what is thesis manuscript

Manuscript-Style Theses and Dissertations

Before you begin, what is a manuscript-style thesis.

A manuscript-style thesis is a document that includes one or more scholarly manuscripts written in a manner suitable for publication in appropriate venues. A manuscript-style thesis allows a student to prepare and present his or her graduate research work in a format that facilitates publication.

A manuscript-style thesis is not, however, merely a collection of published or publishable papers. It must meet the principles and objectives required of a thesis .

Who can submit a manuscript-style thesis?

Number and focus of manuscripts.

Although the Advisory Committee will discuss and approve the number and focus of manuscripts at the proposal stage, this may be modified by agreement of the committee as the research progresses. Such revisions must be approved by the supervisor and Advisory Committee.

Principles of Manuscript-Style Thesis Writing

Consistent with CGPS Policies and Procedures , all theses and dissertations must be written in good scholarly style and conform to the requirements approved by the academic unit. The following are intended to act as guidelines for minimum requirements in the creation of a manuscript-style thesis. Academic units may choose to provide additional discipline-specific instructions.

Choosing the format

The format and style of a thesis may differ from department to department, and from discipline to discipline. The student’s academic unit will identify an acceptable format for the thesis and communicate it to the student, and the style selected must be maintained throughout the thesis.

Consistency

Consistency of format and style is essential in a manuscript-style thesis to produce a coherent and defendable document which will satisfy the principles of a thesis. Consistency will help maintain the integrity of the document as a cohesive whole and sustain the clarity required to facilitate the review of the thesis by the Advisory Committee and Examining Committee. 

Grammar, spelling and punctuation

Accepted rules of grammar must be followed, and forms of spelling and punctuation must be used with consistency.

Previously published manuscripts

Even if a manuscript was published in a particular format, when included as a chapter in a thesis, it will match the formatting standard of the thesis. For example, it is expected that the numbering of tables and figures within chapters should be done for the thesis as a whole, which means that there should not be two tables or two figures in the thesis with the same number. Previously published manuscripts should not simply be inserted into the thesis as copies of journal pages.

To ensure consistency and clarity in presentation, previously published materials should be assigned page numbers that are sequential within the thesis, and page numbers as they may have been assigned within the publication must be removed. The page numbers assigned within the publication will be included in the citation.

Chapter layout

Chapters of the thesis need to be numbered sequentially. Subsections, tables, figures and equations within each chapter will be assigned a unique number, (for example, use the chapter number followed by a sequentially increasing number, separated by a period, i.e. 1.1, 1.2, 1.3…), with no two elements of the same type having the same number. This will help ensure the clarity of the document and ease of navigation for the Examining Committee.

These can either be listed chapter-by-chapter, or be presented in a single list at the end of the thesis. If the chapter-by-chapter approach is adopted, each chapter, including chapters that are not manuscripts (such as the introduction and concluding chapters), requires a list of references.

If a single list appears at the end of the thesis, all references cited in the component manuscripts must be included in the list of references at the end of the thesis.

Getting Started

The thesis is a single cohesive document that presents and describes the entirety of the research work that was conducted as part of the graduate degree. Individual manuscripts in a manuscript-style thesis should fit together into a single body of work to achieve the goals of the thesis.

The manuscript-style thesis, as with any thesis, will develop a general theme that presents the candidate’s research work; it must include an introduction that outlines the theme and objectives of the research, and a conclusion that draws out its overall implications. The different chapters or sections will contribute to the general theme, but the substance of each chapter should focus on a different aspect of the research.

 As the thesis needs to be a single body of work, there needs to be some content of the thesis that deals with the thesis as a whole and unifies it into a single document. How this content is arranged may vary from discipline to discipline, and from thesis to thesis.

Introduction and Literature Review

The purpose of the introduction and review of literature is to

establish the student’s familiarity with relevant work in the field;

establish the purpose and objectives of the research;

place the research within the larger context of the discipline;

and provide overall context for the research manuscript(s).

The introduction should establish the central aim and themes of the research and explain how these are addressed in the various manuscripts making up the thesis. In some disciplines, a separate literature review (possibly as a distinct manuscript) will be a stand-alone chapter, rather than be included in the Introduction; while in other disciplines, the literature review may be incorporated as part of the manuscripts.

Methods (optional)

If appropriate to the discipline, a discussion of methodology, either as its own chapter, a section in the Introduction or, depending on the context, a section in each individual manuscript can be a necessary part of the thesis.

The manuscripts should fit together in the thesis much as chapters would normally fit together in any thesis. Specifically, it needs to be clear to the reader how each manuscript included in the thesis contributes to the overall objectives of the thesis outlined in the abstract and introduction, and should tie each manuscript to the overall aims of the research project.

There needs to be a clear and logical progression from one chapter to the next, so that the thesis functions as a complete and unified whole with a clear singular research project as its focus. How the author of the thesis accomplishes this task is at the discretion of the author, the Advisory Committee and, if available, the policies of the academic unit.

It may be useful to have short transition sections appended either to the beginning or end of appropriate manuscripts that explain the progression from one manuscript to the next; however, this transition may also be accomplished in the introductory and concluding chapters.

Manuscript(s)

Each manuscript should have its own chapter. While the manuscript may be a published document, the format of the document in its role as a component of the thesis must be consistent with the thesis as a whole, regardless of the format in which the document was published (see comments on formatting above).

The manuscript content may also differ from the published version, and may include additional tables, figures or text, as required to ensure clarity. The format of the manuscript would normally include a brief introduction and statement of the research problem; synthesis of the literature; description of research methods and study area (if applicable); analysis, and presentation and discussion of results.

Manuscript length may vary and is at the discretion of the Advisory Committee, although the intent is to emulate the norms of publication or presentation in the discipline.

Discussion and Conclusions

The final chapter revisits the main contributions or findings of the research manuscript(s) within the broader context of the literature and discipline, linking the findings of each manuscript back to the literature  identified  in the introduction. Directions for future research are normally identified in this section, as well as any limitations to the research overall.

Each thesis is required to contain a concluding section that relates the individual manuscripts, and the conclusions drawn in those manuscripts, to the overarching goal of the thesis.

Appendices and Supporting Documentation

Material that is not part of the research manuscript(s) but deemed necessary by the student’s Advisory Committee as supporting documentation (e.g. research instruments; raw data summaries; copyright permissions, additional site descriptions, etc.) should be included in Appendices.

If there are changes suggested to published manuscripts (i.e., chapters of the thesis) through the defence process, these changes may be addressed and included in a separate appendix at the end of the thesis, if copyright issues are a concern, or if it disrupts the flow of a published manuscript to make the changes within the published chapter itself. This consideration is for published manuscripts only.

Co-authored Manuscripts

These can be included in the thesis, if acceptable to the student’s Advisory Committee and approved by the academic unit. The Advisory Committee will confirm that the student has made a substantial contribution to each of the manuscripts, and determine that the paper merits inclusion in the thesis.

There is no limit to the number of co-authors.

Expectations

In a manuscript-style thesis, it is expected that the author of the thesis will be the lead author on at least one manuscript included in the thesis.

The manuscript-style thesis may include both published and unpublished manuscripts. However, the publication status of each manuscript should be clearly indicated.

For each published article, a complete citation, including first and last page numbers and recognition of the copyright holder, should be printed at the beginning of the manuscript.

To assist the Examining Committee in assessing work involving multiple authors, the student should include an explicit statement in the thesis describing his/ her original contributions to the paper in detail, and justifying the inclusion of the paper in the thesis. Individual disciplines and academic units may require further acknowledgment of contributions.

Where there may be two students who will include the same manuscript in two separate theses, each student should acknowledge the existence of the other thesis, and the fact that the manuscript appears in both theses.

Co-authors should understand obligations prior to thesis preparation

There may be cases when the student, supervisor(s) and other research collaborators are co-owners of the intellectual property presented within the thesis, and they may also be co-authors of the manuscript(s). Prior to preparing the thesis, all associated individuals should understand their respective obligations related to data confidentiality (if applicable), copyright, and authorship. The nature of these obligations will vary with discipline and with the specific policies of the academic unit.

With the approval of the academic unit, the same manuscript may appear in more than one thesis if multiple students are co-authors on the manuscript, and each made a significant contribution to the research and preparation of the manuscript.

