kiwi bird essay in english

Why are Kiwis Endangered? - Facts and Figures

Around 100 million years ago, New Zealand was completely forested and the Kiwi bird flourished with ease here. Now, New Zealand has only 25 percent of its forest cover remaining. This means the Kiwi has less space, resources, and food to survive on. Around 80 years ago, the Kiwi population comprised 5 million birds. They have fallen to around 50 to 60 thousand now. The rapid decline in numbers according to the New Zealand Conservation Trust is pointing to just one fact: Kiwis are endangered. For those wondering why the Kiwi is endangered , this AnimalWised article will attempt to uncover the true facts behind the flightless bird's exodus from the "Land of the Long White Cloud."

The attack of predators

Human activity, habitat loss, the hard facts.

Kiwis have evolved for millions of years before mammalian predators arrived to kill them. The lack of predators in the continent of Zealandia is the reason why they are flightless, as there was no need for wings to escape from them.

The main predators arrived at the same time as Europeans started reaching New Zealand, as they brought with them, many of terrestrial mammals that are now a menace for the Kiwi:

• Domesticated dogs

Other pests such as rodents, weasels, and hedgehogs don't only kill Kiwis, but also lead to problems. They compete for the same food as Kiwi. They are prey for Kiwi killers, bolstering the numbers of the predators and ensuring the continued survival of dogs, stoats, cats etc.

The Kiwi may lay the largest eggs relative to their size, as compared to any other avian species, but statistics according to the Trust point to 95% of their eggs and chicks killed within 7 days of being born.

Nowadays, there are certain areas where there is an intensive control on predators , with a result of 50-60% more survival rate for small kiwis, which is very good considering the kiwi needs 20% survival rate in order for the species to survive.

Although Maoris used to kill Kiwis to make their Kahu capes and skirts, European settlers made life for kiwis worse. It actually changed the natural evolution of the kiwi by reducing in size and by shrinking their gene pool in order to survive.

Another destructive impact of humans interacting with this bird is the advent of hunters and poachers. This bird has few defenses against New Zealand poachers who hunt them for feathers, skin and more. The Kiwi is also threatened by habitat fragmentation, stress caused by pollution, and loss of natural resources, crucial to its survival. The endangered Kiwi can only survive if humans change their ways. This bird is in need of a rescue in its journey towards survival.

As humans destroy animals, the entire food chain is impacted. Introduced species coupled with the clearing of forests for agriculture and farming have had a dual negative impact on the Kiwi. These actions have made Kiwi birds vulnerable to land animals. With falling population counts, from 100,000 birds in 1998 to less than 70,000 birds in 2008 to the present dismal scenario, the conservationists are facing a challenge of epic proportions.

The removal of massive forest covered areas has reduced the habitat and left fragmented Kiwi populations across the nation.

In a span of 750 years, New Zealand's forest cover has lowered from 85 percent of the land area, of around 23 MHA/million hectares, to 23 or 6.2 MHA. The dunes, estuaries, wetlands, dunes and lowland forests have been converted into towns or habitations with pasture lands . The original ecosystem where the Kiwi lived has been reduced to isolated, fragmented patchworks. Grasslands cover 38 percent of the total area of New Zealand. This includes 52% of the North Island and around 29% of the South.

Exotic forests are a blessing for the Kiwi birds, although they are at risk when land is cleared for plantation, grasslands and pasture areas, which are turning out to be bad for the Kiwi. Take a look at the Kiwi's habitat and distribution if you'd like to know more on the subject.

Land clearance causes the death of the Kiwi because large rollers crush vegetation and concentrate Kiwis with their predators into enclosed spaces. The Kiwi's social organization is impacted because the bird is territorial. More boundary wars, less breeding and more predators– that is what unmitigated, uncontrolled development means for the Kiwi.

The department of Conservation Kiwi sanctuaries, community oriented projects and island sanctuaries offshore are striving to check the population decline. Here are some facts that will help us understand why the Kiwi is endangered :

• Studies show that a tiny portion of Kiwi eggs turn into adults.
• Half of the Kiwi eggs even fail to hatch on account of natural bacteria, disturbance by adult predators and more.
• Of the chicks that survive, 90 percent die within half a year, killed by stoats and cats mostly and other lethal predators.
• Fewer than 5 percent of the Kiwis reach adulthood.

The Conservation Department has studied a threat classification of 11 Kiwi Taxa, which have ben categorized to be facing threats , as conceptualized in the following table:

• Brown kiwi (all 4 taxa): Serious decline
• Little spotted kiwi : Range restricted
• Great spotted kiwi : Gradual decline
• Tokoeka (Steward Island, North and South Fiordland taxa): Gradual decline
• Haast tokoeka : Nationally critical
• Rowi : Nationally critical

Operation Nest Egg has halted the decline to some extent.

If you want to read similar articles to Why are Kiwis Endangered? - Facts and Figures , we recommend you visit our Endangered animals category.

Why Are Kiwi Birds Endangered?

Native to New Zealand, kiwi birds are fascinating and unique creatures. These birds cannot fly and don’t have a tail, but they have long, loose feathers and powerful legs.

Hundreds of years ago, these birds thrived abundantly in their home country. Now, their populations have become dispersed and fragmented, as well as vulnerable. 

Why are kiwi birds endangered? Let’s take a look at all of the factors that are threatening their long-term survival and driving this species toward extinction. 

Habitat Loss

In an effort to make room for new farmlands and urban development, a majority of New Zealand’s natural forests have been cleared. As a result, the landscape has changed dramatically. 

Around 750 years ago, natural forests covered about 85% of the country’s landscape, or about 23 million hectares. Deforestation efforts have reduced this to around 23%, which equals just 6.2 million hectares. 

Many lowland forests, estuaries, and dunes have been converted into grasslands and pastures, while others are transformed into towns. Both measures are designed to boost local economies, though they have devastating effects on certain species, like the kiwi birds, that depend on the forest for survival. 

Flat pastures do not provide kiwi birds with the natural protection and barriers they need to survive. Yet, their scope is rapidly increasing. Before New Zealand was populated, only 5% of the country was grassland. Now, more than 38% of the country’s total land area is covered in grass. 

The Damaging Effects of Clearing Land

What happens to the kiwi birds when forest land is cleared and converted into grasslands and pastures? There are three main ways these actions harm the species. 

Population Movement

When land is cleared, kiwis and their predators are forced to move out of their widespread natural habitats. Instead, they migrate into smaller and more concentrated areas, where there are fewer resources and the likelihood of an encounter is greater. If the kiwi birds remain in the farmland, they are often attacked by predators, such as dogs. 

Physical Threats

Developers use various means to clear land, including burning and crushing vegetation. Both approaches pose a direct threat to kiwis and other species that call the area home. The large rollers used to crush plants and trees can harm or kill the birds, who cannot fly to higher altitudes for safety. Likewise, the fire and smoke from the burning process are also significant dangers. 

Increased Competition

With a smaller habitat to live in, kiwis are affected both physically and socially. Deforestation creates more competition for free space, which leads to boundary wars between kiwi birds and other local inhabitants. Not only can these encounters turn deadly, but they also make breeding less frequent. 

The Rise of the Dairy Farming Industry

In an effort to offset the negative effect of pastureland development, country leaders have led programs to establish plantation forests where the kiwi birds can live. The movement hit its apex in 2006, when planted forests covered around 1.8 million hectares in New Zealand. 

However, there’s another movement changing the landscape and diverting attention elsewhere: the growth of the dairy farming industry. Over the past 30 years, dairy exports in New Zealand have increased from around NZ $2 billion per year to nearly $20 billion per year. 

Dairy farmers need pastures to support their livelihoods, which means fewer exotic forests are being replanted. In fact, some immature forests have even been converted into dairy farms to support this sector. 

Predatory Activity

While habitat loss contributes to the dwindling numbers of kiwi birds, it isn’t the primary factor affecting their survival.

In fact, kiwi birds are surprisingly adaptable and can conform to a variety of environments. While flat grasslands aren’t ideal, these soil feeders can survive in other areas, from native forests and rougher farmland to sand dunes and mangroves. 

The only problem? When they migrate to these different habitats, kiwis aren’t alone. Instead, they meet a variety of predators, including dogs, stoats, and ferrets. Faced with these constant threats, it’s estimated that only 5% of kiwi bird chicks survive into adulthood. 

Stoats and Baby Kiwi Birds

Stoats are particularly dangerous for baby kiwi birds. In the same family as ferrets and weasels, these short-tailed mammals are extremely smart, fast, and mobile. They were introduced into New Zealand back in the 1800s in an attempt to control the overpopulation of introduced rabbits. 

However, once they arrived in the country, the stoats quickly found that it was easier to attack and kill flightless ground-nesting birds (like the kiwi) than rabbits. Thus, newly-hatched kiwi birds became their primary prey — a relationship that continues to this day. It’s especially difficult for kiwis to outwit or outrun stoats due to the fact that kiwis are mostly nocturnal, while stoats hunt during the day. 

Dogs and Adult Kiwi Birds

While baby kiwis often fall victim to stoats, dogs are the biggest predator of adult kiwi birds. Even the smallest and most delicate dog can crush a kiwi due to its size and weight. While there has been some legislation to control dog populations in New Zealand, including the Dog Control Act of 1996, some dog owners are not aware of (or choose to openly ignore) the rules required to keep their pets under control in areas where wild kiwi birds live.

Other Predators

In addition to dogs, adult kiwi birds also have to be on the lookout for ferrets, which are increasing in number across New Zealand. Ferrets also prey on rabbits and have had plenty of hunting activity lately. As summers become longer, hotter, and dryer, rabbit populations are on the upswing. 

Thus, ferrets are thriving as well. It’s not uncommon for them to migrate from farmlands into deep forests, where they can find kiwi among other forms of natural wildlife. Other animals that can kill kiwi birds include possums, cats, and pigs. 

Predator Control Efforts

As conservation leaders learn more about the types of animals that commonly prey on kiwi birds, they are taking measures to keep them safe. Research shows that when predatory activity is intensively controlled, kiwi hatching rates increase to up to 60%. For population levels to grow, a rate above 20% is necessary, so this is promising progress. 

The specific techniques and tools used to control predators will vary depending on the target species, area size, terrain, and personnel responsible. However, there is always a focus on using humane measures (including traps and poisons) to protect the kiwi birds and preserve other native species. 

The Future of the Kiwi Bird Population

As a result of habitat loss and predatory activity, kiwi bird populations across New Zealand are becoming increasingly sparse and fragmented. When this occurs, it becomes more difficult for the species to breed, which further inhibits population growth. 

As long as safe and effective pest control measures are in place, kiwi can thrive in various habitats. The key is understanding how to protect the birds that live in your homeland, whether that’s a town, pasture, forest, or farm. 

As community leaders continue to look for ways to drive out predators and keep these birds safe, education and advocacy are key. Continue to educate yourself on the measures taken to safeguard this species, and check back here often for all of the eco-central news and updates you need. 

Check us out on  EarthSnap , a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

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Kiwi Bird Facts & Worksheets

Kiwi bird or kiwis are flightless birds native to new zealand, in the genus apteryx and family apterygidae., search for worksheets, download the kiwi bird facts & worksheets.

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Table of Contents

Kiwi Bird or kiwis are flightless birds native to New Zealand , in the genus Apteryx and family Apterygidae. Approximately the size of a domestic chicken, kiwi are by far the smallest living ratites.

See the fact file below for more information on the Kiwi Bird or alternatively, you can download our 22-page Kiwi Bird worksheet pack to utilise within the classroom or home environment.

Key Facts & Information

Description and behaviour of the kiwi bird.

• Kiwis are birds that are found in New Zealand, that cannot fly.
• They belong to a group of flightless birds known as ratites but are much smaller and shorter-legged than the other birds in the group.
• Their wings are so small that they more closely resemble tiny feathers.
• Their feathers have been so accustomed to life on the ground that they have a hair-like texture and appearance with bushy coats to help camouflage them from predators in the sky.
• Kiwis have highly developed senses, with nostrils at the end of their beaks (the only birds with this feature!) and sensory pits that allow them to sense their prey underground.
• There are five (5) species of kiwi:
• Live in the North Island
• Four distinct forms
• Population is at risk and declining (less than 25,000 left)
• Live in the top half of the South Island
• Largest of the kiwi species and live in higher altitudes
• Population is threatened and vulnerable (about 15,000 left)
• Live on Kapiti Island and are very adventurous
• The only species of kiwi to become extinct on the mainland
• Population is at risk, but recovering (about 1,400 left)
• The rarest of the five kiwi species
• Found in the Marlborough Sands
• Only one natural population of about 450 left
• Three geographically and genetically distinct forms
• Found on the West Coast of the South Island
• Population is only about 400 with varying threat levels

HISTORY AND HABITAT OF THE KIWI BIRD

• Although there is some debate about the origins of the word “kiwi”, the genus name “Apteryx” is derived from the Ancient Greek language, meaning “without wing”.
• According to DNA studies, the kiwi bird’s closest relative is the elephant bird (seen to the right) of Madagascar, which has been extinct since about 1000-1200 CE, likely due tohuman activity.
• Before the arrival of humans in New Zealand beginning in the 13th century, there weren’t many endemic mammals (only bats) and a variety of birds, including the kiwi.
• Kiwis are mostly nocturnal, and this habit is likely due to habitat intrusion by humans and predators; in some cases where there are few humans or predators, kiwis come out during the day.
• Kiwis prefer subtropical and temperate forests, but some can also be found in cooler habitats and even in higher altitudes in mountains.
• Survival rates for kiwis are not great – only about 5-10% of kiwi chicks survive into adulthood without any help or management.
• As a result, there are many sanctuaries (five in New Zealand) set up to protect and preserve kiwis, as well as ones on the Australian mainland.

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE KIWI BIRD

• Kiwis typically look for a mate that they will stay with for the rest of their lives; therefore, they are monogamous birds.
• Kiwi relationships can last up to twenty (20) years!
• They lay enormous eggs relative to their small size which places a lot of stress on the body of the kiwi; the mother has to eat at least double, or three-times her normal amount of food.
• The kiwi diet is omnivorous; because they live in diverse habitats, they can eat a wide range of foods including worms, berries, seeds, and sometimes even fungi and crayfish.
• When a kiwi drinks, they immerse their beak, tip their head back, and gurgle the water down.
• Kiwis have small eyes and also a small field of vision.
• They rely little on sight and more on other senses to survive.
• A kiwis bill is long and very sensitive to the touch, and their gizzard is weak.

CULTURAL SIGNIFICANCE

• Kiwis are a national icon in New Zealand and are a symbol of the unique animals and wildlife that can be found there.
• The Maori have strong cultural and spiritual associations with kiwis.
• The kiwi is a flagship species for conservation with over 90 groups in New Zealand actively working to protect kiwi birds.

Kiwi Bird Worksheets

This is a fantastic bundle which includes everything you need to know about Kiwi Bird across 22 in-depth pages. These are ready-to-use Kiwi Bird worksheets that are perfect for teaching students about the Kiwi Bird or kiwis which are flightless birds native to New Zealand, in the genus Apteryx and family Apterygidae. Approximately the size of a domestic chicken, kiwi are by far the smallest living ratites.

Complete List Of Included Worksheets

• Fact or Myth?
• Threats to Kiwis
• Labeling a Kiwi
• The Maori Connection
• Kiwi Bird Crossword
• Acrostic Poem
• A “Sort” of Flightlessness
• A Day in the Life of a Kiwi
• Kiwi Bird Wordsearch
• Design a Postage Stamp

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Open Access

Peer-reviewed

Research Article

Genomic insights into the evolutionary relationships and demographic history of kiwi

Roles Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Supervision, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

* E-mail: [email protected] (MVW); [email protected] (EDL)

Affiliation Globe Institute, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark

Roles Formal analysis

Roles Writing – review & editing

Affiliation Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa, Wellington, New Zealand

Affiliations Palaecol Research Ltd, Christchurch, New Zealand, School of Biological Sciences, University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand, School of Earth and Environment, University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand

Roles Funding acquisition, Supervision, Writing – review & editing

• Michael V. Westbury, 
• Binia De Cahsan, 
• Lara D. Shepherd, 
• Richard N. Holdaway, 
• David A. Duchene, 
• Eline D. Lorenzen

• Published: October 10, 2022
• https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0266430
• Peer Review
• Reader Comments

Kiwi are a unique and emblematic group of birds endemic to New Zealand. Deep-time evolutionary relationships among the five extant kiwi species have been difficult to resolve, in part due to the absence of pre-Quaternary fossils to inform speciation events. Here, we utilise single representative nuclear genomes of all five extant kiwi species (great spotted kiwi, little spotted kiwi, Okarito brown kiwi, North Island brown kiwi, and southern brown kiwi) and investigate their evolutionary histories with phylogenomic, genetic diversity, and deep-time (past million years) demographic analyses. We uncover relatively low levels of gene-tree phylogenetic discordance across the genomes, suggesting clear distinction between species. However, we also find indications of post-divergence gene flow, concordant with recent reports of interspecific hybrids. The four species for which unbiased levels of genetic diversity could be calculated, due to the availability of reference assemblies (all species except the southern brown kiwi), show relatively low levels of genetic diversity, which we suggest reflects a combination of older environmental as well as more recent anthropogenic influence. In addition, we suggest hypotheses regarding the impact of known past environmental events, such as volcanic eruptions and glacial periods, on the similarities and differences observed in the demographic histories of the five kiwi species over the past million years.

