulation, and the repetitive play function of the artificial intelligence (AI) built into the media device. 19 On the other hand, there is a possibility that the increase in smartphone exposure and AI functions adversely affects the social development of young children who have only risk factors for ASD, which may have acted as a cause of the onset of ASD. Although 50% to 80% of the causes of ASD have been identified as genetic causes, 20 it is known that various perinatal and demographic factors interact with genetic factors to cause ASD. 21 - 23 The possibility that media exposure is one of the environmental causes of ASD cannot be ruled out.

AAP recommends that children watch media programs under their parent’s supervision and suggests that they do not watch media in bedrooms or sleeping places. 18 , 24 - 26 According to a previous study, 60% of patients with language delays watched TV alone and were 8.47 times more likely to have language delays than those who interacted with their parents. This may be related to the neglectful parenting style seen in caregivers with psychiatric conditions such as depression. 24 , 27 This study also showed that more children in the group of patients who were allowed to watch alone had delayed social development (77.1%) compared to the control group (38.6%). Thus, watching media alone has a higher probability of delaying social development compared to watching media with a caregiver. In the comparison of the types of exposure programs in this study, educational programs such as English education and fairytales were more common in the control group than in the social developmental delay group. The mother’s educational background was significantly lower in the social developmental delay group than in the control group.

There have been reports that the caregivers of patients with ASD had a positive view of media use and used it for the purpose of soothing children. 28 The reason for the media exposure of children in the social developmental delay group in our study was to soothe children (26.5%) and related to the caregiver’s depression, health, and both parents working (55%), which were significantly higher proportions than those of the control group at 7.4% and 41.3%, respectively. In the social developmental delay group, media was used more often to keep the child quiet rather than for educational purposes and to secure housework time than in the control group. It is difficult for parents to nurture a child with a developmental delay because they commonly have inattentive, hyperactive behavior. Because of this, media exposure tends to more increase in these children, and this has the potential to negatively affect social development.

It is known that not only direct viewing of media but also exposure to the background media negatively affects children’s social development. 29 However, in our study, there was no difference in the degree of direct and indirect exposure between the 2 groups.

In the analysis of risk factors of media exposure with logistic regression on social development, male gender, media exposure before 2 years old, exposure for more than 2 hours, and exposure alone without parents were significant risk factors.

The limitations of this study were, first, it may be difficult to generalize the results of this study because not many patients participated in the study. Second, the questionnaire responses depended upon the caregiver’s memory, which could create bias in the collected data.

In conclusion, this study retrospectively compared children diagnosed with social development delay and a control group. The results showed that exposure to media before the age of 2 and exposure for 2 hours or longer may have a negative effect on social development. Watching alone by the patient without a caregiver could have a worse effect on social development than watching media with the parents.

Future large-scale prospective studies in which more patients are followed for a longer time may reveal the causal relationship between social developmental delay and media exposure.

Author Contributions: The authors confirm contribution to the paper as follows:

Funding acquisition: Sung Koo Kim

Investigation: Sung Koo Kim, Dasom Wi, Kyung Mi Kim

Writing: Sung Koo Kim, Dasom Wi

All authors reviewed the results and approved the final version of the manuscript.

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding: The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This work was supported by a grant from Hallym University Medical Center Research Fund (01-2012-18).

Ethical Approval/Patients consent: This study was approved by the Institutional Review Board of Hallym University Dongtan Sacred Heart Hospital (Approved number: 2021-03-003-001).

Informed Consent: Informed consent was waived due to the retrospective nature of the study.

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“Role of Media in Our Society” || Essay on Role of Media

Role of Media: Today, the world is in the grip of media. Media has played a vital role in making the world well connected. Though media is not the only communication medium used to dispense the flow of information, its importance is huge.

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Essay, Article, on Role of Media in Society

The ability of the media to reach a wide audience with a strong and influential message has the potential to have a strong social and cultural and political impact upon society as well as being the main source of entertainment. In the early times, print media has always been a dominant medium, but the television has become the main source of mass media since its emergence.

There are various sources of communication these days. With the evolution of digital technology, the role of mass media has taken a significant place in our lives and its role is changing at a rapid pace. In the present times, we cannot imagine our lives without mass media.

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Essay About Role of Media Our Society

Mass media is any medium used to transmit mass communication i.e. a message created by a person or a group of people sent through a transmitting device to a large audience or market. In today’s connected society, it’s the media, that has become the most supply of knowledge With the advent of digitally enabled communication devices, the flow of information from one geographical location to another has increased in speed considerably.

Various types of sources like cell phones, computers, different network channels over cable or satellite TV, internet, newspapers, books, magazines, and radio channels are emerging at a very rapid pace providing the people with a medium to connect themselves with the outside world.

Through the internet, the connectivity with the world has become so strong through all the means that anything that happens anywhere, the information is passed within seconds. The people can receive information wherever they are

The radio and television channels to have become an important source of passing information in no time. Most of the cell phones have radio channels on it through which the user is connected to the world always.

Ta Media has a great impact on its user, especially through television and radio. Media has the supreme potential to educate, inform, and condition people’s mind. Through these sources, even the uneducated can have access to the world of knowledge and information.

Radio and television are widely used means of mass media that is useful for both literate and illiterate and has ability in spreading awareness in various fields to the mass. The persuasiveness of influential media such as television, Ghostwriter Schweiz and print media have been largely responsible for structuring people’s daily lives and routines.

This is because people have a tendency to follow what they see and believe. Media has thus played a great role in increasing consumerism and opting for universally accepted articles. This is also making people brand conscious.

Media also has a negative impact on the society. With the excess information available to be passed, sometimes unauthentic and irrelevant information is also communicated which is harmful to the society. It also damages the true essence of journalism.

Role of Media Essay in English

The negative propaganda results in violence, crimes, murders, etc. It is very common that certain things shown with the objective of entertainment is giving a wrong message to the society.

Vulgarism, violence, abuses shown with the purpose of entertainment are wrongly taken by the viewers and then followed in real life. All these are contributing to the moral downfall of society.

It has been also noticed that the politicians and other influential people manipulate the information and sources of media for their self-interest. Therefore, believing in all the information available is also not beneficial.

In today’s time, it is actually impossible to escape from any source of information available. These sources are all around us. We are completely in the grip of these sources of media and that is why it is difficult to cut off from the world.

Also, too much of information available through media is making people confused. It is, therefore, an individual’s own responsibility to access the required and relevant information partner Bachelorarbeit schreiben lassen . The people need to draw a line beyond which they do not allow the media to negatively influence their lives.

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Essay on Role of Social Media

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Connecting People

Information and Awareness

Education and Learning

250 Words Essay on Role of Social Media

Communication and Information Dissemination

Social Activism and Awareness

Marketing and Business Strategies

The Double-Edged Sword

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Personal Relationships

Public Discourse

Business and Marketing

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INTRODUCTION

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

METHODS OF RESEARCHING MEDIA EFFECTS

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Precedence of emotions and impulsivity

Neural responses related to retaliation and emotion regulation

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Box 1 Multiple perspectives on adolescent risk-taking

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

AUTHOR’S BIOGRAPHY

LIST OF TABLES

LIST OF FIGURES

LIST OF APPENDICES

CHAPTER ONE

1.1. Background of the Study

1.2. Statement of the Problem

1.3. Objectives of the Study

1.3.2.Specific Objectives

1.4. Research Questions

1.5. Scope of the Study

1.6. Limitation of the Study

1.7 Significance of the Study

1.8. Organization of the Paper

1.9 Definition of Key Terms

CHAPTER TWO

2.0 Introduction