Unpublished papers

For a paper that has been submitted but not yet published, a statement concerning the status of any dealing or contemplated dealing with the copyright or the auspices under which the work was prepared should be printed at the beginning of the manuscript.

Changes to original manuscript

Review of the thesis.

The merits of the manuscript-style thesis will be judged on the criteria outlined at the beginning of this guide and by the defence processes outlined for all theses. The judgement of the thesis rests with the Examining Committee (Advisory Committee plus the External Examiner) and is independent of, and separate from, any judgement (favourable or unfavourable) related to the acceptance of individual papers for publication or presentation within the relevant discipline.

Similar to all other theses, everything in the thesis is subject to review, criticism and possible revision following the oral defence.

Notwithstanding the status of a manuscript considered for publication by other means, the form and content of the thesis must be deemed acceptable by the External Examiner and a majority of  the Examining Committee in order for the student to complete the degree requirements.

It is the responsibility of the student and any co-authors of material included in the thesis to obtain from all copyright holders written permission to include copyrighted material in the thesis. Written permission must be obtained from any co-author who retains copyright, or from the person to whom the co-author has assigned copyright.

Any payment which might be required by the rights holder(s) is the responsibility of the student. The thesis should indicate that copyrighted and/or co-authored material have been printed either “with permission” or “under license” (either by a statement in the preface or on the first page of each article).

Copies of the letters of permission or licenses must be available upon request and may be included within the thesis as appendices. Given this, it would be good practice for students to inform the journals to which they submit manuscripts that these manuscripts may eventually be included within a manuscript-style thesis.

What could make this page better?

Thank you for helping us make the university website better. Your comment will be forwarded to the editor of this page. Please note that this form is not intended to provide customer service. If you need assistance, please contact us directly.

The Difference Between a Manuscript, Thesis, and Dissertation

By DALE JACKSON

When submitting academic work for consideration, there is a lot to consider. You need to be aware of referencing and formatting styles, not to mention your style, tone, and of course, spelling and grammar. But what exactly are you submitting? Is it a thesis, a manuscript, or a dissertation? Knowing the difference will assist in your academic journey.

 First and foremost, a thesis consists of a statement. During the writing process, your opinion needs to be investigated. Whether or not it is proven is not relevant; the thesis is a collection of your research and results—whatever they may be. Once you have a thesis statement, it helps to narrow down your research and provides a great starting block for your writing.

While the terms thesis and dissertation are often used interchangeably, some people think of them differently. Dissertations are usually book length, and can consist of years of original research on a topic.

Request a Sample Edit

or GET A FREE QUOTE

To clarify, a dissertation is a lengthier, more in-depth version of a thesis.

Manuscripts can be considered as condensed parts of a thesis or dissertation. Whereas a thesis has a lengthy introduction, a manuscript is shorter and more to the point. It is possible to write several shorter manuscripts from one thesis since less information is required.

So, if a dissertation is the longest, most in-depth study, a thesis is a shorter version of the same thing. Manuscripts may be produced from sections of dissertations or theses, and are more focused in their content.

Read more...

How To Create A Style Guide For Your Business

Five Proofreading Myths

Four Tips for Better Thesis Writing

Tips for a DIY Press Release

Reasons to Have Your Document Checked and Edited

Chicago Manual of Style vs. Associated Press (AP) Style

Main navigation

• Graduate Students
• Faculty & Staff
• General requirements

Manuscript-Based (Article-Based) Theses

• Initial Thesis Submission
• Thesis examination
• Doctoral oral defence
• Final Thesis Submission
• Thesis Writing and Support Resources
• Letters of Completion/PGWP

FAQ on manuscript-based theses

As an alternative to the traditional format, a thesis may be presented as a collection of scholarly papers of which the student is the first author or co-first author. A manuscript-based doctoral thesis must include the text of a minimum of two manuscripts published, submitted or to be submitted for publication. A manuscript-based Master’s thesis must include the text of one or more manuscripts. Articles must be formatted according to the requirements described below. Note that a manuscript-based thesis must follow the general structure of a thesis as explained here . An FAQ explaining the difference between a standard and a manuscript-based thesis is available here .

Manuscripts for publication in journals are frequently very concise documents. A thesis, however, is expected to consist of more detailed, scholarly work. A manuscript-based thesis will be evaluated by the examiners as a unified, logically coherent document in the same way a traditional thesis is evaluated. Publication of manuscripts, or acceptance for publication by a peer-reviewed journal, does not guarantee that the thesis will be found acceptable for the degree sought.

A manuscript-based thesis must:

• be presented with uniform font size, line spacing, and margin sizes (see Thesis Format under Preparation of a Thesis );
• conform to all other requirements listed under Thesis Components on the Preparation of a Thesis page;
• contain additional text that connects the manuscript(s) in a logical progression from one chapter to the next, producing a cohesive, unitary focus, and documenting a single program of research - the manuscript(s) alone do not constitute the thesis;
• stand as an integrated whole.

Any manuscripts that are under review, accepted or published in a journal must be included in your manuscript-based thesis without changes (i.e. identical to the published or submitted versions). The only change is with respect to the font/size which should be the same as the one used for the rest of the thesis for consistency and homogeneity reasons. So each chapter represents a full manuscript and has its own reference list. Then at the end of the thesis, you have a master reference list which includes all the other references cited throughout the other sections of the thesis, mostly within the general introduction but also from the general discussion.

Depending on the feedback of your examiners and/or the oral defence committee, you may be required to make revisions to your thesis before final submission. The committee’s comments must be addressed in the connecting text between chapters and/or the discussion section. You must not make any changes to the manuscripts themselves in your final thesis.

In the case of multiple-authored articles, the student must be the first author . Multiple-authored articles cannot be used in more than one thesis. In the case of students who have worked collaboratively on projects, it may be preferable for both students to write a traditional format thesis, identifying individual contributions. Consult this page for information on intellectual property and required permissions/waivers.

In the case of co-first authored articles , only one student can use the article in a manuscript-based thesis and must have a written agreement from the other co-first author student(s).

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial 4.0 International License . Graduate and Postdoctoral Studies, McGill University .

Department and University Information

Graduate and postdoctoral studies.

A Guide on How to Write a Manuscript for a Research Paper

This article teaches how to write a manuscript for a research paper and recommended practices to produce a well-written manuscript.

For scientists, publishing a research paper is a huge accomplishment; they typically spend a large amount of time researching the appropriate subject, the right material, and, most importantly, the right place to publish their hard work. To be successful in publishing a research paper, it must be well-written and meet all of the high standards.

Although there is no quick and easy method to get published, there are certain manuscript writing strategies that can help earn the awareness and visibility you need to get it published.

In this Mind The Graph step-by-step tutorial, we give practical directions on how to write a manuscript for a research paper, to increase your research as well as your chances of publishing.

What is the manuscript of a research paper?

A manuscript is a written, typed, or word-processed document submitted to a publisher by the researcher. Researchers meticulously create manuscripts to communicate their unique ideas and fresh findings to both the scientific community and the general public. 

Overall, the manuscript must be outstanding and deeply represent your professional attitude towards work; it must be complete, rationally structured, and accurate. To convey the results to the scientific community while complying with ethical rules, scientific articles must use a specified language and structure.

Furthermore, the standards for title page information, abstract structure, reference style, font size, line spacing, margins, layout, and paragraph style must also be observed for effective publishing. This is a time-consuming and challenging technique, but it is worthwhile in the end.

How to structure a manuscript?

The first step in knowing how to write a manuscript for a research paper is understanding how the structure works. 

Title or heading

A poorly chosen title may deter a potential reader from reading deeper into your manuscript. When an audience comes across your manuscript, the first thing they notice is the title, keep in mind that the title you choose might impact the success of your work.

Abstracts are brief summaries of your paper. The fundamental concept of your research and the issues you intend to answer should be contained within the framework of the abstract. The abstract is a concise summary of the research that should be considered a condensed version of the entire article.

Introduction

The purpose of the research is disclosed in the body of the introduction. Background information is provided to explain why the study was conducted and the research’s development.

Methods and materials

The technical parts of the research have to be thoroughly detailed in this section. Transparency is required in this part of the research. Colleagues will learn about the methodology and materials you used to analyze your research, recreate it, and expand concepts further. 

