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Essays on Deviance

Writing an essay on this topic can help you explore the complexities of human behavior and societal norms. Understanding deviance is crucial for sociologists, criminologists, and anyone interested in the way we interact with one another. Whether you're a student or just curious about this subject, writing an essay on deviance can deepen your understanding and spark thought-provoking conversations.

When choosing a topic for your deviance essay, consider what aspect of deviant behavior intrigues you the most. Do you want to explore the causes and effects of deviance? Or perhaps you're passionate about arguing for or against certain deviant behaviors. Maybe you simply want to share your opinion or provide informative insights. Whichever path you choose, there are plenty of compelling topics to consider.

For an argumentative essay on deviance, you can explore topics such as the legalization of certain drugs, the impact of social media on deviant behavior, or the effectiveness of rehabilitation programs for offenders.

If you're interested in writing a cause and effect essay, you could investigate the relationship between poverty and crime, the influence of peer pressure on deviant behavior, or the psychological factors behind deviant acts.

For an opinion essay, you might want to express your thoughts on the stigmatization of mental illness, the portrayal of deviance in the media, or the role of culture in defining deviant behavior.

If you prefer an informative essay, you can delve into topics like the history of deviance in different societies, the biological and psychological theories of deviant behavior, or the impact of deviance on social institutions.

Now, let's take a look at an example of a deviance essay. For instance, if your topic is the impact of social media on deviant behavior, your thesis statement could be: "The pervasive use of social media has contributed to the normalization of deviant behavior among today's youth."

In the of your essay, you could discuss the rise of social media and its influence on societal norms, provide statistics on deviant behavior linked to social media, and present the purpose of your essay.

In the , you might summarize the key points of your essay, reiterate the significance of your thesis, and offer suggestions for further research on the topic.

Writing an essay on deviance can be both enlightening and thought-provoking. With the right topic, thesis statement, and structure, you'll be able to engage readers and make a meaningful contribution to the conversation on deviant behavior. So, grab your pen and start exploring the fascinating world of deviance!

The Sociological Perspective on Deviance: Functions, Definitions, and Control

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How Breaking Social Norms is Understood as Deviant Behavior: an Experiment

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A Study of Deviance Among Governments and International Powers

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53+ Deviance Examples in Sociology (Definition + Theories)

Sociology is the study of society, human behavior, and social interactions. It helps us understand how we function as a part of the larger world. Within this fascinating field, the concept of deviance plays a critical role in helping us decode the complexities of human actions and societal norms.

Deviance in sociology is the behavior, belief, or condition that violates societal norms or expectations. It's not always criminal or harmful; sometimes it's just different or unexpected. Deviance can range from minor infractions like jaywalking to more severe actions like theft or violence.

This article aims to explore the topic of deviance in depth. We'll delve into the theories that explain it, notable researchers who've studied it, and most importantly, we'll go through specific examples of deviance to give you a comprehensive understanding of this concept.

What is Deviance?

First, let's break down what deviance really means in sociology. Deviance is any action, belief, or condition that goes against societal norms or expectations.

Imagine a simple example: most kids in school wear casual clothes, but one day you decide to show up in a tuxedo or a ball gown. You'd definitely get some looks, maybe even some comments. That's because your attire is deviant—it doesn't match what's typically expected in that setting.

Now, it's important to remember that deviance isn't universally bad or good. It's a social construct, meaning society decides what's deviant and what's not. In different cultures, something that's deviant in one place might be completely normal in another.

For example, eating insects is considered deviant in many Western cultures but is a common practice in some other parts of the world.

Difference Between Deviance and Crime

You might be thinking, "Isn't deviance just a fancy word for crime?" Well, not really. While all crimes are forms of deviance, not all deviance is criminal.

Take tattooing, for instance. In some societies, especially older generations, tattoos are seen as deviant but they are not illegal. On the other hand, theft is both deviant and illegal.

Deviance could also be things that are socially frowned upon but not punishable by law. Gossiping might be considered morally wrong or deviant but you won't be arrested for it (unless it turns into defamation, then that's a different story).

Some Theories of Deviance

To better understand deviance, sociologists have created a range of theories, each offering a unique lens through which we can study human behavior.

• Structural Functionalism ( Émile Durkheim ) : Durkheim was one of the first to say, "Hey, deviance is not all bad!" According to him, deviance serves a purpose in society. It helps define the limits of acceptable behavior. Just like a teacher lays down rules for what you can or can't do in a classroom, deviance helps us understand the boundaries in society.
• Conflict Theory ( Karl Marx ) : This theory dives into the unequal distribution of power. In a society, different groups have different levels of power, wealth, and influence. Often, those in power decide what's deviant, usually in a way that protects their own interests. For example, not paying taxes is deviant because it goes against the rules set by those who benefit from tax collection—the government.
• Symbolic Interactionism ( Herbert Blumer ) : This theory takes us into the small-scale, day-to-day interactions that shape our understanding of deviance. Have you ever done something just because your friends were doing it, even if you knew it was wrong? That's symbolic interactionism in action. Through our interactions, we learn what is considered deviant within our close circles, and this varies from group to group.

Historical Context

Studying the past helps us understand the ever-changing nature of deviance. In the Middle Ages, for instance, witchcraft was considered highly deviant and punishable by death. Fast forward to the present, and witchcraft is either seen as a form of entertainment or a subculture of a benign spiritual practice by most people.

In more recent history, the Civil Rights Movement in the United States turned acts of civil disobedience into tools for social change . While considered deviant at the time, these actions led to significant transformations in laws and societal norms.

In the digital age, new forms of deviance have emerged, like cyberbullying and online piracy . These are considered deviant because they go against the norms of respectful and lawful behavior on digital platforms.

Changing Nature of Deviance

The norms that define deviance aren't set in stone; they evolve over time and vary across cultures.

Just think about fashion or music. In the 1950s, rock and roll was considered a deviant form of music. Parents and authority figures were concerned that it would corrupt the youth. Nowadays, rock and roll is a widely accepted genre.

Similarly, fashion styles that were once considered rebellious or deviant, like miniskirts or dyed hair, have found their way into mainstream culture.

Society's rules change, and what was once deviant can become normal—or vice versa.

So why study deviance? Because understanding deviance helps us understand society itself—the rules it makes, who gets to make them, and what happens when we break them. And trust us, we're all a bit deviant in some way or another.

Theories About Deviance

Émile durkheim.

Émile Durkheim is often hailed as one of the founding fathers of sociology, with contributions that have shaped the way we study society today.

Born in France in 1858, Durkheim made waves in the academic world in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. One of his standout concepts in understanding deviance is the notion of "anomie."

Anomie: The Sense of Normlessness

Anomie refers to a state of normlessness, where the norms that usually guide our behavior become unclear or disappear.

Imagine walking into a classroom where there are no rules. At first, it might seem fun, but soon you'd realize that without rules, it's hard to know what's expected of you. That kind of uncertainty can lead to confusion, stress, and even deviant behavior.

Durkheim suggested that when society experiences rapid changes—like a sudden economic downturn—levels of anomie rise, and so does deviance.

The Function of Deviance

Durkheim went against the grain by arguing that deviance isn't necessarily a bad thing for society. In fact, he saw it as a kind of social "check engine" light. When there's a lot of deviance, it could be a sign that something in society needs a tune-up.

Deviant acts challenge the status quo and can force a community to rethink its norms and values, possibly leading to social change for the better.

For example, the Civil Rights Movement in the United States involved many acts considered deviant at the time, like civil disobedience. These acts pushed society to reconsider and eventually change unfair laws.

Social Solidarity and Collective Conscience

Another groundbreaking idea from Durkheim was the role of deviance in creating social solidarity or a sense of belonging among people. Deviance can help draw boundaries and create a sense of "us" versus "them."

While this can be divisive, it also reinforces the norms and values within a group . The idea ties into Durkheim's broader theory of "collective conscience," which is the shared beliefs and moral attitudes that operate as a unifying force within society.

When someone acts deviantly, it often prompts a collective response that serves to strengthen the unity of a group.

Criticisms and Lasting Impact

While Durkheim's theories have been highly influential, they aren't without criticism. Some argue that his idea of anomie is too vague and difficult to measure scientifically. Others say that his positive view of deviance overlooks the real harm that some deviant acts can cause.

Nevertheless, his work remains a cornerstone in sociological studies. It has paved the way for later researchers to explore how societal structures influence individual behavior, adding depth and complexity to our understanding of deviance.

In summary, Émile Durkheim made monumental contributions to the field of sociology and the study of deviance. His ideas of anomie, the function of deviance, and its role in social solidarity have provided invaluable perspectives that continue to influence scholars today.

Through his theories, Durkheim challenges us to look beyond the immediate act of deviance and consider what it reveals about the underlying structures and collective beliefs of a society.

Robert Merton

Robert Merton is another heavyweight in the realm of sociology, and his ideas have had a profound impact on how we think about deviance. Born in 1910 in Philadelphia, Merton became one of the most influential sociologists of the 20th century.

His theories have been especially important in understanding the mechanisms that drive people to engage in deviant behavior.

Strain Theory: Societal Pressure Cooker

At the heart of Merton's contributions is the concept of "strain theory," which seeks to explain why people turn to deviance when faced with societal pressures.

Merton believed that society sets specific goals for its members, such as achieving wealth, success, or social status. However, not everyone has access to legitimate means (like education or job opportunities) to attain these goals.

Imagine you're in a race, but you're given a tricycle to ride while everyone else gets a racing bike. The "strain" comes in when people are unable to meet societal expectations using socially acceptable methods.

This strain leads to frustration and could potentially result in deviance as people look for other ways to succeed. The pressure to achieve can become so intense that people resort to cheating, lying, or even criminal activities.

Five Modes of Individual Adaptation

Merton identified five ways people adapt to the strain caused by societal pressures:

• Conformity : Some people stick to the rules, even if they can't reach the societal goals they've been told to aim for. They continue to value both the goals and the means, even if they're not successful.
• Innovation : This is where deviance comes in. Innovators accept the goals of society but reject the socially acceptable means to achieve them. Instead, they find new, often deviant ways to succeed.
• Ritualism : Here, people give up on achieving the big goals but still stick to the accepted rules and norms. They become obsessed with the "rules for rules' sake."
• Retreatism : These individuals reject both the societal goals and the means to achieve them, often retreating into a world of fantasy or substance abuse.
• Rebellion : The rebels want to change the system. They reject both the societal goals and the accepted means to achieve them, seeking to replace them with their own set of values.

Criticisms and Evolving Theories

Though highly influential, Merton's strain theory has faced its share of criticisms. For instance, critics point out that not all deviant behavior can be explained by the strain theory; some people engage in deviance for the thrill, not because they feel societal pressure to succeed.

Others say that Merton's theory is too focused on individual responses and doesn't adequately consider the influence of larger societal structures.

Despite these criticisms, Merton's ideas have inspired further research and spawned variations of strain theory, like General Strain Theory by Robert Agnew, which includes a broader range of stressors beyond the inability to achieve societal goals.

In summary, Robert Merton's theories provide a framework for understanding why people might engage in deviant behavior.

By examining the relationship between societal expectations and individual actions, Merton's strain theory offers a nuanced perspective that has been instrumental in shaping the sociology of deviance.

His work continues to be studied and debated, contributing to ongoing discussions about how societal structures contribute to deviant actions.

Howard Becker

Howard Becker is best known for his work on labeling theory, a perspective that fundamentally changed how sociologists understand deviance.

Born in Chicago in 1928, Becker made a name for himself in the mid-20th century. His theories challenge us to look beyond the act itself and consider how society's reaction can shape an individual's behavior.

Labeling Theory: The Power of Names

You've probably heard the saying, "Sticks and stones may break my bones, but names will never hurt me." Becker would respectfully disagree. According to him, the labels that society puts on people can be incredibly powerful , shaping both self-perception and how others see them.

Imagine a teenager caught shoplifting. The act itself is deviant, but the label that society attaches to him—as a criminal or a delinquent—can have lasting repercussions.

Becker argues that labeling someone as deviant does not just describe bad behavior. Instead, it actually contributes to the person engaging in more deviant acts in the future.

The Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

Labeling theory often results in what is known as the "self-fulfilling prophecy." Once people are labeled in a certain way—whether as a 'troublemaker,' 'dropout,' or 'criminal'—they may find it difficult to break free from these labels.

Society expects them to act according to their label, and this expectation influences their choices and behavior. Over time, individuals may internalize these labels, embracing them as part of their identity and behaving in ways that fulfill these societal expectations.

Master Status

Becker also introduced the idea of "master status," which is when a deviant label becomes the primary way society defines someone, overshadowing other aspects of their identity like their talents, interests, or career.

For example, someone labeled as an "ex-convict" might find that people only see them through the lens of their criminal past, even if they have other qualities like being a loving parent or a talented artist.

Deviance and Social Groups

Becker also emphasized that deviance is not just an individual act but a process that involves interaction between the rule-breaker and the group that labels them.

Social groups create deviance by setting rules and then labeling those who break them as outsiders. This highlights how deviance is not just a quality of the act but also a result of societal judgment and stigmatization.