Citation: Westbury MV, De Cahsan B, Shepherd LD, Holdaway RN, Duchene DA, Lorenzen ED (2022) Genomic insights into the evolutionary relationships and demographic history of kiwi. PLoS ONE 17(10): e0266430. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0266430

Editor: Susanne P. Pfeifer, Arizona State University, UNITED STATES

Received: March 18, 2022; Accepted: September 26, 2022; Published: October 10, 2022

Copyright: © 2022 Westbury et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Data Availability: All raw data used in this manuscript were previously published and the accession codes are listed in supplementary table S2. Example commands and the scripts necessary to perform all analyses in this manuscript are available at github.com/Mvwestbury/Kiwi-genomes .

Funding: This work was supported by the Independent Research Fund Denmark | Natural Sciences, Forskningsprojekt 1, grant no. 8021-00218B, and the Villum Fonden Young Investigator Programme, grant no. 13151, to EDL. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Introduction

New Zealand’s unique and emblematic kiwi, comprising five extant species, represent a highly divergent avian lineage within Palaeognathae. Kiwi are the only members of the Apterygidae family, and are endemic to New Zealand. The species display a number of unusual biological attributes more commonly associated with small mammals. These include low metabolic rate, lack of colour vision, flightlessness, increased longevity, and nocturnality [ 1 , 2 ].

The evolutionary origins of kiwi are yet to be fully elucidated. Kiwi are estimated to have diverged from their nearest known relative, the elephant birds (Aepyornithidae), ~50 million years ago (Ma) [ 3 ]. Elephant birds are only known from Madagascar, and it is therefore thought kiwi arrived in New Zealand via flight rather than Gondwanan continental movement and vicariance [ 4 ]. Despite such a deep divergence from its closest known relative, the oldest reported kiwi fossil has been dated to at least 19–16 Ma [ 5 ], and molecular data have suggested the root of living kiwi can be traced back to between ~15 Ma [ 6 ] and ~5 Ma [ 7 ]. Thus, wide uncertainty remains with regard to the lineage leading to extant kiwi, after Apterygidae diverged from Aepyornithidae. Furthermore, deep evolutionary relationships are obscured by the lack of pre-Quaternary fossils to inform speciation events among the extant species.

The five recognized species of kiwi all belong to the genus Apteryx . The species are placed into two morphologically and genetically distinct clades [ 7 , 8 ] ( Fig 1 ). One clade comprises two extant species, great spotted kiwi ( A . maxima , formerly A.haastii [ 9 ] ) and little spotted kiwi ( A . owenii ). The other clade includes Okarito brown kiwi ( A . rowi , also known as rowi), southern brown kiwi ( A . australis , also known as tokoeka), and North Island brown kiwi ( A . mantelli ). However, despite the deep divergences of these clades and lineages [ 3 , 6 , 7 ], interspecific hybridization between species from different clades has recently been reported [ 9 ].

• PPT PowerPoint slide
• PNG larger image
• TIFF original image

Modern and historic distributions are based on [ 51 ]. Lightly shaded areas show estimated distributions prior to human arrival and dark shading shows current distribution. Current distribution for the little spotted kiwi is not shown, as it is presently only found on small offshore islands and wildlife sanctuaries. Population size estimates are shown in parentheses under each species name [ 51 ].

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0266430.g001

Prior to the arrival of humans 1,000–800 years ago, kiwi were found from coastal to subalpine habitats across New Zealand, but were most common in lowland rainforest habitats [ 7 ]. Partly due to their unique traits, such as flightlessness and longevity, kiwi are highly vulnerable to mammalian predators. Since human colonisation, the distribution ranges of all five extant kiwi species have been greatly reduced ( Fig 1 ). The conservation status of four of the five species is relatively critical (S1 Table in S1 File ), and is attributed to population declines following human colonisation [ 10 , 11 ].

Previous studies using short fragments of mitochondrial DNA retrieved from prehistoric and contemporary specimens revealed the genetic consequences of these past anthropogenically driven range contractions, and suggested significant loss of genetic diversity after the arrival of humans, especially in the Okarito brown, southern brown, and little spotted kiwi [ 11 , 12 ]. In fact, all extant little spotted kiwi are believed to descend from five founding individuals that were placed on the predator-free Kapiti Island in 1912 [ 13 ].

The use of genome-wide data can greatly enhance our existing understanding of kiwi relationships, as they allow investigation of species’ deep-time evolutionary histories. De novo nuclear genome assemblies are available from four of the five kiwi species (great spotted kiwi, little spotted kiwi, Okarito brown kiwi, North Island brown kiwi) [ 2 , 14 ], and resequencing data are available from the southern brown kiwi [ 15 ]. Recent studies incorporating genomic data from kiwi have begun to address outstanding questions regarding demographic histories and divergences within kiwi. Palaeognaths have been reported to show large phylogenetic discordance across the genome, although the study did not focus on kiwi specifically [ 14 ]. Studies focussed on kiwi have reported monophyletic relationships among species, albeit with some signals of admixture between individual lineages [ 7 , 15 ]. Furthermore, based on demographic history reconstructions of the past 100 thousand years it has been suggested changes in kiwi effective population sizes were likely driven by past changes in glacial extent [ 7 , 15 ].

While these studies provide valuable insights into the evolutionary history of kiwi, an investigation of the presence of gene flow between lineages, and insights into deeper time (up to 1 Ma) demographic trends, is lacking. Here, we utilise single genome representatives of each extant kiwi species to better understand the interspecific evolutionary relationships among species, and to elucidate how past environmental changes may have impacted their demographic histories. Furthermore, due to the availability of reference genomes for four out of the five kiwi species, we evaluate the resilience of our phylogenomic and demographic results to reference genome biases.

Materials and methods

We downloaded raw Illumina sequencing reads and genome assemblies from each of the four available kiwi species from Genbank: great spotted kiwi, little spotted kiwi, Okarito brown kiwi, and North Island brown kiwi [ 2 , 14 ]. We downloaded the raw reads for a southern brown kiwi from the individual with the highest number of available reads [ 15 ]. To act as an outgroup for the phylogenomic analyses, we downloaded raw sequencing reads and the genome assembly of emu ( Dromaius novaehollandiae ) [ 14 ]. For estimates of comparative genetic diversity, we downloaded raw sequencing reads and the genome assemblies of three additional Paleognath species: ostrich ( Struthio camelus ) [ 16 ], southern cassowary ( Casuarius casuarius ) [ 14 ], and greater rhea ( Rhea americana ) [ 14 ]. Accession code details for all species can be found in S2 Table in S1 File and assembly statistics in S3 Table in S1 File .

Data processing

We trimmed adapter sequences and removed reads shorter than 30 bp from the downloaded raw reads using skewer [ 17 ], mapped the trimmed reads to the specified reference genome assembly using BWA v0.7.15 [ 18 ] and the mem algorithm. We parsed the output and removed duplicates with SAMtools v1.6 [ 19 ]. Furthermore, as some downstream analyses required the removal of sex chromosomes, we independently determined which scaffolds were most likely autosomal in origin for each reference genome assembly used in the current study. We found putative sex chromosome scaffolds by aligning each reference genome assembly to the chicken ( Gallus gallus ) Z and W chromosomes (Genbank accessions: Z—CM000122.5, W—CM000121.5). Alignments were performed using satsuma synteny [ 20 ] and default parameters. Information on all mappings performed can be found in S4 Table in S1 File .

Phylogenomics

We performed multiple phylogenomic analyses using different mapping reference genome assemblies, to assess the robustness of our results to reference choice. We independently mapped the raw reads of all five kiwi species to two reference genome assemblies: emu and great spotted kiwi. We also mapped the emu raw reads to the emu reference genome assembly. From the resultant mapped files, we built majority rules consensus sequences (-doFasta 2) in ANGSD v0.921 with the following parameters; -mininddepth 5 -minmapq 30 -minq 30 -uniqueonly 1, and only included autosomal scaffolds >100kb in length (-rf). We extracted 2 kb windows with a 1 Mb slide from each consensus sequence using bedtools v2.26.0 [ 21 ]. This gave us 1,546 windows when mapping to the emu and 1,889 windows when mapping to the great spotted kiwi. We filtered for windows that had at least 10 parsimony-informative sites and performed maximum likelihood phylogenetic inference for each remaining window in IQ-TREE2 [ 22 ], using the best GTR+R+F model according to the Bayesian information criterion [ 23 ]. Using the estimated gene trees (which in this case refers to a window), we inferred the species tree of kiwi under each reference genome assembly, using the summary multispecies coalescence as implemented in ASTRAL v4.10 [ 24 ]. The species tree inferred for each of the two datasets was used as the focal tree to calculate gene- and site-concordance factors for each branch in IQ-TREE2 [ 25 ].

Quantifying introgression via branch lengths

To investigate whether phylogenetic discordance among all possible kiwi triplets [[A,B],C] can be explained by incomplete lineage sorting (ILS) alone, or by a combination of ILS and gene flow, we implemented Quantifying Introgression via Branch Lengths (QuIBL) [ 26 ] on the dataset obtained when mapping the kiwi and emu raw read data to the emu reference genome. We used the kiwi and emu mapped to the emu dataset due to the requirement of an outgroup. Furthermore, since this analysis relies on the relative ages of nodes, we only used loci with nearly constant evolutionary rates among lineages. Specifically, we rooted each gene tree with the emu and excluded those loci with a coefficient of variation in root-to-tip length >0.01. We ran QuIBL specifying the emu as the overall outgroup (totaloutgroup), to test either ILS or ILS with gene flow (numdistributions 2), the number of total EM steps as 50 (numsteps), and a likelihood threshold of 0.01. We determined the significance of gene flow by comparing values of BIC1 (ILS alone) and BIC2 (ILS and gene flow). If the difference between BIC1 and BIC2 was greater than 10, as suggested by the original paper describing the method [ 26 ], we assumed incongruent topologies arose due to both ILS and gene flow. With a difference of less than 10, we assumed ILS alone.

f -branch statistic

To further investigate the potential for gene flow between kiwi lineages, we implemented the f -branch test [ 27 , 28 ] The test takes correlated allele sharing into account when visualising ƒ4-ratio results meaning it can also uncover indications of gene flow between ancestral lineages. As input we created a multi-individual variant call file (VCF) using the data mapped to the emu genome and BCFtools v1.6 [ 29 ]. Specifically we used BCFtools mpileup, and filtered the VCF file to only include autosomal SNPs using BCFtools call and the -mv parameter. We ran the multi-individual VCF through Dtrios in Dsuite v0.4 r43 [ 27 ] and specified the species tree ( Fig 1 ) and otherwise default parameters. We ran the output from Dtrios through f -branch and visualised the output using the dtools.py script from Dsuite. The default parameters for the f -branch statistic in Dsuite only consider f b, a value indicating excess allele sharing between a given branch (relative to its sister branch) and a non-sister branch, with p<0.01. However, we also assessed statistical significance of f b using a block Jack-knife approach by including the -Z parameter when running the f -branch statistic in Dsuite. We used the default number of 20 Jackknife blocks for this test. A Z score |Z|>3 was considered as significant.

End of lineage sorting/gene flow

To estimate the point in time when the genomes of the five kiwi species had fully coalesced, putatively indicating an end of lineage sorting and/or gene flow, we used the F1 hybrid Pairwise Sequentially Markovian Coalescent model, hPSMC [ 30 ]. hPSMC utilises pseudo-diploid sequences by merging pseudo-haploid sequences from two different genomes, which in our case are from different species. As the variation in the interspecific pseudo-F1 hybrid genome cannot coalesce more recently than the emergence of reproductive isolation between the two parental species, we can use this method to infer when reproductive isolation between two species may have occurred. If some regions within the genomes of two target species are yet to fully diverge, due to ILS or to gene flow, hybridisation may still be possible.

Previous studies have shown that the results of hPSMC are not significantly influenced by mapping reference [ 31 , 32 ], and we therefore performed each analysis once, with the raw reads from the five kiwi species mapped to the great spotted kiwi reference genome assembly. We constructed haploid consensus sequences for each of the kiwi individuals using the same consensus sequences as the phylogenomic analysis. We merged the resultant haploid consensus sequences pairwise into a pseudo-diploid sequence using a python script available as part of the hPSMC toolsuite. The resultant pseudo-diploid sequences were run through a Pairwise Sequentially Markovian Coalescent model (PSMC) [ 33 ]. We ran PSMC specifying standard atomic intervals (4+25*2+4+6), a maximum number of iterations of 25 (-N), maximum 2N0 coalescent time of 15 (-t), and initial theta/rho ratio of 5 (-r).

To calibrate the PSMC plots, we calculated an Apteryx average mutation rate. We did this by first calculating the average pairwise distance for each species pair (S5 Table in S1 File ), and dividing that by 2 * the previously published divergence times [ 3 ]. However, it should be noted that this calculation only provides an estimate and is influenced by divergence times. Given this, we selected the divergence times from Yonezawa et al [ 3 ] because they used the dataset with the largest number of genetic markers at the time and included all five kiwi species in their estimates and we therefore deemed it the most reliable. We calculated the pairwise distances in ANGSD v0.921 [ 34 ] using a consensus base call approach, with all species mapped to the great spotted kiwi reference genome assembly, and applying the same filters as for the phylogenomic analyses with the additions of only including sites found in all individuals (-minInd 5), and print a distance matrix (-makematrix 1). Given the possibility for ILS and gene flow in the kiwi lineages, whole genome pairwise distances may be under-estimated from whole genome alignments. This resulted in a mutation rate of 8.0x10 -10 per year or 2.0x10 -8 per generation, assuming a generation time of 25 years [ 7 ]. Our mutation rate of 2.0e-8 per generation is comparable to the rate of 1.34e-8 per generation from Bemmel et al [ 15 ].

From the PSMC output, we manually estimated the pre-divergence Ne of each pseudodiploid genome by outputting the text file (-R) using the plot script from the PSMC toolsuite. Using the pre-divergence Ne estimated from this output, we ran simulations to infer the intervals during which the pseudodiploid genomes coalesce between each species pair using ms [ 35 ]. Simulation commands in ms were automatically produced with the hPSMC_quantify_split_time.py python script from the hPSMC toolsuite, while specifying the pre-divergence Ne and the time windows we wanted to simulate, and the remaining parameters as default. The time intervals and pre-divergence Ne for each species pair can be found in S6 Table in S1 File . We plotted the results and found the simulations with an exponential increase in Ne to be closest to the empirical data, between 1.5-fold and 10-fold the value of the pre-divergence Ne. The divergence times from these simulations were taken as the time interval during which lineage sorting and/or gene flow stopped. We considered the portion between 1.5-fold and 10-fold the value of the pre-divergence Ne, as suggested in previous work [ 30 ]. This was done to capture the portion of the hPSMC plot most influenced by the divergence event. The lower bound is set to control for pre-divergence increases in population size, and the upper bound is to avoid exploring parameter space in which little information is present.

Autosome-wide heterozygosity and inbreeding estimates

We calculated autosome-wide levels of heterozygosity and runs of homozygosity (ROH) for each species from the mapped bam files using the software ROHan [ 36 ]. The raw reads of the four species for which conspecific reference genome assemblies were available, were independently mapped to each said assembly. Raw reads of the southern brown kiwi, which does not have an available conspecific assembly, were mapped to the North Island brown kiwi assembly. We ran ROHan three times independently, using different window sizes (500 kb, 1 Mb, 2 Mb), while keeping the other parameters as default. The default parameters specify a window as being a ROH if it has an average heterozygosity of less than 1x10 -5 . We calculated autosome-wide heterozygosity for the non-kiwi palaeognath species (emu, ostrich, southern cassowary, greater rhea) in the same way, but using only a 1 Mb window size.

