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“Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this continent a new nation." 1 Let’s pause and acknowledge the flashbacks to the grueling process of memorizing President Abraham Lincoln ’s famous speech “The Gettysburg Address ” (1863) in elementary or middle school. At the time, it wasn’t easy to understand the point of the assignment, but with age comes wisdom. More exposure to historical speeches shows their impact on society, including literature. Persuasive speeches have taken nations to war and changed moral views. Evaluating famous speeches teaches critical thinking and allows us to recognize the motives behind what our leaders tell us.

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Speech definition in literature

In literature, a speech is a public discourse performed by an orator. In other words, a person uses a public forum to inform, persuade, or entertain a group of people. Speeches help create a space for people to discuss policies that affect society, either after the decision or during the decision-making process. When a speech is widely believed to be particularly moving, it becomes classified as a work of literature.

History of public speaking

Egyptians were the first known society to formulate guidelines for effective public speaking. They believed speeches should focus on listening as much as speaking and that orators should carefully choose their words, emphasizing concepts with a sense of permanency. Their ideas about rhetoric mirrored their culture, as later eras would as well.

At its most basic, rhetoric is how we communicate. The discussion around a formal definition of rhetoric continues today because the ways we communicate change. Rhetorical analysis concentrated on oral and written communication for much of history, but visual media is now included in rhetorical studies. Applying rhetorical rules effectively in a speech requires language skills, cultural knowledge, and a working understanding of the purpose, context, and audience.

Classical Period (500-400 BC)

Ancient Greece picked up where the Egyptians left off, and as political participation was highly valued, rhetoric became a serious philosophical study.

Roman Era (30 BC-476 AD)

The Greeks’ eloquence influenced the Romans, so they began to devise their own rules of rhetoric. Their speeches included humor and diversions to create interest for the audience.

Medieval Era (400 AD-1400 AD)

Popular thought during the Medieval era considered rhetoric a way to manipulate and hide the truth. Speeches were mainly religious in nature.

Renaissance Period (1400-1600 AD)

As this period saw an increase in academic study, scholars began looking back at previous forms of speech-making. There was an increased focus on style and logic over rhetoric. Other scholars felt morality and ethics were essential parts of an effective speech.

Enlightenment Period (1600-1800 AD)

The Enlightenment took the best of the past and applied it to the present. Philosophers studied persuasiveness and rhetoric through the lens of scientific and moral reasoning. The Enlightenment period combined Rhetoric inspired by the Classical Era with new ideas about how speech delivery influenced audiences.

New School (1900-Today)

Classical rhetoric informs modern theories. Thanks to technology, speeches can now be pre-recorded and delivered over the internet in addition to live events. Podcasts, Ted Talks, YouTube, and video conferences are all ways modern speeches are delivered.

Types of speeches

There are three broad types of speeches:

• Entertaining: Speeches that deliver a message by stimulating their audience using humor or drama. Entertaining speeches are typical at special events such as weddings.
• A definition speech explains the main points of a topic so an audience will understand it better.
• A demonstration speech explains how something works.
• An explanatory speech usually uses statistics or other data types to describe a topic.
• A descriptive speech uses words to paint a picture of a subject.
• Persuasive: Speeches that try to influence an audience to believe or do something.

Persuasive speeches

Speeches that become known as works of literature are usually persuasive. The best way to persuade an audience has been studied since the Egyptians laid a foundation for rhetoric. However, philosophers throughout history have offered different theories regarding the most effective ways to use rhetoric to persuade an audience. As a result, much of what is taught today is actually thousands of years old.

Marcus Tullius Cicero of Ancient Rome established a five-step process for writing a persuasive speech that is still widely respected and used, called the Five Canons of Rhetoric (50 BC):

• Invention: How someone develops their idea. For example, to get ready for a political debate, a candidate will brainstorm about the main points they want to try to make.
• Arrangement: Deciding how the orator should organize the speech. Rather than diving right into the solution to a civil rights issue, a speechwriter first introduces the problem, so the audience knows why they’re supposed to act.
• Style: Language choices within the speech. For example, an orator should know their audience well enough to know whether or not humor will be appropriate.
• Memory: the act of memorizing a speech. To see why this is important, consider political leaders' consequences when they slip up mid-speech or misread words on a teleprompter.
• Delivery: How an orator presents the speech to the audience. People tend to trust a speaker who uses direct eye contact more than one who seems distracted because they keep looking down or off to the side.

Many of these guidelines can also be helpful when writing a paper.

Persuasive speech topics

Topics of a persuasive speech usually boil down to one of three types of debatable points:

• For example, the specific details surrounding a historical event can sometimes be debated.
• For example, public health is a policy issue.
• For example, a speaker's arguments for or against the death penalty are influenced by their values.

Evaluating speeches

A speech analysis essay examines how successfully a speech uses rhetorical devices to appeal to its audience.

The Ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle established a formula known as the rhetorical triangle that balances three characteristics that work together to create a powerful speech:

• Logos (Word): In a speech, logos is the appeal to logic. In an analysis, look at how well the speech argues its main points.
• Ethos (Character): Ethos appeals to character, meaning it scrutinizes the reliability of the speech’s author. Ethos evaluates whether the speaker’s argument is credible.
• Pathos (Sympathy): Pathos appeals to the audience’s emotions. A speech analysis essay delves into the beliefs that underlie the argument and how they resonate with the audience.

Evaluate a speech using the rhetorical triangle and these guidelines:

What is the purpose of the speech?

Who is the target audience, and how does the speech appeal to them?

Does the speech back its claims with reliable proof?

Who is the speaker, and what is their effect on the speech?

How and where was the speech delivered?

Was the speech compelling? Why or why not?

Famous speeches in English Literature

Some speeches transcend their moment in time to become famous examples of the genre that continue to inspire others.

Demosthenes “Third Philippic” (341 BC)

Demosthenes was an Ancient Greek orator whose skills impressed Cicero three hundred years later. “Third Philippic” is the third speech Demosthenes made to his fellow Athenians to persuade them to go to war against Phillip of Macedon, who was creeping into their territory. After the speech, the Athenian Assembly immediately decided it was time to act.

Demosthenes studied for years to become one of the most respected orators in Athens (Ethos).

[I]n fact it is your indifference and carelessness that Phillip has conquered; your city he has not conquered. Nor have you been defeated–no! You have not even made a move. 2

Demosthenes calls out the Assembly’s previous inaction, which appealed to their sense of duty (pathos).

If we are going to wait for him to acknowledge a state of war with us, we are indeed the simplest of mortals; for even if he marches straight against Attica and the Piraeus, he will not admit it, if we may judge from his treatment of the other states. 2

Demosthenes provides proof of Phillip’s aggressive and devious behavior against other communities to convince the Assembly (logos).

George Washington “1783 Resignation Speech” (December 23, 1783)

George Washington commanded the Continental Army in the Revolutionary War and became the United States’ first President. He wrote this speech after the Revolutionary War was over and he had completed the duty bestowed on him.

One of the things Washington is famous for is that he didn’t seek out the offices he held. Instead, people saw his leadership qualities and asked him to serve. And when the job was done, Washington respectfully stepped away to let someone else take over (ethos).

The Successful termination of the War has verified the most sanguine expectations, and my gratitude for the interposition of Providence, and the assistance I have received from my Countrymen, encreases with every review of the momentous contest. 3

Washington compliments the men he fought with and thanks God for their success, which is even better than the most optimistic expectations as an appeal to Congress’s peace of mind (pathos).