This is the most important portion of the paper. You should provide your findings and data once the results have been thoroughly discussed. Use an unbiased point of view here; but leave the evaluation for your final piece, the conclusion.

Finally, explain why your findings are meaningful. This section allows you to evaluate your results and reflect on your process. Remember that conclusions are expressed in a succinct way using words rather than figures. The content presented in this section should solely be based on the research conducted.

The reference list contains information that readers may use to find the sources you mentioned in your research. Your reference page is at the end of your piece. Keep in mind that each publication has different submission criteria. For effective reference authentication, journal requirements should be followed.

Steps on how to write a manuscript for a research paper

It is not only about the format while writing a successful manuscript, but also about the correct strategy to stand out above other researchers trying to be published. Consider the following steps to a well-written manuscript:

1. Read the author’s guide

Many journals offer a Guide for Authors kind of document, which is normally printed yearly and is available online. In this Guide for Authors, you will discover thorough information on the journal’s interests and scope, as well as information regarding manuscript types and more in-depth instructions on how to do the right formatting to submit your research.

2. Pay special attention to the methods and materials section

The section on methods and materials is the most important part of the research. It should explain precisely what you observed in the research. This section should normally be less than 1,000 words long. The methods and materials used should be detailed enough that a colleague could reproduce the study.

3. Identify and describe your findings

The second most crucial aspect of your manuscript is the findings. After you’ve stated what you observed (methods and materials), you should go through what you discovered. Make a note to organize your findings such that they make sense without further explanation.

4. The research’s face and body

In this part you need to produce the face and body of your manuscript, so do it carefully and thoroughly. 

Ensure that the title page has all of the information required by the journal. The title page is the public face of your research and must be correctly structured to meet publication requirements. 

Write an introduction that explains why you carried out the research and why anybody should be interested in the results (ask yourself “so what?”). 

Concentrate on creating a clear and accurate reference page. As stated in step 1, you should read the author’s guide for the journal you intend to submit to thoroughly to ensure that your research reference page is correctly structured.

The abstract should be written just after the manuscript is finished. Follow the author’s guide and be sure to keep it under the word limit.

5. Rapid Rejection Criteria double-check

Now that you’ve completed the key aspects of your research, it’s time to double-check everything according to the Rapid Rejection Criteria. The “Rapid Rejection Criteria” are errors that lead to an instantaneous rejection. The criteria are:

• The answered question was not interesting enough
• The question has been satisfactorily answered before
• Wrong hypothesis
• The method cannot address the hypothesis
• Research is underpowered
• Contradictory manuscript
• The conclusion doesn’t support the data

Rewrite your manuscript now that you’ve finished it. Make yourself your fiercest critic. Consider reading the document loudly to yourself, keeping an ear out for any abrupt breaks in the logical flow or incorrect claims.

Your Creations, Ready within Minutes!

Aside from a step-by-step guide to writing a decent manuscript for your research, Mind The Graph includes a specialized tool for creating and providing templates for infographics that may maximize the potential and worth of your research. Check the website for more information. 

Subscribe to our newsletter

Exclusive high quality content about effective visual communication in science.

About Jessica Abbadia

Jessica Abbadia is a lawyer that has been working in Digital Marketing since 2020, improving organic performance for apps and websites in various regions through ASO and SEO. Currently developing scientific and intellectual knowledge for the community's benefit. Jessica is an animal rights activist who enjoys reading and drinking strong coffee.

Content tags

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

• Publications
• Account settings

Preview improvements coming to the PMC website in October 2024. Learn More or Try it out now .

• Advanced Search
• Journal List
• Blood Transfus
• v.11(2); 2013 Apr

How to write a scientific manuscript for publication

Giancarlo maria liumbruno.

1 Immunohaematology, Transfusion Medicine and Clinical Pathology Units, “San Giovanni Calibita” Fatebenefratelli Hospital, AFAR, Rome, Italy

Claudio Velati

2 Immunohaematology and Transfusion Medicine Department, Ospedale Maggiore Pizzardi, Azienda USL Bologna, Bologna, Italy

Patrizio Pasqualetti

3 Medical Statistics & Information Technology, Fatebenefratelli Association for Research, Isola Tiberina, Rome, Italy

Massimo Franchini

4 Department of Transfusion Medicine and Haematology, Carlo Poma Hospital, Mantua, Italy

Introduction

The origins and development of the scientific and technical press can be traced back to 1665 when the first “modern” scientific papers appeared and were characterized by non standardised form and style 1 . Subsequently, nearly 300 years ago 2 , in an attempt to ensure that articles met the journal’s standards of quality and scientific validity, the peer-reviewed process for scientific manuscripts was born in England and France. Since then, there has been an enormous proliferation of scientific journals and manuscripts so that, at present, the numbers of biomedical papers published annually by over 20,000 journals, at a rate of 5,500 new papers per day, far exceeds 2,000,000 1 , 2 .

Published scientific papers and professional meetings are really essential to disseminate relevant information and research findings. However, most of the abstracts of presentations given at scientific meetings are usually available only in conference proceedings although they have the potential to be subsequently published as articles in peer-reviewed journals.

A recently published Cochrane review showed that only 44.5% of almost 30,000 scientific meeting abstracts were published as articles 3 . No association between full publication and authors’ country of origin was detected. Factors associated with full publication included acceptance vs rejection of abstracts for oral or poster presentations, acceptance for oral presentations rather than poster sessions, “positive” results, using the report authors’ definition of “positive”, randomised trial study design and basic rather than clinical research.

Possible reasons for failed publication include lack of time, research still underway, problems with co-authors and negative results 4 . Undoubtedly, lack of the necessary skills and experience in the process of writing and publishing is another possible contributing factor also in the field of Transfusion Medicine although the specialists in this discipline are currently adopting the principles and research methodologies that support evidence-based medicine 5 , and high-level research is actually being carried out at the same rate as in all medical specialties.

There are three broad groups of manuscripts: original scientific articles, reviews and case reports. Although case reports are part of the evidence hierarchy in evidence-based practice, albeit at a lower level, and case series are incorporated in a significant proportion of health technology assessments 6 , this article will address the multiple steps required in writing original articles and reviews with the aim of providing the reader with the necessary tools to prepare, submit and successfully publish a manuscript.

The anatomy of a paper: from origin to current format

The history of scientific journals dates from 1665, when the French “Journal des sçavans” and the English “Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society” first began systematically publishing research results 7 . From then on, the initial structure of scientific papers evolved gradually from letters (usually by a single author, with a polite style and contemporarily addressing multiple subjects) and experimental reports (essentially descriptive and presenting experiences and effects in chronological order) to a better structured and more fluent form characterised by an embryonic description of methods and interpretation of results. This evolved way of reporting experiments gradually replaced the letter form.

It was not, however, until the second half of the 19 th century that the method description became fully developed and a comprehensive organisation of the manuscripts known as “theory-experiment-discussion” emerged 1 . At the beginning of the last century a gradual decrease of the use of the literary style coincided with a growing standardisation of the editorial rules that paved the way for the formal established Introduction, Methods, Results, and Discussion (IMRAD) structure of scientific papers, which was adopted in the 1980s.

At present, IMRAD is the format encouraged for the text of observational (i.e. retrospective/descriptive) and experimental (i.e. randomised controlled) studies by the “Uniform Requirements for Manuscripts Submitted to Biomedical Journals” which have become the most important and widely accepted (by over 500 biomedical journals) guide to writing, publishing, and editing in international biomedical publications 8 . The Uniform Requirements are released by the International Committee of Medical Journal Editors (ICMJE), an evolution of the initial group of Journal Editors who met for the first time in Vancouver in 1978 and subsequently issued a number of editorial policy statements and guidelines for manuscript submission.

According to the ICMJE, “this so-called IMRAD structure is not an arbitrary publication format but rather a direct reflection of the process of scientific discovery” 9 . In addition it facilitates modular reading and locating of specific information, which is normally found in pre-established sections of an article 7 .

“Long articles may need subheadings within some sections (especially Results and Discussion) to clarify their content. Other types of articles, such as case reports, reviews and editorials, probably need to be formatted differently” 9 .

This format does not comprise other important and integral parts of the article, such as the Title Page, Abstract, Acknowledgements, Figures and Tables (comprising their legends) and References 8 .