Criticisms and Legacy

Labeling theory has its critics. Some argue that it puts too much emphasis on societal reaction and overlooks the actual harm that some deviant acts can cause.

For example, violent crimes have real victims, and focusing solely on the label might divert attention from the seriousness of the act. Nevertheless, Becker's ideas have had a lasting impact, encouraging sociologists to consider both individual actions and societal reactions in their studies of deviance.

In conclusion, Howard Becker's labeling theory offers a unique lens through which to view deviance. It urges us to consider the far-reaching effects of societal labels and how they can trap individuals in a cycle of deviance.

While not without its criticisms, Becker's work remains a cornerstone in sociology, continually inspiring debates and studies aimed at understanding the intricate dance between society and the individual.

Travis Hirschi

Travis Hirschi , born in 1935, is renowned for his groundbreaking "Social Bond Theory," which provides insights into why people conform to social norms rather than engage in deviant behavior.

Hirschi's theories have become a cornerstone in criminology and sociology, helping experts understand the mechanics that underlie social conformity and deviance.

Social Bond Theory: The Ties that Bind

At the core of Hirschi's theory is the idea that strong social bonds discourage deviance. According to him, people are naturally inclined to pursue their own self-interest, which might involve breaking rules or laws.

However, when individuals form strong bonds with society—through family, school, or other social institutions—they are less likely to engage in deviant behavior.

Imagine a student who is deeply involved in extracurricular activities and has a close-knit circle of friends and supportive family.

According to Hirschi, these social bonds make the student less likely to engage in deviant actions, such as cheating on a test, because they wouldn't want to jeopardize these important relationships.

The Four Elements of Social Bonding

Hirschi identified four key elements that make up the concept of social bonding:

• Attachment : This refers to our emotional closeness to people who matter to us, like family and friends. When we care about other people's opinions, we're more likely to stick to social norms.
• Commitment : This is all about the investment we make in various activities, be it educational achievements or career goals. The more we commit, the more we have to lose by engaging in deviant behavior.
• Involvement : Here, Hirschi talks about active participation in socially approved activities, such as school or community service. Being busy leaves less time and opportunity for deviance.
• Belief : This focuses on the acceptance of social norms and laws. When individuals share the general moral values of their community, they're less likely to break those rules.

Real-world Applications

Social Bond Theory has found its way into various sectors, such as education and criminal justice.

Schools, for instance, create programs that foster attachment and involvement, thereby reducing the likelihood of student deviance.

In the justice system, the theory has influenced rehabilitation programs aimed at strengthening an offender's social bonds, making them less likely to re-offend.

Criticisms and Later Developments

While Hirschi's Social Bond Theory has been hugely influential, it has not escaped criticism. One common critique is that the theory might be too simplistic and doesn't account for the complexities of human behavior.

For instance, strong social bonds might discourage minor forms of deviance but not more severe ones, like violent crimes. In response to criticisms, later theories such as the "Social Control Theory" have attempted to build upon and refine Hirschi's original ideas.

In summary, Travis Hirschi's theories on social bonds provide a framework for understanding why individuals may or may not engage in deviant behavior.

His ideas offer a refreshing angle that focuses not just on the deviants but also on the societal structures that influence them.

Although not without its criticisms, Hirschi's Social Bond Theory remains an essential tool for sociologists and criminologists alike, continually shaping the discourse around social conformity and deviance.

Erving Goffman

Erving Goffman , born in Canada in 1922, is one of sociology's most colorful and creative minds.

Known primarily for his work on symbolic interactionism, Goffman's theories have provided groundbreaking insights into how social interactions and settings contribute to deviance.

One of his most famous contributions is the concept of "stigma" and how it affects people labeled as deviant.

Stigma: The Mark of Deviance

Goffman introduced the term "stigma" as a label that significantly changes how an individual is socially perceived. Stigmas can come in various forms, such as physical deformities, mental disorders, or a tarnished reputation.

According to Goffman, being stigmatized isolates the individual from the community, affecting their social identity in ways that can lead to exclusion and discrimination.

Think about someone with a criminal record trying to find a job. Despite having served their time and paid their debt to society, the stigma attached to being an "ex-convict" can be a barrier to employment and social acceptance. This can make it incredibly difficult for them to reintegrate into society, effectively leading to further deviance.

Presentation of Self: Life as a Stage

Another pivotal concept introduced by Goffman is the "presentation of self," which he likens to a theatrical performance.

He argues that people have a "front stage" where they adhere to social norms and expectations and a "back stage" where they can be themselves without judgment. Deviant behavior often occurs in the "back stage" areas of life, hidden from public scrutiny.

For instance, someone might act completely differently when they are at home as opposed to when they are in a public setting.

The norms and expectations differ in these contexts, and what is considered deviant in one setting might be acceptable in another. Goffman's ideas help us understand how social settings influence what is considered deviant or normal behavior.

The Asylums: Total Institutions

In his work on asylums, Goffman explored the concept of "total institutions," places like mental hospitals, prisons, and monasteries where individuals are cut off from broader society and have no control over their day-to-day lives.

These institutions have their own norms and rules, and people inside them often face severe stigmas. Goffman's studies on asylums opened the door for a broader discussion about how institutional settings can shape perceptions of deviance.

Criticisms and Impact

Goffman's theories are not without criticisms. Some say his work tends to focus too much on micro-level interactions and neglects broader structural factors that contribute to deviance.

Others point out that while his theories are insightful for understanding individual behavior, they may not be as useful for explaining larger patterns of deviance in society.

However, the impact of his work cannot be overstated. Goffman's theories have provided a rich foundation for understanding how deviance is not just an isolated act but a complex interplay of social interactions and judgments.

His work continues to be a significant influence in sociology, psychology, and even disciplines like literature and theater studies.

To sum up, Erving Goffman’s theories give us a unique lens through which we can examine the intricacies of social behavior and deviance. His work has deepened our understanding of how societal labels, contexts, and institutions play a critical role in shaping our actions and identities.

Categories of Deviance

This in-depth look into the categories of deviance provides a multi-faceted view of the concept. Deviance is far from a black-and-white issue; it's a complex social construct influenced by a range of factors, including cultural norms, individual and group behaviors, and societal structures.

Criminal and Non-Criminal Deviance

One of the most basic divisions in the realm of deviance is between criminal and non-criminal activities. Criminal deviance involves actions that break established laws, such as stealing, fraud, or murder.

These actions usually result in legal repercussions, ranging from fines to imprisonment. Non-criminal deviance, on the other hand, involves actions that may be frowned upon socially but are not illegal, like lying or breaking social norms.

The difference between criminal and non-criminal deviance often influences how society reacts to these behaviors.

Criminal deviance usually warrants interventions from legal systems and may result in penalties or incarceration. Non-criminal deviance, however, usually invites social sanctions like ostracization or moral condemnation, but these do not have legal consequences.

Interestingly, the line between criminal and non-criminal deviance can sometimes blur. For instance, drug usage might be considered a criminal activity in one jurisdiction and a social issue in another.

Moreover, activities like civil disobedience may be technically illegal but are often applauded by certain sections of society as a form of positive social change.

Formal and Informal Deviance

Formal deviance refers to the violation of official rules and laws, like robbery or tax evasion. These actions are universally considered wrong and punishable by formal sanctions.

Informal deviance, however, consists of behaviors that may not be illegal but still violate social norms, like cutting in line or wearing casual attire to a formal event.

The societal implications of formal deviance are often more severe and include legal repercussions. On the other hand, informal deviance usually results in social repercussions, like being stared at or talked about but doesn't invite any legal sanctions.

What makes a deviant act formal or informal often comes down to societal norms and how strictly they're enforced. In many cultures, formal rules are established to codify norms that are considered extremely important, whereas informal deviance usually involves norms that are socially regulated but not legally enforced.

Individual and Collective Deviance

Deviance can occur at both the individual and collective levels. Individual deviance involves a single person engaging in a deviant act, like shoplifting or lying. Collective deviance includes group activities that are considered deviant, like organized crime or riots.

Individual deviance usually has localized consequences and may or may not have a broader societal impact. Collective deviance, however, often affects communities or even nations and may result in more severe legal penalties, community unrest, or social change.

The psychology behind individual and collective deviance can be quite different. Individual deviance is often influenced by personal factors, whereas collective deviance is typically driven by group dynamics, social pressures, and larger societal issues.

Positive and Negative Deviance

Deviance is not always negatively perceived. Positive deviance involves actions that deviate from societal norms but are generally considered constructive or beneficial.

For example, civil rights activists like Rosa Parks and Martin Luther King Jr. engaged in behaviors considered deviant at the time but aimed for social change.

Negative deviance, on the other hand, generally harms individuals or society and includes actions like theft, deception, or violence.

Positive deviance often challenges the status quo and can initiate social change, as seen in movements for civil rights, women's suffrage, and LGBTQ+ rights. Negative deviance usually has detrimental effects, causing harm or disrupting social harmony.

Legal systems and community structures are often designed to deter negative deviance more actively than encouraging positive deviance.

It's crucial to note that what is considered positively or negatively deviant can be highly subjective and culturally dependent. For example, what is considered positive deviance in one culture or time period might be viewed as negative deviance in another.

Primary and Secondary Deviance

Sociologist Edwin Lemert introduced this distinction to describe the stages of deviant behavior.

Primary deviance refers to the initial act of deviance, like a kid stealing candy from a store. Secondary deviance occurs when an individual adopts a deviant role as part of their identity, often as a result of societal labeling.

Primary deviance usually has limited social consequences and may not affect the individual's self-concept significantly. However, secondary deviance can lead to the individual becoming more deeply involved in deviant behavior, possibly resulting in exclusion from conventional society and a self-fulfilling prophecy of deviance.

Labeling plays a significant role in the progression from primary to secondary deviance. Once an individual is labeled as "deviant," society tends to see them through that lens, affecting both self-perception and future actions.

The labeling theory, developed by Howard Becker, provides a framework for understanding this process.

Medicalized Deviance

Medicalized deviance refers to behaviors or conditions considered deviant and needing medical treatment. For example, alcoholism or certain forms of mental illness like schizophrenia are often viewed both as deviant and as conditions requiring medical intervention.

Medicalizing deviance has both benefits and drawbacks. On the one hand, it can remove the moral stigma attached to certain kinds of deviance, providing a pathway for treatment rather than punishment.

On the other hand, it can lead to over-medicalization, where normal variations in behavior are pathologized.

The medicalization of deviance raises ethical questions about who gets to define what is "normal" and "abnormal" behavior and what kinds of interventions are appropriate.

It also touches upon issues of medical consent and the pharmaceutical industry's role in defining deviance.

Cultural and Time-Specific Deviance

Some behaviors may be considered deviant in one cultural or historical context but not in another. For example, tattoos were once considered deviant in many Western societies but have become more accepted over time.

Cultural and time-specific deviance reminds us that deviant behavior is not absolute but relative to specific societal norms and values. As societies evolve, their definitions of deviance also change, often reflected in amendments to laws and shifts in public opinion.

Large scale social changes, such as movements for civil rights or gender equality, often involve challenging existing norms and are thus seen as deviant initially.

However, as society progresses and adapts, these actions can become normalized, illustrating the fluid nature of what is considered deviant.

Deviance Examples

1. shoplifting.

Shoplifting is a form of criminal deviance that involves the unauthorized taking of goods from a retail store. This action directly violates laws against theft and can lead to legal consequences, such as fines or imprisonment.

It is considered both a crime and a form of social deviance because it disrupts social norms regarding property and honesty.

Shoplifting not only affects the store owners but also has broader implications for society, as it can lead to increased prices and stricter security measures for all consumers.

2. Graffiti

Graffiti, the act of writing or drawing on public or private property without permission, is another example of criminal deviance. While some consider graffiti a form of art or social commentary, it is generally against the law.

The act challenges societal norms about property rights and public decorum. Notably, the famous artist Banksy turned graffiti into a form of high art, though his work still often constitutes deviant behavior from a legal perspective.

3. Tax Evasion

Tax evasion is a serious form of criminal deviance. By deliberately misreporting income or hiding money to avoid paying taxes, individuals engage in a behavior that is both illegal and morally questionable.

This act not only breaks laws but also social contracts, undermining public trust and depriving governments of revenue needed for public services.

4. Academic Cheating

Cheating in academic settings, such as copying someone else's homework or using unauthorized materials during an exam, is a form of non-criminal but formal deviance.

While it may not result in arrest, academic cheating can lead to significant consequences like failing grades, suspension, or even expulsion. This behavior disrupts the educational system's values of fairness and meritocracy.

5. Extramarital Affairs

Engaging in an extramarital affair is an example of informal deviance. Although it is not illegal in many places, it violates widely accepted social norms surrounding marriage and fidelity.

These affairs can have a profound emotional impact on families, leading to breakups, divorce, and a breakdown of trust.

6. Jaywalking

Jaywalking is an interesting case where a relatively minor act of deviance is technically criminal but often socially accepted.

Crossing the street outside of designated crosswalks breaks traffic laws but is commonly practiced in many cities. While usually not resulting in severe legal penalties, it still constitutes a violation of formal rules designed to ensure pedestrian safety.