Having now finished the work assigned to me, I retire from the great theatre of Action. 3

He logically argues that his job is complete because the war is won, so he is ready to stand aside (logos).

Sojourner Truth “Ain’t I A Woman?” (1851)

Sojourner Truth was a formerly enslaved person who became an activist. She gave the speech “Ain’t I A Woman?” at the Women’s Convention in Akron, Ohio, which calls out popular beliefs about race and gender.

Truth’s autobiography, The Narrative of Sojourner Truth (1850), brought her national attention, and she began speaking on various topics. She helped enslaved people escape slavery, and when the Civil War started, she encouraged African American men to help fight with the Union (Ethos).

I have borne thirteen children, and seen most all sold off to slavery, and when I cried out with my mother’s grief, none but Jesus heard me! 4

Truth appeals to the audience’s beliefs about motherly love to question why her race sets her apart as deserving the right to vote along with other women (pathos).

Look at my arm! I have ploughed and planted, and gathered into barns, and no man could head me! . . . I could work as much and eat as much as a man–when I could get it–and bear the lash as well! 4

Truth argues that she has done as much work as any man, so if men can vote because they work, she should be allowed to vote also (logos).

Literary speeches meld rhetorical skills with creative writing. They transport the reader to their moment in history and inspire future generations to act. Literary speeches act as a time capsule that allows a glimpse into a famous (or infamous) person's thoughts and emotions and helps readers better understand their influence on society.

Speeches - Key takeaways

• When a speech is especially thought-provoking, it can become classified as a work of literature.
• Rhetoric looks at how we communicate. Rhetorical study requires language skills, cultural knowledge, and a working understanding of the purpose, context, and audience.
• Speeches that become works of literature are typically persuasive. Persuasive speech topics can be categorized as issues of fact, issues of policy, or issues of value.
• When evaluating a speech, examine its use of pathos, logos, and ethos.
• Great literary speeches invoke an emotional response thousands of years after they were written.
• Lincoln, Abraham. 1863 "The Gettysburg Address ." Abraham Lincoln Online. 2020
• Demosthenes. 341 BC "Third Philippic." The Bibliotheke.
• Washington, George. 1783 "Washington's Address to Congress Resigning His Commission." National Archives.
• Truth, Sojourner. 1851 "Ain't I A Woman?" Lit2Go
• Fig. 1: Poster announcing a lecture of Frederick Douglass, Public Domain, (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Poster_announcing_a_lecture_of_Frederick_Douglass.jpg)

Frequently Asked Questions about Speeches

--> what is speech in literature.

In literature, a speech is a public discourse performed by an orator. In other words, a person uses a public forum to inform, persuade, or entertain a group of people. When a speech is widely believed to be particularly moving, it becomes classified as a work of literature. 

--> What are the three main types of speeches?

The three main types of speeches are:

• Entertaining
• Informative

--> What are the four types of informative speeches?

The four types of informative speeches are:

• Demonstration
• Explanatory
• Descriptive

--> What is a speech analysis essay?

A speech analysis essay examines how successfully a speech uses rhetorical devices to appeal to its audience.  

--> What are some examples of famous speeches?

Some examples of famous speeches are:

• Demosthenes's "Third Philippic" (341 BC)
• George Washington's "Washington's Address to Congress Resigning His Commission" (1783)
• Sojourner Truth's "Ain't I A Woman?" (1851)

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What is Malcolm X's legacy?

Why was "The Ballot or the Bullet" important?

What parts of African American society did Malcolm X want them to control?

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Who was Malcolm X?

Malcolm X was a leader in the Civil Rights Movement who was known for his outspoken beliefs regarding self-defense among the African American community and for holding white Americans accountable for the struggles of African Americans.

Why did Malcolm X change his last name?

Malcolm X changed his name from Little to X in honor of his unknown African surname when he joined the Nation of Islam.

What did Malcolm X believe as a Nation of Islam member?

While Malcolm X was a member of the Nation of Islam, he believed African Americans should separate themselves from white American society and form institutions run by African Americans. 

What was Malcolm X's response to the accusation that the Nation of Islam spread a message of hate?

In response to being accused that the Nation of Islam spread a hateful message, Malcolm X said, "Before you come asking Mr. Muhammad does he teach hate, you should ask yourself who taught you to hate being what God made you." 

True or False: Malcolm X founded the Organization of African Unity (OAU).

False. Malcolm X was inspired by the OAU to found his own Pan-African group, the Organization of Afro-American Unity (OAAU).

What was The Autobiography of Malcolm X about?

The Autobiography of Malcolm X chronicles Malcolm's life through his struggles as an African American man in the United States. The autobiography discusses how his Islamic faith allowed Malcolm to transform his anger into a desire to secure human rights for himself and others. 

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figurative language

What is figurative language definition, usage, and literary examples, figurative language definition.

Figurative language  (fih-gyur-EH-tiv LANE-gwidge) refers to words, phrases, and sentences that go beyond their literal meaning to add layers of interpretation to the audience’s understanding. Instead of relying solely on the dictionary definition of words, figurative language adds nuance,  context ,  imagery , association, and other heightened effects to written or spoken phrasing.

The word  figurative  first appeared in English in the late 14th century and derived from the Old French  figuratif , which means “metaphorical.” The Old French originates in the Latin  figurare , which means “to form, shape.” These elements of  metaphor  and forming or shaping still resonate in the term  figurative language  as it is used today. The connection of  figurative  with speech and language also appeared in English in the late 14th century and indicated “allegorical, metaphoric, involving figures of speech,” which is still how the term is used.

Figurative Language and Figures of Speech

Figurative language can broadly be defined as language that employs  figures of speech . Figures of speech are rhetorical devices that either play with the arrangement of words or with the meaning of words. All figures of speech fall into one of two categories: schemes and tropes.

Schemes play with the mechanics of language and often involve shifts in the arrangement, order, or patterns of words and phrases. This can be achieved through repetition of letters, words, or phrases; the equal balancing of phrases or sentences through identical grammatical structures; shifting the expected order of words or phrases; and/or omitting expected words or punctuation. Some commonly employed schemes are  alliteration , assonance, chiasmus, consonance, and parallelism.

Tropes create meaning beyond words’ literal definitions. They deviate from expected meanings to add greater complexity using association, comparison, and word play. Some common tropes include  hyperbole ,  metaphor , metonymy, personification,  simile , and synecdoche.

Types of Figurative Language

There are many ways to produce figurative language. Some of the most common, many of which also qualify as figures of speech, include:

• Alliteration

This is the repetition of the same sound in a short sequence of words, which creates musical effects in writing. Examples of alliteration occur in brand names, such as Kit Kat, Rolls Royce, Best Buy, and American Apparel, and children’s tongue twisters, such as “Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers.”

This occurs when a text references an external text, person, place, or event. Describing a curmudgeonly old skinflint as a “Scrooge” alludes to Charles Dickens’s novella  A Christmas Carol .  Similarly, the 1960s pop song “White Rabbit” alludes to Lewis Carroll’s  Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland .

This type of phrasing involves intentionally extravagant exaggeration to heighten the emotional effect of what is being said. “I’m so hungry I could eat a horse” is an example of hyperbole, as the speaker is conveying they are incredibly hungry, though they could not literally consume an entire horse. Likewise, saying “I’m dying of exhaustion” is generally a hyperbolic statement, as people rarely pass away from fatigue.