We estimated the number of generations since inbreeding occurred that each respective ROH length represents using g = 100/(2rL) [ 37 ], where r = recombination rate, L = length of ROH in Mb, and g = number of generations. As genome-wide recombination rates for kiwi are unavailable, we present results based on two, 3cM per Mb based on the chicken [ 38 ] and 2.1 cM/Mb based on the rhea [ 39 ] Given this calculation, ROH>0.5Mb equates to inbreeding occurring within the last 47.6 or 33.3 generations, ROH>1Mb equates to inbreeding occurring within the last 23.8 or 16.6 generations, and ROH>2Mb equates to inbreeding occurring within the last 11.9 or 8.3 generations.

Demographic reconstruction

We ran demographic analysis on diploid consensus genomes from each kiwi species, each mapped to their conspecific reference genome assembly and the southern brown kiwi mapped to the North Island brown kiwi, using PSMC [ 33 ]. We called diploid genome sequences using SAMtools and BCFtools, specifying a minimum quality score of 20 and minimum coverage of 10. However, we also created a diploid consensus genome with Okarito brown kiwi mapped to the North Island brown kiwi, as it has previously been shown that mapping to the Okarito brown kiwi reference genome assembly may be problematic for PSMC analysis [ 40 ]. As Prasad et al. [ 40 ] did not assess the reliability of the little spotted kiwi as mapping reference, we further assessed the reliability of the little spotted kiwi PSMC results by mapping to the conspecific reference genome assembly, as well as to the great spotted kiwi and North Island brown kiwi reference genome assemblies. Before running PSMC, we removed scaffolds found to align to sex chromosomes in the previous step, and removed scaffolds shorter than 100 kb. We ran PSMC specifying the same parameters as in the hPSMC analysis and performed 100 bootstrap replicates to investigate support for the resultant demography. PSMC results were checked for overfitting so that after 20 rounds of iterations, at least 10 recombinations are inferred to have occurred in the intervals each parameter spans. We plotted the output using a mutation rate of 2.0x10 -8 per generation, assuming a generation time of 25 years as detailed above for the hPSMC analysis.

Mapping results

The number of reads mapping as well as the average genome-wide coverages slightly changed depending on whether individuals were mapped to a con- or heterospecific reference genome, with lower values being recovered when mapping to a heterospecific reference (S4 Table in S1 File ). When mapping to conspecific reference genomes, we recovered genome-wide coverages of 24.52x for the great spotted kiwi, 20.8x for the North Island brown kiwi, 31.6x for the little spotted kiwi, and 25.2x for the Okarito brown kiwi. Mapping the southern brown kiwi to the North Island brown kiwi reference genome gave 14.8x.

Interspecific evolutionary relationships

Reads more similar to the reference map more successfully than divergent reads, artificially inflating signals of genetic similarities between a highly divergent outgroup and an ingroup species used as mapping reference [ 41 ]. As our outgroup (emu) is highly divergent from the ingroup kiwi species, our results when mapping to the ingroup great spotted kiwi could therefore be biased by the emu artificially appearing more genetically similar to the great spotted kiwi than the non-reference species. Although fewer reads mapped successfully (S4 Table in S1 File ), by also mapping to the outgroup we tested for the influence of this potential bias. Our results are unlikely to be driven by reference bias as, regardless of the genome assembly selected as mapping reference, the vast majority of windows in our phylogenomic analysis support the grouping of little spotted kiwi and great spotted kiwi as sister species, and the grouping of Okarito brown kiwi, North Island brown kiwi, and southern brown kiwi in a separate clade, with the southern brown kiwi being sister to the Okarito brown kiwi, North Island brown clade ( Fig 1 , S7 Table in S1 File ). Despite the overall support for the species tree, within brown kiwi, alternative gene tree topologies occurred at relatively high frequency compared to other alternative topologies found (up to 34.9%). Site concordance factors also found high levels of discordance within this clade (up to 42.1%).

Further examination using QuIBL to assess if alternative topologies may have arisen due to ILS alone, or to both ILS and gene flow, indicated a mixture of both ILS and gene flow causing the topological discordances in our dataset (S8 Table in S1 File ). QuIBL suggests gene flow between great spotted kiwi and the Okarito brown kiwi, great spotted kiwi and southern brown kiwi, North Island brown kiwi and southern brown kiwi, Okarito brown kiwi and little spotted kiwi, and southern brown kiwi and little spotted kiwi.

The f -branch statistic suggests several signals of gene flow between kiwi lineages, as shown by elevated f b . We find elevated f b between i) the little spotted kiwi and all three brown kiwi species, ii) the southern brown kiwi and both the great and lesser spotted kiwi, and iii) the Okarito brown kiwi with both spotted kiwi and the southern brown kiwi ( Fig 2 ). All results were significant with Z>3 (S9 Table in S1 File ).

(A) Species tree; (B) and (C) Species tree in expanded form, with internal branches as dotted lines. The values in the matrix refer to excess allele sharing between the expanded tree branch (relative to its sister branch) and the species on the x -axis. Grey squares are comparisons that could not be made due to the topological input requirements of the test and its inability to infer gene flow between sister lineages. Lines connecting branches show: (B) gene flow events inferred directly from the f -branch results. Dark purple coloured lines show results supported by QuIBL; (C) gene flow events that we hypothesise from the f -branch results, while accounting for (i) the inability to detect gene flow between sister lineages, and (ii) a lack of a positive means less gene flow relative to the sister lineage, rather than no gene flow.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0266430.g002

To quantify when reproductive isolation may have been complete between kiwi lineages, we ran the F1 hPSMC described above. Between the two major clades, we found that lineage sorting and/or gene flow ceased 2.6–1.8 Ma. This pattern was the same, regardless of which individuals were used in the pairwise comparison (S1 Fig in S1 File ). Within clades, we find complete reproductive isolation (lineage sorting was complete and/or gene flow ceased) between great spotted kiwi and little spotted kiwi 700–400 thousand years ago (kya) (S2 Fig in S1 File ), and similarly between North Island brown kiwi and Okarito brown kiwi 800–500 kya (S3 Fig in S1 File ). Lineage sorting was complete and/or gene flow ceased 1.2 Ma-800 kya between southern brown kiwi and both the North Island brown kiwi and the Okarito brown kiwi (S4 Fig in S1 File ). hPSMC uses the PSMC method, and therefore changes in effective population size can be influenced by population structure [ 42 ] and regions undergoing strong negative selection [ 43 ]. However, in our hPSMC when comparing different species pairs, e.g. southern brown kiwi/North Island brown kiwi and southern brown kiwi/Okarito brown kiwi, we get similar if not identical results. Therefore, we do not think population structure largely influences hPSMC results. Selection on the other hand could play a role and remains to be tested. However, as previous studies showed strongly deleterious mutations mask declines in PSMC [ 43 ], and we are focusing on exponential increases, we do not think our results will be greatly influenced by this.

We find the highest levels of autosome-wide heterozygosity in North Island brown kiwi, followed by great spotted kiwi, southern brown kiwi, Okarito brown kiwi, and little spotted kiwi ( Fig 3A ). To further contextualise these estimates, we calculated the autosome-wide heterozygosity estimates of four other palaeognaths (emu, ostrich, southern cassowary, greater rhea). Our analysis revealed that kiwi species have relatively low levels of heterozygosity compared to the other palaeognaths, except for the southern cassowary, whose heterozygosity only exceeded that of little spotted kiwi.

(A) Autosome-wide heterozygosity calculated using ROHan for the four kiwi species with conspecific reference genomes, and four other palaeognath species. Error bars show maximum and minimum values. (B) Autosomal runs of homozygosity calculated using various window sizes (0.5 Mb, 1 Mb, and 2 Mb) for the four kiwi species with conspecific reference genomes. Differential shading shows the window size used.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0266430.g003

We further investigated whether recent inbreeding may have caused the low levels of autosome-wide heterozygosity using runs of homozygosity (ROH) analyses. As expected, the number of ROH increased when specifying increasingly smaller window sizes as a ROH ( Fig 3B ). Moreover, the general trend reflected what would be expected based on autosome-wide heterozygosity levels. That is, the species with the lowest overall heterozygosity (little spotted kiwi) also had the most ROH, and the species with the highest overall heterozygosity (North Island brown kiwi) had the least ROH. We found the lowest levels of ROH in the southern brown kiwi ( Fig 3B ).

This pattern was not as obvious in the other palaeognath species. The individual with the highest levels of diversity (rhea) also showed considerable levels of ROH (1 Mb window size; 2.2% of the genome in ROH). However, the individual with the lowest diversity (southern cassowary), also had the highest levels of ROH (1 Mb window size; 8.42% of the genome in ROH). The remaining two species had low levels of ROH: emu—0.50% and ostrich—0.64%.

Intraspecific demographic histories

Our assessment of how mapping reference influences PSMC results of little spotted kiwi showed similar results to those reported previously for Okarito brown kiwi [ 40 ]; we find relatively consistent results when mapping the little spotted kiwi raw reads to both North Island brown kiwi and to great spotted kiwi, but much reduced effective population size (Ne) values when mapping to little spotted kiwi (S5 Fig in S1 File ). Therefore, we based our inferences on the results retrieved when mapping to its closest relative (great spotted kiwi).

We find Ne in North Island brown kiwi was relatively high and stable over the past 1 Ma, with several fluctuations within the past 100–50 kya ( Fig 4 ). However, the bootstrap support values during the latter time period show considerable uncertainty, suggesting little confidence in these fluctuations. The southern brown kiwi also exhibited relatively stable Ne values until ~200 kya where there was a continual decrease in Ne until present. Ne in Okarito brown kiwi decreased 1–0.5 Ma, followed by a plateau and slight increase, then a more rapid decline in the past ~100 kya. The two remaining species, little spotted kiwi and great spotted kiwi, exhibit similar demographic trends. Both species show a continuous gradual decline in Ne over the past 1 Ma.

Faded lines show the 100 bootstrap replicates produced for each species.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0266430.g004

Phylogenetic relationships

Based on our phylogenetic analysis, we found relationships among the five kiwi species to be generally conserved across windows, consistent with previous findings based on mtDNA sequences and nuclear data [ 3 , 7 , 15 , 44 ] ( Fig 1 , S7 Table in S1 File ). However, despite the clear overall species tree, gene (window) tree and site concordance factors both show the presence of discordant topologies across the genome, which QuIBL suggests are due to a mixture of ILS and gene flow. All signals of gene flow found in QuIBL were supported by our f -branch statistic results, to the exclusion of gene flow between the North Island and southern brown kiwis, which was not found in the f -branch statistic ( Fig 2B ). Furthermore, our f -branch statistic found several signals of gene flow not found with QuIBL. However, interpretations of the f -branch statistic can be complicated by results only being relative to a sister species, i.e. an f b of 0 does not mean no gene flow, but just less gene flow than the sister species. Taking this into account and the known order of divergence of each lineage [ 3 ], we hypothesise that some observed signals of gene flow may be due to retention of introgressed loci from ancestral gene flow events ( Fig 2C ). Little spotted kiwi showed similar f b with all three brown kiwi. This pattern could reflect independent gene flow events between little spotted kiwi and each brown kiwi species ( Fig 2B ), or gene flow between little spotted kiwi and the ancestral brown kiwi. Little spotted and great spotted kiwi split after southern brown split from North Island and Okarito brown kiwi, and hence little spotted kiwi alone could not have exchanged genetic material with the ancestral brown kiwi. Rather, the ancestral spotted kiwi could have exchanged genetic material with the ancestral brown kiwi, and little spotted has retained more signal of this relative to great spotted kiwi ( Fig 2C ). Similarly, the signal between southern brown kiwi and both the little and great spotted kiwi, as well as between the Okarito brown kiwi and both the little and great spotted kiwi, could also reflect gene flow between ancestral lineages, with the retention of less of the introgressed alleles in the North Island brown kiwi ( Fig 2C ). Our hPSMC results (S1-S3 Figs in S1 File ) suggest coalescence between species pairs occurred relatively recently, which can be interpreted as gene flow among all species after they initially diverged. A scenario of interspecific gene flow is congruent with recent reports of hybridisation between kiwi sister species, and between kiwi species from each of the two distinct clades [ 9 ].

The presence of interspecific gene flow between kiwi species may explain the large discrepancies between molecular estimates of their divergence times. However, varying estimates could also reflect difficulties in time calibration given uncertainties in fossil dates, substitution rate, and generation time. Estimates of the stem divergence of the five extant species have differed markedly in the literature. These include, but are not limited to, ~14.5 Ma [ 6 ], ~13.4 Ma [ 45 ], ~12.31 Ma [ 3 ], ~11.3 Ma [ 44 ], ~8.5 Ma [ 4 , 46 ], and ~5.9 Ma [ 7 ]. Even when considering the youngest divergence estimate (~5.9 Ma), our hPSMC results suggest the genomes completely coalesced between 2.6 Ma and 1.8 Ma, which may be interpreted as the continuation of lineage sorting for a long time post divergence, or continued gene flow.

Interspecific gene flow is well documented in avian species [ 47 ] and may be due to the relatively slow rate at which postzygotic incompatibilities accumulate in birds [ 48 ]. Therefore, premating isolation is likely an important mechanism for the maintenance of reproductive isolation in birds, although this may be hampered by high dispersal rates through flight. Kiwi are known to have evolved flightlessness independently from other palaeognaths after their arrival to New Zealand [ 3 , 6 ]. However, a lack of fossils makes it difficult to reliably determine when flightlessness evolved. Nevertheless, based on a recent fossil find, kiwi are thought to be flightless from at least the Middle Pleistocene (~1 Ma) [ 49 ]. Although a lack of migration through flight likely would have limited the dispersal capabilities of kiwi, some species had partly overlapping ranges in historic times ( Fig 1 ), which may have facilitated hybridisation.

Current and recent demography

Our finding of very low diversity in little spotted kiwi is congruent with previous studies based on microsatellite data [ 50 ] and population-level nuclear genomes [ 15 ]. Our finding—at least as represented by our sampled individual—may reflect high levels of recent inbreeding. Its high proportion of ROH >2Mb equates to inbreeding within the last ~250 years, and is congruent with current knowledge of the species. In 1912, five little spotted kiwi were moved to an offshore, predator-free island (Kapiti Island). Therefore, the entire population of the species, estimated at approximately 2,000 individuals [ 51 ] ( Fig 1 ), is descended from at most five founders; a recent microsatellite study indicated perhaps only three founder individuals [ 12 ]. Such a low number of founders would have led to high levels of inbreeding. However, this findings contrasts with no inbreeding reported in a recent population genomic study [ 15 ]. Mapping to a phylogenetically distant reference can inflate heterozygosity estimates and remove signs of inbreeding [ 40 ]. The finding of no inbreeding on a genome-wide level [ 15 ] may be a byproduct of the computational approach employed, rather than a biological signal; the little spotted kiwi data were not mapped to a conspecific reference genome and hence the lack of inbreeding may be the result of mapping biases.

Okarito brown kiwi experienced a bottleneck of ~150 birds in the 1990s [ 52 ]. However, we find similar diversity and inbreeding levels to great spotted kiwi ( Fig 3 ) which has an estimated population size of 14,000 [ 51 ] ( Fig 1 ). Furthermore, based on 11 microsatellite loci, it was reported that great spotted kiwi had high levels of genetic diversity compared with other kiwi species, and showed no evidence of a recent bottleneck (within the last 100 generations) [ 53 ]. Therefore, if genetic diversity alone predicts population size, great spotted kiwi should display higher levels of diversity than Okarito brown kiwi. However, as our Okarito brown kiwi individual was sampled in 1993, our findings likely do not reflect the genetic impact of the recent bottleneck in the 1990s. Therefore, the Okarito brown kiwi population at Okarito, from which this sample arose, likely had higher levels of diversity pre-bottleneck, and exemplifies the relevance of sample age when investigating recent bottleneck events. Finally, our finding of North Island brown kiwi having the highest levels of diversity is consistent with higher census population size (25,000) than the other species [ 51 ], and is congruent with a recent population genomic study [ 15 ].

Long-term demography

Owing to a lack of fossil evidence, it is difficult to investigate how kiwi populations responded to past climatic and environmental events. Genomic data allows the exploration of changes in population size over evolutionary timescales to provide hypotheses based on correlations with known environmental events. Previous work using kiwi genomic data to investigate changes in effective population size have been interpreted within the framework of glacial and interglacial periods [ 7 , 15 ].

We observe relatively stable Ne in the North Island brown kiwi over the past one million years ( Fig 4 ). During this period, the central North Island experienced several major rhyolitic eruptions, as evidenced by tephras in ocean cores to the east and northeast of the North Island [ 54 ]. The ash from these eruptions rarely reached the northern peninsula of the North Island, providing a putative refuge for this population. Therefore, the northern distribution of North Island brown kiwi ( Fig 1 ) may have facilitated its long-term stability in effective population size. Similarly, the southern range of the southern brown kiwi may have facilitated a stable Ne in this species 1 Ma—100 kya, despite eruptions.