7. Public Protests

Participating in public protests, especially those that involve civil disobedience, is a form of positive deviance. Actions like sit-ins or blocking traffic aim to draw attention to social issues and challenge the status quo.

Figures like Martin Luther King Jr. and Rosa Parks were engaged in positive deviance to fight for civil rights. However, these acts are often technically illegal, making them also a form of criminal deviance.

8. Littering

Littering is another example of criminal deviance, albeit often seen as minor. When someone throws trash on the ground instead of disposing of it properly, they not only break environmental laws but also social norms of community responsibility and respect for public spaces.

9. Binge Drinking

Binge drinking is a form of medicalized deviance. While consuming alcohol is legal for adults, excessive drinking can be seen as a medical issue needing intervention. This behavior not only risks the individual's health but also poses broader social risks, such as drunk driving or violence.

10. Insider Trading

Insider trading, the act of buying or selling stocks based on non-public, material information, is a severe form of criminal deviance. This illegal activity undermines the integrity of financial markets and violates societal norms of fairness and transparency.

High-profile cases, such as that of Martha Stewart , have drawn public attention to the seriousness of this offense.

11. Polygamy

Polygamy, the practice of having multiple spouses simultaneously, is often considered a form of cultural and time-specific deviance.

While polygamy is acceptable and even normative in some cultures, it is illegal and socially unacceptable in many Western societies. The differing perspectives on polygamy highlight how cultural norms influence what is considered deviant behavior.

12. Plagiarism

Plagiarism, or using someone else's words or ideas without proper attribution, is a form of academic and formal deviance.

While not usually a criminal offense, it is considered a serious ethical violation in academic and professional settings, leading to a loss of credibility and potential disciplinary action.

13. Smoking in No-Smoking Zones

Smoking in designated no-smoking areas is a form of criminal deviance. Not only does this action violate public health laws, but it also challenges social norms regarding shared public spaces and respect for others. It often results in fines and, in repeated instances, stronger legal consequences.

14. Internet Trolling

Internet trolling, the act of deliberately posting inflammatory or misleading content online to provoke others, is an example of informal deviance. While it's generally not illegal, this behavior violates social norms of constructive dialogue and respectful interaction in digital spaces.

15. Fare Dodging

Evading payment on public transportation, often referred to as "fare dodging," is a form of criminal deviance. This behavior undermines the public transportation system and is unfair to those who pay the fare. It can result in fines or even legal prosecution.

16. Loitering

Loitering, or remaining in a public place without an apparent purpose, is considered a minor form of criminal deviance. Laws against loitering aim to prevent public nuisances and potential criminal activities, though these laws can sometimes be controversial for targeting specific populations unfairly.

17. Cutting in Line

Cutting in line, or "queue-jumping," is an example of informal deviance. While not illegal, it violates the social norms of fairness and orderliness, often eliciting strong negative reactions from others waiting their turn.

18. Speeding

Driving over the speed limit is a form of criminal deviance with significant safety implications. Speeding increases the risk of accidents and endangers both the driver and others on the road. Legal consequences often include fines, license points, or even arrest in extreme cases.

19. Street Art Without Permission

Creating street art without proper authorization is a form of criminal deviance similar to graffiti. While the artwork might be aesthetically pleasing or carry social messages, doing so without permission violates property laws and social norms.

20. Fake Reviews

Posting fake reviews online, either to boost one's own business or sabotage a competitor, is a form of informal and sometimes criminal deviance. This behavior undermines the integrity of review systems and deceives consumers, and it can lead to legal consequences for false advertising or fraud.

21. Ghosting

Ghosting, or cutting off all communication with someone without explanation, is an example of informal deviance. This behavior violates social expectations for interpersonal relationships and can be emotionally damaging for the person who is ghosted.

22. Wearing Inappropriate Attire

Wearing clothing deemed inappropriate for a specific setting—like donning casual wear at a formal event—is a form of informal deviance. While it doesn't break any laws, it challenges social norms about decorum and propriety.

23. Gossiping

Engaging in gossip or spreading rumors is a form of informal deviance that can harm people's reputations and violate norms of privacy and respect. Although gossip is a common social activity, excessive or malicious gossip is generally frowned upon.

24. Public Nudity

Public nudity is a form of criminal deviance in many jurisdictions, as it violates laws related to indecent exposure. This behavior also challenges deep-seated social norms about modesty and personal boundaries.

25. Gambling in Prohibited Areas

Engaging in gambling activities in areas where it is illegal is a form of criminal deviance. This behavior not only breaks the law but also can lead to a range of social issues, including addiction and financial instability.

26. Dumpster Diving

Dumpster diving, or scavenging through waste containers for items deemed useful, is often viewed as a form of informal deviance. While not generally illegal, this activity challenges social norms about property and cleanliness.

27. Cyberbullying

Cyberbullying involves using digital platforms to harass or intimidate others. It's a form of informal deviance that can escalate into criminal behavior depending on the jurisdiction and the severity of the actions. Cyberbullying disrupts social expectations of respectful interaction.

28. Squatting

Squatting, or occupying an abandoned or unoccupied area of land or building, is a form of criminal deviance. This behavior violates property laws and disrupts social norms related to ownership and habitation.

29. Spitting in Public

Spitting in public places is considered a minor form of criminal deviance in some jurisdictions and can lead to fines. This act challenges norms of public decency and hygiene.

30. Overprescribing Medication

Overprescribing medication, particularly addictive substances, is a form of medical deviance. While it's a severe ethical violation that can lead to criminal charges, it also highlights systemic issues in healthcare and pharmaceutical industries.

31. Hoarding

Hoarding, or excessively accumulating items to the point of creating hazardous living conditions, is considered a form of medicalized deviance. Although not necessarily illegal, this behavior challenges norms of healthy living and can have social and psychological implications.

32. Flash Mobs

Organizing or participating in flash mobs, sudden gatherings of people to perform an act and disperse quickly, can be either formal or informal deviance. While often entertaining and harmless, these acts sometimes disrupt public spaces and can lead to legal consequences.

33. Out-of-Wedlock Births

Having a child out of wedlock is an example of informal deviance that varies by culture and time period. While increasingly accepted in many Western societies, it still carries a stigma in certain communities and challenges traditional family structures.

Bigamy, the act of marrying someone while already married to another person, is a form of criminal deviance. It violates both legal statutes and social norms surrounding the institution of marriage.

35. Public Intoxication

Being intoxicated in public spaces is considered a form of criminal deviance. Not only does it violate public order laws, but it also challenges social norms about acceptable behavior in shared spaces.

36. Eavesdropping

Eavesdropping, or secretly listening to the private conversation of others without their consent, is a form of informal deviance. This behavior violates norms of privacy and personal boundaries.

37. Using a Fake ID

Using a fake identification card to gain access to restricted areas or purchase age-restricted items is a form of criminal deviance. This behavior not only violates laws but also compromises systems of public safety and regulation.

38. Yelling in a Library

Yelling or speaking loudly in a library is an example of informal deviance. Libraries are socially understood to be quiet spaces for reading and study, so loud behavior disrupts this normative expectation.

39. Reselling Concert Tickets at a Higher Price

Reselling concert tickets at inflated prices, often called ticket scalping, is considered a form of informal or criminal deviance depending on jurisdiction. This behavior challenges social norms of fairness and may violate laws related to consumer protection.

40. Joining a Cult

Joining a cult or an extreme religious group is often seen as a form of deviance. These organizations may promote beliefs and practices that are socially unconventional or considered dangerous, making membership in such groups a form of informal or, in some cases, formal deviance.

41. Using Electronics During a Movie

Using your phone or other electronic devices during a movie screening is an example of informal deviance. This behavior disrupts the viewing experience for others and challenges the social norms of etiquette in shared entertainment spaces.

42. Tax Evasion

Deliberately misrepresenting income to avoid paying taxes is a form of criminal deviance. Tax evasion not only breaks the law but also undermines public trust and deprives governments of revenue needed for public services.

43. Excessive Video Gaming

Engaging in video gaming to an extent that it interferes with daily responsibilities and social interactions is a form of deviance that's often medicalized. While not illegal, this behavior challenges social norms about leisure activities and responsible time management.

44. Cyberstalking

Engaging in stalking behavior online is a form of criminal deviance. This involves unwanted, obsessive attention by individuals or groups toward others, often through digital means, and can lead to severe psychological harm for the victim.

45. Food Hoarding in Public Settings

Taking excessive amounts of free food in public settings, like buffets or community events, is an example of informal deviance. This behavior is not illegal but violates social norms about sharing and public etiquette.

46. Running Red Lights

Intentionally running a red light while driving is a form of criminal deviance. This dangerous behavior violates traffic laws and increases the risk of accidents, posing a danger to the individual and others on the road.

The Role of Deviance in Modern Society

Deviance, whether it's informal or criminal, often serves as a mirror reflecting the values, norms, and moral underpinnings of a society. Understanding the role of deviance in modern society can help us grasp the complexities of human behavior and social cohesion.

Below, we delve into several key functions and implications of deviance in our lives today.

Social Cohesion and Boundary Reinforcement

One of the primary roles of deviance is to reinforce social cohesion by delineating what is "acceptable" and what is "unacceptable" behavior.

When someone engages in deviant acts, society often comes together to condemn the actions, thereby reaffirming collective norms and values. This process helps to draw lines that define the boundaries of acceptable behavior, making it clearer for members of society what is expected of them.

Agent of Social Change

Ironically, deviance can also be an agent of social change. When societal norms are outdated or unjust, deviant behavior can challenge the status quo and stimulate reconsideration of established norms.

For example, the Civil Rights Movement in the United States was initially considered deviant by many who wanted to maintain racial segregation. Yet, it led to significant changes in laws and social norms surrounding race.

Fostering Innovation and Creativity

Deviance isn't always negative; sometimes, it can foster innovation and creativity. People who think or act outside the conventional box may be labeled as deviant, but their unique perspectives can lead to groundbreaking ideas and developments.

Many entrepreneurs, artists, and scientists have been considered deviant in one way or another, but their contributions have significantly enriched society.

Risk and Danger Management

Deviant behavior often carries inherent risks that can lead to personal and societal harm. For instance, criminal activities pose threats to individual safety and social stability.

Acknowledging and understanding deviance provide a framework for society to manage these risks through legal systems, educational programs, and other preventive measures.

Psychological and Societal Release

Some theories suggest that deviance offers a sort of "safety valve" for social and psychological tension.

For instance, minor acts of deviance, like venting frustrations online or engaging in harmless pranks, may serve as outlets for individuals to express dissatisfaction or stress without resorting to more harmful behaviors.

Social Control and Power Dynamics

Deviance also plays a role in highlighting issues of social control and power dynamics. Those in power often have the ability to define what is considered deviant, which can lead to the marginalization of certain groups.

Understanding deviance thus involves scrutinizing who gets to define it and why, shedding light on issues of social justice and equality.

The concept of deviance serves as a fascinating lens through which we can explore the values, norms, and underlying structures of our society.

As we've seen through various examples and theories, deviance is not a one-size-fits-all label but a complex, multi-faceted phenomenon that can be both constructive and destructive.

From small acts like jaywalking or using a phone in a theater to more severe forms like tax evasion or cyberbullying, deviance takes on many forms.

Through the perspectives of different theorists—from Émile Durkheim's idea of deviance as a necessary social function to Erving Goffman's work on stigmatization—we gain a comprehensive understanding of why deviant behavior occurs and what it signifies.

Furthermore, the role of deviance in modern society is complex and paradoxical. It helps reinforce social boundaries, yet also acts as a catalyst for change. It can deter innovation but also inspire it. It plays a role in risk management, psychological relief, and exposes issues of social control and power dynamics.

Understanding deviance helps us make sense of the world around us. It prompts us to question the norms we often take for granted and challenges us to consider the context in which behavior becomes labeled as "deviant."

By scrutinizing the complexities of deviant acts, we can work towards creating a society that is both compassionate and just, one that appreciates the nuances of human behavior while striving for the well-being of all its members.

And so, as we navigate the ever-changing landscapes of societal norms and individual behaviors, let us remember that deviance—like beauty—is often in the eye of the beholder. It serves as a tool, a warning sign, and sometimes, even as a stepping stone toward a more equitable and understanding community.

Thank you for joining us on this extensive exploration of deviance in sociology. We hope this article has offered you valuable insights and sparked further curiosity on this complex and ever-evolving subject.

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7.2 Explaining Deviance

Learning objective.

• State the major arguments and assumptions of the various sociological explanations of deviance.

If we want to reduce violent crime and other serious deviance, we must first understand why it occurs. Many sociological theories of deviance exist, and together they offer a more complete understanding of deviance than any one theory offers by itself. Together they help answer the questions posed earlier: why rates of deviance differ within social categories and across locations, why some behaviors are more likely than others to be considered deviant, and why some kinds of people are more likely than others to be considered deviant and to be punished for deviant behavior. As a whole, sociological explanations highlight the importance of the social environment and of social interaction for deviance and the commision of crime. As such, they have important implications for how to reduce these behaviors. Consistent with this book’s public sociology theme, a discussion of several such crime-reduction strategies concludes this chapter.