This figure of speech is an explicit comparison between two different things, used for poetic or dramatic effect. Perhaps the most famous metaphor in English literature comes from  William Shakespeare ’s  As You Like It , when the character Jacques compares life to a theater performance:

All the world’s a stage,

And all the men and women merely players;

They have their exits and their entrances,

And one man in his time plays many parts

Metaphors are frequently encountered in literature, particularly in  poetry , but they are also utilized in everyday speech. Saying “She’s my rock” to describe a romantic partner or calling someone’s room is “a pig sty” are both prevalent examples.

This occurs when the name of something is replaced with a strongly associated thing. For example, when people say “The White House stayed silent on this matter as events unfolded,” they are referring to the people who work in the White House (such as the president); they don’t mean the building itself. This is an example of metonymy. The phrase “The pen is mightier than the sword” includes two examples of metonymy: “pen” refers to the power of written words or diplomacy, and “sword” refers to the use of military force.

• Onomatopoeia

Using words that evoke the sound of the thing they signify is onomatopoeia. For example, the “tick tock” of a clock is an example of onomatopoeia, as is the “splash” of a frog jumping into a pond of water, the “ding dong” of someone ringing a doorbell, or the “boom” made by fireworks, thunder, and bombs.

This device pairs contradictory words or ideas to express a new or more complex meaning. They are frequently seen in casual speech and commercial advertisements. For example, the descriptive phrase “fresh frozen” is oxymoronic. These are often seen in literature. In Shakespeare’s  Romeo and Juliet , Juliet tells Romeo that parting from him is “such sweet sorrow.” This oxymoron describes the bittersweet joy of saying goodbye to someone you love.

Parallelism

Conceptually similar to alliteration, parallelism involves the repetition of sentence structure for balance and emphasis. Although this often involves repeating the exact same words, to count as parallelism, only the repetition of grammatically similar elements is necessary.

A list with the grammatical structure of “First buy X, then buy Y, then purchase Z” would be an example of parallelism, as would the phrase “A penny saved is a penny earned.” Parallelism is frequently encountered in speeches and was an intrinsic part of Hebrew and Middle Eastern poetry, as well as the Old and New Testaments of the  Bible .

Personification

Giving a quality of greater animation to an inanimate or less animate object or element is personification. People often assume this is limited to something being described as if it is a person, but often, personification simply involves describing something in a way that ascribes greater liveliness to it.

In John Donne’s poem “ Holy Sonnet X ,” he personifies the concept of death: “Death, be not proud.” By ascribing the attribute of pride to death, even though it is something only people can feel, Donne utilizes personification. In the poem “ The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock ,” when T.S. Eliot writes “The yellow fog that rubs its back upon the window-panes, / The yellow smoke that rubs its muzzle on the window-panes,” this is also personification. Describing the fog as if it is a cat gives it greater qualities of animation than fog actually possesses, though the animation is not specific to human attributes.

A pun relies on multiple meanings of a word or homophonic or homographic elements. It can be verbal, as in “Time flies like an arrow; fruit flies like a banana.” It can also be visual, such as an image depicting a fork lying on a highway—a clear reference to the phrase “a fork in the road.

Related to metaphors, similes are explicit comparisons between disparate things. These comparisons are constructed using the words  like  or  as .

Many similes are familiar phrases: “as cold as ice,” “run like the wind,” “eats like a bird,” “as slow as molasses,” and “as tough as nails.” The famous catchphrase from the movie  Forrest Gump , “Life is like a box of chocolates,” is also a simile.

Similar to metonymy, synecdoche occurs when a thing is referred to by the name of one of its parts. For example, calling an old man “gray beard” is an example of synecdoche since an old man’s gray beard is a part of the man. Referring to businesspeople as “suits” is another example, as suits are part of the person in the sense that business professionals wear suits.

Frequently, synecdoche and metonymy are confused. The best way to remember the difference is that synecdoche swaps in a part to refer to the whole, while metonymy uses a related term that is not an actual part of the thing being referred to.

Figurative Language and Imagery

People often use the term  imagery  interchangeably with  figurative language , but these concepts are not the same.

Imagery is a literary device that allows the author to create pictures in readers’ minds so they can better imagine the situation, characters, emotions, and  settings  of the  narrative . Imagery can be created using literal or figurative language.

If an author is creating literal imagery, also called descriptive imagery, they describe things exactly as they are. Writers tend to use adjectives to create literal/descriptive imagery. For example, they might describe a maple tree in autumn by saying, “The tall maple tree was covered in bright red leaves.” Here, the image is created through adjectives that accurately describe the tree without embellishment.

The same tree could be described using figurative language: “The maple tree soared tall as a skyscraper and was covered with leaves as bright red as lipstick kisses.” This second image uses similes to create an image that conveys the same idea as the literal example, but it does so in a way that is more poetic.

Literal/descriptive imagery and figurative imagery are both important tools for writers to make their work feels vivid. Figurative imagery is used in poetry more than in other literary forms, as it is particularly open to figurative language’s symbolic and associative meanings. However, both types of imagery are used in all forms of literature.

Linguistic Semantics and Figurative Language

Linguistic semantics are the study of interpretation of signifiers (signs, words, symbols, phrases) and what they really mean, particularly as used by specific communities, circumstances, and contexts. Figurative language relies on associations, comparisons, and other schemes and tropes to create additional levels of meaning for words beyond the literal.

Linguists originally believed in the standard pragmatic model of comprehension, which suggested that, when exposed to figurative language, people would first attempt to comprehend it as literal and then shift to a figurative interpretation to understand the meaning. Since the 1980s, however, research has shown that figurative language is comprehended at the same speed as literal meaning.

Figurative Language in Pop Culture

Figurative language is an intrinsic part of pop culture. Song lyrics regularly utilize tropes and schemes like metaphor, similes, and alliteration. For example:

• In Frank Ocean’s song “Thinking Bout You,” he sings, “A tornado flew around my room before you came,” which is a  metaphor  for how wild, scary, and confusing his life was before he met this person.
• In Jay Z’s “Big Pimpin’,” he raps, “I’ll be forever mackin’ / heart cold as assassins.” In this  couplet , he uses a  simile  to assert that he will never fall in love because he is as unemotional as a hired killer.
• In the classic 1980s song “Careless Whisper,” George Michael sings “Guilty feet have got no rhythm.” This is an example of personification because feet cannot feel emotions like guilt. It is also a synecdoche because a part—the feet—stands in for the whole—the song’s narrator. This helps convey that the narrator is the one who feels guilty.

Examples of Figurative Language in Literature

1. Emily Dickinson, “ Because I could not stop for Death ”

In the first  stanza  of her  poem , Dickinson writes:

Because I could not stop for Death—

He kindly stopped for me—

The Carriage held but just Ourselves—

And Immortality.

Throughout the poem, Dickinson personifies death as a person who picks her up in his carriage to go for a scenic drive.

2. F. Scott Fitzgerald,   The Great Gatsby

In the final  sentence  of his classic novel, Fitzgerald’s narrator, Nick, describes humanity:

So we beat on, boats against the current, borne back ceaselessly into the past.

Nick is using a metaphor. He compares people, particularly Jay Gatsby, to boats that want to move forward (into a new future) but are pushed back (into the past) by powerful forces beyond their control.

3. Dante Alighieri,   Inferno

In the first Canto, Dante meets a stranger at the foot of a mountain. After the stranger discloses that he was a poet who sang about the son of Anchises who left Troy when it burned, Dante asks:

Now, art thou that Virgilius…

Thou art my master, and my author thou,

Thou art alone the one from whom I took

The beautiful style that has done honor to me

The astute reader recognizes that Dante has made the Latin poet Virgil (author of the  Aeneid ) a main character in his poem, which is an  allusion .