There are often slight variations from one journal’s format to another but every journal has instructions to authors available on their website and it is crucial that authors download and comply with them.

The latest edition of the Uniform Requirements was updated in April 2010; it is available at the ICMJE website and is an essential guideline for all authors writing a biomedical manuscript 9 .

Consolidated standards of reporting trials

Medical science depends entirely on the transparent reporting of clinical trials 10 .

Unfortunately, several reviews have documented deficiencies in reports of clinical trials 11 – 15 .

In 1996, a group of scientists and editors developed the CONsolidated Standards Of Reporting Trials (CONSORT) statement which is intended to improve the reporting of a randomised, controlled trial (RCT), enabling readers to understand the design of a trial, its conduct, analysis and interpretation and to assess the validity of its results 16 . It emphasises that this can only be achieved through complete transparency from authors.

The CONSORT statement was updated in 2001 and after the 2007 meeting the statement was further revised and published as CONSORT 2010 which is the most up-to-date version and can be freely viewed and downloaded through one of the several link to Journals available at the CONSORT website under the section “CONSORT Statement - Downloads” 17 . The statement facilitates critical appraisal and interpretation of RCT and many leading medical journals and major international editorial groups have endorsed it.

The statement consists of a checklist (25 items) and a flow diagram that authors can use for reporting a RCT. The checklist items pertain to the content of the Title, Abstract, Introduction, Methods, Results, Discussion and Other information. The flow diagram is intended to depict the passage of participants through a RCT (enrolment, intervention allocation, follow-up and analysis). It is strongly recommended that the CONSORT Statement be used in conjunction with the CONSORT Explanation and Elaboration Document which is available at the CONSORT website under the above mentioned section 17 .

Another major point to consider is the obligation to register clinical trials 9 .

In September 2004 the ICMJE changed their policy and decided they would consider trials for publication only if they had been registered before the enrolment of the first participant. The ICMJE accepts registration in the international registries listed in Table I .

International trial registries acceptable to the International Committee of Medical Journal Editors and relevant websites.

Strengthening the reporting of observational studies in epidemiology

The reporting of observational studies frequently lacks details and is not clear enough 18 , 19 . Consequently the quality is poor although many questions in medical research are investigated in observational studies and overwhelming evidence is also extrapolated from them 20 . In fact, observational studies are more suitable for the detection of rare or late adverse effects of treatments, and are more likely to provide an indication of what is achieved in daily medical practice 21 .

To improve the reporting of observational studies (cohort, case-control or cross-sectional studies) a group of methodologists, researchers and editors developed a useful checklist of 22 items: the StrengThening the Reporting of OBservational studies in Epidemiology (STROBE) Statement 21 . The checklist items pertain to the content of the Title, Abstract, Introduction, Methods, Results, Discussion and Other information sections of articles. The STROBE checklists can be freely viewed and downloaded at the STROBE website under the section “Available checklists” 22 . They also include a draft checklist for conference abstracts (items to be included when reporting observational studies in a conference abstract) pertaining to the content of the following sections: Title, Authors, Study design, Objective, Methods, Results and Conclusion.

The STROBE Statement provides guidance to authors on how to improve the reporting of observational studies, it facilitates critical appraisal and interpretation of studies and is widely supported by reviewers, a growing number of biomedical journal editors and readers.

The STROBE checklist is best used in conjunction with an explanation and elaboration article which discusses each of the 22 checklist items, gives methodological background, publishes examples of transparent reporting and is freely available at the STROBE Statement website under the above mentioned section through the link with the Journals in which the document has been published (PLoS Medicine, Annals of Internal Medicine and Epidemiology) 22 .

As review articles comprehensively cover a specific biomedical topic and justify future research directions, they require that the author extensively review and master the literature and then develop some general statements and conclusions with practical implications for patients’ care 23 , 24 . In addition, they should provide an updated reference for those readers interested in broadening their knowledge of critical issues. Review articles are, therefore, important not only for younger physicians early in their career but also for senior academic staff as they represent a tool for intellectual enrichment and enhancement of the standards of research. Writing a review requires knowledge and continuous improvement of qualifications in line with the accumulation of better and updated scientific literature evidence. For this reason, journals often invite experts on a specific topic to write a review article. However, authors can also ask Editors if they would be interested in publishing a review article on a particular, topical, relevant and debated issue.

As reviews are the most accessed among the various types of articles and contribute substantially to the impact factor of journals, obviously they are welcomed and encouraged by many journals and have become an inseparable part of the writing scientific culture.

The three basic types of literature reviews are narrative reviews (which include editorials, commentaries and narrative overviews or non-systematic narrative reviews), qualitative systematic reviews and quantitative systematic reviews (meta-analyses) ( Table II ) 25 .

Summary of the types of literature reviews.

Editorials, typically written by the editor of the journal or an invited guest, may be a narrative review if the author retrieves and summarises information about a particular topic for the reader 25 . Usually, these types of narrative reviews are based upon a short, select and narrowly focused review of only a few papers. However, editorials may be no more than the editor’s comments regarding a current issue of the journal or a current event in health care and do not, therefore, automatically qualify as narrative reviews.

Commentaries

Commentaries may also be written as a narrative review; however, they are typically written with a particular opinion being expressed 25 . Research methodology is not usually presented in these articles which reflect the author’s biased synthesis of other articles. Commentaries are usually shorter than a full-length review article and the author should be an expert in the content area of the commentary. Usually, the purpose of a commentary is to stimulate academic debate between the journal’s readers.

Narrative reviews

Non-systematic narrative reviews are comprehensive narrative syntheses of previously published information 26 . This type of literature review reports the author’s findings in a condensed format that typically summarises the contents of each article. Authors of narrative overviews are often acknowledged experts in the field and have conducted research themselves. Editors sometimes solicit narrative overviews from specific authors in order to bring certain issues to light. Although the bibliographic research methodology is an obligatory section in systematic reviews and meta-analyses, it is also becoming an inseparable part of narrative literature reviews. Providing information on the databases accessed, terms, inclusion and exclusion criteria and time limits adds objectivity to the main messages and conclusions. It is advisable to use only credible databases (at least two or three) which only select high-quality publications that contain the most up-to-date information (see Table III ) 24 . The best way to organise the analysis of the sources in the main text of a narrative biomedical review is to transform information from the retrieved publications into bibliographic cards with a short description of the main results, level of evidence, strengths and limitations of each study and relevance to each section of the manuscript. Furthermore, the readability of a review can be improved by including a few self-explanatory tables, boxes, and figures synthesising essential information and conveying original messages 24 . We also suggest the use of software packages for reference management, which saves time during the multiple revisions.

Main online libraries, catalogues and databases.

In conclusion, a successful narrative review should have the following characteristics: be well-structured, synthesise the available evidence pertaining to the topic, convey a clear message and draw conclusions supported by data analysis.

Qualitative systematic reviews

Qualitative systematic reviews are a type of literature review that employ detailed, rigorous and explicit methods and are, therefore, a more powerful evidence-based source to garner clinical information than narrative reviews, case reports, case series, and poorly conducted cohort studies. A detailed bibliographic research based upon a focused question or purpose is the peculiar characteristic of a systematic review 27 . These reviews are called qualitative because the process by which the individual studies are integrated includes a summary and critique of the findings derived from systematic methods, but does not statistically combine the results of all of the studies reviewed.

Quantitative systematic reviews

A quantitative systematic review or meta-analysis critically evaluates each paper and statistically combines the results of the studies 28 . The authors of a meta-analysis employ all of the rigorous methodology of qualitative systematic reviews and, in addition, gather the original patients’ data from each of the studies under review, pool it all together in a database and produce the appropriate statistics on this larger sample. While this process leads to a more powerful and generalizable conclusion, which is the strength of the meta-analysis, on the other hand it can pool together studies that are very heterogeneous which is the main drawback of a quantitative systematic review. Nevertheless, well-executed quantitative systematic reviews constitute the highest level of evidence for medical decision making 28 .

The recently published Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) statement aims to help improve reporting, focusing on systematic reviews of RCT. The Statement consists of a checklist of 27 essential items for transparent reporting and a flow diagram for the phases of study selection and is accompanied by the PRISMA Explanation and Elaboration Document, which, among other things, provides examples of good reporting for the various review sections 29 .