We now turn to the major sociological explanations of crime and deviance. A summary of these explanations appears in Table 7.1 “Theory Snapshot: Summary of Sociological Explanations of Deviance and Crime” .

Table 7.1 Theory Snapshot: Summary of Sociological Explanations of Deviance and Crime

Functionalist Explanations

Several explanations may be grouped under the functionalist perspective in sociology, as they all share this perspective’s central view on the importance of various aspects of society for social stability and other social needs.

Émile Durkheim: The Functions of Deviance

As noted earlier, Émile Durkheim said deviance is normal, but he did not stop there. In a surprising and still controversial twist, he also argued that deviance serves several important functions for society.

First, Durkheim said, deviance clarifies social norms and increases conformity. This happens because the discovery and punishment of deviance reminds people of the norms and reinforces the consequences of violating them. If your class were taking an exam and a student was caught cheating, the rest of the class would be instantly reminded of the rules about cheating and the punishment for it, and as a result they would be less likely to cheat.

A second function of deviance is that it strengthens social bonds among the people reacting to the deviant. An example comes from the classic story The Ox-Bow Incident (Clark, 1940), in which three innocent men are accused of cattle rustling and are eventually lynched. The mob that does the lynching is very united in its frenzy against the men, and, at least at that moment, the bonds among the individuals in the mob are extremely strong.

A final function of deviance, said Durkheim, is that it can help lead to positive social change. Although some of the greatest figures in history—Socrates, Jesus, Joan of Arc, Mahatma Gandhi, and Martin Luther King Jr. to name just a few—were considered the worst kind of deviants in their time, we now honor them for their commitment and sacrifice.

Émile Durkheim wrote that deviance can lead to positive social change. Many Southerners had strong negative feelings about Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. during the civil rights movement, but history now honors him for his commitment and sacrifice.

U.S. Library of Congress – public domain.

Sociologist Herbert Gans (1996) pointed to an additional function of deviance: deviance creates jobs for the segments of society—police, prison guards, criminology professors, and so forth—whose main focus is to deal with deviants in some manner. If deviance and crime did not exist, hundreds of thousands of law-abiding people in the United States would be out of work!

Although deviance can have all of these functions, many forms of it can certainly be quite harmful, as the story of the mugged voter that began this chapter reminds us. Violent crime and property crime in the United States victimize millions of people and households each year, while crime by corporations has effects that are even more harmful, as we discuss later. Drug use, prostitution, and other “victimless” crimes may involve willing participants, but these participants often cause themselves and others much harm. Although deviance according to Durkheim is inevitable and normal and serves important functions, that certainly does not mean the United States and other nations should be happy to have high rates of serious deviance. The sociological theories we discuss point to certain aspects of the social environment, broadly defined, that contribute to deviance and crime and that should be the focus of efforts to reduce these behaviors.

Social Ecology: Neighborhood and Community Characteristics

An important sociological approach, begun in the late 1800s and early 1900s by sociologists at the University of Chicago, stresses that certain social and physical characteristics of urban neighborhoods raise the odds that people growing up and living in these neighborhoods will commit deviance and crime. This line of thought is now called the social ecology approach (Mears, Wang, Hay, & Bales, 2008). Many criminogenic (crime-causing) neighborhood characteristics have been identified, including high rates of poverty, population density, dilapidated housing, residential mobility, and single-parent households. All of these problems are thought to contribute to social disorganization , or weakened social bonds and social institutions, that make it difficult to socialize children properly and to monitor suspicious behavior (Mears, Wang, Hay, & Bales, 2008; Sampson, 2006).

Sociology Making a Difference

Improving Neighborhood Conditions Helps Reduce Crime Rates

One of the sociological theories of crime discussed in the text is the social ecology approach. To review, this approach attributes high rates of deviance and crime to the neighborhood’s social and physical characteristics, including poverty, high population density, dilapidated housing, and high population turnover. These problems create social disorganization that weakens the neighborhood’s social institutions and impairs effective child socialization.

Much empirical evidence supports social ecology’s view about negative neighborhood conditions and crime rates and suggests that efforts to improve these conditions will lower crime rates. Some of the most persuasive evidence comes from the Project on Human Development in Chicago Neighborhoods (directed by sociologist Robert J. Sampson), in which more than 6,000 children, ranging in age from birth to 18, and their parents and other caretakers were studied over a 7-year period. The social and physical characteristics of the dozens of neighborhoods in which the subjects lived were measured to permit assessment of these characteristics’ effects on the probability of delinquency. A number of studies using data from this project confirm the general assumptions of the social ecology approach. In particular, delinquency is higher in neighborhoods with lower levels of “collective efficacy,” that is, in neighborhoods with lower levels of community supervision of adolescent behavior.

The many studies from the Chicago project and data in several other cities show that neighborhood conditions greatly affect the extent of delinquency in urban neighborhoods. This body of research in turn suggests that strategies and programs that improve the social and physical conditions of urban neighborhoods may well help decrease the high rates of crime and delinquency that are so often found there. (Bellair & McNulty, 2009; Sampson, 2006)

Strain Theory

Failure to achieve the American dream lies at the heart of Robert Merton’s (1938) famous strain theory (also called anomie theory). Recall from Chapter 1 “Sociology and the Sociological Perspective” that Durkheim attributed high rates of suicide to anomie, or normlessness, that occurs in times when social norms are unclear or weak. Adapting this concept, Merton wanted to explain why poor people have higher deviance rates than the nonpoor. He reasoned that the United States values economic success above all else and also has norms that specify the approved means, working, for achieving economic success. Because the poor often cannot achieve the American dream of success through the conventional means of working, they experience a gap between the goal of economic success and the means of working. This gap, which Merton likened to Durkheim’s anomie because of the resulting lack of clarity over norms, leads to strain or frustration. To reduce their frustration, some poor people resort to several adaptations, including deviance, depending on whether they accept or reject the goal of economic success and the means of working. Table 7.2 “Merton’s Anomie Theory” presents the logical adaptations of the poor to the strain they experience. Let’s review these briefly.

Table 7.2 Merton’s Anomie Theory

Despite their strain, most poor people continue to accept the goal of economic success and continue to believe they should work to make money. In other words, they continue to be good, law-abiding citizens. They conform to society’s norms and values, and, not surprisingly, Merton calls their adaptation conformity .

Faced with strain, some poor people continue to value economic success but come up with new means of achieving it. They rob people or banks, commit fraud, or use other illegal means of acquiring money or property. Merton calls this adaptation innovation .

Other poor people continue to work at a job without much hope of greatly improving their lot in life. They go to work day after day as a habit. Merton calls this third adaptation ritualism . This adaptation does not involve deviant behavior but is a logical response to the strain poor people experience.

One of Robert Merton’s adaptations in his strain theory is retreatism, in which poor people abandon society’s goal of economic success and reject its means of employment to reach this goal. Many of today’s homeless people might be considered retreatists under Merton’s typology.

Franco Folini – Homeless woman with dogs – CC BY-SA 2.0.

In Merton’s fourth adaptation, retreatism , some poor people withdraw from society by becoming hobos or vagrants or by becoming addicted to alcohol, heroin, or other drugs. Their response to the strain they feel is to reject both the goal of economic success and the means of working.

Merton’s fifth and final adaptation is rebellion . Here poor people not only reject the goal of success and the means of working but work actively to bring about a new society with a new value system. These people are the radicals and revolutionaries of their time. Because Merton developed his strain theory in the aftermath of the Great Depression, in which the labor and socialist movements had been quite active, it is not surprising that he thought of rebellion as a logical adaptation of the poor to their lack of economic success.

Although Merton’s theory has been popular over the years, it has some limitations. Perhaps most important, it overlooks deviance such as fraud by the middle and upper classes and also fails to explain murder, rape, and other crimes that usually are not done for economic reasons. It also does not explain why some poor people choose one adaptation over another.

Merton’s strain theory stimulated other explanations of deviance that built on his concept of strain. Differential opportunity theory , developed by Richard Cloward and Lloyd Ohlin (1960), tried to explain why the poor choose one or the other of Merton’s adaptations. Whereas Merton stressed that the poor have differential access to legitimate means (working), Cloward and Ohlin stressed that they have differential access to illegitimate means . For example, some live in neighborhoods where organized crime is dominant and will get involved in such crime; others live in neighborhoods rampant with drug use and will start using drugs themselves.

In a more recent formulation, two sociologists, Steven F. Messner and Richard Rosenfeld (2007), expanded Merton’s view by arguing that in the United States crime arises from several of our most important values, including an overemphasis on economic success, individualism, and competition. These values produce crime by making many Americans, rich or poor, feel they never have enough money and by prompting them to help themselves even at other people’s expense. Crime in the United States, then, arises ironically from the country’s most basic values.

In yet another extension of Merton’s theory, Robert Agnew (2007) reasoned that adolescents experience various kinds of strain in addition to the economic type addressed by Merton. A romantic relationship may end, a family member may die, or students may be taunted or bullied at school. Repeated strain-inducing incidents such as these produce anger, frustration, and other negative emotions, and these emotions in turn prompt delinquency and drug use.

Deviant Subcultures

Some sociologists stress that poverty and other community conditions give rise to certain subcultures through which adolescents acquire values that promote deviant behavior. One of the first to make this point was Albert K. Cohen (1955), whose status frustration theory says that lower-class boys do poorly in school because schools emphasize middle-class values. School failure reduces their status and self-esteem, which the boys try to counter by joining juvenile gangs. In these groups, a different value system prevails, and boys can regain status and self-esteem by engaging in delinquency. Cohen had nothing to say about girls, as he assumed they cared little about how well they did in school, placing more importance on marriage and family instead, and hence would remain nondelinquent even if they did not do well. Scholars later criticized his disregard for girls and assumptions about them.

Another sociologist, Walter Miller (1958), said poor boys become delinquent because they live amid a lower-class subculture that includes several focal concerns , or values, that help lead to delinquency. These focal concerns include a taste for trouble, toughness, cleverness, and excitement. If boys grow up in a subculture with these values, they are more likely to break the law. Their deviance is a result of their socialization. Critics said Miller exaggerated the differences between the value systems in poor inner-city neighborhoods and wealthier, middle-class communities (Akers & Sellers, 2008).

A very popular subcultural explanation is the so-called subculture of violence thesis, first advanced by Marvin Wolfgang and Franco Ferracuti (1967). In some inner-city areas, they said, a subculture of violence promotes a violent response to insults and other problems, which people in middle-class areas would probably ignore. The subculture of violence, they continued, arises partly from the need of lower-class males to “prove” their masculinity in view of their economic failure. Quantitative research to test their theory has failed to show that the urban poor are more likely than other groups to approve of violence (Cao, Adams, & Jensen, 1997). On the other hand, recent ethnographic (qualitative) research suggests that large segments of the urban poor do adopt a “code” of toughness and violence to promote respect (Anderson, 1999). As this conflicting evidence illustrates, the subculture of violence view remains controversial and merits further scrutiny.

Social Control Theory

Travis Hirschi (1969) argued that human nature is basically selfish and thus wondered why people do not commit deviance. His answer, which is now called social control theory (also known as social bonding theory ), was that their bonds to conventional social institutions such as the family and the school keep them from violating social norms. Hirschi’s basic perspective reflects Durkheim’s view that strong social norms reduce deviance such as suicide.

Hirschi outlined four types of bonds to conventional social institutions: attachment, commitment, involvement, and belief.

• Attachment refers to how much we feel loyal to these institutions and care about the opinions of people in them, such as our parents and teachers. The more attached we are to our families and schools, the less likely we are to be deviant.
• Commitment refers to how much we value our participation in conventional activities such as getting a good education. The more committed we are to these activities and the more time and energy we have invested in them, the less deviant we will be.
• Involvement refers to the amount of time we spend in conventional activities. The more time we spend, the less opportunity we have to be deviant.
• Belief refers to our acceptance of society’s norms. The more we believe in these norms, the less we deviate.

Travis Hirschi’s social control theory stresses the importance of bonds to social institutions for preventing deviance. His theory emphasized the importance of attachment to one’s family in this regard.

More Good Foundation – Mormon Family Dinner – CC BY-NC 2.0.

Hirschi’s theory has been very popular. Many studies find that youths with weaker bonds to their parents and schools are more likely to be deviant. But the theory has its critics (Akers & Sellers, 2008). One problem centers on the chicken-and-egg question of causal order. For example, many studies support social control theory by finding that delinquent youths often have worse relationships with their parents than do nondelinquent youths. Is that because the bad relationships prompt the youths to be delinquent, as Hirschi thought? Or is it because the youths’ delinquency worsens their relationship with their parents? Despite these questions, Hirschi’s social control theory continues to influence our understanding of deviance. To the extent it is correct, it suggests several strategies for preventing crime, including programs designed to improve parenting and relations between parents and children (Welsh & Farrington, 2007).

Conflict and Feminist Explanations

Explanations of crime rooted in the conflict perspective reflect its general view that society is a struggle between the “haves” at the top of society with social, economic, and political power and the “have-nots” at the bottom. Accordingly, they assume that those with power pass laws and otherwise use the legal system to secure their position at the top of society and to keep the powerless on the bottom (Bohm & Vogel, 2011). The poor and minorities are more likely because of their poverty and race to be arrested, convicted, and imprisoned. These explanations also blame street crime by the poor on the economic deprivation and inequality in which they live rather than on any moral failings of the poor.