4. Charles Dickens,   A Tale of Two Cities

Dickens begins his classic novel with a litany:

It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of

wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it

was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of Light, it was the

season of Darkness…

The recurrent use of the grammatical structure of “it was the….” is an example of parallelism. This repetition gives Dickens’ opening paragraph balance and emphasis, thus drawing the reader in.

5. Toni Morrison,  Jazz

The first line of Morrison’s novel contains  onomatopoeia :

Sth, I know that woman.

The first word is the onomatopoeic sound of a woman sucking her teeth in disdain as she begins to share information about a character she finds unsavory.

Further Resources on Figurative Language

The University of Colorado at Boulder’s Department of Linguistics published an interesting study about “ meaning ” in figurative language.

This video provides examples of figurative language used in various  movies .

The Writing Cooperative published some  tips  on how to use figurative language to describe setting.

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Losing her speech made her feel isolated from humanity.

Synonyms: communication , conversation , parley , parlance

He expresses himself better in speech than in writing.

We waited for some speech that would indicate her true feelings.

Synonyms: talk , mention , comment , asseveration , assertion , observation

a fiery speech.

Synonyms: discourse , talk

• any single utterance of an actor in the course of a play, motion picture, etc.

Synonyms: patois , tongue

Your slovenly speech is holding back your career.

• a field of study devoted to the theory and practice of oral communication.
• Archaic. rumor .

to have speech with somebody

speech therapy

• that which is spoken; utterance
• a talk or address delivered to an audience
• a person's characteristic manner of speaking
• a national or regional language or dialect
• See parole linguistics another word for parole

Discover More

Other words from.

• self-speech noun

Word History and Origins

Origin of speech 1

Synonym Study

Example sentences.

Kids are interacting with Alexas that can record their voice data and influence their speech and social development.

The attorney general delivered a controversial speech Wednesday.

For example, my company, Teknicks, is working with an online K-12 speech and occupational therapy provider.

Instead, it would give tech companies a powerful incentive to limit Brazilians’ freedom of speech at a time of political unrest.

However, the president did give a speech in Suresnes, France, the next day during a ceremony hosted by the American Battle Monuments Commission.

Those are troubling numbers, for unfettered speech is not incidental to a flourishing society.

There is no such thing as speech so hateful or offensive it somehow “justifies” or “legitimizes” the use of violence.

We need to recover and grow the idea that the proper answer to bad speech is more and better speech.

Tend to your own garden, to quote the great sage of free speech, Voltaire, and invite people to follow your example.

The simple, awful truth is that free speech has never been particularly popular in America.

Alessandro turned a grateful look on Ramona as he translated this speech, so in unison with Indian modes of thought and feeling.

And so this is why the clever performer cannot reproduce the effect of a speech of Demosthenes or Daniel Webster.

He said no more in words, but his little blue eyes had an eloquence that left nothing to mere speech.

After pondering over Mr. Blackbird's speech for a few moments he raised his head.

Albinia, I have refrained from speech as long as possible; but this is really too much!

Related Words

More about speech, what is speech .

Speech is the ability to express thoughts and emotions through vocal sounds and gestures. The act of doing this is also known as speech .

Speech is something only humans are capable of doing and this ability has contributed greatly to humanity’s ability to develop civilization. Speech allows humans to communicate much more complex information than animals are able to.

Almost all animals make sounds or noises with the intent to communicate with each other, such as mating calls and yelps of danger. However, animals aren’t actually talking to each other. That is, they aren’t forming sentences or sharing complicated information. Instead, they are making simple noises that trigger another animal’s natural instincts.

While speech does involve making noises, there is a lot more going on than simple grunts and growls. First, humans’ vocal machinery, such as our lungs, throat, vocal chords, and tongue, allows for a wide range of intricate sounds. Second, the human brain is incredibly complex, allowing humans to process vocal sounds and understand combinations of them as words and oral communication. The human brain is essential for speech . While chimpanzees and other apes have vocal organs similar to humans’, their brains are much less advanced and they are unable to learn speech .

Why is speech important?

The first records of the word speech come from before the year 900. It ultimately comes from the Old English word sprecan , meaning “to speak.” Scientists debate on the exact date that humanity first learned to speak, with estimates ranging from 50,000 to 2 million years ago.

Related to the concept of speech is the idea of language . A language is the collection of symbols, sounds, gestures, and anything else that a group of people use to communicate with each other, such as English, Swahili, and American Sign Language . Speech is actually using those things to orally communicate with someone else.

Did you know … ?

But what about birds that “talk”? Parrots in particular are famous for their ability to say human words and sentences. Birds are incapable of speech . What they are actually doing is learning common sounds that humans make and mimicking them. They don’t actually understand what anything they are repeating actually means.

What are real-life examples of speech ?

Speech is essential to human communication.

Dutch is just enough like German that I can read text on signs and screens, but not enough that I can understand speech. — Clark Smith Cox III (@clarkcox) September 8, 2009

I can make squirrels so excited, I could almost swear they understand human speech! — Neil Oliver (@thecoastguy) July 20, 2020

What other words are related to speech ?

• communication
• information

Quiz yourself!

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Humans are the only animals capable of speech .

[ ak -s uh -lot-l ]

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Definition of speech

• declamation

Examples of speech in a Sentence

These examples are programmatically compiled from various online sources to illustrate current usage of the word 'speech.' Any opinions expressed in the examples do not represent those of Merriam-Webster or its editors. Send us feedback about these examples.

Word History

Middle English speche , from Old English sprǣc, spǣc ; akin to Old English sprecan to speak — more at speak

before the 12th century, in the meaning defined at sense 1a

Phrases Containing speech

• acceptance speech
• figure of speech
• freedom of speech
• free speech
• hate speech
• part of speech
• polite speech

speech community

• speech form
• speech impediment
• speech therapy
• stump speech
• visible speech

Dictionary Entries Near speech

Cite this entry.

“Speech.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary , Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/speech. Accessed 19 Apr. 2024.

Kids Definition

Kids definition of speech, medical definition, medical definition of speech, legal definition, legal definition of speech, more from merriam-webster on speech.

Nglish: Translation of speech for Spanish Speakers

Britannica English: Translation of speech for Arabic Speakers

Britannica.com: Encyclopedia article about speech

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Definition of Metaphor

A metaphor is a figure of speech that makes a comparison between two non-similar things. As a literary device, metaphor creates implicit comparisons without the express use of “like” or “as.” Metaphor is a means of asserting that two things are identical in comparison rather than just similar. This is useful in literature for using specific images or concepts to state abstract truths.

For example, one of the most famous metaphors in literature is featured in this line from William Shakespeare ’s  Romeo and Juliet : What light through yonder window breaks? It is the East, and Juliet, the sun! In this metaphor, Juliet is compared to the sun. In fact, this figure of speech claims that Juliet is the sun. Of course, the reader understands that Romeo does not believe that Juliet is literally the sun. Instead, the comparison demonstrates the idea that Romeo equates Juliet with the beauty , awe, and life-giving force of the sun. To Romeo, symbolically, Juliet and the sun are the same.