A further guidance on the reporting of systematic reviews has been published by the Cochrane Collaboration, an international organisation that prepares, updates and publishes systematic reviews of the effects of health-care interventions following a standardised format 30 .

Preparing to write a manuscript Background information

The question or hypothesis formulated by the investigator is the common starting point to search the relevant published literature for an answer 31 . Gathering the background information through an extensive literature search relevant to the topic of interest is the subsequent essential step. Peer reviewers are often experts and not citing important articles poses the manuscript at risk of rejection. It is advisable to consult at least two or three credible databases (see Table III ) to identify the crucial relevant articles and to track down “landmark” articles. In addition, avoid using papers published more than 10 years ago and do not rely on just the abstracts but obtain full-text articles. Articles relevant to the research topic and published in the journal in which the paper is to be submitted should be reviewed and cited 32 .

Last but not least, the bibliographical search should also aim at finding recently published articles similar to the one the author intends to submit. In fact, a journal can be less interested in publishing such a manuscript unless the results reflect new or different findings.

Target journal

It can be worth thinking about this issue before starting to write as a proper choice of the journal can affect not only the writing style but also the ease of publication and the prompt dissemination of research. Ideally, the target journal should be the one in which similar work has been published 32 .

Electronic and open-access journals are the latest resources for publishing and data dissemination available on the scientific journal horizon.

It is also worth considering an appropriate level of impact factor or journal quality. The impact factor of a journal is a measure reflecting the average number of citations to recent articles published in science and social science journals. It is determined by the ratio of the number of citations of papers from that journal in the whole of the biomedical literature over a 2-year period. It is frequently used as a proxy for the relative importance of a journal within its field, with journals with higher impact factors deemed to be more important than those with lower ones.

It is also extremely important to read the instructions to authors section of the selected journal carefully. In fact, although there is a general style for most biomedical journals as agreed by the ICMJE in the Uniform Requirements 9 , individual journals may differ slightly in detail.

It is always best to sort out authorship before writing a manuscript as authorship order can be a source of problems once the paper has been written 23 .

Several guidelines relating to authorship are available and this issue has been extensively addressed in a recently published review article by Elizabeth Wager 33 . Most guidelines on the authorship of scientific articles are focused more on creative and intellectual aspects of research than on routine or technical contributions.

Alhough not universally accepted, the authorship criteria suggested by the ICMJE are the ones most widely promoted by medical journals 9 . According to these criteria, co-authors should: (i) substantially contribute to conception and design of the study, acquisition of data, or analysis and interpretation of data; (ii) draft the article or revise it critically for important intellectual content; and (iii) approve the final version.

The authors are listed in decreasing order of their contribution and the senior author, or mentor, should be the last but this convention has never been codified 33 .

It is advisable to provide accurate affiliations and contacts as they will be published on PubMed as well as in the journal but it is also important to agree on the corresponding author who should have full access to the study data and through the provided e-mail address will be the link with the scientific community for the future 1 .

Ethical issues

In addition to the authorship discussed above, there are several ethical issues involved in writing a paper. These include fabrication of data, duplicate publication, plagiarism, misuse of statistics, manipulation of images and inadequate or obviously false citations 31 .

A must-read for all those who are involved in any editorial activity are the guidelines released by the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) which is a forum for editors and publishers of peer-reviewed journals to discuss all aspects of publication ethics 34 . COPE provides advice to editors and publishers on all aspects of publication ethics and, in particular, how to handle cases of research and publication misconduct.

Writing the manuscript

Several models for the initial draft exist. A useful algorithm for writing a scientific manuscript is the one recently published by O’Connor and Holmquist 35 . According to these authors, the writing should start with making figures and tables, and then proceed with summary statements (the conclusions summarising the major contributions of the manuscript to the scientific community), identification of the audience, materials and methods, results, discussion, references, introduction, title and conclusion. The aim of this algorithm is to give the structural backbone to the manuscript and is designed to overcome writer’s block and to assist scientists who are not native English speakers.

A further and more general strategy to increase productivity during the early phases of manuscript writing is to ignore at the outset all the details that can be approached later such as structure, grammar and spelling.

The sequence of writing should address the following core sections of the paper in the order from first to last: methods, results, discussion and introduction 31 , 36 , 37 .

“Like every well-written story, a scientific manuscript should have a beginning (Introduction), middle (Materials and Methods), and an end (Results). The Discussion (the moral of the story) puts the study in perspective. The Abstract is an opening summary of the story and the Title gives the story a name” 38 . However, as correctly pointed out by Michael McKay, “writing is not necessarily in the temporal order of the final document (i.e. the IMRAD format)” 39 .

The take-home messages are, therefore: (i) a clear understanding of the essential components of each of these sections is critical to the successful composition of a scientific manuscript; (ii) the proper order of writing greatly facilitates the ease of writing; (iii) the approach to writing can be customised by authors on the basis both of the subject they are dealing with and their personal experience; (iv) the CONSORT 16 , 17 , STROBE 21 , 22 or PRISMA 29 statement must be used as a guidance document for the appropriate reporting of the type of study the authors are dealing with 31 , 32 , 38 .

In the following part of this paper the different sections of a manuscript will be dealt with in the order they are presented in the final document.

Title, keywords and abstract

The title is determinant for the indexing process of the article and greatly contributes to the visibility of the paper. It should reflect the essence of the article, its novelty and its relevance to the biomedical field it deals with 24 . It should be clear, brief, specific, not include jargon or non-standard and unexplained abbreviations, reflect the purpose of the study and state the issue(s) addressed rather than the conclusions 38 . Indicative titles are, therefore, better than declarative ones. Obviously, the title and abstract should correlate with each other.

Available evidence suggests that the presence of a colon in the title positively correlates with the number of citations 40 . In other words, the more specific and accurate the description of the content is, the more chance the manuscript has of being cited 38 .

The title of systematic reviews should ideally follow the participants, interventions, comparisons, outcomes, and study design (PICOS) approach, and include the terms “systematic review”, “meta-analysis”, or both 41 .

The keywords enable the database searching of the article and should be provided in compliance with the instructions to authors. A careful choice from the Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) in the National Library of Medicine (NLM) controlled vocabulary thesaurus used for indexing articles in PubMed greatly increases the chances the paper is retrieved and cited by other authors 42 .

The abstract is the last section to be written but it is the most important part of a paper because it is usually the first to be read and readers use the information contained in it to decide whether to read the whole article or not. It should be a concise summary of the manuscript and no longer than specified in the instructions to authors. Usually, abstracts do not contain references and abbreviations and acronyms are not always allowed. If required, it has to be structured in a specific way. For example, original articles submitted to Blood Transfusion, require an abstract of no more than 2,000 characters (including spaces), structured as follows: Background, Materials and methods, Results, Discussion 43 .

A good abstract should be easy to understand and broadly appealing, informative but not too detailed. It can start with a sentence or two outlining the work; then the disease and/or system studied must be introduced and what was previously unknown has to be stated in order to provide a brief overview of the current state-of-the art knowledge on the issue. The methods must be summarised without too many details; the major findings must be clearly indicated and followed by a sentence or two showing the major implications of the paper that must be consistent with the study conclusions without overestimating their possible relevance 44 . In the abstract the present tense should be used to refer to facts already established in the field, while the findings from the current study should be dealt with in the past tense.

The aim of the introduction is to introduce the topic to the readers in a straightforward way, avoiding excessive wordiness 42 . For this reason it should be short and focused, comprising approximately three paragraphs in one page 37 .

The first paragraph should mention the questions or issues that outline the background of the study and establish, using the present tense, the context, relevance, or nature of the problem, question, or purpose (what is known) 23 , 37 .

The second paragraph may include the importance of the problem and unclear issues (what is unknown).

The last paragraph should state the rationale, hypothesis, main objective, or purpose thus clearly identifying the hypothesis to be treated and the questions addressed in the manuscript (why the study was done).

One of the most common mistakes is the failure to make a clear statement of purpose. This is because many research projects, especially retrospective clinical studies, do not start at the beginning (with the identification of a specific question, followed by methods and data collection) but begin by collecting data without first identifying a specific question to be addressed that must in any case be established before beginning to write 38 . Data or conclusions from the study should not be presented or anticipated in the introduction section.

Writing the introduction at the end of the process prevents any block and it is easier after the methods, results and discussion have been completed.