Some conflict explanations also say that capitalism helps create street crime by the poor. An early proponent of this view was Dutch criminologist Willem Bonger (1916), who said that capitalism as an economic system involves competition for profit. This competition leads to an emphasis in a capitalist society’s culture on egoism , or self-seeking behavior, and greed . Because profit becomes so important, people in a capitalist society are more likely than those in noncapitalist ones to break the law for profit and other gains, even if their behavior hurts others.

Not surprisingly, conflict explanations have sparked much controversy (Akers & Sellers, 2008). Many scholars dismiss them for painting an overly critical picture of the United States and ignoring the excesses of noncapitalistic nations, while others say the theories overstate the degree of inequality in the legal system. In assessing the debate over conflict explanations, a fair conclusion is that their view on discrimination by the legal system applies more to victimless crime (discussed in a later section) than to conventional crime, where it is difficult to argue that laws against such things as murder and robbery reflect the needs of the powerful. However, much evidence supports the conflict assertion that the poor and minorities face disadvantages in the legal system (Reiman & Leighton, 2010). Simply put, the poor cannot afford good attorneys, private investigators, and the other advantages that money brings in court. As just one example, if someone much poorer than O. J. Simpson, the former football player and media celebrity, had been arrested, as he was in 1994, for viciously murdering two people, the defendant would almost certainly have been found guilty. Simpson was able to afford a defense costing hundreds of thousands of dollars and won a jury acquittal in his criminal trial (Barkan, 1996). Also in accordance with conflict theory’s views, corporate executives, among the most powerful members of society, often break the law without fear of imprisonment, as we shall see in our discussion of white-collar crime later in this chapter. Finally, many studies support conflict theory’s view that the roots of crimes by poor people lie in social inequality and economic deprivation (Barkan, 2009).

Feminist Perspectives

Feminist perspectives on crime and criminal justice also fall into the broad rubric of conflict explanations and have burgeoned in the last two decades. Much of this work concerns rape and sexual assault, intimate partner violence, and other crimes against women that were largely neglected until feminists began writing about them in the 1970s (Griffin, 1971). Their views have since influenced public and official attitudes about rape and domestic violence, which used to be thought as something that girls and women brought on themselves. The feminist approach instead places the blame for these crimes squarely on society’s inequality against women and antiquated views about relations between the sexes (Renzetti, 2011).

Another focus of feminist work is gender and legal processing. Are women better or worse off than men when it comes to the chances of being arrested and punished? After many studies in the last two decades, the best answer is that we are not sure (Belknap, 2007). Women are treated a little more harshly than men for minor crimes and a little less harshly for serious crimes, but the gender effect in general is weak.

A third focus concerns the gender difference in serious crime, as women and girls are much less likely than men and boys to engage in violence and to commit serious property crimes such as burglary and motor vehicle theft. Most sociologists attribute this difference to gender socialization. Simply put, socialization into the male gender role, or masculinity, leads to values such as competitiveness and behavioral patterns such as spending more time away from home that all promote deviance. Conversely, despite whatever disadvantages it may have, socialization into the female gender role, or femininity, promotes values such as gentleness and behavior patterns such as spending more time at home that help limit deviance (Chesney-Lind & Pasko, 2004). Noting that males commit so much crime, Kathleen Daly and Meda Chesney-Lind (1988, p. 527) wrote,

A large price is paid for structures of male domination and for the very qualities that drive men to be successful, to control others, and to wield uncompromising power.…Gender differences in crime suggest that crime may not be so normal after all. Such differences challenge us to see that in the lives of women, men have a great deal more to learn.

Gender socialization helps explain why females commit less serious crime than males. Boys are raised to be competitive and aggressive, while girls are raised to be more gentle and nurturing.

Philippe Put – Fight – CC BY 2.0.

Two decades later, that challenge still remains.

Symbolic Interactionist Explanations

Because symbolic interactionism focuses on the means people gain from their social interaction, symbolic interactionist explanations attribute deviance to various aspects of the social interaction and social processes that normal individuals experience. These explanations help us understand why some people are more likely than others living in the same kinds of social environments. Several such explanations exist.

Differential Association Theory

One popular set of explanations, often called learning theories , emphasizes that deviance is learned from interacting with other people who believe it is OK to commit deviance and who often commit deviance themselves. Deviance, then, arises from normal socialization processes. The most influential such explanation is Edwin H. Sutherland’s (1947) differential association theory , which says that criminal behavior is learned by interacting with close friends and family members. These individuals teach us not only how to commit various crimes but also the values, motives, and rationalizations that we need to adopt in order to justify breaking the law. The earlier in our life that we associate with deviant individuals and the more often we do so, the more likely we become deviant ourselves. In this way, a normal social process, socialization, can lead normal people to commit deviance.

Sutherland’s theory of differential association was one of the most influential sociological theories ever. Over the years much research has documented the importance of adolescents’ peer relationships for their entrance into the world of drugs and delinquency (Akers & Sellers, 2008). However, some critics say that not all deviance results from the influences of deviant peers. Still, differential association theory and the larger category of learning theories it represents remain a valuable approach to understanding deviance and crime.

Labeling Theory

If we arrest and imprison someone, we hope they will be “scared straight,” or deterred from committing a crime again. Labeling theory assumes precisely the opposite: it says that labeling someone deviant increases the chances that the labeled person will continue to commit deviance. According to labeling theory, this happens because the labeled person ends up with a deviant self-image that leads to even more deviance. Deviance is the result of being labeled (Bohm & Vogel, 2011).

This effect is reinforced by how society treats someone who has been labeled. Research shows that job applicants with a criminal record are much less likely than those without a record to be hired (Pager, 2009). Suppose you had a criminal record and had seen the error of your ways but were rejected by several potential employers. Do you think you might be just a little frustrated? If your unemployment continues, might you think about committing a crime again? Meanwhile, you want to meet some law-abiding friends, so you go to a singles bar. You start talking with someone who interests you, and in response to this person’s question, you say you are between jobs. When your companion asks about your last job, you reply that you were in prison for armed robbery. How do you think your companion will react after hearing this? As this scenario suggests, being labeled deviant can make it difficult to avoid a continued life of deviance.

Labeling theory also asks whether some people and behaviors are indeed more likely than others to acquire a deviant label. In particular, it asserts that nonlegal factors such as appearance, race, and social class affect how often official labeling occurs.

Labeling theory assumes that someone who is labeled deviant will be more likely to commit deviance as a result. One problem that ex-prisoners face after being released back into society is that potential employers do not want to hire them. This fact makes it more likely that they will commit new offenses.

Victor – Handcuffs – CC BY 2.0.

William Chambliss’s (1973) classic analysis of the “Saints” and the “Roughnecks” is an excellent example of this argument. The Saints were eight male high-school students from middle-class backgrounds who were very delinquent, while the Roughnecks were six male students in the same high school who were also very delinquent but who came from poor, working-class families. Although the Saints’ behavior was arguably more harmful than the Roughnecks’, their actions were considered harmless pranks, and they were never arrested. After graduating from high school, they went on to college and graduate and professional school and ended up in respectable careers. In contrast, the Roughnecks were widely viewed as troublemakers and often got into trouble for their behavior. As adults they either ended up in low-paying jobs or went to prison.

Labeling theory’s views on the effects of being labeled and on the importance of nonlegal factors for official labeling remain controversial. Nonetheless, the theory has greatly influenced the study of deviance and crime in the last few decades and promises to do so for many years to come.

Key Takeaways

• Both biological and psychological explanations assume that deviance stems from problems arising inside the individual.
• Sociological explanations attribute deviance to various aspects of the social environment.
• Several functionalist explanations exist. Durkheim highlighted the functions that deviance serves for society. Merton’s strain theory assumed that deviance among the poor results from their inability to achieve the economic success so valued in American society. Other explanations highlight the role played by the social and physical characteristics of urban neighborhoods, of deviant subcultures, and of weak bonds to social institutions.
• Conflict explanations assume that the wealthy and powerful use the legal system to protect their own interests and to keep the poor and racial minorities subservient. Feminist perspectives highlight the importance of gender inequality for crimes against women and of male socialization for the gender difference in criminality.
• Interactionist explanations highlight the importance of social interaction in the commitment of deviance and in reactions to deviance. Labeling theory assumes that the labeling process helps ensure that someone will continue to commit deviance, and it also assumes that some people are more likely than others to be labeled deviant because of their appearance, race, social class, and other characteristics.

For Your Review

• In what important way do biological and psychological explanations differ from sociological explanations?
• What are any two functions of deviance according to Durkheim?
• What are any two criminogenic social or physical characteristics of urban neighborhoods?
• What are any two assumptions of feminist perspectives on deviance and crime?
• According to labeling theory, what happens when someone is labeled as a deviant?

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Sociology Copyright © 2016 by University of Minnesota is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

Deviance in Sociology: 25 Examples & Definition

Deviance is a sociological concept referring to behaviors that break social norms and laws.

Examples of deviance include theft, vandalism, lying, breaking social taboos , and disobeying the law.

Studying deviance allows us to understand the boundaries differentiating acceptable, criminal, and deviant behaviors. Understanding deviance is also important for the study of other relevant sociological concepts, such as social control which is used to prevent deviance.

Deviance Definition

Deviance is a concept used to describe divergences from a society’s norms, values, rules, and expectations.

Here is one clear scholarly definition:

“ Deviant behavior refers to conduct that departs significantly from the norms set for people in their social statuses ’’ (Merton, 1966, p. 805).

Each culture and society has norms and expectations about how people from certain social groups and statuses should behave.

Therefore, behaviors deviating from culturally appropriate patterns lead to deviance. Similarly, deviants are individuals who violate the social agreements over norms and values (Herman, 1995).

The relation between crime and deviance is important to understand. While crime refers to divergence from formal rules and laws, deviance also includes deviating from informal norms and values (Deflem, 2015).

Therefore, many criminal acts such as theft and fraud are also deviant behaviors. However, all deviant behaviors are not necessarily illegal or criminal acts. For example, lateness at work, or rudeness are not crimes but they are considered deviant behaviors.

25 Deviance Examples

• Verbal Abuse: Being verbally abusive through cursing, insulting, or other types of verbal aggression is a deviance breaking informal rules around communication. Depending on the context, such as insulting someone in a public platform, verbal abuse can also be considered a crime.
• Self-harm: Self-harming behaviors range from purposefully injuring oneself to ending one’s life through suicide. Since the social norms expect individuals to avoid pain and injury, self-harm is considered deviant behavior.
• Stealing and theft: Obtaining one’s property, information or services illegally and without their consent is referred to as stealing. All forms of stealing, including theft, robbery, and identity theft, break both social norms and laws. Therefore, stealing and theft are both deviant behaviors and criminal acts.
• Lateness: In Western societies, it is socially expected that individuals will arrive at their appointments, work or classes on time. While occasional delays are often tolerated, being constantly late to work without any valid excuse is a deviant behavior.
• Public Nudity: Despite varying clothing styles across different cultures, social norms and rules assert that individuals are supposed to be clothed in the public spheres. Therefore, public nudity is a deviant behavior and often punishable as a criminal offense.
• Paraphilia: Paraphilia is a concept consisting of all sexual deviances such as voyeurism, sadism or masochism. While some sexual paraphilias only break informal social norms, some others, such as those including minors or nonconsenting adults, are crimes.
• Gangs: Gangs refer to groups of people with a leadership structure that try to control neighborhoods or communities through violence. Violence committed by gangs are both deviant and criminal. In Canada, 20% of homicides in 2020 were related to gang violence and organized crime (Government of Canada, 2021).
• Vandalism: Damaging public or private properties intentionally are commonly referred to as vandalism. It is both a deviance and criminal act due to the social norms and rules around property ownership and protection.
• Favoritism:   Favoritism refers to deliberately favoring an individual in a workplace, school, or political organization. Although it is not always considered a criminal act, favoritism is a deviant behavior since it threatens the social values and consensus around equal and fair treatment.
• Breaking taboos: All societies have taboos, which are unspoken rules that refer to things that people find immodest. A simple example is the taboo of talking about religion or politics at the dinner table.
• Hunger strikes: Many imprisoned people who are completely disempowered will engage in hunger strikes to get attention. This will force the authorities to take action so the person in their care doesn’t die.
• Nepotism: Nepotism refers to the act of employing someone not on merit but because they are a family member. It is frowned upon in most societies.
• Rudeness: The simple act of being rude is seen as deviance, particularly in settings like schools, where you may be reprimanded by your teacher.
• Refusing a gift: Refusing a gift is a taboo that comes across as offensive and therefore is seen as deviant – i.e. breaking social norms.
• Lying: Lying is a deviant behavior that we are taught not to do as children, and yet is a behavior that people do on a weekly or even daily basis.
• Littering: Littering is considered deviant because society has agreed that it is harmful to the environment, and this is something society increasingly cares about.
• Disrespect: Disrespecting your parents or teachers is clearly seen as deviant in schools. But when you’re in the workplace, disrespect for coworkers or your boss may end up seeing you fired. Similarly, disrespecting a judge might be ruled as contempt of court.
• Protesting: Protesting is necessarily deviant because it involves taking a stance against power structures in society in order to effect change. In many western democracies, it is tolerated as freedom of speech .
• Tax avoidance: Avoiding your taxes demonstrates lack of social responsibility and is therefore seen as an act of deviance.
• Skipping school: Truancy is a serious deviant behavior for school children which can lead you to getting detention, suspension, or expulsion from school.
• Laughing at others’ misfortune: This is a taboo in most cultures as it is seen as rude and offensive to the people who have suffered the misfortune.
• Discrimination : While historically, discriminatory actions have been within the bounds of social norms, societies increasingly see this as an unacceptable deviance from new societal expectations.
• Having dangerous ideas: Dangerous ideas during the reformation – such as belief in individual liberty or non-religious philosophy – could land you in prison, but today are lauded as massive milestones in human development.
• Talking out of turn: Talking out of turn at school or in a workplace meeting is considered offensive because it undermines social order.
• Speeding in your car: Driving faster than the law allows is one of the main ways regular people come in contact with police forces, who offer small infringement fines.
• Cheating on exams: Cheating on an exam undermines the concept of meritocracy and therefore is seen as unacceptable.