In contrast, both great and little spotted kiwi show a general trend of declining Ne throughout the past one million years ( Fig 4 ). As the genetic data of both species are from the South Island, despite the little spotted kiwi also occurring in the North Island ( Fig 1 ), these results may only represent changes to South Island populations. Both volcanic fallout and repeated glaciations–or repeated de­ glaciations–may have had long-term negative effects on both kiwi species and caused decreases in census population size and/or connectivity, which would lead to the observed decrease in Ne.

The Ne of Okarito brown kiwi also shows a decreasing trend, suggestive of similar mechanisms to those in the great and little spotted kiwi ( Fig 4 ). However, the trajectory deviates with a plateau in Ne, before rapidly decreasing ~100 kya. Associated with this decline is the end of the last interglacial, Isotope Stage 5e (130–116 kya [ 55 ]). A change in Ne at this time could be caused by the restriction of population movement, changes in population structuring, and/or a reduction in population size, all of which could have been driven by the environmental instability of this period. However, Okarito brown kiwi has experienced many glacial and interglacial periods before this event, and therefore it is difficult to determine correlation or causation.

Although the confidence in PSMC for more recent periods of time (<20kya) is limited [ 33 ], it is notable that the decline in Ne observed across all five kiwi species within the last 40 kya broadly coincides with the most recent global volcanic super eruption ( Fig 4 ). A decrease in Ne could be due to a decrease in absolute population size, or a decrease in connectivity between previously connected populations. Similar declines in the past 10–20 kya have previously been reported [ 15 ]. The Oruanui eruption of Taupo volcano 25.6 kya deposited 1000 km 3 of tephra across New Zealand, from Auckland in the North Island to the Waitaki River in the South Island [ 56 , 57 ]. Such a catastrophic event is expected to have destroyed most of the New Zealand biota between 38° and 45° south. If the decline in Ne in association with this major eruption was exhibited by just one taxon, little case could be made for cause and effect. However, the analogous temporal pattern of a population decline across all five species provides strong support for a significant environmental driver.

It is difficult to precisely pinpoint the driver of past population fluctuations, especially given the uncertainty in mutation rates and generation times. However, we form a number of hypotheses mostly based on correlations with the timing of volcanic activity. To date, the few studies using genomic data to investigate demographic histories of kiwi have alluded to glaciation as a major influence [ 7 , 15 ]; although the Taupo caldera volcano ~1800 years ago has been identified as having some impact on kiwi Ne [ 15 , 58 ]. By including more ancient time periods (>20kya) that experienced multiple volcanic events, we suggest volcanic eruptions may have been a previously overlooked major evolutionary force shaping the biota of New Zealand.

Supporting information

S1 file. file containing all supplementary information: s1-s9 tables and s1-s5 figs..

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0266430.s001

Acknowledgments

We would like to acknowledge the Te Parawhau Trust and Waikaremoana iwi, Te Rūnanga o Ngāi Tahu, Te Ātiawa Manawhenua Ki Te Tau Ihu Trust, who provided guidance to the authors who generated the kiwi genomic data, on which our study is based. We would also like to thank the reviewers for their comments on improving the manuscript. The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Discover why kiwi numbers are declining and what work is being done to reverse the decline.

WHERE KIWI LIVE

Find out where you might be able to see a kiwi, either in captivity or in the wild.

PROTECTING KIWI

A protected kiwi is a kiwi saved. See how you can keep kiwi safe.

Start your own fundraising project or help out with others.

SHOP FOR KIWI

Show your support by purchasing products that help us do what we do.

Make a quick donation, donate a day of annual leave or invest to save the kiwi.

Learn about what we do, how we do it, and who we work with to save the kiwi.

Meet the Save the Kiwi team including our board, patrons, and ambassadors.

HOW WE’RE DOING

Find out how we’re doing, view annual reports from recent years, and stay informed about Jobs for Nature updates.

Meet our sponsorship whānau, learn about what sponsoring entails, and find out how to become a sponsor.

Threats to kiwi

How many kiwi are left.

It’s estimated there were once about 12 million kiwi, but by 1998 the population had plummeted to fewer than 100,000 birds. By 2008 that figure had fallen even further, to about 70,000. Today it’s estimated there are around 68,000 kiwis left and unmanaged kiwi populations continue to decline by 2% every year.

In areas where kiwi are being managed, the situation is improving and many populations are stable or increasing. These places include Department of Conservation kiwi sanctuaries, community-led projects (many of them sponsored by Save the Kiwi), and offshore island sanctuaries.

There is no room to relax, however. Many kiwi live outside managed areas and these populations are expected to continue to decline. Even within managed areas, uncontrolled dogs can kill many birds very quickly and still remain a big problem.

The hard facts

Of all kiwi eggs fail to even hatch, of chicks that do hatch are dead within six months, of chicks are killed by stoats or cats, die of natural causes or at the jaws and claws of other predators, of kiwi chicks make it past six months old, or less reach adulthood, why are kiwi going extinct.

Kiwi are being driven to extinction by three main threats: predators, lost habitat, and fragmented kiwi populations.

Kiwi have few defences against introduced predators like stoats and ferrets, and their native forest habitat has been dramatically reduced to make way for human habitation and farmland. Add the effects of early hunting and trapping, and kiwi populations are now fragmented and vulnerable.

As kiwi populations decline and become fragmented, sex ratios skew and the effective breeding population further declines, which could become a downward spiral towards extinction.

Predators & pests

Aotearoa, a land of birds, had no land-based mammalian predators before people introduced them. These are now the main threat to the kiwi’s survival.

Loss of habitat

The state of New Zealand’s landscape has radically changed because much of our forests have been cleared to make way for farmland.

Fragmented kiwi populations

Habitat loss and predation of kiwi have seen kiwi populations decline and become separated from each other.

Learn more about kiwi

Kiwi species

All kiwi are the same, right? Wrong. There are actually five different species of kiwi, all with their own unique features.

Where to see kiwi

Many facilities around New Zealand are home to kiwi, plus there are places where, if you’re lucky, you could see one in the wild too.

How you can help

Many hands make light work. Keen to join the mission to save the kiwi? Here are some ways you can help.

Protect kiwi

For kiwi to thrive, we all need to work together. Find out what you can do to help save the kiwi, wherever in Aotearoa you happen to be.

To continuing saving the kiwi, conservation groups need funding. Support the mission by making a donation, setting up a fundraising project, or engaging with other fundraising initiatives.

Shop for kiwi

Show your support for Save the Kiwi and some of our wonderful sponsors by purchasing products that will help us do more of what we do.

Awhina mai ki a hoki te kiwi ki te wao tapu nui a Tāne Help return kiwi to where they used to live

Donations over $5 are tax-deductable in Aotearoa. Thank you for supporting kiwi conservation.

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TFNG Reading Practice: Kiwis

Here is a chance for more TFNG question practice. I created this short reading practice lesson so you can test your understanding of these types of questions.

Tips: Skim read the passage. Then analyse the questions. Always make sure you are clear in your mind what the true and false answers might be before you start looking at the passage. Then scan the passage for keywords given in the questions, making sure you are prepared for paraphrases. Then decide your answer.

Passage : The kiwi is an endangered species that was once counted in the millions. They are rather curious, nocturnal birds that lives in New Zealand. They have distinctive characterises setting them aside from other types of birds found elsewhere. These remarkable birds are flightless which is mainly a result of the lack of ground predators that existed in New Zealand prior to human arrival. Given the fact that these birds cannot fly, it is unknown how they arrived on the islands of New Zealand. In terms of their physical appearance, their feathers look like hair and they have nostrils at the end of their beaks. Because of these traits, they are sometimes thought of as honorary mammals. They are omnivores and use their highly developed sense of smell as well as touch and hearing to forage for food at night.

  Questions 1-7 : Decide if the following statements are True, False or Not Given

• The number of kiwi birds has dwindled.
• Many people are curious to learn about the kiwi.
• Kiwis are blind in the daytime.
• Without a terrestrial threat, the kiwi had no need of flight in the past.
• A kiwi has both hair and a nose.
• Kiwis behave like mammals.
• Kiwis eat a vegetable diet.

The answers are available on the link below:

Click here: Answers to Kiwi Reading Lesson

All the best

Thanks so much, I learnt a lot.. got 5/7

I’m glad it was useful 🙂

1- True 2-N.G 3-N.G 4-True 5-false 6-True 7-False

1. TRUE 2. NOT GIVEN 3. TRUE 4. TRUE 5. FALSE 6. NOT GIVEN 7. TRUE

1-T 2-NG 3-NG 4-T 5-T 6-T 7-F

1.True 2.NG 3.NG 4.True 5.False 6.False 7.False

True NG NG True False True False

1 T 2 F 3 NG 4 T 5 F 6 T 7 T

1 T 2 NG 3 T 4 T 5 F 6 T 7. F

TRUE NOT GIVEN NOT GIVEN TRUE FALSE TRUE FALSE

1)False 2)Not given 3)Not given 4)True 5)False 6)False 7)False

1.True 2.NG 3.NG 4.False 5.True 6.NG 7.False

1.T 2.F 3.F 4.T 5.F 6.T 7.T

1. False @. Not Given 3. False 4. Not Given 5. True 6. True 7. True

1.TRUE 2.NOT GIVEN 3.NOT GIVEN 4.NOT GIVEN 5.TRUE 6. TRUE 7. FALSE

1) TRUE 2)NOT GIVEN 3) NOT GIVEN 4)NOT GIVEN 5)TRUE 6)TRUE 7)FALSE

1 NG 2 NG 3 NG 4 F 5 T 6 F 7 T

TRUE NOT GIVEN TRUE NOT GIVEN FALSE FALSE FALSE

1- T 2- NG 3- NG 4- T 5- T 6- T 7- F

1.NG 2.NG 3.F 4.T 5.F 6.F 7.NG

NG FALSE TRUE TRUE FALSE TRUE TRUE

1.NG 2.NG 3.NG 4.T 5.T 6.T 7.F

where are the correct answers?

Hi Liz, am eagerly waiting to check my TFNG attempt. Am I behind schedule? “I will post the answers tomorrow” was your assurance. More exercises please.

Hello Liz , thank you véry much for your ongoing assistance and show of love for teaching IELTS Just a quick question on TFNG What will be the key words to look out for in T F NG passages. Your advice will be very much appreciated

T NG F T F T F

Thanks Liz , for your unconditional support What will be the key words to look out for in T F NG passages. Your advice will be very much appreciated

T NG T T NG T F

1) NOT GIVEN 2) NOT GIVEN 3) NOT GIVEN 4) TRUE 5) TRUE 6) FALSE 7) NOT GIVEN

1. Not given 2. Not given 3. Not given 4. False 5. Not given 6. True 7. True

T NG F T F F F

1. True 2. Not Given 3. False 4. Not Given 5. False 6. False 7. True

1T 2 NG 3 NG 4 T 5T 6F 7 F

1.NoT Given 2.Not Given 3.Not Given 4.Not Given 5.True 6.true 7.Not Given

1.T 2. N.G 3. F 4. T 5. F 6. T 7.T

1)True 2)Not Given 3)Not Given 4)True 5)False 6)True 7)False

1)T 2)NG 3)NG 4)T 5)F 6)T 7)NG

1. Not Given 2. Not given 3. Not given 4. True 5. False 6. True 7. False

1.True. 2. Not Given. 3. Not Given. 4. True. 5. False. 6. Not Given. 7. Not Given

1)T 2)NG 3)NG 4)F 5)T 6)T 7)NG

1,T 2,T 3,NG 4,T 5,F 6,F 7,F

1.true 2.not given 3.not given 4.true 5.false 6.true 7.false

1.T 2.N.G. 3.N.G. 4.T 5.F 6.T 7.N.G.

1. T 2. NG 3. T 4. F 5. F 6. NG 7. T

T NG NG NG T T T

1. T 2. NG 3. NG 4. T 5. F 6. NG 7. F

1)T 2)NG 3)F 4)NG 5)T 6)F 7)F

1)T 2)NG 3)NG 4)T 5)T 6)F 7)T

T Ng Ng T F T T

PAUL ONYEKA NG NG NG T T NG NG

1) True 2) True 3) False 4) True 5) False 6) True 7) True

I have been following u for couple of days, to say the truth u are a remarkable teacher. I am planning to do the test but i need more training please

1. T 2. NG 3. NG 4. T 5. T 6. NG 7. T

1.T 2.F 3 NG 4.T 5.F 6.NG 7.T

1. True 2. Not Given 3. Not Given 4. True 5. False 6. Not Given 7. False

T NG NG T NG NG F

T NG NG NG F T

NG NG NG T T T F

1 F 2 NT 3NT 4T 5T 6 T 7 F

1) T 2) NG 3) NG 4) T 5) T 6) T 7) F

1. NG 2. NG 3. NG 4. T 5. T 6. T 7. F

1 T 2 F 3 NG 4 T 5 F 6 T 7 F

1.True 2.not given 3.false 4.false 5.false 6.false 7.true

T F NG T F T F

1. True 2. NG 3. True 4. True 5. True 6. True 7. False

1. T 2. NG 3. F 4. NG 5. T 6. T 7. F

1. True 2. Not given 3. Not given 4. False 5. False 6. Not given 7. False Waiting for the answers. Thanks, Liz

1. True 2. Not given 3. Not given 4. False 5. False 6. False 7. False

Sorry for the double replies. Thought it was deleted by mistake, that’s why sent a fresh one. Hope you don’t mind.

Thanks in advance Afroza

1.T 2.NG 3.T 4.T 5..F 6.F 7.NG

Can I change No.3 from T to NG?

1.TRUE 2.N.G 3.N.G 4.TRUE 5.FALSE 6.TRUE 7.FALSE

Agatha says 1-T 2-f 3-f 4-NG 5-T 6-f 7-f

1, true 2 false 3, not given 4 false 5 true 6 true 7 false

1.TRUE 2.NOT GIVEN 3.NOT GIVEN 4.TRUE 5.TRUE 6.TRUE 7. NOTGIVEN

1. True 2. Not Given 3. Not Given 4. True 5. False 6. False 7. False.

T NG NG T F T F

1: NG 2: NG 3: NG 4: T 5: T 6: F 7: T

1. True because they are an endangered species 2. False because kiwis are curious and not people 3. NG 4. False- kiwis are flightless irrespective of any reason 5. False- they have feathers and nostrils around the beak 6. True 7. False- they are omnivores

Request to release your answers. I love your website and its content Thanks, Liz.

1 True 2 Not given 3 Not given 4 False 5 False 6 True 7 True

01. True 02. Not Given 03. False 04. True 05. True 06. False 07. False

1.T 2.NG 3.NG 4.T 5.F 6.NG 7.F

1- true 2-not given 3- not given 4- not given 5- true 6- true 7-not given

1. NOT GIVEN 2.NOT GIVEN 3. NOT GIVEN 4. TRUE 5. FALSE 6.FALSE 7.FALSE

1. T 2. F 3. NG 4. T 5. T 6. T 7. T

T NG NG F T T F

T NG NG T F Ng F

1. True 2. False 3. Not given 4. True 5. False 6. True 7. True

1 false 2 true 3 not given 4 true 5true 6true 7false

1.T 2.T 3.NG 4.F 5.T 6.T 7.F

T NG NG T F NG T

1. True 2. Not given 3. False 4. True 5. False 6. False 7. True

1. T 2 .NG 3. NG 4. T 5. T 6. F 7. F

1. T 2. NG 3. T 4. NG 5. T 6. F 7. T

1 false ( dwindled meaning 2 not given 3 not given 4 false 5 true 6true 7 false

1. True 2. N/G 3. N/G 4. True 5. True 6. False 7. False

NG NG NG T F NG F

1.T 2.T 3.NG 4.F 5.T 6.T 7.T

1. True 2.Not Given 3. Not Given 4. Not Given 5. True 6. True 7. False

1 NOT GIVEN 2 NOT GIVEN 3 NOT GIVEN 4 TRUE 5 FALSE 6 TRUE 7 FALSE

Please assess my answers

1. True 2. Not given 3. Not given 4. True. 5. True 6. True. 7. True.

I am pleased to be here.