Materials and methods

The methods section is one of the most important parts of a scientific manuscript and its aim is to give the reader all the necessary details to replicate the study.

CONSORT 16 , 17 , STROBE 21 , 22 and PRISMA 29 statements provide a guideline relevant to the particular type of study 2 , 42 .

The two essential elements of this section are a clear presentation of the study design and the identification and description of the measurement parameters used to evaluate the purpose of the study.

It is, therefore, necessary to provide a thorough explanation of the research methodology, including the study design, data collection, analysis principles and rationale. Special attention should be paid to the sample selection, including inclusion and exclusion criteria and to any relevant ethical considerations. A description of the randomisation or other group assignment methods used should be included, as should be the pre-specified primary and secondary outcome(s) and other variables.

According to the Uniform Requirements 9 , in the case of experimental/clinical reports involving patients or volunteers, the authors must provide information about institutional, regulatory and ethical Committee authorisation, informed consent from patients and volunteers and the observance of the latest release of the Helsinki Declaration 45 .

When reporting experiments on animals, authors should state which institutional authority granted approval for the animal experiments 9 .

Finally, in addition to describing and identifying all the measurement parameters used, it is also important to describe any unusual statistical methodology applied, how subjects were recruited and compensated and how compliance was measured (if applicable).

The results section consists of the organised presentation of the collected data. All measurements that the authors described in the materials and methods section must be reported in the results section and be presented in the same order as they were in that section 35 . The past tense should be used as results were obtained in the past. Author(s) must ensure that they use proper words when describing the relationship between data or variables. These “data relation words” should be turned into “cause/effect logic and mechanistic words” in the discussion section. A clear example of the use of this appropriate language can be found in the article by O’Connor 35 .

This section should include only data, including negative findings, and not background or methods or results of measurements that were not described in the methods section 2 . The interpretation of presented data must not be included in this section.

Results for primary and secondary outcomes can be reported using tables and figures for additional clarity. The rationale for end-point selection and the reason for the non-collection of information on important non-measured variables must be explained 35 .

Figures and tables should be simple, expand text information rather than repeat it, be consistent with reported data and summarise them 23 . In addition, they should be comprehensible on their own, that is, with only title, footnotes, abbreviations and comments.

References in this section should be limited to methods developed in the manuscript or to similar methods reported in the literature.

Patients’ anonymity is essential unless consent for publication is obtained.

The main objective of the discussion is to explain the meaning of the results.

This section should be structured as if it were a natural flow of ideas and should start with a simple statement of the key findings and whether they are consistent with the study objectives enunciated in the last paragraph of the introduction. The strengths and the limitations of the research and what the study adds to current knowledge should then be addressed 42 .

Through logical arguments, the authors should convert the relations of the variables stated in the results section into mechanistic interpretations of cause and effect using the present tense as these relations do exist at present 35 . In addition, they should describe how the results are consistent or not with similar studies and discuss any confounding factors and their impact.

They should avoid excessive wordiness and other commonly made errors such as 38 : (i) including information unrelated to the stated purpose of the article; (ii) repeating detailed data previously presented in the Results section; (iii) not interpreting and not critically analysing results of other studies reviewed and cited but rather just repeating their findings; (iv) presenting new data or new details about techniques and enrolment criteria, and (v) overstating the interpretation of the results.

Another common mistake is to forget to criticise the research described in the manuscript by highlighting the limitations of the study. The value of a scientific article is enhanced not only by showing the strengths but also the weak points of the evidence reported in the paper.

The conclusion is a separate, last paragraph that should present a concise and clear “take home” message avoiding repetition of concepts already expressed 32 . The authors should also avoid excessive generalizations of the implications of the study and remember that except for RCT there can only be testable hypotheses and observed associations, rather than rigorous proof of cause and effect 42 . Possible implications for current clinical practice or recommendations should be addressed only if appropriate.

Finally, the areas for possible improvement with future studies should be addressed avoiding ambiguous comments such as “there is a need for further research” and if there is a real need for further studies on the topic it is strongly advisable to be specific about the type of research suggested.

Acknowledgements

All contributors who do not meet the criteria for authorship should be listed in an Acknowledgements section 9 . The authors should, therefore, add a statement on the type of assistance, if any, received from the sponsor or the sponsor’s representative and include the names of any person who provided technical help, writing assistance, editorial support or any type of participation in writing the manuscript.

In addition, “when submitting a manuscript authored by a group, the corresponding author should clearly indicate the preferred citation and identify all individual authors as well as the group name. Journals generally list other members of the group in the Acknowledgments. The NLM indexes the group name and the names of individuals the group has identified as being directly responsible for the manuscript; it also lists the names of collaborators if they are listed in Acknowledgments” 9 .

The first suggestion is to follow the journal’s policies and formatting instructions, including those for books and web-based references. Other general considerations related to references, including the following ones, can be found in the Uniform Requirements 9 .

References to review articles are an efficient way to guide readers to a body of literature but they do not always reflect original work accurately. Papers accepted but not yet published should be designated as “in press” or “forthcoming” and information from manuscripts submitted but not accepted should be cited in the text as “unpublished observations”.

Avoid using abstracts as references and citing a “personal communication” unless it provides essential information not available from a public source. In this case the name of the person and date of communication should be cited in parentheses in the text. Do not include manuscripts “in submission”

In addition it is important to remember that “authors are responsible for checking that none of the references cite retracted articles except in the context of referring to the retraction. Authors can identify retracted articles in MEDLINE by using the following search term, where pt in square brackets stands for publication type: Retracted publication [pt] in PubMed” 9 . Last but not least, remember that if a reviewer does not have access to any references he or she can ask the author for a full (pdf) copy of the relevant works.

Tips for successful revision of a manuscript

Most papers are accepted after some degree of revision. In some cases, a manuscript may be rejected after internal and editorial review only.

The process of revising a manuscript and successfully responding to the comments of reviewers and Editor can be challenging. Little has been published addressing the issue of effectively revising a manuscript according to the (minor or major) comments of reviewers. This topic was recently extensively and pragmatically covered by James M. Provenzale 46 . The ten principles for revising a manuscript suggested by the author are reported in Table IV .

Ten principles for revising a manuscript suggested by James M. Provenzale 46 .

Many manuscripts are not published simply because the authors have not followed the few simple rules needed to write a good article. We hope that this paper provides the reader with the basic steps to build a draft manuscript and an outline of the process needed for publishing a manuscript. However, in Table V we summarise the ten principles we strongly recommend to comply with in order to improve the likelihood of publication of a scientific manuscript 47 .

Ten principles to improve the likelihood of publication of a scientific manuscript, suggested by James M. Provenzale 47 .

The Authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Have a language expert improve your writing

Run a free plagiarism check in 10 minutes, generate accurate citations for free.

• Knowledge Base
• Dissertation

How to Write a Thesis or Dissertation Introduction

Published on September 7, 2022 by Tegan George and Shona McCombes. Revised on November 21, 2023.

The introduction is the first section of your thesis or dissertation , appearing right after the table of contents . Your introduction draws your reader in, setting the stage for your research with a clear focus, purpose, and direction on a relevant topic .

Your introduction should include:

• Your topic, in context: what does your reader need to know to understand your thesis dissertation?
• Your focus and scope: what specific aspect of the topic will you address?
• The relevance of your research: how does your work fit into existing studies on your topic?
• Your questions and objectives: what does your research aim to find out, and how?
• An overview of your structure: what does each section contribute to the overall aim?

Instantly correct all language mistakes in your text

Upload your document to correct all your mistakes in minutes

Table of contents

How to start your introduction, topic and context, focus and scope, relevance and importance, questions and objectives, overview of the structure, thesis introduction example, introduction checklist, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about introductions.

Although your introduction kicks off your dissertation, it doesn’t have to be the first thing you write — in fact, it’s often one of the very last parts to be completed (just before your abstract ).

It’s a good idea to write a rough draft of your introduction as you begin your research, to help guide you. If you wrote a research proposal , consider using this as a template, as it contains many of the same elements. However, be sure to revise your introduction throughout the writing process, making sure it matches the content of your ensuing sections.

The only proofreading tool specialized in correcting academic writing - try for free!

The academic proofreading tool has been trained on 1000s of academic texts and by native English editors. Making it the most accurate and reliable proofreading tool for students.