Types of Deviance

Go Deeper: Types of Deviance

1. Primary Deviance

Primary deviance is a term used within the labeling theory of deviance. It is behavior that is seen as unacceptable by society. However, unlike secondary deviance, the person who has engaged in deviant behavior has not yet been labeled as a deviant by society.

For example, a child who lies to their parent once in a while isn’t likely to be typecast by their parent as a liar. Here, the deviance is primary because it’s not applies as a label: “you are a liar”. Rather, it’s: “you lied”.

2. Secondary Deviance

Secondary deviance represents the internalization of a belief that you are a deviant. At this stage, a person has accepted their deviant label as a central identity feature (aka a master status ).

This commonly happens in schools when a child internalizes the idea that they’re a ‘bad’ student.

According to labeling theory, this student who starts to believe that they are the bad student will lean into the identity and start engaging in deviant behaviors because it is what is expected of them.

3. Formal Deviance

Formal deviance refers to deviant behavior that is encoded in laws. If you engage in formal deviance, you are breaking either the rules of an institution or the laws of a sovereign region.

For example, a person who engages in formal deviance in a school setting might have broken the class rules and, therefore, be subject to a sanction such as detention or extra homework.

Similarly, in adulthood, driving too fast will lead to a speeding ticket; while more serious infractions may see you in front of a court or even in prison.

4. Informal Deviance

Informal deviance refers to breaking social norms without breaking codified laws or rules.

It occurs when you engage in taboos, behave in culturally insensitive ways, or do something that infringes on other types of norms.

It can be as simple as choosing not to go to college despite the expectations of your parents and grandparents. Or, it could be being rude to a waiter or speaking out of turn at school.

All of these acts of deviance will not land you in formal trouble, but may end up making you an outcast in your community.

5. Subcultural Deviance

Subcultural deviance refers to deviant behavior that people within a subcultural group do not believe to be deviant.

This comes about because subcultures have different norms and beliefs to the norms of the mainstream or dominant culture .

An example of subcultural deviance is tattooing your face. Within hipster subcultural circles, it is seen as cool and a form of self-expression. Within dominant culture, it can be seen as an affront and you’re looked upon with suspicion.

6. Situational Deviance

Situational deviance refers to a deviant behavior that is only deviant within a specific situation or context.

For example, swearing is often only deviant in certain situations. If you swear around a campfire with your high school friends, no one will bat an eyelid. But swearing at dinner with your girlfriend’s family will likely lead to some pearl-clutching!

To avoid situational deviance, you will need situational awareness and cultural competence to know what is and is not appropriate in various different situations.

Theories of Deviance in Sociology

See our main article: Cultural Deviance Theory .

1. Labelling Theory of Deviance

The labelling theory of deviance argues that deviance can be a result of the labeling of people as deviants.

Take, for example, a child in a classroom who misbehaves. His teacher has two options: to label the behavior as deviant (“Johnny, we don’t do that and I know you’re better than that”) or label the child as deviant (“Johnny, you’re a naughty little boy”).

According to labelling theory, the act of telling Johnny that he’s naughty means that Johnny internalizes a self-belief that he is deviant. When this becomes a part of his identity, he plays up his deviance to act the part.

This, in turn, leads the boy down a path of misbehaving, breaking the rules, fighting against authority, and eventually becoming a law-breaking adult.

2. Conflict Theory of Deviance

The conflict theory of deviance argues that people engage in deviant behavior due to social systems that oppress them.

If systems of power such as capitalism oppress a social group, then that group has an increased likelihood that they will engage in deviant behaviors because they:

• want to demonstrate their discontent with the current power structure
• want to undermine the current power structure
• don’t respect the people who oppress them
• get no benefit from the current system so they have no affection toward it
• are impoverished and need to engage in deviant behavior to meet their needs

As an example of conflict theory , we see rebel groups in some countries forming to take up arms against their government if the government is too oppressive. Similarly, many people will join violent protests if they are not content with the government.

3. Structuralist Theory of Deviance

In sociology, functionalism sees society as creating norms and rules of behavior to ensure there is a safe and functioning social system.

To them, they see deviance as a safety valve where people will engage in minor deviant behaviors to let off steam so they won’t engage in worse behaviors in the future.

Deviant behavior might also be a positive thing if it causes society to re-evaluate its norms, such as when people engage in nonviolent protest that causes changes in laws.

Generally, structural functionalism embraces law, order, and strong social hierarchies, and deviance is expected but can be controlled through the setting of clear and unambiguous norms.

See more functionalism examples

Case Studies of Deviant Behavior

1. absenteeism.

Being absent from work, school, or other obligations regularly without a valid excuse is referred to as absenteeism.

In the context of work, absenteeism is categorized as deviant employee behavior (Everton et al., 2007).

Absenteeism is considered harmful to work and educational organizations. It is often seen as a sign of a lack of consistency and responsibility of the absentee, which does not match with the social expectations.

Despite being seen as an implication of poor work ethics, employee absenteeism is often a result of perceived unsupportiveness and infairness of organizational managers (Everton et al., 2007).

2. Favoritism

Favoritism occurs when an authority figure deliberately favors an individual in a workplace, school, or other organization.

For example, overly tolerating lateness and absenteeism of an employee without any valid excuses would be a case of favoritism towards that employee (Anasiz & Püsküllüoglu, 2018).

Favoritism in workplaces and schools is considered a political deviance as it leads individuals to be treated unfairly (Anasiz & Püsküllüoglu, 2018).

Therefore, it conflicts with the social values and widespread expectations around organizational justice.

Divergences from a society’s norms, values, rules and regulations are referred to as deviance.

Deviant behavior is an act that is in conflict with social expectations about an individual’s status. Deviant people are those who commit deviant acts and behaviors.

Deviant behaviors include relatively common acts such as favoritism, absenteeism, or lateness to more serious acts such as vandalism, gang violence, or theft.

While a majority of criminal acts are also considered deviant behavior, these two concepts do not always overlap. For example, behaviors such as lateness or absenteeism are merely deviant acts and not crime.

Anasiz, B. T., & Püsküllüoglu, E. I. (2018). Phenomenological Analysis of Teachers’ Organizational Deviance Experiences in a Rural Primary School in Turkey. Journal of Education and Training Studies , 6 (1), 70-79.

Deflem, M. (2015). Deviance and social control. In E. Goode (Ed.), The handbook of deviance (pp. 30–44). New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Dickson-Gomez, J., Pacella, M., Broaddus, M. R., Quinn, K., Galletly, C., & Rivas, J. (2017). Convention versus deviance: moral agency in adolescent gang members’ decision making. Substance use & misuse , 52 (5), 562-573.

Everton, W. J., Jolton, J. A., & Mastrangelo, P. M. (2007). Be nice and fair or else: understanding reasons for employees’ deviant behaviors. Journal of management Development , 26 (2), 117-131.

Government of Canada. (2021, December 2). Summit on Gun and Gang Violence . Public Safety Canada / Sécurité publique Canada. Retrieved November 6, 2022, from https://www.publicsafety.gc.ca/cnt/cntrng-crm/gn-crm-frrms/index-en.aspx

Herman, N. J. (1995). Deviance: A symbolic interactionist approach . Rowman & Littlefield.

Klonsky, E. D., Oltmanns, T. F., & Turkheimer, E. (2003). Deliberate self-harm in a nonclinical population: Prevalence and psychological correlates. American journal of Psychiatry , 160 (8), 1501-1508.

Merton, R. K., & Nisbet, R. A. (Eds.). (1966). Contemporary social problems . New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.

NHTSA. (2017, October). 2016 Data: Impaired Driving . CrashStats – NHTSA. Retrieved November 7, 2022, from https://crashstats.nhtsa.dot.gov/Api/Public/ViewPublication/812450

Sanam Vaghefi (PhD Candidate)

Sanam Vaghefi (BSc, MA) is a Sociologist, educator and PhD Candidate. She has several years of experience at the University of Victoria as a teaching assistant and instructor. Her research on sociology of migration and mental health has won essay awards from the Canadian Sociological Association and the IRCC. Currently, she is am focused on supporting students online under her academic coaching and tutoring business Lingua Academic Coaching OU.

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Chris Drew (PhD)

This article was peer-reviewed and edited by Chris Drew (PhD). The review process on Helpful Professor involves having a PhD level expert fact check, edit, and contribute to articles. Reviewers ensure all content reflects expert academic consensus and is backed up with reference to academic studies. Dr. Drew has published over 20 academic articles in scholarly journals. He is the former editor of the Journal of Learning Development in Higher Education and holds a PhD in Education from ACU.

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7.2 Theoretical Perspectives on Deviance and Crime

Learning objectives.

By the end of this section, you should be able to:

• Describe the functionalist view of deviance in society through four sociologist’s theories
• Explain how conflict theory understands deviance and crime in society
• Describe the symbolic interactionist approach to deviance, including labeling and other theories

Why does deviance occur? How does it affect a society? Since the early days of sociology, scholars have developed theories that attempt to explain what deviance and crime mean to society. These theories can be grouped according to the three major sociological paradigms: functionalism, symbolic interactionism, and conflict theory.

Functionalism

Sociologists who follow the functionalist approach are concerned with the way the different elements of a society contribute to the whole. They view deviance as a key component of a functioning society. Strain theory and social disorganization theory represent two functionalist perspectives on deviance in society.

Émile Durkheim: The Essential Nature of Deviance

Émile Durkheim believed that deviance is a necessary part of a successful society. One way deviance is functional, he argued, is that it challenges people’s present views (1893). For instance, when Black students across the United States participated in sit-ins during the civil rights movement, they challenged society’s notions of segregation. Moreover, Durkheim noted, when deviance is punished, it reaffirms currently held social norms, which also contributes to society (1893). Seeing a student given detention for skipping class reminds other high schoolers that playing hooky isn’t allowed and that they, too, could get detention.

Durkheim’s point regarding the impact of punishing deviance speaks to his arguments about law. Durkheim saw laws as an expression of the “collective conscience,” which are the beliefs, morals, and attitudes of a society. “A crime is a crime because we condemn it,” he said (1893). He discussed the impact of societal size and complexity as contributors to the collective conscience and the development of justice systems and punishments. For example, in large, industrialized societies that were largely bound together by the interdependence of work (the division of labor), punishments for deviance were generally less severe. In smaller, more homogeneous societies, deviance might be punished more severely.

Robert Merton: Strain Theory

Sociologist Robert Merton agreed that deviance is an inherent part of a functioning society, but he expanded on Durkheim’s ideas by developing strain theory , which notes that access to socially acceptable goals plays a part in determining whether a person conforms or deviates. From birth, we’re encouraged to achieve the “American Dream” of financial success. A person who attends business school, receives an MBA, and goes on to make a million-dollar income as CEO of a company is said to be a success. However, not everyone in our society stands on equal footing. That MBA-turned-CEO may have grown up in the best school district and had means to hire tutors. Another person may grow up in a neighborhood with lower-quality schools, and may not be able to pay for extra help. A person may have the socially acceptable goal of financial success but lack a socially acceptable way to reach that goal. According to Merton’s theory, an entrepreneur who can’t afford to launch their own company may be tempted to embezzle from their employer for start-up funds.

Merton defined five ways people respond to this gap between having a socially accepted goal and having no socially accepted way to pursue it.

• Conformity : Those who conform choose not to deviate. They pursue their goals to the extent that they can through socially accepted means.
• Innovation : Those who innovate pursue goals they cannot reach through legitimate means by instead using criminal or deviant means.
• Ritualism : People who ritualize lower their goals until they can reach them through socially acceptable ways. These members of society focus on conformity rather than attaining a distant dream.
• Retreatism : Others retreat and reject society’s goals and means. Some people who beg and people who are homeless have withdrawn from society’s goal of financial success.
• Rebellion : A handful of people rebel and replace a society’s goals and means with their own. Terrorists or freedom fighters look to overthrow a society’s goals through socially unacceptable means.