F NG NG F T F

1.T 2.NG 3.NG 4.T 5.T 6.NG 7.NG

1. TRUE 2. NOT GIVEN 3. NOT GIVEN 4. TRUE 5. FALSE 6. NOT GIVEN 7. FALSE

1. True 2. NG. 3. False 4. NG 5. True 6 True 7 False

1. T 2. F 3. NG 4. T 5. F 6. NG 7. T

1.true 2. True 3. Not given 4.true 5.true 6. False 7.false

T Ng T T F T F

1. TRUE 2. FALSE 3. NOT GIVEN 4. FALSE 5. TRUE 6. FALSE 7. FALSE

1. T 2. N/G 3. T 4. T 5. N 6. T 7. T

1.T 2.NG 3.T 4.NG 5.F 6.T 7.F

T F NG F T F T

T Ng Ng T F T

T NG NG F F F T

1. T 2. NG 3. NG 4. T 5. F 6. T 7. T

1-T 2-NG 3-NG 4-T 5-T 6-NG 7-F

1. T 2. F 3. NG 4. T 5. T 6. NG 7. NG

1. T 2. NG 3. NG 4. F 5. F 6. NG 7. F

1 True 2 Not given 3 Not given 4 False 5 True 6 True 7 False

1.True 2.Not Given 3.Not Given 4.True 5.True 6.True 7.False

1.T 2.NG 3.NG 4.T 5.T 6.F 7.T

1 F 2 NG 3 NG 4 T 5 T 6 NG 7 F

1 true 2 not given 3 not given 4 true 5 false 6 not given 7 false

1.) True 2.) Not Given 3.) Not Given 4.) True 5.) False 6.) True 7.) False

Thanks for your active support Elizabeth.

1. T 2. NG 3. NG 4. NG 5. F 6.NG 7.F

1) True 2) Not Given 3) Not Given 4) False 5) True 6)True 7) Not Given

1 T 2 NG 3 NG 4 T 5 F 6 T 7 NG

1 TRUE 2 NOT GIVEN 3 NOT GIVEN 4 TRUE 5 FALSE 6FALSE 7 FALSE

1True 2Not given 3Not given 4 True 5False 6False 7False

1. True 2. Not given 3. Not given 4. True 5. False 6. Not given 7. False

1.True 2. NG 3. NG 4. True 5. False 6. NG 7. False

True Ng Ng False False True False

T Ng F T T T Ng

False Not given Not given False True True True

1. T 2. NG 3. NG 4. T 5. T 6. NG 7. F

T NG NG T F NG F

1. T 2. NOT GIVEN 3. F 4. F 5.F 6.F 7.F

1. True 2. False 3. Not Given 4. Not Given 5. True 6. True 7. False

T NG NG F F T T

1.true 2.false 3.not given 4.not given 5.trur 6.not given 7.false

1.true. 2.NG 3NG 4.F 5T 6.NG 7T

NG NG T T F F T

1.T 2 NG 3.NG 4. T 5. F 6. NG 7. F

1.T 2.NG 3.NG 4.F 5.T 6.F 7.F

T T NG T N T NG

1.T 2. NG 3.NG 4.F 5.F 6.F 7.NG

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Description of a Kiwi Bird

The Kiwi is a bird that is the national symbol of New Zealand and covers two thirds of the northern island. Kiwi is also a word used to describe New Zealanders. The Northern Island Brown Kiwi is critically endangered with only 2500 left, due to being preyed on by cats and dogs. Despite their unattractive appearance, Kiwis are flightless birds with dark brown feathers, no tail, and a long ivory beak. They are known for laying the biggest eggs of all birds. Kiwis feed on invertebrates and plants and are able to fend for themselves from their first week of life as their parents abandon them. It is important to take care of endangered animals like the Kiwi so they do not become extinct.

The Kiwi, a national symbol of New Zealand, can be discovered in approximately two thirds of the northern island. It encompasses both a bird species and the inhabitants of New Zealand. These birds possess an aggressive nature and unwavering determination to safeguard their territory from other kiwis. The Northern Island Brown Kiwi, also referred to as the least common kiwi, faces critical endangerment as there are merely 2500 individuals remaining. This specific kind of kiwi flourishes in dense forests characterized by sub-tropical and temperate climates.

The Brown Kiwi, a bird species native to New Zealand, is known for its inability to fly. It possesses the distinction of laying the largest eggs among all bird species. Despite its small size, measuring at 40cm, it showcases dark brown feathers that may not be visually appealing to some individuals. The males weigh around 4.9 lb while the females weigh approximately 6.2 lb; both genders exhibit a long ivory beak and lack a tail. Interestingly, these hatchlings are independent within their initial week as their parents abandon them.

Despite their unattractive appearance, these birds feed on invertebrates and plants. It is puzzling why they are becoming endangered since people are not likely to intentionally kill them. However, their vulnerability to predators such as cats and dogs due to their ground-dwelling nature might explain this. Being unable to fly makes them easy targets for predators who can easily locate and catch them. Therefore, providing adequate protection and care is crucial in preventing the endangerment of these birds.

The Kiwi’s preservation should not have been necessary if pest control could effectively address the issue of dogs and cats preying on them. If the Kiwi population goes extinct due to these challenges, New Zealand would lose its national animal. We must prioritize the well-being of endangered animals, including this bird, as our coexistence depends on them. It is crucial that we assist endangered animals to prevent their extinction or further decline from their current status.

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Essey about Kiwi Fruit

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To Kill a Mocking Bird Hypocrisy Paper

To Kill A Mockingbird

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The Effect of Racism in “I Know Why The Caged Bird Sings”

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The time setting of “I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings” is in the 1930’s and 1940’s, before the civil rights movement, but in the midst of the Great Depression and World War II. Stamps, Arkansas is a segregated Southern town in which Maya is raised by her grandmother. This was an era before the

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Write 10 Lines on Kiwi Bird

Meet the Kiwi bird, a unique creature from New Zealand. Small, flightless, and nocturnal, it’s unlike any bird you’ve ever seen before.

The Kiwi’s odd features, like its long beak and hair-like feathers, make it a fascinating subject. Let’s explore this interesting bird together!

10 sentences on Kiwi Bird for kids (set #1)

• Kiwi birds are small, fuzzy birds that live in New Zealand.
• They are famous for their long, thin beaks which they use to find food.
• Unlike most birds, kiwi birds cannot fly because they have short wings.
• They are nocturnal, which means they sleep during the day and are active at night.
• Kiwi birds have a great sense of smell, which is unusual for a bird.
• They lay the largest eggs compared to their body size of any bird in the world.
• There are five different types of kiwi birds, each one slightly different from the other.
• Kiwi birds like to live in forests, scrublands, and mountains.
• They are very shy and usually hide from people and other animals.
• The kiwi bird is a national symbol of New Zealand and is important to the country’s culture.
• These birds eat small insects, seeds, and worms found in the soil.
• Kiwi birds can live for a long time, some even reach the age of 50 years!

10 lines on Kiwi Bird (set #2)

• The kiwi bird is a flightless bird native to New Zealand.
• There are five known species of kiwi birds.
• Kiwi birds have a long beak with nostrils at the end.
• They are nocturnal, which means they are most active at night.
• Kiwi birds are about the size of a chicken.
• They have a strong sense of smell, which is rare among birds.
• Their feathers are more like hair and are brownish-grey in color.
• Kiwi birds lay the largest eggs in relation to their body size.
• They are named after their unique call, which sounds like “kee-wee”.
• Kiwi birds are considered a national symbol of New Zealand.
• Unfortunately, kiwi birds are endangered due to habitat loss and predators.
• Conservation efforts are in place to protect and increase the kiwi bird population.

So, this is 10 points on Kiwi Bird in an easy-to-understand way.

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Essay on Birds in English For Students & Children

We are Sharing an Essay on Birds in English for students and children. In this article, we have tried our best to provide a Short essay on Birds for Classes 4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12 and Graduation in 200, 300, 400, 500, 800 words.

Birds Essay in English

Birds are among the most beautiful creatures created by God. The sight of birds assures us that the maker of the birds and the sky was the same. He gave wings to the birds because he knew that the sky and the atmosphere were there for them to fly.

Some birds, however, don’t have wings such as the ostrich, the penguin, the kiwi, etc. Even if these birds have wings, they are so short or inflexible that they cannot be used for flying.

There are several water birds such as the duck, the swan, the quail, the albatross, etc.

Some birds live in houses or inhabitations such as the sparrow, the pigeon, the crow, etc.

Some birds love trees and groves such as the peacock, the nightingale, the cuckoo, the parrot, etc.

Some birds are fond of singing such as the cuckoo, the nightingale, the swallow, the skylark, etc.

A peacock has the most beautiful feathers among all the birds. Birds like the peacock and the hen do not take a long flight. The hen lays eggs for us.

Most of the birds build their nests in trees. They like to sit in trees where they chirp, hum, sing and hop. We have sparrows of different hues and sizes. The dove is fond of cooing. It is considered a very innocent bird and is regarded as a symbol of peace.

We have some birds of prey also such as the hawk, the falcon, the eagle, the vulture, etc.

Some poor birds are killed for their meat, feathers, beaks, etc.

We should not be cruel to birds and animals. We should love them. Much of the beauty of the earth is because of them.

# Speech | Paragraph on Birds # Bird composition # Essay on Birds for class 6 | 2

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Essay on Importance of Forest

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Short Essay on My Favourite Bird [100, 200, 400 Words] With PDF

Birds are one of the most beautiful creatures in the world. Most of them look very beautiful and they can fly above the sky. In this lesson today, you will learn how to write a short essay on your favourite bird.

Short Essay on My Favourite Bird Peacock in 100 Words 

There are tens of thousands of birds in the world but my favourite bird is the peacock. A peacock is a beautiful bird. It has a shiny, dark blue neck and a crown on its head. Its tail feathers are colourful and long. During the monsoon season, peacocks spread their feathers and dance gracefully.

Their dance is spectacular and brings joy to those watching. Peacocks are the male birds of their species. The females are called peahen and are less colourful than the males. Peacocks live on the upper branches of tall trees and prefer running to flying. They are quite agile on foot. In India, peacocks have religious and cultural significance. They are the national bird of our country. 

Short Essay on My Favourite Bird Parrot in 200 Words 

There are many different types of birds in the world. My favourite bird is the parrot. Parrots come in different sizes, shapes, and colours. Some are single-coloured while others have bright, multi-coloured feathers. The colour of their plumage can range from predominantly green with some red to a vibrant mix of red, orange, green, blue, yellow, pink, and black. Some smaller species of parrots can only grow up to ten centimetres while some larger varieties grow up to a hundred centimetres and weigh over a kilogram. 

Parrots are omnivores and eat nuts, seeds, berries, fruits, plants, grains as well as small insects. They have a curved beak that helps them split fruits and nuts. These birds are quite intelligent and can mimic human speech. They are very playful and friendly in nature. Parrots usually build their nests in the hollow of trees and lay eggs twice a year. Baby parrots are called chicks and are very cute. 

In recent times, due to habitat loss, climate change, and wildlife trade, many types of parrots are becoming endangered. Many people keep parrots as pets in cages for entertainment and do not take good care of them. This needs to be stopped. Parrots are great birds and we should do our best to protect them and take care of them. 

Short Essay on My Favourite Bird Cuckoo in 400 Words 

I have seen hundreds of different types of birds and observed their unique quirks and I adore them all, but my favourite is the cuckoo. Cuckoos are black in colour and have long tails. They look like crows but are smaller than them. The sound that cuckoos make is very pleasant to listen to and they are quite famous for it as well. Their melodious call fills everyone with joy. Cuckoos live on trees and in bushes. They eat fruits, insects, and worms. They especially like eating caterpillars. 

Cuckoos are migratory birds and we often see them during the spring season. Hence, they are called the harbinger of spring. Cuckoos have a peculiar habit. They do not make nests and are infamous for laying eggs in the nests of other birds, usually crows. A female cuckoo can lay eggs in as many as 50 nests during the breeding season.

Cuckoos have evolved to lay eggs that mimic the eggs of crows. This prevents their eggs from being ejected from the nest. The crows mistake the eggs as their own and look after them. Cuckoo chicks hatch and grow up under the care of crows. 

In the village, we wake up every day listening to the chirping of different birds and during the spring season, it is beautiful ‘kuhu kuhu’ of the cuckoos that dominate. There are at least ten pairs of cuckoos that live in our orchard and we give them grains and fruits to feed on.

Although they are usually afraid of humans and don’t come too close, I once befriended a cuckoo. It had red eyes and used to come near the windowsill of my room every morning. I fed it grains that I got from my grandmother and also caught a few hairy caterpillars for it. One day, it brought along another cuckoo. Both of them looked quite similar. 

I had a great time interacting with the cuckoos in my village orchard and fell in love with them. When the vacation was over, we had to come back and I started missing the cuckoos. I read a lot of articles on these birds and filled my room with posters of these beautiful creatures. After a few months, when we went to visit my grandparents again, it was already winter and the cuckoos had migrated. I never saw my friend again but I still remember its amazing red eyes and melodious voice. Cuckoos have since been my favourite birds. 

In the session above, I have written three essays on three different birds. You can choose any of those according to your requirements. I have also tried to write the essays in a very simple language that every student can easily understand. If you still have any doubts regarding this session, please let us know through the comment section below. If you want to read more such essays on several important topics, keep browsing our website. 

To get the latest updates on our upcoming sessions, kindly join us on Telegram. Thank you. See you again, soon. 

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Essay on Birds

Birds are exceptionally unique creatures with distinctive traits that they all share. For instance, they all have two legs, wings, and feathers. In a similar vein, all birds have warm blood and lay eggs. They come in several breeds and are highly important to our ecology. Here are a few sample essays on the topic ‘Birds’.

100 Words Essay On Birds

Birds are the only vertebrates with feathers, making them a form of a vertebrate with a backbone. They can keep their body temperature constant regardless of the temperature of their environment because they have warm blood.

Birds can consume insects and other small creatures with the help of their beaks. Some birds, like parrots, can grab fruit or nuts with their beaks. Most birds construct nests in which they lay their eggs and live in flocks (in groups).

Birds are intriguing animals that have a lot to teach us about nature. We may learn about the ecology of our mother earth and the significance of protecting the environment by studying them.

200 words Essay on Birds

The field of ornithology, the study of birds, is so vast that it is impossible even to guess the number of distinct species of birds that exist worldwide. There are about 10,000 different species of birds around the globe. Scientists believe there may be even more out there that is still unidentified or undiscovered.

Birds are present on every continent and in every environment, from the Arctic to the tropics. They have a wide range of stunning colours. Common bird species include chickens, ducks, hawks, eagles, finches, sparrows, and crows. While each bird has unique characteristics, all birds share some common characteristics.

As an illustration, every bird has feathers and can fly (except a few bird species that have lost this ability). Their ability to fly, made possible by their wings, is one trait that sets them apart from other creatures.

A bird is an omnivore since it frequently eats both plants and animals. Birds eat a variety of foods, depending on their species. Hummingbirds, for example, eat on floral nectar. Vultures and other birds eat decaying meat, and the crow will eat almost anything. Additionally, we have peacocks, which are lovely and represent rain and fine weather. Birds have a strong sense of intuition and connection to their surroundings.

500 Words Essay On Birds

Birds are essential to the environment and humans because they support every living creature on Earth. They are among the people spreading the seeds of the plants that give us food, shelter, and medicines. They also transport the plants to new islands in addition to restoring the environment that has been devastated. Earth’s ecosystem balance would be disrupted if birds were to go extinct. Because birds consume insects, they are also known as environment cleaners.

For example, vultures devour decaying bodies, which can affect the environment. Without birds, the population of insects will soar quickly. But today, birds are going extinct due to deforestation—because birds depend on trees for their habitat and food. Thus, they must reside in regions humans have created, which causes a decline in bird species.

Interesting Facts About Birds

Birds can be as small as 2 inches or as large as 2.75 metres—the ostrich, for instance, and the bee, the smallest hummer (most prominent). The existence of birds dates back 160 million years.

Birds come in many different varieties, each with its unique qualities. As an illustration, certain penguins cannot fly. Other birds with a reputation for intelligence include parrots and Corvidae.

We also have beautiful peacocks that stand in for rain and good weather. Then there are the bats and the vultures. Birds are highly intuitive and highly connected to their environment.

Some of them are kept near coal mines so they can foresee mine explosions and weather conditions. They are sensitive to high carbon monoxide release, which is why. They enjoy singing and are friendly people. Birds enjoy having unrestricted, unhindered flight.

My Favourite Bird

Birds have always piqued my interest. I spent hours watching them fly and play in the park close to my house when I was younger. The parrot is one of my favourite birds. I even kept a parrot as a pet for a while named Barry. I never kept Barry in a cage. It used to sit on my shoulder everywhere I went and never flew off. I used to feed him and play with him a lot. He had beautiful feathers.

Parrots are vibrant birds that may be seen all over the world. It comes in a variety of forms, dimensions, and hues. Vibrant colours are a common characteristic of parrots.