Common Examples of Metaphor

There are many common examples of metaphors in everyday conversation and writing. Here are some well-known uses of this figure of speech:

• Laughter is the best medicine.
• She is just a late bloomer.
• Is there a black sheep in your family?
• His heart of stone surprised me.
• I smell success in this building.
• He’s buried in a sea of paperwork.
• There is a weight on my shoulder.
• Time is money.
• No man is an island.
• That actor is a tall drink of water.
• Age is a state of mind.
• Last night I slept the sleep of the dead .
• The new parents had stars in their eyes.
• The criminal has blood on his hands.
• There is a garden in her face.
• Our family is a patchwork quilt.
• She has been living in a bubble.
• Your argument is a slippery slope.
• We found it under a blanket of sand.
• I’m pleased to meet your better half.

Examples of Metaphor in Movie Lines

Some of the most well-known lines in movies feature metaphors. Here are some memorable movie lines that showcase metaphor as an effective device:

• A Dream is a wish your heart makes. (Walt Disney’s Cinderella )
• The rain on my car is a baptism. ( Say Anything )
• Life is pain, highness. Anyone who says differently is selling something. ( The Princess Bride )
• Fasten your seat-belts; it’s going to be a bumpy night. ( All About Eve )
• Life is a cabaret, old chum. ( Cabaret )
• Say ‘hello’ to my little friend. ( Scarface )
• It was beauty killed the beast. ( King Kong )
• Hell is a teenage girl. ( Jennifer’s Body )
• You sit on a throne of lies. ( Elf )
• I drink your milkshake. ( There Will Be Blood )

Famous Examples of Metaphor

Metaphor is also found in many famous examples of poetry, prose , drama , lyrics , and even clever quotations. Here are some famous examples of metaphor:

• Your heart is my piñata. (Chuck Palahniuk)
• Life is a highway. (Tom Cochrane)
• For woman is yin, the darkness within, where untempered passions lie. (Amy Tan)
• Love is a battlefield. (Pat Benatar)
• Each friend represents a world in us. (Anais Nin)
• You are sunlight and I moon. ( Miss Saigon )
• If music be the food of love, play on (William Shakespeare)
• Adults are just obsolete children and the hell with them. (Dr. Seuss)
• Time is a drug. Too much of it kills you. (Terry Pratchet)
• hope is the thing with feathers   ( Emily Dickinson )

Difference Between Metaphor and Simile

It can be difficult in some instances to distinguish between metaphor and simile as literary devices . Both are figures of speech designed to create comparisons. In fact, simile is a subset of metaphor. However, they are distinguished by the presence of one of two words: “like” and “as.” Metaphors create direct comparisons without using either of these words. Similes feature either like or as in making a comparison.

A good example to distinguish between these two literary devices comes from the movie adaptation of the novel Forrest Gump by Winston Groom. One of the movie’s themes is based on a comparison between life and a box of chocolates. The main character , Forrest Gump, quotes his mother: “Life is like a box of chocolates. You never know what you’re going to get.” In this case, the comparison between life and a box of chocolates is a simile due to the presence of the word like.

In a different scene, the audience hears Forrest’s mother say: “Life is a box of chocolates, Forrest. You never know what you’re going to get.” This comparison is a metaphor due to the absence of the word like (or as). Both quotes feature comparative figures of speech. However, the uses of metaphor and simile create subtle differences in the meaning of comparing life to a box of chocolates.

Additional: Difference Between Metaphor, Allegory, and Simile

As far as the difference between an allegory and metaphor is concerned, both seem to belong to the same group of figures of speech. The reason is that both mean comparison. However, an allegory presents a long or sustained comparison that may comprise a full story , having allegorical characters and situations. It could be a story within a story such as the Allegory of Cave . Conversely, a metaphor is just a word or a phrase showing an implied comparison, while a simile is almost near in meanings as it shows the same thing with the use of the word ‘like’ or ‘as.’

Writing Metaphor

Overall, as a literary device, metaphor functions as a means of creating a direct comparison between two seemingly different things. This is effective for readers in that metaphor can create an association between two dissimilar entities or ideas that, as a result of the metaphor, illuminate each other and deepen the meaning of both. Metaphor is an essential figure of speech for writers of both poetry and prose.

It’s important that writers construct proper metaphors so that the comparative meaning is not lost for the reader. In fact, metaphors are dependent on the understandable combination of a principal term and a secondary term. The principal term conveys the concrete or literal entity, and the secondary term is used figuratively to add meaning. For example, in the metaphor “the car was a lemon,” the principal term is “car” and the secondary term is “lemon.” The use of lemon adds figurative meaning for the car.

Here are some ways that writers benefit from incorporating metaphor into their work:

Create Imagery

Metaphors allow writers to create imagery for readers that is limited by description alone . In other words, an effective metaphor eliminates the need for excessive explanation or description on the part of the writer. Instead, by implicitly comparing two different things, an image is created for the reader to allow for greater meaning and understanding. This imagery is a powerful result of using metaphor as a literary device.

Evoke Thought and Emotion

When writers utilize metaphor as a literary device, it often causes the reader to think about the “logic” or truth in such a comparison. These thoughts, in turn, may evoke emotion in the reader with a successful metaphor through the realization that the comparison is valid. This is especially effective in poetry as a means of portraying truths in a lyrical yet concise manner.

Using Metaphor in a Sentence

• The wolf’s eyes were onyx in the dark.
• Is it your room? Serious it’s a hot furnace!
• Zain is a chicken, scared all the time.
• I hate it here. This place is a zoo.
• Sofi’s bed was a marshmallow. So soft!

Examples of Metaphor in Literature

Metaphor is a very effective literary device. Here are some examples of metaphor and how it adds to the significance of well-known literary works:

Example 1: Fire and Ice by Robert Frost

Some say the world will end in fire, Some say in ice. From what I’ve tasted of desire I hold with those who favor fire. But if it had to perish twice, I think I know enough of hate To say that for destruction ice Is also great And would suffice.

In this poem , Frost compares end-of-world destructive forces to both fire and ice . These are metaphors that serve as figures of speech in the sense that the poet does not literally mean that the world will end because of fire and ice. Instead, fire represents destructive forces associated with desire, such as power , jealousy, and anger. Similarly, ice represents destructive forces associated with hate, such as prejudice, hostility, and isolation. These metaphors are an effective literary device in that it causes the reader to consider that desire and hatred are as destructive as fire and ice.

Example 2: Dreams by Langston Hughes

Hold fast to dreams For if dreams die Life is a broken-winged bird That cannot fly. Hold fast to dreams For when dreams go Life is a barren field Frozen with snow .

In this poem, Hughes utilizes metaphor to compare life to a broken-winged bird and a barren field as consequences to the loss of dreams. In the first stanza , Hughes claims that if dreams die then life is a “broken-winged bird that cannot fly.” This is significant use of metaphor in that it characterizes life without dreams as something fragile that has been irreparably harmed. The metaphor creates an image for the reader of a bird that is wounded, grounded, and unable to reach its purpose or potential. If life is this bird, then, without dreams, it is also wounded, grounded, and thwarted in purpose.

Hughes utilizes the second metaphor in the second stanza for life without dreams. In this case, when dreams go, life is a “barren field frozen with snow.” This metaphor creates a comparison between life and an empty, frozen wasteland. Therefore, due to Hughes’s use of metaphor as a literary device in this poem, life becomes death and a burial ground without dreams.