Social Disorganization Theory

Developed by researchers at the University of Chicago in the 1920s and 1930s, social disorganization theory asserts that crime is most likely to occur in communities with weak social ties and the absence of social control. An individual who grows up in a poor neighborhood with high rates of drug use, violence, teenage delinquency, and deprived parenting is more likely to become engaged in crime than an individual from a wealthy neighborhood with a good school system and families who are involved positively in the community.

Social disorganization theory points to broad social factors as the cause of deviance. A person isn’t born as someone who will commit crimes but becomes one over time, often based on factors in their social environment. Robert Sampson and Byron Groves (1989) found that poverty and family disruption in given localities had a strong positive correlation with social disorganization. They also determined that social disorganization was, in turn, associated with high rates of crime and delinquency—or deviance. Recent studies Sampson conducted with Lydia Bean (2006) revealed similar findings. High rates of poverty and single-parent homes correlated with high rates of juvenile violence. Research into social disorganization theory can greatly influence public policy. For instance, studies have found that children from disadvantaged communities who attend preschool programs that teach basic social skills are significantly less likely to engage in criminal activity. (Lally 1987)

Conflict Theory

Conflict theory looks to social and economic factors as the causes of crime and deviance. Unlike functionalists, conflict theorists don’t see these factors as positive functions of society. They see them as evidence of inequality in the system. They also challenge social disorganization theory and control theory and argue that both ignore racial and socioeconomic issues and oversimplify social trends (Akers 1991). Conflict theorists also look for answers to the correlation of gender and race with wealth and crime.

Karl Marx: An Unequal System

Conflict theory was greatly influenced by the work of German philosopher, economist, and social scientist Karl Marx. Marx believed that the general population was divided into two groups. He labeled the wealthy, who controlled the means of production and business, the bourgeois. He labeled the workers who depended on the bourgeois for employment and survival the proletariat. Marx believed that the bourgeois centralized their power and influence through government, laws, and other authority agencies in order to maintain and expand their positions of power in society. Though Marx spoke little of deviance, his ideas created the foundation for conflict theorists who study the intersection of deviance and crime with wealth and power.

C. Wright Mills: The Power Elite

In his book The Power Elite (1956), sociologist C. Wright Mills described the existence of what he dubbed the power elite , a small group of wealthy and influential people at the top of society who hold the power and resources. Wealthy executives, politicians, celebrities, and military leaders often have access to national and international power, and in some cases, their decisions affect everyone in society. Because of this, the rules of society are stacked in favor of a privileged few who manipulate them to stay on top. It is these people who decide what is criminal and what is not, and the effects are often felt most by those who have little power. Mills’ theories explain why celebrities can commit crimes and suffer little or no legal retribution. For example, USA Today maintains a database of NFL players accused and convicted of crimes. 51 NFL players had been convicted of committing domestic violence between the years 2000 and 2019. They have been sentenced to a collective 49 days in jail, and most of those sentences were deferred or otherwise reduced. In most cases, suspensions and fines levied by the NFL or individual teams were more severe than the justice system's (Schrotenboer 2020 and clickitticket.com 2019).

Crime and Social Class

While crime is often associated with the underprivileged, crimes committed by the wealthy and powerful remain an under-punished and costly problem within society. The FBI reported that victims of burglary, larceny, and motor vehicle theft lost a total of $15.3 billion dollars in 2009 (FB1 2010). In comparison, when former advisor and financier Bernie Madoff was arrested in 2008, the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission reported that the estimated losses of his financial Ponzi scheme fraud were close to $50 billion (SEC 2009).

This imbalance based on class power is also found within U.S. criminal law. In the 1980s, the use of crack cocaine (a less expensive but powerful drug) quickly became an epidemic that swept the country’s poorest urban communities. Its pricier counterpart, cocaine, was associated with upscale users and was a drug of choice for the wealthy. The legal implications of being caught by authorities with crack versus cocaine were starkly different. In 1986, federal law mandated that being caught in possession of 50 grams of crack was punishable by a ten-year prison sentence. An equivalent prison sentence for cocaine possession, however, required possession of 5,000 grams. In other words, the sentencing disparity was 1 to 100 (New York Times Editorial Staff 2011). This inequality in the severity of punishment for crack versus cocaine paralleled the unequal social class of respective users. A conflict theorist would note that those in society who hold the power are also the ones who make the laws concerning crime. In doing so, they make laws that will benefit them, while the powerless classes who lack the resources to make such decisions suffer the consequences. Throughout the 1980s and early 1990s, states passed numerous laws increasing penalties, especially for repeat offenders. The U.S. government passed an even more significant law, the Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act of 1994 (known as the 1994 Crime Bill), which further increased penalties, funded prisons, and incentivized law enforcement agencies to further pursue drug offenders. One outcome of these policies was the mass incarceration of Black and Hispanic people, which led to a cycle of poverty and reduced social mobility. The crack-cocaine punishment disparity remained until 2010, when President Obama signed the Fair Sentencing Act, which decreased the disparity to 1 to 18 (The Sentencing Project 2010).

Symbolic Interactionism

Symbolic interactionism is a theoretical approach that can be used to explain how societies and/or social groups come to view behaviors as deviant or conventional.

Labeling Theory

Although all of us violate norms from time to time, few people would consider themselves deviant. Those who do, however, have often been labeled “deviant” by society and have gradually come to believe it themselves. Labeling theory examines the ascribing of a deviant behavior to another person by members of society. Thus, what is considered deviant is determined not so much by the behaviors themselves or the people who commit them, but by the reactions of others to these behaviors. As a result, what is considered deviant changes over time and can vary significantly across cultures.

Sociologist Edwin Lemert expanded on the concepts of labeling theory and identified two types of deviance that affect identity formation. Primary deviance is a violation of norms that does not result in any long-term effects on the individual’s self-image or interactions with others. Speeding is a deviant act, but receiving a speeding ticket generally does not make others view you as a bad person, nor does it alter your own self-concept. Individuals who engage in primary deviance still maintain a feeling of belonging in society and are likely to continue to conform to norms in the future.

Sometimes, in more extreme cases, primary deviance can morph into secondary deviance. Secondary deviance occurs when a person’s self-concept and behavior begin to change after his or her actions are labeled as deviant by members of society. The person may begin to take on and fulfill the role of a “deviant” as an act of rebellion against the society that has labeled that individual as such. For example, consider a high school student who often cuts class and gets into fights. The student is reprimanded frequently by teachers and school staff, and soon enough, develops a reputation as a “troublemaker.” As a result, the student starts acting out even more and breaking more rules; the student has adopted the “troublemaker” label and embraced this deviant identity. Secondary deviance can be so strong that it bestows a master status on an individual. A master status is a label that describes the chief characteristic of an individual. Some people see themselves primarily as doctors, artists, or grandfathers. Others see themselves as beggars, convicts, or addicts.

Techniques of Neutralization

How do people deal with the labels they are given? This was the subject of a study done by Sykes and Matza (1957). They studied teenage boys who had been labeled as juvenile delinquents to see how they either embraced or denied these labels. Have you ever used any of these techniques?

Let’s take a scenario and apply all five techniques to explain how they are used. A young person is working for a retail store as a cashier. Their cash drawer has been coming up short for a few days. When the boss confronts the employee, they are labeled as a thief for the suspicion of stealing. How does the employee deal with this label?

The Denial of Responsibility: When someone doesn’t take responsibility for their actions or blames others. They may use this technique and say that it was their boss’s fault because they don’t get paid enough to make rent or because they’re getting a divorce. They are rejecting the label by denying responsibility for the action.

The Denial of Injury: Sometimes people will look at a situation in terms of what effect it has on others. If the employee uses this technique they may say, “What’s the big deal? Nobody got hurt. Your insurance will take care of it.” The person doesn’t see their actions as a big deal because nobody “got hurt.”

The Denial of the Victim: If there is no victim there’s no crime. In this technique the person sees their actions as justified or that the victim deserved it. Our employee may look at their situation and say, “I’ve worked here for years without a raise. I was owed that money and if you won’t give it to me I’ll get it my own way.”

The Condemnation of the Condemners: The employee might “turn it around on” the boss by blaming them. They may say something like, “You don’t know my life, you have no reason to judge me.” This is taking the focus off of their actions and putting the onus on the accuser to, essentially, prove the person is living up to the label, which also shifts the narrative away from the deviant behavior.

Appeal to a Higher Authority: The final technique that may be used is to claim that the actions were for a higher purpose. The employee may tell the boss that they stole the money because their mom is sick and needs medicine or something like that. They are justifying their actions by making it seem as though the purpose for the behavior is a greater “good” than the action is “bad.” (Sykes & Matza, 1957)

Social Policy and Debate

The right to vote.

Before she lost her job as an administrative assistant, Leola Strickland postdated and mailed a handful of checks for amounts ranging from $90 to $500. By the time she was able to find a new job, the checks had bounced, and she was convicted of fraud under Mississippi law. Strickland pleaded guilty to a felony charge and repaid her debts; in return, she was spared from serving prison time.

Strickland appeared in court in 2001. More than ten years later, she is still feeling the sting of her sentencing. Why? Because Mississippi is one of twelve states in the United States that bans convicted felons from voting (ProCon 2011).

To Strickland, who said she had always voted, the news came as a great shock. She isn’t alone. Some 5.3 million people in the United States are currently barred from voting because of felony convictions (ProCon 2009). These individuals include inmates, parolees, probationers, and even people who have never been jailed, such as Leola Strickland.

Under the Fourteenth Amendment, states are allowed to deny voting privileges to individuals who have participated in “rebellion or other crime” (Krajick 2004). Although there are no federally mandated laws on the matter, most states practice at least one form of felony disenfranchisement .

Is it fair to prevent citizens from participating in such an important process? Proponents of disfranchisement laws argue that felons have a debt to pay to society. Being stripped of their right to vote is part of the punishment for criminal deeds. Such proponents point out that voting isn’t the only instance in which ex-felons are denied rights; state laws also ban released criminals from holding public office, obtaining professional licenses, and sometimes even inheriting property (Lott and Jones 2008).

Opponents of felony disfranchisement in the United States argue that voting is a basic human right and should be available to all citizens regardless of past deeds. Many point out that felony disfranchisement has its roots in the 1800s, when it was used primarily to block Black citizens from voting. These laws disproportionately target poor minority members, denying them a chance to participate in a system that, as a social conflict theorist would point out, is already constructed to their disadvantage (Holding 2006). Those who cite labeling theory worry that denying deviants the right to vote will only further encourage deviant behavior. If ex-criminals are disenfranchised from voting, are they being disenfranchised from society?

Edwin Sutherland: Differential Association

In the early 1900s, sociologist Edwin Sutherland sought to understand how deviant behavior developed among people. Since criminology was a young field, he drew on other aspects of sociology including social interactions and group learning (Laub 2006). His conclusions established differential association theory , which suggested that individuals learn deviant behavior from those close to them who provide models of and opportunities for deviance. According to Sutherland, deviance is less a personal choice and more a result of differential socialization processes. For example, a young person whose friends are sexually active is more likely to view sexual activity as acceptable. Sutherland developed a series of propositions to explain how deviance is learned. In proposition five, for example, he discussed how people begin to accept and participate in a behavior after learning whether it is viewed as “favorable” by those around them. In proposition six, Sutherland expressed the ways that exposure to more “definitions” favoring the deviant behavior than those opposing it may eventually lead a person to partake in deviance (Sutherland 1960), applying almost a quantitative element to the learning of certain behaviors. In the example above, a young person may find sexual activity more acceptable once a certain number of their friends become sexually active, not after only one does so.

Sutherland’s theory may explain why crime is multigenerational. A longitudinal study beginning in the 1960s found that the best predictor of antisocial and criminal behavior in children was whether their parents had been convicted of a crime (Todd and Jury 1996). Children who were younger than ten years old when their parents were convicted were more likely than other children to engage in spousal abuse and criminal behavior by their early thirties. Even when taking socioeconomic factors such as dangerous neighborhoods, poor school systems, and overcrowded housing into consideration, researchers found that parents were the main influence on the behavior of their offspring (Todd and Jury 1996).

Travis Hirschi: Control Theory

Continuing with an examination of large social factors, control theory states that social control is directly affected by the strength of social bonds and that deviance results from a feeling of disconnection from society. Individuals who believe they are a part of society are less likely to commit crimes against it.

Travis Hirschi (1969) identified four types of social bonds that connect people to society:

• Attachment measures our connections to others. When we are closely attached to people, we worry about their opinions of us. People conform to society’s norms in order to gain approval (and prevent disapproval) from family, friends, and romantic partners.
• Commitment refers to the investments we make in the community. A well-respected local businessperson who volunteers at their synagogue and is a member of the neighborhood block organization has more to lose from committing a crime than a person who doesn’t have a career or ties to the community.
• Similarly, levels of involvement , or participation in socially legitimate activities, lessen a person’s likelihood of deviance. A child who plays little league baseball and takes art classes has fewer opportunities to ______.
• The final bond, belief , is an agreement on common values in society. If a person views social values as beliefs, they will conform to them. An environmentalist is more likely to pick up trash in a park, because a clean environment is a social value to them (Hirschi 1969).