While some have a single, vivid colour, others have a spectrum of hues. Parrots typically range in size from small to medium, and they prefer to consume seeds, nuts, and fruits. A parrot's lifespan is determined by its species.

Lovebirds, smaller than cockatoos and macaws, only survive for about 15 years on average. Parrots are intelligent. They can mimic human speech, so many people keep them as pets.

As a result, they are the most sought-after species of bird for trade. People are trying to guarantee that parrots receive good care throughout the world. They are regarded as sacred in many civilisations. Since they are knowledgeable, parrots do best when living in the wild without being kept in cages.

Explore Career Options (By Industry)

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Data Administrator

Database professionals use software to store and organise data such as financial information, and customer shipping records. Individuals who opt for a career as data administrators ensure that data is available for users and secured from unauthorised sales. DB administrators may work in various types of industries. It may involve computer systems design, service firms, insurance companies, banks and hospitals.

Bio Medical Engineer

The field of biomedical engineering opens up a universe of expert chances. An Individual in the biomedical engineering career path work in the field of engineering as well as medicine, in order to find out solutions to common problems of the two fields. The biomedical engineering job opportunities are to collaborate with doctors and researchers to develop medical systems, equipment, or devices that can solve clinical problems. Here we will be discussing jobs after biomedical engineering, how to get a job in biomedical engineering, biomedical engineering scope, and salary. 

Ethical Hacker

A career as ethical hacker involves various challenges and provides lucrative opportunities in the digital era where every giant business and startup owns its cyberspace on the world wide web. Individuals in the ethical hacker career path try to find the vulnerabilities in the cyber system to get its authority. If he or she succeeds in it then he or she gets its illegal authority. Individuals in the ethical hacker career path then steal information or delete the file that could affect the business, functioning, or services of the organization.

GIS officer work on various GIS software to conduct a study and gather spatial and non-spatial information. GIS experts update the GIS data and maintain it. The databases include aerial or satellite imagery, latitudinal and longitudinal coordinates, and manually digitized images of maps. In a career as GIS expert, one is responsible for creating online and mobile maps.

Data Analyst

The invention of the database has given fresh breath to the people involved in the data analytics career path. Analysis refers to splitting up a whole into its individual components for individual analysis. Data analysis is a method through which raw data are processed and transformed into information that would be beneficial for user strategic thinking.

Data are collected and examined to respond to questions, evaluate hypotheses or contradict theories. It is a tool for analyzing, transforming, modeling, and arranging data with useful knowledge, to assist in decision-making and methods, encompassing various strategies, and is used in different fields of business, research, and social science.

Geothermal Engineer

Individuals who opt for a career as geothermal engineers are the professionals involved in the processing of geothermal energy. The responsibilities of geothermal engineers may vary depending on the workplace location. Those who work in fields design facilities to process and distribute geothermal energy. They oversee the functioning of machinery used in the field.

Database Architect

If you are intrigued by the programming world and are interested in developing communications networks then a career as database architect may be a good option for you. Data architect roles and responsibilities include building design models for data communication networks. Wide Area Networks (WANs), local area networks (LANs), and intranets are included in the database networks. It is expected that database architects will have in-depth knowledge of a company's business to develop a network to fulfil the requirements of the organisation. Stay tuned as we look at the larger picture and give you more information on what is db architecture, why you should pursue database architecture, what to expect from such a degree and what your job opportunities will be after graduation. Here, we will be discussing how to become a data architect. Students can visit NIT Trichy , IIT Kharagpur , JMI New Delhi . 

Remote Sensing Technician

Individuals who opt for a career as a remote sensing technician possess unique personalities. Remote sensing analysts seem to be rational human beings, they are strong, independent, persistent, sincere, realistic and resourceful. Some of them are analytical as well, which means they are intelligent, introspective and inquisitive. 

Remote sensing scientists use remote sensing technology to support scientists in fields such as community planning, flight planning or the management of natural resources. Analysing data collected from aircraft, satellites or ground-based platforms using statistical analysis software, image analysis software or Geographic Information Systems (GIS) is a significant part of their work. Do you want to learn how to become remote sensing technician? There's no need to be concerned; we've devised a simple remote sensing technician career path for you. Scroll through the pages and read.

Budget Analyst

Budget analysis, in a nutshell, entails thoroughly analyzing the details of a financial budget. The budget analysis aims to better understand and manage revenue. Budget analysts assist in the achievement of financial targets, the preservation of profitability, and the pursuit of long-term growth for a business. Budget analysts generally have a bachelor's degree in accounting, finance, economics, or a closely related field. Knowledge of Financial Management is of prime importance in this career.

Underwriter

An underwriter is a person who assesses and evaluates the risk of insurance in his or her field like mortgage, loan, health policy, investment, and so on and so forth. The underwriter career path does involve risks as analysing the risks means finding out if there is a way for the insurance underwriter jobs to recover the money from its clients. If the risk turns out to be too much for the company then in the future it is an underwriter who will be held accountable for it. Therefore, one must carry out his or her job with a lot of attention and diligence.

Finance Executive

Product manager.

A Product Manager is a professional responsible for product planning and marketing. He or she manages the product throughout the Product Life Cycle, gathering and prioritising the product. A product manager job description includes defining the product vision and working closely with team members of other departments to deliver winning products.  

Operations Manager

Individuals in the operations manager jobs are responsible for ensuring the efficiency of each department to acquire its optimal goal. They plan the use of resources and distribution of materials. The operations manager's job description includes managing budgets, negotiating contracts, and performing administrative tasks.

Stock Analyst

Individuals who opt for a career as a stock analyst examine the company's investments makes decisions and keep track of financial securities. The nature of such investments will differ from one business to the next. Individuals in the stock analyst career use data mining to forecast a company's profits and revenues, advise clients on whether to buy or sell, participate in seminars, and discussing financial matters with executives and evaluate annual reports.

A Researcher is a professional who is responsible for collecting data and information by reviewing the literature and conducting experiments and surveys. He or she uses various methodological processes to provide accurate data and information that is utilised by academicians and other industry professionals. Here, we will discuss what is a researcher, the researcher's salary, types of researchers.

Welding Engineer

Welding Engineer Job Description: A Welding Engineer work involves managing welding projects and supervising welding teams. He or she is responsible for reviewing welding procedures, processes and documentation. A career as Welding Engineer involves conducting failure analyses and causes on welding issues. 

Transportation Planner

A career as Transportation Planner requires technical application of science and technology in engineering, particularly the concepts, equipment and technologies involved in the production of products and services. In fields like land use, infrastructure review, ecological standards and street design, he or she considers issues of health, environment and performance. A Transportation Planner assigns resources for implementing and designing programmes. He or she is responsible for assessing needs, preparing plans and forecasts and compliance with regulations.

Environmental Engineer

Individuals who opt for a career as an environmental engineer are construction professionals who utilise the skills and knowledge of biology, soil science, chemistry and the concept of engineering to design and develop projects that serve as solutions to various environmental problems. 

Safety Manager

A Safety Manager is a professional responsible for employee’s safety at work. He or she plans, implements and oversees the company’s employee safety. A Safety Manager ensures compliance and adherence to Occupational Health and Safety (OHS) guidelines.

Conservation Architect

A Conservation Architect is a professional responsible for conserving and restoring buildings or monuments having a historic value. He or she applies techniques to document and stabilise the object’s state without any further damage. A Conservation Architect restores the monuments and heritage buildings to bring them back to their original state.

Structural Engineer

A Structural Engineer designs buildings, bridges, and other related structures. He or she analyzes the structures and makes sure the structures are strong enough to be used by the people. A career as a Structural Engineer requires working in the construction process. It comes under the civil engineering discipline. A Structure Engineer creates structural models with the help of computer-aided design software. 

Highway Engineer

Highway Engineer Job Description:  A Highway Engineer is a civil engineer who specialises in planning and building thousands of miles of roads that support connectivity and allow transportation across the country. He or she ensures that traffic management schemes are effectively planned concerning economic sustainability and successful implementation.

Field Surveyor

Are you searching for a Field Surveyor Job Description? A Field Surveyor is a professional responsible for conducting field surveys for various places or geographical conditions. He or she collects the required data and information as per the instructions given by senior officials. 

Orthotist and Prosthetist

Orthotists and Prosthetists are professionals who provide aid to patients with disabilities. They fix them to artificial limbs (prosthetics) and help them to regain stability. There are times when people lose their limbs in an accident. In some other occasions, they are born without a limb or orthopaedic impairment. Orthotists and prosthetists play a crucial role in their lives with fixing them to assistive devices and provide mobility.

Pathologist

A career in pathology in India is filled with several responsibilities as it is a medical branch and affects human lives. The demand for pathologists has been increasing over the past few years as people are getting more aware of different diseases. Not only that, but an increase in population and lifestyle changes have also contributed to the increase in a pathologist’s demand. The pathology careers provide an extremely huge number of opportunities and if you want to be a part of the medical field you can consider being a pathologist. If you want to know more about a career in pathology in India then continue reading this article.

Veterinary Doctor

Speech therapist, gynaecologist.

Gynaecology can be defined as the study of the female body. The job outlook for gynaecology is excellent since there is evergreen demand for one because of their responsibility of dealing with not only women’s health but also fertility and pregnancy issues. Although most women prefer to have a women obstetrician gynaecologist as their doctor, men also explore a career as a gynaecologist and there are ample amounts of male doctors in the field who are gynaecologists and aid women during delivery and childbirth. 

Audiologist

The audiologist career involves audiology professionals who are responsible to treat hearing loss and proactively preventing the relevant damage. Individuals who opt for a career as an audiologist use various testing strategies with the aim to determine if someone has a normal sensitivity to sounds or not. After the identification of hearing loss, a hearing doctor is required to determine which sections of the hearing are affected, to what extent they are affected, and where the wound causing the hearing loss is found. As soon as the hearing loss is identified, the patients are provided with recommendations for interventions and rehabilitation such as hearing aids, cochlear implants, and appropriate medical referrals. While audiology is a branch of science that studies and researches hearing, balance, and related disorders.

An oncologist is a specialised doctor responsible for providing medical care to patients diagnosed with cancer. He or she uses several therapies to control the cancer and its effect on the human body such as chemotherapy, immunotherapy, radiation therapy and biopsy. An oncologist designs a treatment plan based on a pathology report after diagnosing the type of cancer and where it is spreading inside the body.

Are you searching for an ‘Anatomist job description’? An Anatomist is a research professional who applies the laws of biological science to determine the ability of bodies of various living organisms including animals and humans to regenerate the damaged or destroyed organs. If you want to know what does an anatomist do, then read the entire article, where we will answer all your questions.

For an individual who opts for a career as an actor, the primary responsibility is to completely speak to the character he or she is playing and to persuade the crowd that the character is genuine by connecting with them and bringing them into the story. This applies to significant roles and littler parts, as all roles join to make an effective creation. Here in this article, we will discuss how to become an actor in India, actor exams, actor salary in India, and actor jobs. 

Individuals who opt for a career as acrobats create and direct original routines for themselves, in addition to developing interpretations of existing routines. The work of circus acrobats can be seen in a variety of performance settings, including circus, reality shows, sports events like the Olympics, movies and commercials. Individuals who opt for a career as acrobats must be prepared to face rejections and intermittent periods of work. The creativity of acrobats may extend to other aspects of the performance. For example, acrobats in the circus may work with gym trainers, celebrities or collaborate with other professionals to enhance such performance elements as costume and or maybe at the teaching end of the career.

Video Game Designer

Career as a video game designer is filled with excitement as well as responsibilities. A video game designer is someone who is involved in the process of creating a game from day one. He or she is responsible for fulfilling duties like designing the character of the game, the several levels involved, plot, art and similar other elements. Individuals who opt for a career as a video game designer may also write the codes for the game using different programming languages.

Depending on the video game designer job description and experience they may also have to lead a team and do the early testing of the game in order to suggest changes and find loopholes.

Radio Jockey

Radio Jockey is an exciting, promising career and a great challenge for music lovers. If you are really interested in a career as radio jockey, then it is very important for an RJ to have an automatic, fun, and friendly personality. If you want to get a job done in this field, a strong command of the language and a good voice are always good things. Apart from this, in order to be a good radio jockey, you will also listen to good radio jockeys so that you can understand their style and later make your own by practicing.

A career as radio jockey has a lot to offer to deserving candidates. If you want to know more about a career as radio jockey, and how to become a radio jockey then continue reading the article.

Choreographer

The word “choreography" actually comes from Greek words that mean “dance writing." Individuals who opt for a career as a choreographer create and direct original dances, in addition to developing interpretations of existing dances. A Choreographer dances and utilises his or her creativity in other aspects of dance performance. For example, he or she may work with the music director to select music or collaborate with other famous choreographers to enhance such performance elements as lighting, costume and set design.

Social Media Manager

A career as social media manager involves implementing the company’s or brand’s marketing plan across all social media channels. Social media managers help in building or improving a brand’s or a company’s website traffic, build brand awareness, create and implement marketing and brand strategy. Social media managers are key to important social communication as well.

Photographer

Photography is considered both a science and an art, an artistic means of expression in which the camera replaces the pen. In a career as a photographer, an individual is hired to capture the moments of public and private events, such as press conferences or weddings, or may also work inside a studio, where people go to get their picture clicked. Photography is divided into many streams each generating numerous career opportunities in photography. With the boom in advertising, media, and the fashion industry, photography has emerged as a lucrative and thrilling career option for many Indian youths.

An individual who is pursuing a career as a producer is responsible for managing the business aspects of production. They are involved in each aspect of production from its inception to deception. Famous movie producers review the script, recommend changes and visualise the story. 

They are responsible for overseeing the finance involved in the project and distributing the film for broadcasting on various platforms. A career as a producer is quite fulfilling as well as exhaustive in terms of playing different roles in order for a production to be successful. Famous movie producers are responsible for hiring creative and technical personnel on contract basis.

Copy Writer

In a career as a copywriter, one has to consult with the client and understand the brief well. A career as a copywriter has a lot to offer to deserving candidates. Several new mediums of advertising are opening therefore making it a lucrative career choice. Students can pursue various copywriter courses such as Journalism , Advertising , Marketing Management . Here, we have discussed how to become a freelance copywriter, copywriter career path, how to become a copywriter in India, and copywriting career outlook. 

In a career as a vlogger, one generally works for himself or herself. However, once an individual has gained viewership there are several brands and companies that approach them for paid collaboration. It is one of those fields where an individual can earn well while following his or her passion. 

Ever since internet costs got reduced the viewership for these types of content has increased on a large scale. Therefore, a career as a vlogger has a lot to offer. If you want to know more about the Vlogger eligibility, roles and responsibilities then continue reading the article. 

For publishing books, newspapers, magazines and digital material, editorial and commercial strategies are set by publishers. Individuals in publishing career paths make choices about the markets their businesses will reach and the type of content that their audience will be served. Individuals in book publisher careers collaborate with editorial staff, designers, authors, and freelance contributors who develop and manage the creation of content.

Careers in journalism are filled with excitement as well as responsibilities. One cannot afford to miss out on the details. As it is the small details that provide insights into a story. Depending on those insights a journalist goes about writing a news article. A journalism career can be stressful at times but if you are someone who is passionate about it then it is the right choice for you. If you want to know more about the media field and journalist career then continue reading this article.

Individuals in the editor career path is an unsung hero of the news industry who polishes the language of the news stories provided by stringers, reporters, copywriters and content writers and also news agencies. Individuals who opt for a career as an editor make it more persuasive, concise and clear for readers. In this article, we will discuss the details of the editor's career path such as how to become an editor in India, editor salary in India and editor skills and qualities.

Individuals who opt for a career as a reporter may often be at work on national holidays and festivities. He or she pitches various story ideas and covers news stories in risky situations. Students can pursue a BMC (Bachelor of Mass Communication) , B.M.M. (Bachelor of Mass Media) , or  MAJMC (MA in Journalism and Mass Communication) to become a reporter. While we sit at home reporters travel to locations to collect information that carries a news value.  

Corporate Executive

Are you searching for a Corporate Executive job description? A Corporate Executive role comes with administrative duties. He or she provides support to the leadership of the organisation. A Corporate Executive fulfils the business purpose and ensures its financial stability. In this article, we are going to discuss how to become corporate executive.

Multimedia Specialist

A multimedia specialist is a media professional who creates, audio, videos, graphic image files, computer animations for multimedia applications. He or she is responsible for planning, producing, and maintaining websites and applications. 

Quality Controller

A quality controller plays a crucial role in an organisation. He or she is responsible for performing quality checks on manufactured products. He or she identifies the defects in a product and rejects the product. 

A quality controller records detailed information about products with defects and sends it to the supervisor or plant manager to take necessary actions to improve the production process.