Example 3: since feeling is first by E.E. Cummings

we are for eachother: then laugh, leaning back in my arms for life’s not a paragraph And death i think is no parenthesis

In this poem, Cummings uses metaphor in a clever way to compare life and death to the constraints of a writing formality and punctuation . In fact, it is a negative comparison in the sense that the poet states life is “not” a paragraph and death is “no” parenthesis. The use of metaphor as a literary device in this work is both poetic and self-reflexive with significance. The metaphors for life and death are poetic because the poet is showcasing that life and death are concepts too monumental to be “contained” in writing or “enclosed” by punctuation (paragraph and parenthesis). Yet, the metaphors are also self-reflexive in that the comparisons of life and death are simultaneously “contained” in and “enclosed” by the poem itself.

Synonyms of Metaphor

Although no words could be used interchangeably for a metaphor, some could be near in meanings such as trope , image, allegory, parable , symbol , simile, and emblem. There are various other tropes, too, but almost every other trope has its own definition, meaning, and examples. Therefore, they could not be used interchangeably when there is a question of distinct clarification of meanings.

Related posts:

• 200 Short and Sweet Metaphor Examples
• Romeo and Juliet Metaphor
• 5 Metaphors in Harry Potter
• 10 Great Metaphors from Popular Music
• Top 6 Great Metaphors in Presidential Speeches
• Famous Metaphors in The Bible
• Famous Metaphors from Athletes, Artists, and Authors
• Extended Metaphor
• Implied Metaphor
• Great Metaphor Examples for Kids
• Brevity is the Soul of Wit
• The Fault, Dear Brutus
• A Rose by any Other Name
• Do Not Go Gentle into That Good Night
• Miles to Go Before I Sleep
• All the World’s a Stage
• To Be Great is to Be Misunderstood
• To Sleep, Perchance to Dream
• Hamlet Act-I, Scene-I Study Guide
• Heavy is The Head That Wears The Crown
• Star-crossed Lovers
• The Quality of Mercy is Not Strain’d
• There is a Tide in the Affairs of Men
• A Thing of Beauty is a Joy For Ever
• The Winter of Our Discontent
• Tomorrow, and tomorrow, and tomorrow
• Silence is Golden
• Every Cloud has a Silver Lining
• Raining Cats and Dogs
• You Are What You Eat
• Metaphors in Movies
• 10 Great Metaphors from Popular 2000’s Songs
• 10 Amazing Metaphors in Poems

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• Literary Terms
• Definition & Examples
• When & How to Use Sarcasm

I. What is Sarcasm?

Sarcasm is a form of verbal irony that mocks, ridicules, or expresses contempt. It’s really more a tone of voice than a rhetorical device. You’re saying the opposite of what you mean (verbal irony) and doing it in a particularly hostile tone.

Sarcasm comes from the Greek words “sark” meaning “flesh,” and “asmos” meaning “to tear or rip.” So it literally means “ripping flesh” – a pretty bloody image for a type of speech that we use all the time!

II. Examples of Sarcasm

Oh yes, you’ve been sooooo helpful. Thanks sooooo much for all your heeeelp .

Imagine someone saying this to a customer service agent, drawing out the syllables and maybe rolling their eyes. You’d know pretty quickly that they meant the opposite of what they were saying. That verbal irony plus the mocking or derisive tone makes it sarcasm.

I made the genius choice of selling my car right before I decided to move

Sarcasm doesn’t always have to be vicious or mean. It can also be humorous, playful, or (as in this example) self-deprecating. Again, verbal irony plus the tone of voice makes this sarcasm.

III. The Importance of Sarcasm

Because it’s a tone rather than a rhetorical fact, sarcasm by definition can only be used in dialogue. It would describe a way that one character talks to another. This can have all kinds of effects, but generally it shows that the speaker is being impatient or contemptuous. It’s also a sign of disrespect toward the person being addressed, so the use of sarcasm can provide clues as to the relationship between the two characters .

The broader category of verbal irony has other uses, but sarcasm in particular is purely a quality of a character’s speech, and therefore its function is to reveal aspects of that character’s personality.

Sarcasm can say many different things about a character, depending on the way they use it, but most often sarcastic characters are cynical, slightly bitter, solitary, and perhaps arrogant. Think, for example, of Dr. Cox from Scrubs – he often uses verbal irony to mock other characters in the show, especially the protagonist, J.D. However, like many sarcastic characters, Dr. Cox is more often brutally honest than sarcastic. That is, he doesn’t employ verbal irony at all – he says exactly what he means, which is the opposite of irony. And, as we’ve already seen, if a line is not verbally ironic, then by definition it cannot be sarcastic. But it can still be sardonic and cynical , which are probably the two most common character traits expressed through the use of sarcastic dialogue.

IV. Examples of Sarcasm in Literature

(adsbygoogle = window.adsbygoogle || []).push({}); Was there a lack of graves in Egypt, that you took us away to die in the wilderness? (Exodus 14:11)

In one of the earliest examples of sarcasm, one of the Israelites walks up to Moses and poses this sarcastic question. If the Israelites were just going to die in the desert, then what was the point of leaving Egypt in the first place? We can easily imagine the speaker’s tone: irritated, biting, and scornful. And of course he doesn’t actually think that there’s a “lack of graves in Egypt.”

The noble Brutus hath told you Caesar was ambitious: if it were so, it was a grievous fault, and grievously hath Caesar answer’d it. (Shakespeare, Julius Caesar )

Shakespeare imagines Mark Antony delivering a thoroughly sarcastic speech at the funeral of Julius Caesar. He frequently refers to Brutus, Caesar’s murderer, as “noble” and “honorable,” but the content of the speech clearly shows that Mark Antony believes the opposite about Brutus.

V. Examples of Metaphor in Pop Culture

Oh, just get a job? Yeah, why don’t I just strap on my job helmet and squeeze down into a job cannon, and fire off into jobland where jobs grow on jobbies!  (Charlie, It’s Always Sunny in Philadelphia )

When someone tells Charlie that he needs to get a job, he launches into a bitterly sarcastic tirade about the suggestion. He’s trying to emphasize how hard it is to get a job, and he uses this biting tone to mock his friends’ blasé suggestion that all he needs to do is go out and find one.

Truly, you have a dizzying intellect. (Wesley, The Princess Bride )

Wesley famously uses this line to dismiss the intelligence of Vizzini the Sicilian. But Vizzini is so self-involved that he doesn’t even catch the sarcasm, and thinks that Wesley is genuinely complementing him. This reinforces the point of Wesley’s insult.

I take risks, sometimes patients die. But not taking risks causes more patients to die, so I guess my biggest problem is I’ve been cursed with the ability to do the math. (Dr. House, House )

Dr. House is another character who is frequently sardonic, and ocassionally sarcastic. (Like Dr. Cox, his sardonicness usually takes the form of brutal honesty rather than sarcasm.) However, in this line he adds some verbal irony by suggestion that his ability to do the math is a “problem” and a “curse,” which is an ironic reversal of what he really means. Like many of House’s lines, this one uses sarcasm

VI. Related Terms

Verbal irony is one of the components of sarcasm. It just means saying the opposite of what one means. Verbal irony is always a feature of sarcasm.

There is another type of irony, situational irony , which refers to situations that violate our expectations in a humorous or striking way. This is quite different from sarcasm, and only tangentially related to verbal irony.

They sound similar, but don’t confuse the words “sarcastic” and “sardonic.”

• Sarcasm is verbal irony expressed in a biting tone
• Sardonic means “cynical” or “mocking”

So sarcasm is often sardonic – when a character uses sarcasm to mock someone else, it’s a sardonic comment. However, the key difference is that a sardonic comment is not necessarily ironic . It may say exactly what the speaker means, just in a mocking tone. For example:

I did not attend the funeral, but I sent a letter saying I approved of it. (Mark Twain)

This comment by Twain is certainly mocking – it expresses his displasure with the deceased in a pretty biting fashion. But it isn’t ironic, and therefore it’s not sarcasm (it’s much closer to brutal honesty than it is to sarcasm).