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7.1A: Deviance

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Learning Objectives

• Define deviance and explain the nature of deviant behavior

Deviance, in a sociological context, describes actions or behaviors that violate informal social norms or formally-enacted rules. Among those who study social norms and their relation to deviance are sociologists, psychologists, psychiatrists, and criminologists, all of whom investigate how norms change and are enforced over time.

Deviance is often divided into two types of activities. The first, crime, is the violation of formally enacted laws and is referred to as formal deviance. Examples of formal deviance include robbery, theft, rape, murder, and assault. The second type of deviant behavior involves violations of informal social norms (norms that have not been codified into law) and is referred to as informal deviance. Examples of informal deviance include picking one’s nose, belching loudly, or standing unnecessarily close to another person.

Deviance can vary dramatically across cultures. Cultural norms are relative, which makes deviant behavior relative as well. For instance, in the United States, Americans do not generally impose time-based restrictions on speech. However, in the Christ Desert Monastery, specific rules govern determine when residents can and cannot speak, and speech is banned between 7:30 pm and 4:00 am. These rules are one example of how norms vary across cultures.

Current sociological research on deviance takes many forms. For example, Dr. Karen Halnon of Pennsylvania State University studies informal deviance and focuses on what she calls “deviance vacations,” whereby people of a given socioeconomic status voluntarily enter a different, often lower, social strata. One example involves heterosexual white males who become drag queens on weekends. This behavior represents a luxury, because heterosexual white males can afford to make a temporarily shift, knowing that they may subsequently return to the comforts of their prevailing socioeconomic status. Other examples include performers who may affect deviant behaviors in order to gain credibility with an aim to increasing commercial profits.

• Deviant behavior may violate formally-enacted rules or informal social norms.
• Formal deviance includes criminal violation of formally-enacted laws. Examples of formal deviance include robbery, theft, rape, murder, and assault.
• Informal deviance refers to violations of informal social norms, which are norms that have not been codified into law. Examples of informal deviance include picking one’s nose, belching loudly, or standing unnecessarily close to another person.
• Deviance can vary dramatically across cultures. Cultural norms are relative, which makes deviant behavior relative as well.
• Formal Deviance : Deviance, in a sociological context, describes actions or behaviors that violate social norms, including formally-enacted rules (e.g., crime), as well as informal violations of social norms (e.g., rejecting folkways and mores).
• deviance : Actions or behaviors that violate formal and informal cultural norms, such as laws or the norm that discourages public nose-picking.
• Informal Deviance : Deviance, in a sociological context, describes actions or behaviors that violate social norms, including formally-enacted rules (e.g., crime), as well as informal violations of social norms (e.g., rejecting folkways and mores).

Deviance - Free Essay Samples And Topic Ideas

Deviance refers to behaviors or actions that violate societal norms or expectations. Essays on deviance could explore sociological, psychological, or cultural factors contributing to deviant behavior, the role of social control in managing or responding to deviance, or the implications of labeling theory in understanding deviance. They might also delve into case studies of specific forms of deviance, like criminal behavior or social protest, discussing their causes, consequences, and societal reactions. A vast selection of complimentary essay illustrations pertaining to Deviance you can find at Papersowl. You can use our samples for inspiration to write your own essay, research paper, or just to explore a new topic for yourself.

Creation of Serial Killers – Nature Versus Nurture

There is a difference between a serial killer and a murderer. What exactly defines a serial killer? According to The National Museum of Crime and Punishment, “A serial killer is conventionally defined as a person who murders three or more people in a period of over a month, with ‘cooling down’ time between murders. For a serial killer, the murders must be separate events, which are most often driven by a psychological thrill or pleasure.” Psychologists have tried to figure […]

Crime and Deviant Behavior: Birds of a Feather Flock Together

Determining causes of crime and deviant behavior is a key goal for law enforcement officers in order for them to effectively implement public policy and better protect civilians. One contemporary theory that seeks to understand the causes of crime and deviance, and conceptualized by Ronald Akers and Robert Burgess, is the social learning theory of crime. According to this theory, crime is a result of learned social behavior. It incorporates Edwin H. Sutherland’s theory of differential association. Sutherland proposed nine […]

The American Dream Possible

One of the most influential theories of all time is Merton’s Strain Theory, which was engender in 1938. Robert K. Merton developed the structural strain theory as an extension of the functionalist perspective on deviant. Robert Merton argued that society might be set up in a way that inspirits an inordinate amount of deviance. Merton believed that when societal norms, or convivially accepted goals place pressure on the individual to conform they coerce the individual to either work within the […]

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Dancing Shadows: Dynamics of Human Deviance in Societal Fabric

Embarking on a journey through the intricate web of societal dynamics, deviance emerges as an elusive specter, intricately weaving its threads through the diverse fabric of human interactions. Far from a stagnant concept, deviance is a dynamic force, a dance on the edges of accepted norms that challenges the very essence of customary behavior. This multifaceted phenomenon transcends the constraints of time, culture, and geography, mirroring the ever-shifting sands of human morality and the enigmatic structure of social order. At […]

Dynamics of Deviance: Beyond Conventional Norms and Labels

Deviance, that enigmatic force woven into the intricate fabric of human societies, beckons us to explore its complexities beyond conventional lenses. Far from a monolithic concept, deviance defies simplistic categorizations, demanding a nuanced examination of its multifaceted nature and the myriad ways it intersects with cultural norms, individual agency, and societal reactions. To unravel the enigma of deviance, one must first navigate the intricate terrain of symbolic interactionism, a sociological perspective that posits deviance as a byproduct of dynamic social […]

Cyber Space: where Deviance Meets the Digital Frontier

In the vast expanse of the digital realm, a curious phenomenon unfolds—a fusion of deviance and technology, shaping what we now recognize as cyber deviance. This intriguing intersection transcends conventional boundaries, giving rise to a landscape where the complexities of human behavior intertwine with the boundless possibilities of digital innovation. Within this digital ecosystem, cyberbullying emerges as a poignant example of deviance manifested through technology. Through the cloak of anonymity afforded by the internet, individuals unleash a torrent of malicious […]

Deviance into Mental Health and Antisocial Dynamics

The enigmatic interplay between deviance and mental health unveils a complex realm of human behavior, particularly evident in the intricate dynamics of antisocial tendencies. Such behaviors, veering from societal norms with blatant disregard for others' rights, are rooted in a mosaic of psychological undercurrents that defy simplistic explanations. One avenue of exploration delves into the labyrinth of personality theories. Within this realm lies the intricate tapestry of traits such as impulsivity, empathy deficits, and thrill-seeking proclivities, all interwoven into the […]

Decoding Deviance: Psychopathy Vs. Sociopathy

In the colloquial lexicon, terms like psychopath and sociopath are often tossed around interchangeably, shrouded in a mysterious aura of criminality and intrigue. Yet, beneath the surface, these labels conceal nuanced distinctions that paint a complex picture of aberrant behavior. So, what sets a psychopath apart from a sociopath? Let's unravel the intricacies of these terms and navigate the subtle divergences that define these intriguing psychological profiles. Firstly, it's crucial to acknowledge that both psychopathy and sociopathy fall under the […]

Unveiling Strain Theory: Understanding the Roots of Social Deviance

In the realm of understanding why people sometimes go off the beaten path, there's this fascinating concept called strain theory. Think of it as a way to peek into the connection between the stress society puts on us and the choices we make, especially the not-so-great ones. Coined by Robert K. Merton, this theory suggests that when what society wants us to achieve doesn't match up with the ways available to get there, some folks might take unconventional routes, like […]

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Deviance and Social Control

Introduction, definition of deviance, functions of deviance, social control, types of social control, reasons behind deviant behavior.

Deviance is a form of behavior that violates the social norms of a particular culture or social group. It is generally considered an inherent part of a functioning society influenced by several social and psychological factors and regulated by internal and external mechanisms of social control. There are many sociological theories explaining why deviance exists, what role it plays in society, how it can be regulated, and what the psychological and social predispositions of deviant behavior are.

Deviance is a behavior that departs from the social norm and generates a negative reaction in a particular group. It includes violations of informal social norms, such as etiquette, that are seen as mildly deviant, and violations of formally enacted rules, such as laws, that are severely punished. As social norms differ throughout society and between cultures, there is no inherently deviant behavior, and what is considered inappropriate in one culture or social group might be normal in another (Shingledecker, 2015). A society’s understanding of acceptable behavior changes over time, and so does the collective perception of deviance. What was once a taboo becomes a norm, and what was once acceptable may turn into deviance as cultural values change.

The theory of functionalism argues that every element of the social structure has a certain function and helps maintain the stability of society in general. According to French sociologist Emile Durkheim, the founder of functionalism, deviance is also a normal and necessary part of social organization that contributes to the social order (Anderson, 2017). In his studies, he identified several specific functions that deviance fulfills.

The first is that deviance helps a society to clarify its moral boundaries and affirms social values and norms. Each functioning society is based on a value consensus, a shared set of norms and values, and one of how this consensus is reinforced is through addressing deviant behavior (Anderson, 2017). The discovery and punishment of wrongdoings remind people about their shared notions of what is right and reinforce the consequences of violating them. Systems of deviance create norms and tell members of a particular society how to behave by establishing the patterns of acceptable and unacceptable behavior.

Second, deviance promotes and strengthens social unity within a group or society in general. Common reactions to deviant behavior strengthen social bonds. For example, people are brought together when faced with a crime or anti-social behavior affecting the community. On the downside, differences in norms and values between cultures, groups, and societies create boundaries between populations and facilitate an us-versus-them mentality within communities (Anderson, 2017). People who share common social norms and notions of deviance perceive themselves as a group and can act hostile towards people who have different values. Deviance allows group majorities to unite around their worldview, often at the expense of those marked as deviant. On the other hand, is marked as deviant can bolster solidarity within the marked community, facilitating the formation of deviant subcultures that take pride in their stigmatized identity.

Third, deviance promotes social change and can lead to positive social developments. A process of change begins when a society starts to react positively to deviant behavior. This was the case with the African American population in the middle of the 20 th century, and with the LGBT community in the second half of the 20 th century. People who were considered the worst types of social deviants have gradually started to be accepted in society.

The fourth function of deviance, proposed by sociologist Herbert Gans, is that deviance creates jobs aimed at dealing with deviant behavior. Police, penitentiary system, criminology, social psychology, and rehabilitation centers could not function if society did not acknowledge deviant behavior (Anderson, 2017). On the other hand, people stigmatized as deviants are mainly engaged in undesirable dirty work that most people in society would rather not perform.

Another theory of deviance is the social control theory developed by Travis Hirschi. It claims that the stronger an individual’s social bonds are, the less likely they are to commit a crime (Ferris & Stein, 2018). Social bonds increase one’s commitment to the community and its shared norms and values and act as mechanisms of social control. Social control is how norms, laws, rules, and structures of society regulate human behavior. Societies cannot exist without controlling their populations, and within each society, both internal and external forces evolve that structure an individual’s behavior.

Social control can be either informal, exercised through customs, norms, expectations, and stereotypes, and formal, carried out through laws and official regulations. Social control, both formal and informal, is effected through a system of rewards and punishments (Shingledecker, 2015). Informal control punishments can vary from group to group, from a disapproving look when someone breaks etiquette to more severe sanctions, for example, when an individual violates the rules of conduct in a criminal gang. Formal sanctions for social deviants are usually imposed by the government and include fines, incarceration, or even the death penalty. Methods of punishment vary between societies and groups and can also change over time.

Despite socialization and social control instruments aimed to prevent deviant behavior, people continue to behave defiantly. It is explained from different perspectives by several sociological theories. The functionalist and conflict theories both focus on aspects of a person’s background that encourage deviant behavior (Ferris & Stein, 2018). For example, studies show that people who have limited access to education and low income are more likely to turn to theft or drug dealing. The labeling theory suggests that a location is also a crucial factor, with people coming from troubled neighborhoods generally behaving more defiantly.

From the psychological point of view, people are inclined to deviance not only under the influence of community and background but also because they are emotionally attracted to this type of behavior. Deviant acts, such as shoplifting or drug use, make people experience certain emotions, such as thrill, excitement, and the satisfaction of not being caught (Ferris & Stein, 2018). A shoplifter tests their ability to be secretly deviant in public while appearing to be perfectly normal. For social deviants, their behavior is a way to experience the feelings that adhering to social norms does not provide.

Deviance is considered to be an integral part of every society and a normal variation of human behavior. As the majority within a society establishes social norms, develops common values, and uses social control mechanisms to ensure coherence, there are always people who do not fit into the established system. While too much deviance can cause serious social problems, an adequate amount of deviance within a group is considered normal and helps to affirm social values and norms, unite the community, and promote positive social changes.

Anderson, L. (2017). Deviance: Social constructions and blurred boundaries. University of California Press.

Shingledecker, N. (2015). Deviance and social control [Video]. Web.

Ferris, K., & Stein, J. (2018). Real world: An introduction to sociology (6 th ed.). W. W. Norton.

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Theories Of Deviance

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