Production Manager

A QA Lead is in charge of the QA Team. The role of QA Lead comes with the responsibility of assessing services and products in order to determine that he or she meets the quality standards. He or she develops, implements and manages test plans. 

Process Development Engineer

The Process Development Engineers design, implement, manufacture, mine, and other production systems using technical knowledge and expertise in the industry. They use computer modeling software to test technologies and machinery. An individual who is opting career as Process Development Engineer is responsible for developing cost-effective and efficient processes. They also monitor the production process and ensure it functions smoothly and efficiently.

AWS Solution Architect

An AWS Solution Architect is someone who specializes in developing and implementing cloud computing systems. He or she has a good understanding of the various aspects of cloud computing and can confidently deploy and manage their systems. He or she troubleshoots the issues and evaluates the risk from the third party. 

Azure Administrator

An Azure Administrator is a professional responsible for implementing, monitoring, and maintaining Azure Solutions. He or she manages cloud infrastructure service instances and various cloud servers as well as sets up public and private cloud systems. 

Computer Programmer

Careers in computer programming primarily refer to the systematic act of writing code and moreover include wider computer science areas. The word 'programmer' or 'coder' has entered into practice with the growing number of newly self-taught tech enthusiasts. Computer programming careers involve the use of designs created by software developers and engineers and transforming them into commands that can be implemented by computers. These commands result in regular usage of social media sites, word-processing applications and browsers.

Information Security Manager

Individuals in the information security manager career path involves in overseeing and controlling all aspects of computer security. The IT security manager job description includes planning and carrying out security measures to protect the business data and information from corruption, theft, unauthorised access, and deliberate attack 

ITSM Manager

Automation test engineer.

An Automation Test Engineer job involves executing automated test scripts. He or she identifies the project’s problems and troubleshoots them. The role involves documenting the defect using management tools. He or she works with the application team in order to resolve any issues arising during the testing process. 

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Essay on Birds

500 words essay on birds.

Birds are very special animals that have particular characteristics which are common amongst all of them. For instance, all of them have feathers, wings and two legs. Similarly, all birds lay eggs and are warm-blooded. They are very essential for our environment and exist in different breeds. Thus, an essay on birds will take us through their importance.

Importance of Birds

Birds have different sizes and can be as small as 2 inches and as big as 2.75 metres. For instance, bee hummingbird (smallest) and ostrich (largest). Bird’s existence dates back to 160 million years ago.

There are different types of birds that exist which vary in characteristics. For instance, there are penguins that cannot fly. Further, there are birds that are known for their intelligence like Parrots and Corvidae.

Moreover, we have peacocks which are beautiful and symbolize rain and good weather. Next, there are bats and vultures as well. Birds connect very closely to the environment and are quite intuitive.

They can predict the weather conditions and some are kept near coal mines for the prediction of a mine explosion. It is because they are sensitive to the release of high levels of carbon monoxide. They are quite social and enjoy singing as well. Birds enjoy the freedom of moving anywhere without boundaries.

My Favourite Bird

My favourite bird is the parrot. It is a colourful bird that is present in many parts of the world. It comes in many shapes, sizes and colours. Parrots are famous for having vivid colours.

Some have a single, bright colour while others have a rainbow of different colours. Parrots are usually small and medium in size that mostly eats seeds, nuts and fruits. The lifespan of a parrot depends on its species.

Larger ones like cockatoos and macaws live for 80 years while the smaller ones like lovebirds live for around 15 years. In fact, parrots are quite intelligent. They have the ability to imitate human speech which is why many people keep them as pets.

Consequently, they are also the most sought-after type of bird for commercial purposes. All over the world, people are taking measures to ensure parrots get nice treatment. Many cultures also consider them sacred.

Parrots are highly intelligent and thrive at their best when they are free and not captured in cages. I used to have a parrot when I was little and I never kept it in a cage. It used to sit on my shoulder wherever I went and never flew away. Parrots are my favourite bird.

Get the huge list of more than 500 Essay Topics and Ideas

Conclusion of the Essay on Birds

Due to hunting, poaching and disruption of the ecological balance, many birds are getting extinct. As a result, birds living in water like swans, ducks and more are also falling drastically in number because of pollution. Thus, we all must take proper measures to help the birds live and save them from extinction. Birds are vital for our ecosystem and its balance, thus we must all keep them safe.

FAQ of Essay on Birds

Question 1: How can we save birds?

Answer 1: We can save birds by doing little things like providing a source of water for them to drink. Further, we can elevate bird feeders and plant native plants and trees for them. Similarly, we can put up birdhouses and garden organically so that birds can feed on insects and worms.

Question 2: Why birds are important in our life?

Answer 2 : Birds are significant for our environment as well as for human beings as they play an important role in every living thing present on earth. Birds are one of the seed dispersers for plants who deliver us food, shelter and medicines and more.

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Toolkit > Student Experience Information > Kiwi-isms

Do you speak Kiwi?

Many international students have problems understanding New Zealanders when they first arrive in the country. Learn why this is and what you and your students can do about it. 

minute read

1. Introduction

On first arrival, many international students are surprised by the way New Zealanders – or Kiwis, as they call themselves – speak. International students are often familiar with English from American or British media, but Kiwi English is a bit different and can hold some surprises even for native English speakers coming from the USA, the UK, and neighbouring Australia. Why is this?

At first, some international students might find it difficult to understand their Kiwi teachers.

First of all, New Zealanders speak fast! They typically speak a lot faster than Americans (Robb et al, 2004) and they use some words and phrases that are distinctly Kiwi (“New Zealand-ish”). This includes words from te reo Māori , the language of the indigenous people of New Zealand. 

Kiwis also have their own way of pronouncing words that differs from accents in other English-speaking countries. Finally, the specific culture in Aotearoa New Zealand has shaped the style of speaking, that is, how Kiwis talk and behave in a conversation. Kiwis are often quite informal in their style of speaking. Sometimes, international students misunderstand this and think that New Zealanders are being impolite. Kiwis can also be indirect in comparison to other cultures. 

Let’s take a look at each of these features of New Zealand English in turn, and explore resources and strategies that can help students be well prepared for “speaking Kiwi”.

2. Unique New Zealand vocabulary

Kiwis use words that many international students might not know. Before we look at the reasons, let’s look at the following case study and answer the questions below.

Case Study: “Is this really English?”

Jiahao from China is a student at a polytechnic in New Zealand. His classmate Zack invites him to a party on the weekend at his parents’ beach house. 

Zack says: “ I’ll have a party at my parents’ bach in Waikanae. Are you keen? It’ll be a potluck, so please bring a plate. I’ll provide some kai, maybe fish and chips, and fizzy drinks. If you want alcohol, that’s sweet as, but it’s BYO, ey. And we can’t get sloshed. My whānau might pop by in the evening. And don’t forget your togs. If it’s sunny, we can go for a swim. I always have togs in the boot anyway, so I can go for a swim whenever I want.”

Jiahao is confused. He understands that he is invited to a party but not much else. Is Zack really speaking English?!

Back to you: Which of Zack’s words and expressions might be difficult to understand for Jiahao? Why are they difficult for international students? What country, region, or other language do these words and expressions come from? You will find answers to these questions as well as definitions of difficult words in the text and materials below. 

The British connection

Many international students are more familiar with American English through entertainment and media. However, New Zealand is closely connected to the United Kingdom, and New Zealanders like Jiahao’s friend Zack in the case study above use many British words and expressions: fries (USA) are called chips ; the trunk (USA) of the car is called the boot ; and when someone asks you whether you are keen , they want to know if you are interested in doing something. 

One important word for international students is college . Please note that in New Zealand, college refers to high school or secondary school – contrary to American English, where college refers to (the first years of) university. The British connection includes some youth language and slang. Zack used the word sloshed , which is similar to the American word wasted and means drunk , inebriated . 

Homegrown vocabulary

Kiwis also use a lot of “homegrown” words and expressions. That means that many words or phrases have been coined and are only used in New Zealand. Some vocabulary is also shared with New Zealand’s closest neighbour and ally Australia. Zack in the case study above used some of these regional words and expressions: togs means swimwear ; fizzy drinks are soft drinks ; and bring a plate means bring food to share . A go-to website for international students is NauMai NZ, for example for information on Kiwi English: NauMai NZ – Speaking New Zealand English .

Both New Zealanders and Australians have a habit of shortening words; for example, brekkie is short for breakfast , and a cuppa means a cup of (tea), as in: “Want some brekkie?” – “I’ll only have a quick cuppa. I’m late for work.” Kiwis and Aussies (Australians) also like to use initialisms – words created from the first letter of each word in a phrase pronounced separately – such as BYO ( b ring y our o wn … alcohol) and DIY ( d o i t y ourself … instead of hiring someone to do it for you). 

“In my first few weeks in New Zealand, I went to a café and ordered a cappuccino. The waiter said: ‘Sweet as.’ I thought: ‘How rude! He made an inappropriate comment about my butt!’ I told a friend and she said: ‘No! Not ‘sweet ass’! In New Zealand people say ‘sweet as’ when they want to say ‘okay’ or ‘very good’.”

Matilde, university student from Canada

Māori vocabulary

While the most-widely spoken language in New Zealand is English, te reo Māori – the language of the indigenous people of New Zealand – is also an official language, and most people use some Māori words when speaking English. Words like whānau (family), kai (food), or hui (meeting) are commonly used by most New Zealanders. People also frequently use Māori greetings such as kia ora (hello), mōrena (good morning), or tēnā koutou (hello everyone). 

If you wonder how to pronounce Māori words, have a look at this webpage by the New Zealand Ministry of Education: Pronunciation Guide . To hear the correct pronunciation, you can use the online Te Aka Māori Dictionary: Māori Dictionary . A beautiful introduction to the Māori language is one of Maisey Rika’s music videos (YouTube): Tangaroa Whakamautai . 

Younger students might be interested in watching Disney’s Moana in te reo Māori. To get a taste, they can listen to all the songs in te reo Māori on Youtube (and on other platforms), starting with: You’re welcome! / Mihi mai rā! . Teenagers might prefer Lorde and her 2021 album: Lorde - Te Ao Mārama .

60 common Kiwi-isms

Here is a printable mini dictionary for you and your students with 60 essential words and expressions in Kiwi English and te reo Māori: 60 common Kiwi-isms . This mini dictionary explains some of the words Zack used in the case study above, such as potluck , whānau and kai .

If you want to test your knowledge of Kiwi English and te reo Māori, take the quiz below. You can also look words up in the mini dictionary above.

Instructions: 

Do you speak Kiwi? Test your knowledge of New Zealand English and essential Māori words.

In each of the following sentences, one word is missing. Select the correct Kiwi word from the choices below the sentence.

Question 1: 

“Party at our house! Bring a _____ , please. Something savoury would be best. A lot of people already said that they’ll bring dessert.”

Feedback: The correct answer is bring a plate . It means, please bring food to share with several people. A ute is a pickup truck, and a jumper is a (woolly) sweater.

Question 2:

“Dwayne The Rock Johnson is an ordinary, down-to-Earth _____, despite being a famous movie star!”

Feedback: The correct answer is bloke . A bloke is a normal man, a guy, a chap. A crayfish is a small lobster, and a bach is a – usually modest – holiday house.

Question 3:

“Hi Tamsin! How are you?” – “Kia _____ , Malcolm! I’m doing great, thank you.”

Feedback: The correct answer is Kia ora! . This Māori greeting is widely used in the sense of an informal hi or hello . Kia tūpato! means Be careful! , and Kia kaha! means Stay strong! Keep going! .

Question 4:

“I quit smoking two months ago. I haven’t touched a cigarette since.” – “_____ on ya, mate! That’s awesome!”

Feedback: The correct answer is Good on ya! . It means Good job! Well done! Congratulations! . Ta! is a quick, informal way to say Thanks! .

Question 5: ‍

This toilet is for _____ only. 

Feedback: The correct answer is wāhine , which is a Māori word for woman. Tāne means man, and Morena! means Good morning! . By the way, wharepaku means toilet in te reo Māori.

Question 6:

“I am moving house. How can I transport all the big furniture?” – “No ____ , mate. I have a ute. We can put the furniture on the back, and I’ll drive them to your new place.”

Feedback: The correct answer is No worries! . This is an essential phrase in New Zealand, and students will hear it all the time. It means no problem or don’t worry about it . Many Kiwis also say no worries in response to an apology: “Did I just step on your foot? I am so sorry!” - “No worries.” No way! means A bsolutely not! . You can say no wonder , when you are no longer surprised about something because you have found out why it is happening. For example: “No wonder Jenny can’t sleep at night. She drinks two cups of coffee after dinner!”

Question 7:

“I lost my job!” – “Kia  _______! Stay strong, my friend.”

Feedback: The correct answer is Kia kaha! . It means S tay strong! Keep going! and is said to encourage someone. Kia ora is an informal greeting that many New Zealanders say every day instead of hello , and Kia tūpato! means Be careful! . 

Question 8:

“Let’s get up really early tomorrow and go tramping!” – “  _____ , nah. I’d rather sleep in.”

Feedback: The correct answer is Yeah, nah . It’s a very Kiwi way of disagreeing, by first showing some polite acknowledgement but then saying a careful no . Kai is a Māori word for food, and heaps means a lot . 

Question 9:

“I studied all night for the exam! I haven’t slept at all! Now I am _____ . I just want to sleep.”

Feedback: The correct answer is knackered . It means tired or exhausted . Stoked means excited , and kaimoana is a Māori word for seafood or shellfish .

Question 10:

“I passed my practical driver license test!” – “Ka _____ ! Well done!”

Feedback: The correct answer is Ka pai! , which means Well done! Good job! . Ka kite (anō)! , means See you (later)! . Ka Hao is the name of a Youth Choir from New Zealand. You can listen to their album Ka Hao: One Tira, One Voice on the streaming service of your choice. Check out this music video on YouTube: Ka Hao - 35 (feat. Rob Ruha) .

Ka pai! Well done! Share the mini dictionary “60 common Kiwi-isms” with your students, so they can practice speaking Kiwi as well.

3. The Kiwi accent

When international students first arrive in New Zealand, they might initially struggle with the way Kiwis pronounce English. This is because New Zealanders have a distinct accent. This accent has developed over time, ever since the first English speakers arrived in Aotearoa. It has been influenced by British English varieties as well as contact with other languages, in particular te reo Māori. The Kiwi accent is no better or worse than any other English accents – but it is a little different from British or American varieties. Have a look at the following scenario and answer the questions below.

Case study: “What is the Prime Minister saying?!”

Minh has recently arrived from Vietnam to attend high school in New Zealand. For an assignment in her class on global citizenship, she is listening to a speech given by the Prime Minister of New Zealand, Jacinda Ardern, at the General Assembly of the United Nations (UN) in 2019. In Vietnam, Minh had very good grades in English but when she listens to Jacinda’s speech, she has problems understanding some of the words. What is the Prime Minister saying?! She turns on the subtitles and notices that she knows all the words, but she doesn’t always recognise them when she hears them. 

Back to you: Watch the video clip (0:00 to 0:54) of Prime Minister Ardern addressing the UN Assembly: Jacinda Ardern addresses the UN General Assembly . Note how she pronounces the words president , secretary , first , world , better , people . Would you pronounce these words differently? How does Jacinda’s pronunciation differ from that of mainstream American and also British speakers? You will find answers to these questions in the text and materials below.

A, E, I, U - Kiwi vowels have changed

One main reason why New Zealand English sounds different from American but also British and even Australian English lies in the different vowel sounds. Vowels are the sounds that you can sing, that is: a, e, i, o, and u. Many of these sounds are different in New Zealand English. This change – or vowel shift – has happened over time and follows a regular pattern.

To understand what happened to the New Zealand vowels, we can look at the letters that commonly represent some of these vowel sounds: A, E, I, U. In New Zealand, their pronunciation has shifted in – roughly – the following way:

In other words, the word pat is pronounced more like pet , while the word pet sounds more like pit in New Zealand. And finally, pit sounds more like putt . In Prime Minister Ardern’s speech in the case study above, president sounded more like “prisidint ” ; secretary sounded more like “sicritery”; and better sounded a bit like “bitter”. The news network Re: News has created a helpful video essay to explain these changes: Re: News – How the Kiwi accent evolved . To see a few more examples of these vowel changes, open the table below.

“An older woman at church told me about her friend. I heard that her friend’s name was ‘Piggy’. I thought that’s a strange nickname. I only later realised that her friend’s name was probably ‘Peggy’. And a little boy at church said to his dad: ‘I want my bear!’ I heard ‘beer’ and was a bit shocked that small children drink alcohol in New Zealand. Now I know: the ‘eh’ sound is more like an ‘ee’ sound in New Zealand.”