Though roughly synonymous with “sardonic,” cynicism is philosophy of life whereas sardonicness is a tone. Cynicism originally meant “appreciating the simple things in life,” but somewhere along the way that definition was swallowed up by a new one. These days, cynicism usually refers to a self-centered and suspicious view of life. Cynical people are deeply suspicious of sentimentality and “positive thinking,”

They tend to be pessimists, narcissists, and loners.

But, despite all these negative connotations of cynical people, they often make for extremely popular television characters. This is probably due to the fact that cynical, sardonic, and sarcastic lines are so good at producing a laugh.

Sarcasm is often used to ridicule or mock people, either jokingly or in earnest. In these situations, the sarcasm is also a form of satire . Satire is the use of verbal irony, humor, or charicature to make fun of a person or institution, epseically in a political context. But satire isn’t necessarily a form of sarcasm – there are plenty of ways to make political jokes, for example, without using verbal irony.

List of Terms

• Alliteration
• Amplification
• Anachronism
• Anthropomorphism
• Antonomasia
• APA Citation
• Aposiopesis
• Autobiography
• Bildungsroman
• Characterization
• Circumlocution
• Cliffhanger
• Comic Relief
• Connotation
• Deus ex machina
• Deuteragonist
• Doppelganger
• Double Entendre
• Dramatic irony
• Equivocation
• Extended Metaphor
• Figures of Speech
• Flash-forward
• Foreshadowing
• Intertextuality
• Juxtaposition
• Literary Device
• Malapropism
• Onomatopoeia
• Parallelism
• Pathetic Fallacy
• Personification
• Point of View
• Polysyndeton
• Protagonist
• Red Herring
• Rhetorical Device
• Rhetorical Question
• Science Fiction
• Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
• Synesthesia
• Turning Point
• Understatement
• Urban Legend
• Verisimilitude
• Essay Guide
• Cite This Website

Logos Definition

What is logos? Here’s a quick and simple definition:

Logos , along with ethos and pathos , is one of the three "modes of persuasion" in rhetoric (the art of effective speaking or writing). Logos is an argument that appeals to an audience's sense of logic or reason. For example, when a speaker cites scientific data, methodically walks through the line of reasoning behind their argument, or precisely recounts historical events relevant to their argument, he or she is using logos.

Some additional key details about logos:

• Aristotle defined logos as the "proof, or apparent proof, provided by the words of the speech itself." In other words, logos rests in the actual written content of an argument.
• The three "modes of persuasion"— pathos , logos , and ethos —were originally defined by Aristotle.
• In contrast to logos's appeal to reason, ethos is an appeal to the audience based on the speaker's authority, while pathos is an appeal to the audience 's emotions.
• Data, facts, statistics, test results, and surveys can all strengthen the logos of a presentation.

How to Pronounce Logos

Here's how to pronounce logos: loh -gos

Logos and Different Types of Proof

While it's easy to spot a speaker using logos when he or she presents statistics or research results, numerical data is only one form that logos can take. Logos is any statement, sentence, or argument that attempts to persuade using facts, and these facts need not be the result of long research. "The facts" of an argument can also be drawn from the speaker's own life or from the world at large, and presenting these examples to support one's view is also a form of logos. Take this example from Sojourner Truth's "Ain't I a Woman?" speech in support of women's rights:

That man over there says that women need to be helped into carriages, and lifted over ditches, and to have the best place everywhere. Nobody ever helps me into carriages, or over mud-puddles, or gives me any best place! And ain't I a woman? Look at me! Look at my arm! I have ploughed and planted, and gathered into barns, and no man could head me! And ain't I a woman?

Truth points to her own strength, as well as to the fact that she can perform physically tiring tasks just as well as a man, as proof of equality between the sexes: she's still appealing to the audience's reason, but instead of presenting abstract truths about reality or numerical evidence, she's presenting the facts of her own experience as evidence. In this case, the logic of the argument is anecdotal (meaning it's derived from a handful of personal experiences) rather than purely theoretical, but it goes to show that logos doesn't have to be dry and clinical just because it's concerned with proving something logically.

Logos: Proof vs. Apparent Proof

Not all speakers who use logos can be blindly trusted. As Aristotle specifies in his definition of the term, logos can be "proof, or apparent proof." A speaker may present facts, figures, and research data simply to show that he or she has "done their homework," in an effort to attain the degree of credibility that is often automatically attributed to scientific studies and evidence-driven arguments. Or a speaker might present facts in a way that is wholly or partially misrepresentative, using those facts (and, by extension, logos ) to make a claim that feels credible while actually arguing something that is untrue. Yet another factor that can cause a speech or text to have the appearance of providing proof is the use of overlong words and technical language—but just because someone sounds smart doesn't mean their argument stands to reason.

Even if the facts have been manipulated, any argument that relies on or even just claims to rely on "facts" to appeal to a listener's reason is still an example of logos. Put another way: logos is not about using facts correctly or accurately , it's about using facts in any way to influence an audience.

Logos Examples

Examples of logos in literature.

While Aristotle defined the term logos with public speaking in mind, there are many examples of logos in literature. Generally, logos appears in literature when characters argue or attempt to convince one another that something is true. The degree to which characters use logos -driven arguments can also provide important insight into their personalities and motives.

Logos in Shakespeare's Othello

In Othello , Iago plots to bring about the downfall of his captain, Othello. Iago engineers a series of events that makes it look like Othello’s wife, Desdemona, is cheating on him. Suspicion of his wife’s infidelity tortures Othello, who only recently eloped with Desdemona against her father’s wishes. In this passage from Act 3, Scene 3, Iago manipulates Othello by means of logos . Iago "warns" Othello not to succumb to paranoia even as he fans the flames of that paranoia:

Oh, beware, my lord, of jealousy! It is the green-eyed monster which doth mock The meat it feeds on….. Who, certain of his fate, loves not his wronger, But, oh, what damnèd minutes tells he o’er Who dotes, yet doubts— suspects, yet soundly loves… She did deceive her father, marrying you… She loved them most…. I humbly do beseech you of your pardon For too much loving you….

Iago here lectures Othello on the abstract dangers of jealousy, but then goes on to use reason and deduction to suggest that, because Desdemona deceived her beloved father by marrying Othello, she'd probably be willing to deceive Othello, too.

Logos in Don DeLillo's White Noise

In this passage from Part 2 of Don Delillo’s novel White Noise, Jack Gladney and his son Heinrich gaze through binoculars at an Airborne Toxic Event—or cloud of poison gas—that has just hit their town. Jack , in denial, tries to reassure his son that the cloud won’t blow in their direction and that there’s no cause for alarm. Heinrich disagrees:

"What do you think?" he said. "It's still hanging there. Looks rooted to the spot." "So you're saying you don't think it'll come this way." "I can tell by your voice that you know something I don't know." "Do you think it'll come this way or not?" "You want me to say it won't come this way in a million years. Then you'll attack with your little fistful of data. Come on, tell me what they said on the radio while I was out there." "It doesn't cause nausea, vomiting, shortness of breath, like they said before." "What does it cause?" "Heart palpitations and a sense of deja vu." "Deja vu?" "It affects the false part of the human memory or whatever. That's not all. They're not calling it the black billowing cloud anymore." "What are they calling it?" He looked at me carefully. "The airborne toxic event." ... "These things are not important. The important thing is location. It's there, we're here." "A large air mass is moving down from Canada," he said evenly. "I already knew that." "That doesn't mean it's not important." "Maybe it is, maybe it isn't. Depends."