Try for free

Begin by introducing your dissertation topic and giving any necessary background information. It’s important to contextualize your research and generate interest. Aim to show why your topic is timely or important. You may want to mention a relevant news item, academic debate, or practical problem.

After a brief introduction to your general area of interest, narrow your focus and define the scope of your research.

You can narrow this down in many ways, such as by:

• Geographical area
• Time period
• Demographics or communities
• Themes or aspects of the topic

It’s essential to share your motivation for doing this research, as well as how it relates to existing work on your topic. Further, you should also mention what new insights you expect it will contribute.

Start by giving a brief overview of the current state of research. You should definitely cite the most relevant literature, but remember that you will conduct a more in-depth survey of relevant sources in the literature review section, so there’s no need to go too in-depth in the introduction.

Depending on your field, the importance of your research might focus on its practical application (e.g., in policy or management) or on advancing scholarly understanding of the topic (e.g., by developing theories or adding new empirical data). In many cases, it will do both.

Ultimately, your introduction should explain how your thesis or dissertation:

• Helps solve a practical or theoretical problem
• Addresses a gap in the literature
• Builds on existing research
• Proposes a new understanding of your topic

Receive feedback on language, structure, and formatting

Professional editors proofread and edit your paper by focusing on:

• Academic style
• Vague sentences
• Style consistency

See an example

Perhaps the most important part of your introduction is your questions and objectives, as it sets up the expectations for the rest of your thesis or dissertation. How you formulate your research questions and research objectives will depend on your discipline, topic, and focus, but you should always clearly state the central aim of your research.

If your research aims to test hypotheses , you can formulate them here. Your introduction is also a good place for a conceptual framework that suggests relationships between variables .

• Conduct surveys to collect data on students’ levels of knowledge, understanding, and positive/negative perceptions of government policy.
• Determine whether attitudes to climate policy are associated with variables such as age, gender, region, and social class.
• Conduct interviews to gain qualitative insights into students’ perspectives and actions in relation to climate policy.

To help guide your reader, end your introduction with an outline  of the structure of the thesis or dissertation to follow. Share a brief summary of each chapter, clearly showing how each contributes to your central aims. However, be careful to keep this overview concise: 1-2 sentences should be enough.

I. Introduction

Human language consists of a set of vowels and consonants which are combined to form words. During the speech production process, thoughts are converted into spoken utterances to convey a message. The appropriate words and their meanings are selected in the mental lexicon (Dell & Burger, 1997). This pre-verbal message is then grammatically coded, during which a syntactic representation of the utterance is built.

Speech, language, and voice disorders affect the vocal cords, nerves, muscles, and brain structures, which result in a distorted language reception or speech production (Sataloff & Hawkshaw, 2014). The symptoms vary from adding superfluous words and taking pauses to hoarseness of the voice, depending on the type of disorder (Dodd, 2005). However, distortions of the speech may also occur as a result of a disease that seems unrelated to speech, such as multiple sclerosis or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.

This study aims to determine which acoustic parameters are suitable for the automatic detection of exacerbations in patients suffering from chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) by investigating which aspects of speech differ between COPD patients and healthy speakers and which aspects differ between COPD patients in exacerbation and stable COPD patients.

Checklist: Introduction

I have introduced my research topic in an engaging way.

I have provided necessary context to help the reader understand my topic.

I have clearly specified the focus of my research.

I have shown the relevance and importance of the dissertation topic .

I have clearly stated the problem or question that my research addresses.

I have outlined the specific objectives of the research .

I have provided an overview of the dissertation’s structure .

You've written a strong introduction for your thesis or dissertation. Use the other checklists to continue improving your dissertation.

If you want to know more about AI for academic writing, AI tools, or research bias, make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples or go directly to our tools!

Research bias

• Survivorship bias
• Self-serving bias
• Availability heuristic
• Halo effect
• Hindsight bias
• Deep learning
• Generative AI
• Machine learning
• Reinforcement learning
• Supervised vs. unsupervised learning

 (AI) Tools

• Grammar Checker
• Paraphrasing Tool
• Text Summarizer
• AI Detector
• Plagiarism Checker
• Citation Generator

The introduction of a research paper includes several key elements:

• A hook to catch the reader’s interest
• Relevant background on the topic
• Details of your research problem

and your problem statement

• A thesis statement or research question
• Sometimes an overview of the paper

Don’t feel that you have to write the introduction first. The introduction is often one of the last parts of the research paper you’ll write, along with the conclusion.

This is because it can be easier to introduce your paper once you’ve already written the body ; you may not have the clearest idea of your arguments until you’ve written them, and things can change during the writing process .

Research objectives describe what you intend your research project to accomplish.

They summarize the approach and purpose of the project and help to focus your research.

Your objectives should appear in the introduction of your research paper , at the end of your problem statement .

Scope of research is determined at the beginning of your research process , prior to the data collection stage. Sometimes called “scope of study,” your scope delineates what will and will not be covered in your project. It helps you focus your work and your time, ensuring that you’ll be able to achieve your goals and outcomes.

Defining a scope can be very useful in any research project, from a research proposal to a thesis or dissertation . A scope is needed for all types of research: quantitative , qualitative , and mixed methods .

To define your scope of research, consider the following:

• Budget constraints or any specifics of grant funding
• Your proposed timeline and duration
• Specifics about your population of study, your proposed sample size , and the research methodology you’ll pursue
• Any inclusion and exclusion criteria
• Any anticipated control , extraneous , or confounding variables that could bias your research if not accounted for properly.

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.

George, T. & McCombes, S. (2023, November 21). How to Write a Thesis or Dissertation Introduction. Scribbr. Retrieved April 9, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/dissertation/introduction-structure/

Is this article helpful?

Tegan George

Other students also liked, how to choose a dissertation topic | 8 steps to follow, how to write an abstract | steps & examples, what is your plagiarism score.

• How it works

Published by Nicolas at January 18th, 2024 , Revised On January 23, 2024

What Is A Manuscript And How Do You Craft One?

Crafting a manuscript is a journey of creativity, dedication, and storytelling prowess. In literature , a manuscript is more than just a collection of words on paper; it is a carefully sculpted piece of art that brings ideas, emotions, and narratives to life. It is a widely studied literature course in universities in Canada . This blog will guide you to what is a manuscript, its importance, and how to write one. Let’s explore further. 

Table of Contents

What Is A Manuscript

A manuscript is an author’s original text before it undergoes the process of publication. It is the raw, unfiltered expression of an author’s thoughts, ideas, and creativity, often taking the form of a novel, short story, essay, or any other written work. Unlike the final printed or published version, a manuscript provides a glimpse into the author’s initial vision and the evolution of their work.

However, a manuscript is more than just words on paper. It is a testament to the author’s commitment to their story, characters, and the art of writing itself. From the carefully chosen words to the deep plot structures, a manuscript is a canvas upon which literary dreams are painted.

Importance Of Crafting A Manuscript

Crafting a manuscript is a crucial step in the journey of a writer. It involves meticulous planning, thoughtful execution, and a deep understanding of the craft of storytelling. Creating a manuscript allows writers to explore their creativity, develop unique voices, and share their perspectives.

Moreover, the importance of crafting a manuscript extends to the impact it can have on readers. A well-crafted manuscript can transport readers to different worlds, evoke emotions, and provoke thoughts. It serves as a medium through which authors can connect with their audience on a profound level, leaving a lasting impression and fostering a love for literature.

Components Of A Manuscript

A manuscript is the original draft of a writer’s work before it undergoes the editing and publishing process. It is the author’s unfiltered expression, captured in words and laid out on pages, embodying the essence of their literary vision.

The components of a manuscript go beyond mere words. They include the structure, organization, and thematic elements that give life to the story. From the opening lines that captivate readers to the meticulously crafted characters and the development of a compelling plot, each component contributes to the overall tapestry of the manuscript.

Sections such as dialogue, narration, and description play pivotal roles in shaping the reader’s experience. Furthermore, formatting considerations, such as font, spacing, and page layout, are essential elements that contribute to the overall aesthetic and readability of the manuscript. Understanding these components is crucial for writers seeking to convey their ideas effectively and engage their audience from start to finish.