As in Malia’s story above, these different vowel sounds can lead to misunderstandings. To international visitors, bear sounds more like beer , air like ear , peg like pig , pig like pug , and bed like bid or beard . New Zealanders see this problem with a sense of humour and joke about their own accent. They are making fun of it in TV commercials like this one for the supermarket chain Pak‘nSave: Bottle of bear . Or check out this Christmas commercial by the airline Air New Zealand: A Very Merry Mistake .

Consonant sounds in Kiwi English

Some consonants are also pronounced a bit differently from other English accents. Consonants are the sounds in a language that you cannot easily sing. To produce a consonant such as t, p, k, d, b, g or s – to name just a few, you typically close your mouth a little bit and create a hissing sound – sssss or ffff – or you stop the air coming out of your mouth completely for a moment before letting it out again, creating an “explosion” – for example for p or t . 

One consonant that can be different in Kiwi English is the “l”. You might have noticed this, when you heard Prime Minister Ardern say the word people . At the end of words or syllables after a vowel, it often sounds more like “uh”. People sound a bit like peo-puh . When a Kiwi says April , it sounds a bit like Apruh , and school sounds a bit like schooh . A sentence like “I feel fine” might sound a bit like “I feeuh fine”. 

More British than American

If you have watched the Re: News video essay recommended above – How the Kiwi accent evolved , you know that New Zealand English is strongly influenced by British English. A large part of the early European settlers came from the United Kingdom, and New Zealand was a British colony and domain for over 100 years. Today, Queen Elizabeth II is still the official head of state of New Zealand, and ties between New Zealand and Great Britain remain close. For this reason, New Zealanders sound a bit British when it comes, for example, to sounds like:

• “r” : While you can hear it clearly at the beginning of words or syllables like R ichard or Ha- rr y, you can barely hear it at the end or in the middle of words or syllables. Most Kiwis – just like many British English speakers – pronounce the word car a bit like “caa” and the word farm like “faam”. The word bird is pronounced without the r-sound. You might have noticed Prime Minister Ardern’s pronunciation in her speech at the UN General Assembly of the words first and world without a clear r-sound.
• “a”: Kiwis pronounce can’t and tomato like “caan’t” and “tomaato – just like most British do.

Uptalk - Are you asking me or telling me?

A final feature of New Zealand English that international students might wonder about is so-called ‘uptalk’. Uptalk is defined as:

“... a manner of speaking in which declarative sentences are uttered with rising intonation at the end, as if they were questions.”

( Oxford Learner’s Dictionaries )

When young Kiwis tell a story, they often sound a bit like they are asking a series of questions, because they let their voice go up instead of down at the end of a sentence: “And then I met my friend Kara? We ate ice-cream and had a coffee? …” You can get an impression of what that sounds like, if you listen to the character Korg in Marvel’s 2017 film Thor: Ragnarok , played by Kiwi actor and director Taika Waititi.

You might have heard people expressing negative views about uptalk. They say that it is unprofessional and that speakers sound insecure and don’t know what they want to say. However, in New Zealand (and in other countries), uptalk is a common feature of everyday language and doesn’t raise any eyebrows. Nobody thinks that speakers using uptalk are insecure. Most people don’t even notice the rising intonation until someone points it out to them. And research has shown that uptalk – also sometimes called high-rising terminal (HRT) – can be a sign of politeness and solidarity towards the listener (Britain, 1992). 

Still, international students might initially be confused and wonder: Are you asking me or telling me? Therefore, knowing about uptalk can avoid some confusion.

Pop Culture Tip 

 To get a better idea of what Kiwi English sounds like, here are a few film, TV, and audiobook tips for your students: 

• Hunt for the Wilderpeople (film, 2016): Set in New Zealand, you can hear older and younger speakers of both Pākehā Kiwi English and Māori-accented English.
• Thor: Ragnarok (film, 2017): In this Hollywood blockbuster, the character Korg is voiced by New Zealand director/actor Taika Waititi.
• Flight of the Conchords (TV series, 2007-2009): In two seasons, we follow the life of a Kiwi band trying to become famous in the USA. You can compare their Kiwi accents with the accents of American characters.
• The Changeover (fantasy thriller for older teenagers, 2019): In this supernatural coming-of-age story – based on the book by popular Kiwi writer Margaret Mahy – a teenager must become a witch to save her little brother. Rated M (16+) due to frightening scenes. ‍
• NZ audiobooks for young listeners: RNZ - Audiobooks for Teenagers .

4. Kiwis are pretty informal, but …

Let’s start the discussion of Kiwi informality with a short case study.

Case study: Informality in New Zealand

Malaysian PhD student Jackie arrived in Auckland three weeks ago. This morning she has her first meeting with her supervisor, Professor Susan Smith. They meet in Professor Smith’s office.

Jackie: Good morning, Professor Smith. 

Susie: G’day, Jackie. Please, call me Susie. Let’s go to a café and have our meeting there. I need a cuppa. It’s my shout.

In the cafe, they sit down at a table and start discussing Jackie’s PhD work. 

Susie: So, how’s it going with your literature search, Jackie?

Jackie: To be honest, I am struggling a bit. I don’t really know how to start.

Susie: Oh, dear, for three weeks? Why didn’t you send me an email? Please tell me if you need help.

Back to you: What cultural differences can you spot between Jackie and Susie in this conversation? You will find answers to this question in the text and materials below.

New Zealanders often speak and interact in an informal, casual way.

One reason for this informal way of speaking is that Kiwis value equality in society. They find it important that everybody gets treated the same, whether they are a student or a professor, an employee or a CEO. The rich and powerful are not seen as “better”; they are simply seen as ‘better off’, that is, as having an advantage, which, however, doesn’t make them deserving of more respect or privileges. To read more about New Zealand culture and beliefs, please read our topic page “ Understand New Zealand’s cultural values ” .

Everyone is on a first-name basis

This egalitarian attitude also shows in the way Kiwis speak. New Zealanders don’t like “to put on airs”, even in the language they use. For example, you can hear all Kiwis, from children to politicians, use words that we marked as informal in our Survival Dictionary, such as “heaps” or “Good on ya!”. Another example is that Kiwis – including the Prime Minister – often address each other by their first name or even by a nickname. In the case study above, Professor Smith asks PhD student Jackie to call her Susie. She uses informal language like G’day (Good Day) and cuppa (cup of tea or coffee), and she invites Jackie to a café to create a more relaxed, informal atmosphere. 

Have a look at this episode of the animated series Lifeswap by Steffen Kreft and Connor Williams: Just Sharon . In the video, German exchange student Jörg is surprised by the lack of formality in New Zealand. (You can find more information on Lifeswap and all episodes on the website of the Goethe Institut New Zealand: Lifeswap Series .)

“[In New Zealand,] everyone is on a first-name basis. The plumber will arrive and say something like ‘Well, John (or Ann), what’s the problem?’ It is not a case of being familiar, but of not standing on ceremony.”

Culture Smart! New Zealand, page 54

Some international students might consider the use of the first name for teachers or older people to be impolite or disrespectful, but in the New Zealand context it isn’t. Politeness does not follow the same rules around the world but can differ from culture to culture and also from group to group. In New Zealand, politeness and respect are expressed in other ways than by stressing social hierarchy. For example, Kiwis use “please” and “thank you” a lot. They apologise frequently, even if they are not at fault, and they engage in friendly small talk before getting down to business.

“My teacher says: ‘Call me Alice.’ But I call her ‘teacher’. Everything else feels wrong. I cannot call my teacher by her first name. That’s so rude! She is the teacher!”

Informality in the classroom

Many international students report finding the interactions between students and teachers perplexing. Kiwi students and teachers often casually chat and laugh together. This is due to a general egalitarian attitude: education is seen as a collaborative process. Students and teachers work together as – somewhat unequal – partners to develop ideas and to build knowledge. Secondary teacher Susan summarises this teaching style in New Zealand in a 30-second video by Think New - Study with New Zealand : What is the teaching style at New Zealand schools?

In New Zealand, students also tend to ask many questions in class. They debate and disagree and even point out when the teacher has made a mistake. International students report – often with astonishment – that this behaviour is even encouraged and rewarded with positive feedback and good grades. 

Students asking questions and expressing their own ideas in class are not seen as disrespectful in New Zealand (as long as it is done in a friendly, polite way). Teaching and learning follow a Western tradition that encourages students to inquire and to challenge authority and old ideas. If you want to learn more about education in New Zealand, have a look at our project “ Understand New Zealand’s education system ”. 

Please note that formality depends on the particular context and situation. Sometimes, international university students might miss the mark and be too informal. For your students, here is a printable introduction to communication etiquette at university and other tertiary institutions in New Zealand: How to communicate at tertiary institutions.

Some simple rules

As the example around communication at tertiary institutions shows, formality and politeness can be tricky, and they depend on the particular context and situation. If international students are unsure how to behave, the following three rules might come in handy (click on each rule to access more information):

Observe other people.

Observe other people around you and follow their example

Err on the side of politeness.

Err on the side of politeness and formality. It is better to come across as a bit stiff and overly polite than to appear rude.

New Zealanders are generally happy to help and answer questions. If you don’t know how to dress for an event or how to  behave in a particular situation, ask a Kiwi.

One example where these rules apply is swearing. New Zealanders tend to use more swear words than other nationals. The SBS Cultural Atlas explains: “... it is normal to hear people cuss at some point during a conversation. Television programmes are less censored as well, thus mainstream society is largely desensitised to many words that foreigners may find vulgar” ( Cultural Atlas – Communication – Swearing ).  

While swearing is somewhat normal in New Zealand, caution is recommended. For example, in more formal settings and when talking to older New Zealanders, curse words might be seen as highly offensive. International students should observe their environment carefully before using “colourful language”.

Formality in Māori contexts

Different rules of politeness can apply when students find themselves in Māori-medium and Māori-cultural contexts. For example, a (first) visit to a marae (a Māori communal ground) and its wharenui (meeting house) follows a set protocol. Usually, international students will receive instructions before visiting a marae . If not, they should inquire about the protocol. To learn more about Māori cultural values, including protocol, have a look at our project “ New Zealand – A country with more than one culture ” . 

Additional resources for you and your students

Here are a few additional resources that you and your students might find helpful to learn more about politeness and formality in New Zealand:

• SBS Cultural Atlas: New Zealand – Communication
• SBS Cultural Atlas: New Zealand – Etiquette  
• Lifeswap animated video: Just Sharon (can also be found on Vimeo)

Te Ara – The Encyclopedia of New Zealand: Manners and Social Behaviour

5. Kiwis are possibly a bit indirect

New Zealanders can be somewhat indirect communicators, especially when making a request, expressing disagreement, or being critical. Students from more direct cultures might find this challenging. While they feel that a critical statement is focused on the issue at hand, a Kiwi might take their criticism as a personal attack. 

As part of a small nation of only five million, where everybody you meet seems to be a friend’s cousin, Kiwis try to maintain positive relations. They try to avoid conflict and direct confrontation. So, instead of giving orders such as “Open the window, please!”, they tend to prefer asking more indirect questions like “Could someone open the window, please?”. Rather than saying a clear “No!”, Kiwis might say things like not sure , probably not , or yeah, nah . Conversations are frequently sprinkled with words like maybe , somewhat , or possibly to “soften the blow” of a demand or critical point. And rather than saying you when giving instructions, they might say we or someone . 

Kiwi indirectness is humorously explained in this animated Lifeswap video (YouTube): The tea towel stinks . Another helpful resource that you might want to recommend to your students is this short interactive communication test provided by Immigration New Zealand: Worktalk – Test your communication skills . 

Please note that communication styles can be perceived differently by students from different cultural backgrounds: Students from cultures with generally more indirect communication styles might find that New Zealanders can actually be quite direct. By contrast, students used to very direct communication might be puzzled by the vague and roundabout way of expressing disagreement or criticism in New Zealand.

6. Repair strategies: What can students do if they don’t understand?

Students preparing to study in New Zealand – whether in the country or online – might ask you for advice about how to deal with language problems. The most valuable tip for international students with comprehension problems is: Ask! New Zealanders are usually very open and friendly, and they are happy to help. In New Zealand education institutions, teachers want to know when students don’t understand, and they see it as their job to answer questions and help students. 

It is not seen as problematic or shameful to ask questions in New Zealand. Jessica from Colombia describes her experiences with helpful Kiwis in a short video: Do New Zealanders help international students?  

For more tips on what international students can do if they don’t understand, please see (and share with your students) this printable cheat sheet: What can I do if I don’t understand?  

7. Test your knowledge: A case study

Here is a case study to test your knowledge. It is based on the experiences and questions of real international students in New Zealand. However, names in all our case studies are fictional. In some cases, we have combined stories reported by several students to create one relevant case study. 

Before looking at the suggested answer, please think about what advice you would give the student. Then compare your answer with the provided response. Please note that there are many ways of solving the described issues and that the answer provided here for each case study is just one of many possible responses.

Case study: “I don’t understand what my lecturer is talking about”

Dae-Hyun, a university student from South Korea, asks you for help:

“I am taking a pretty difficult class at university. I have a lot of problems understanding what the lecturer is talking about, but I don’t want to ask - especially in front of the whole class. I also have a tutorial every week with a PhD student as my tutor. We do a lot of practical work, and we discuss the homework. I usually don’t say much in the tutorial. I wait what the other students say and write down their answers. I am ashamed, and I don’t want the teachers and the other students to know that I understand so little. What can I do? I might fail this class if I don’t find a way to understand things better!”

What advice would you give Dae-Hyun?

Suggested answer:

Dae-Hyun, let me start by giving you this handout with some strategies that you can use to deal with communication problems: What can I do if I don’t understand? Now, let’s look at some useful strategies. The most important thing is to ask! You can talk to your lecturer and to the tutor. In New Zealand, teachers want to know when their students don’t understand the class content. They see it as their job to help. If you feel embarrassed, you can talk to your teachers after class or you can send them an email. However, it is likely that other students are also struggling and are too shy to ask. They will likely be grateful if you step up and ask in class. You could also ask your lecturer if you could record the lesson so that you can listen more than once. And you could meet with other students and compare notes and discuss things that they didn’t understand. If the lecturer has asked you to do readings before the lesson, you should make sure to read them. You could even ask for additional materials to prepare before class.  If you already know something about the topic of the upcoming lesson and the vocabulary that will be used in class, it will be easier for you to understand the lecture. Another idea: you can make an appointment with learning support services. All tertiary institutions offer such support. 

Maybe you struggle with the Kiwi accent. You will get used to it soon. In the meantime, if you want some extra practice listening to Kiwi English, you can:

• Listen to ESL News New Zealan d, that is, current news read slowly and clearly by a Kiwi, using simple vocabulary: ESL News .
• Watch Kiwi TV for free on demand: TVNZ on Demand . Make sure that you choose something local.
• Watch New Zealand films with Kiwi actors, for example: Hunt for the Wilderpeople (comedy), The Changeover (fantasy thriller), What we do in the Shadows (horror mockumentary), Pork Pie (comedy), Housebound (horror), The Dark Horse (drama), Whale Rider (drama), or My Wedding and other Secrets (romantic comedy).
• Listen to audiobooks read by New Zealanders: RNZ - Audiobooks for Teenagers .

In this project, we have discussed how New Zealanders talk and what comprehension problems international students might encounter when they arrive in Aotearoa. We have highlighted important words frequently used in New Zealand – some are British, some are exclusively New Zealand English, and some are Māori. We have outlined how and why Kiwi pronunciation (and intonation) is different from other English accents. 

We have also discussed some cultural “language behaviours”. More specifically, we have explained that Kiwis are often fairly informal. They use relaxed, casual language even with their teacher, professor, or their boss, and they often address other people – even the Prime Minister – by their first name. However, they still have their own ways of expressing politeness and respect, and international students should be aware of those. New Zealanders are also somewhat indirect and often talk in a “roundabout” way when they want to make a request or want to point out a problem. 

We introduced some helpful resources and tips on what students can do if they don’t understand New Zealanders – at home, at school, in the shop – or if they feel that they themselves are not understood. Finally, we provided a case study  for you to test your knowledge on how to support students struggling with the Kiwi language and the ways New Zealanders interact. 

Heoi anō tāku mō nāianei - that’s all for now!

9. References

Britain, D. (1992). Linguistic change in intonation: The use of high rising terminals in New Zealand English. Language Variation and Change, 4. 77-104.

Robb, M. P., Maclagan, M. A. & Chen, Y. (2004). Speaking rates of American and New Zealand varieties of English. Clinical Linguistics & Phonetics 18(1), 1-15.

All other references included as hyperlinks in the text