Jack tries to reassure himself and his family that the situation isn’t serious. Heinrich tries to counter his father’s irrational, fear-driven response to the catastrophe with his "fistful of data": information he's learned in school from a science video on toxic waste, as well as reports about the disaster that he heard on the radio. He presents the facts so that his father can’t ignore them, thereby strengthening the logos of his argument that the situation is serious and the cloud will come their way. In this particular example, the lack of logos in Jack's argument reveals a lot about his character—even though Jack is a tenured college professor, strong emotions and fear for his own mortality often drive his behavior and speech.

Logos in Harper Lee's To Kill a Mockingbird

In this example from To Kill a Mockingbird , lawyer Atticus Finch uses logos to argue on behalf of a black defendant, Tom Robinson, who stands accused of raping a white woman.

"The state has not produced one iota of medical evidence to the effect that the crime Tom Robinson is charged with ever took place. It has relied instead upon the testimony of two witnesses whose evidence has not only been called into serious question on cross-examination, but has been flatly contradicted by the defendant. The defendant is not guilty, but somebody in this courtroom is."

The logos in this case lies in Atticus' emphasis on the facts of the case, or rather, the fact that there are no facts in the case against Tom. He temporarily ignores questions of racial justice and emotional trauma so that the jury can look clearly at the body of evidence available to them. In short, he appeals to the jury's reason .

Logos in Robert M. Pirsig's Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance

In Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance , the narrator takes a cross-country motorcycle trip with his son Chris, and their two friends John and Sylvia. When Chris tells the group in Chapter 3 that his friend Tom White Bear believes in ghosts, the narrator tries to explain that scientific principles only exist in our heads, and therefore are actually modern man's equivalent of ghosts:

"Modern man has his ghosts and spirits too, you know." "What?" "Oh, the laws of physics and of logic...the number system...the principle of algebraic substitution. These are ghosts. We just believe in them so thoroughly they seem real." "They seem real to me," John says. "I don't get it," says Chris. So I go on. "For example, it seems completely natural to presume that gravitation and the law of gravitation existed before Isaac Newton. It would sound nutty to think that until the seventeenth century there was no gravity." "Of course" "So when did this law start? Has it always existed?...What I'm driving at is the notion that before the beginning of the earth, before the sun and the stars were formed, before the primal generation of anything, the law of gravity existed." "Sure." "Sitting there, having no mass of its own, no energy of its own, not in anyone's mind because there wasn't anyone, not in space because there was no space either, not anywhere—this law of gravity still existed?" Now John seems not so sure. "If the law of gravity existed," I say, "I honestly don't know what a thing has to do to be non existent. It seems to me that law of gravity has passed every test of nonexistence there is...And yet it is still 'common sense' to believe that it existed." "I guess I'd have to think about it." "Well, I predict that if you think about it long enough you will find yourself going round and round and round and round until you finally reach only one possible, rational, intelligent conclusion. The law of gravity and gravity itself did not exist before Isaac Newton. No other conclusion makes sense. And what that means... is that that law of gravity exists nowhere except in people's heads! It's a ghost!"

The narrator uses logos in his discourse on scientific concepts by presenting his audience with an example—gravity—and asking them to consider their own experience of gravity as empirical evidence in support of his argument. He urges his friends to come to a "rational, intelligent conclusion" about the concept of gravity, instead of relying on conventional wisdom and unexamined assumptions.

Logos in Political Speeches

Politicians frequently use logos, often by citing statistics or examples, to persuade their listeners of the success or failure of policies, politicians, and ideologies.

Logos in Barack Obama's 2015 State of the Union Address

In this example, Obama cites historical precedent and economic data from past years to strengthen his argument that recent progress has been substantial and that the nation's economy is in good health:

But tonight, we turn the page. Tonight, after a breakthrough year for America, our economy is growing and creating jobs at the fastest pace since 1999. Our unemployment rate is now lower than it was before the financial crisis. More of our kids are graduating than ever before. More of our people are insured than ever before. And we are as free from the grip of foreign oil as we’ve been in almost 30 years.

Logos in Ronald Reagan's 1987 "Tear Down this Wall" Speech

In this speech, Reagan intends for his comparison between the poverty of East Berlin—controlled by the Communists—and the prosperity of Democratic West Berlin to serve as hard evidence supporting the economic superiority of Western capitalism. The way he uses specific details about the physical landscape of West Berlin as proof of Western capitalist economic superiority is a form of logos:

Where four decades ago there was rubble, today in West Berlin there is the greatest industrial output of any city in Germany--busy office blocks, fine homes and apartments, proud avenues, and the spreading lawns of parkland. Where a city's culture seemed to have been destroyed, today there are two great universities, orchestras and an opera, countless theaters, and museums. Where there was want, today there's abundance--food, clothing, automobiles--the wonderful goods of the Ku'damm. From devastation, from utter ruin, you Berliners have, in freedom, rebuilt a city that once again ranks as one of the greatest on earth...In the 1950s, Khrushchev [leader of the communist Soviet Union] predicted: "We will bury you." But in the West today, we see a free world that has achieved a level of prosperity and well-being unprecedented in all human history. In the Communist world, we see failure, technological backwardness, declining standards of health, even want of the most basic kind—too little food. Even today, the Soviet Union still cannot feed itself. After these four decades, then, there stands before the entire world one great and inescapable conclusion: Freedom leads to prosperity. Freedom replaces the ancient hatreds among the nations with comity and peace. Freedom is the victor.

Why Do Writers Use Logos?

It's important to note that the three modes of persuasion often mutually reinforce one another. They don't have to be used in isolation from one other, and the same sentence may even include examples of all three. While logos is different from both ethos (an appeal to the audience based on the speaker's authority) and pathos (an appeal to the audience's emotions), the use of logos can serve as a strong complement to the use of ethos and/or pathos —and vice versa.

For instance, if a politician lists the number of casualties in a war, or rattles off statistics relating to a national issue, these facts may well appeal to the audience's emotions as well as their intellect, thereby strengthening pathos as well as logos as elements in the speech. Consider this passage from Michelle Obama's 2015 speech at The Partnership for a Healthier America Summit, in which she updates listeners on the success of her Let's Move! project for improving children's nutrition:

I mean, just think about what our work together means for a child born today. Maybe that child will be one of the 1.6 million kids attending healthier daycare centers where fruits and vegetables have replaced cookies and juice. And when that child starts school, maybe she’ll be one of the over 30 million kids eating the healthier school lunches that we fought for. Maybe she’ll be one of the 2 million kids with a Let’s Move! salad bar in her school, or one of the nearly 9 million kids in Let’s Move! Active Schools who are getting 60 minutes of physical activity a day, or one of the 5 million kids soon attending healthier after-school programs.

While Obama includes statistics to persuade her audience that Let's Move! has been a success ( logos) , she's also using those facts and figures to stir up enthusiasm for her cause ( pathos).

Other Helpful Logos Resources

• The Wikipedia Page on Logos: A detailed explanation and history of the term.
• The Dictionary Definition of Logos: A definition encompassing the different meanings of the word logos.
• Logos on Youtube: A video from TED-Ed about the three modes of persuasion.

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