Different Types Of Manuscripts

Manuscripts come in various forms, each tailored to different genres, purposes, and styles of writing. Understanding these types is instrumental in crafting a manuscript that aligns with the author’s creative vision and the expectations of the intended audience.

Fiction Manuscripts

These are narratives born from the author’s imagination, ranging from novels and novellas to short stories. Fiction manuscripts allow writers to explore diverse worlds, create intriguing characters, and weave compelling plots that captivate readers.

Non-Fiction Manuscripts

Rooted in reality, non-fiction manuscripts encompass a broad spectrum of genres, including memoirs, biographies, essays, and informational books. These manuscripts often require reading extensive research papers , a keen eye for detail, and the ability to present factual information engagingly.

Poetry Manuscripts

Poetry, with its unique rhythm and artistic expression, is often compiled into manuscript form. Poetry manuscripts showcase the poet’s ability to evoke emotions through carefully chosen words, imagery, and poetic devices.

Screenplays And Play Manuscripts

In visual storytelling, manuscripts take the form of screenplays for films and television or scripts for plays. These manuscripts involve a specialized format to convey dialogue, stage directions, and visual elements essential for performance.

How To Write A Manuscript

Writing a manuscript is a multi-faceted process involving careful planning, thoughtful execution, and a deep connection to one’s creative instincts. 

Pre-Writing Phase

Before the ink hits the paper or the keys are tapped, the pre-writing phase sets the stage for a successful manuscript. During this stage, writers engage in crucial activities that shape the direction, tone, and substance of their work.

Research And Planning

Research is the cornerstone of a well-crafted manuscript. Whether writing fiction or non-fiction, thorough research adds depth, authenticity, and credibility to the narrative. In this phase, writers dive into topics related to their manuscript, gathering information and gaining insights that will inform and enrich their storytelling.

This might involve researching historical periods, cultural aspects, or specific locations for fiction writers to ensure accuracy and vivid world-building. Non-fiction authors delve into data, conduct interviews, or explore various perspectives to present a well-rounded and informed narrative.

Planning, hand in hand with research, is equally vital. Outlining the structure of the manuscript, creating character profiles, and sketching the plot are essential steps. This process helps writers establish a roadmap, preventing aimless wandering during the writing phase and ensuring a cohesive and engaging final product.

Choosing A Genre Or Style

Choosing a genre or style is a defining moment in the manuscript crafting process. It shapes not only the content but also the tone, narrative techniques, and audience expectations. Writers must consider their own passions, strengths, and the type of story they wish to tell when making this decision.

Genres range from romance and mystery to science fiction and fantasy, each with its conventions and expectations. Non-fiction writers may choose a genre, such as memoir, biography, or self-help, based on the nature of their message and the audience they aim to reach.

Style encompasses the author’s unique voice, narrative approach, and the mood they wish to convey. It may involve deciding on the perspective (first-person, third-person), the tone (formal, informal), and the overall atmosphere of the manuscript.

Choosing a genre or style sets the tone for the entire writing process, guiding decisions on character development, plot structure, and even the language used. Writers who understand their chosen genre can better tailor their manuscript to resonate with their target audience.

Writing Phase

With the groundwork laid in the pre-writing phase, writers transition into the heart of the manuscript crafting process: the writing phase. This is where creativity takes center stage, and words start to flow onto the page. 

Developing A Strong Outline

An effective outline, just like a thesis statement , is the compass that guides a writer through the labyrinth of their manuscript. It serves as a roadmap, providing direction and structure to the narrative. Creating a strong outline before diving into the actual writing can prevent common pitfalls such as plot holes, inconsistent pacing, and meandering storylines.

• Introduction and Setup: Clearly define the setting, characters, and the central conflict of your story. Introduce key elements that will set the stage for the unfolding narrative.
• Plot Points and Developments: Outline the major events, twists, and character arcs. Consider the rising action, climax, and resolution to maintain a well-paced and engaging storyline.
• Character Profiles: Develop detailed character profiles for the main and supporting characters. Understand their motivations, strengths, flaws, and how they contribute to the overall narrative.
• Themes and Messages: Identify the themes or messages you want to convey through your manuscript. Integrating these elements cohesively adds depth and resonance to your storytelling.
• Chapter Breakdowns: If applicable, plan the structure of individual chapters. Consider the rhythm of your narrative, balancing moments of tension with quieter, reflective scenes.
• Transitions and Flow: Ensure smooth transitions between scenes and chapters. A well-organized outline helps maintain a logical flow, keeping readers engaged from start to finish.

Drafting Techniques And Tips

Once the outline is in place, writers embark on the exhilarating journey of drafting. This is the stage where the manuscript starts to take shape, and creativity is given free rein. Here are some drafting techniques and tips to enhance the writing process:

• Free Writing: Allow yourself to write freely without overthinking. Let ideas flow, even if they seem imperfect at first. You can always refine and edit in later drafts.
• Set Writing Goals: Establish daily or weekly writing goals to maintain momentum. Consistent progress, even in small increments, contributes to the completion of your manuscript.
• Embrace Imperfection: The first draft is not meant to be flawless. Embrace imperfections and resist the urge to edit excessively during the drafting phase. Focus on getting your ideas on paper.
• Experiment with Style: Explore different narrative styles, tones, and perspectives. Don’t be afraid to experiment with your writing voice to find what resonates best with your story.
• Revision Notes: If you encounter areas that need improvement while drafting, make revision notes rather than interrupting the flow. Address these in subsequent drafts.
• Seek Feedback Sparingly: While drafting, limit external feedback to avoid distractions. Once you have a complete draft, seek constructive feedback to refine and enhance your manuscript.

Revision Phase

The revision phase is a crucial stage in the manuscript crafting process, where the raw material of the first draft transforms into a polished work of art. In this section, we’ll delve into two essential components of the revision phase— the importance of editing and proofreading, and the valuable practice of seeking feedback from others.

• Editing: This involves a comprehensive manuscript review for structural, stylistic, and thematic improvements. Editors scrutinize the overall flow of the narrative, character development, dialogue, and adherence to the established outline. They may suggest changes to enhance clarity, tighten pacing, and elevate the overall quality of the writing.
• Proofreading: Once the editing phase is complete, proofreading eliminates grammatical errors, typos, and inconsistencies. It is the final meticulous examination that ensures the manuscript is error-free. Attention to detail is paramount during proofreading, as even minor oversights can diminish the professional polish of the work.

Seeking Feedback From Others

Writing is often a solitary endeavour, but the input of others is invaluable during the revision phase. External feedback provides fresh perspectives, identifies blind spots, and highlights areas that may require further attention. Here are key considerations when seeking feedback:

• Diverse Perspectives: Gather feedback from a variety of sources, including fellow writers, beta readers, or writing groups. Diverse perspectives can offer insights that a single viewpoint may overlook.
• Constructive Criticism: Embrace constructive criticism as a tool for improvement. While positive feedback is uplifting, constructive criticism helps identify areas for refinement, contributing to the overall growth of the manuscript.
• Specific Questions: When seeking feedback, provide specific questions or prompts to guide readers’ responses. This ensures that you receive targeted insights on areas you may be uncertain about.
• Open-Mindedness: Approach feedback with an open mind. It’s natural to feel attached to your work, but being receptive to suggestions fosters a collaborative and iterative process that leads to a stronger manuscript.
• Implementing Feedback Thoughtfully: Not all feedback requires immediate incorporation. Evaluate the suggestions received and implement changes thoughtfully, considering how they align with your artistic vision for the manuscript.

The research paper we write have:

• Precision and Clarity
• Zero Plagiarism
• High-level Encryption
• Authentic Sources

Genre-Specific Considerations

The manuscript crafting process varies significantly based on the genre of the work.

Creating Compelling Characters

The heart of any fiction manuscript lies in its characters. Compelling and well-developed characters breathe life into the narrative, capturing the readers’ imagination and fostering emotional connections. Consider the following when crafting characters:

• Depth and Complexity: Develop characters with depth, complexity, and relatability. Explore their backgrounds, motivations, and internal conflicts to create multidimensional personalities.
• Arcs and Growth: Characters should undergo meaningful arcs and growth throughout the story. Whether it’s overcoming challenges, changing perspectives, or evolving relationships, character development is essential for reader engagement.
• Distinctive Voices: Ensure that each character has a distinctive voice and perspective. This not only adds authenticity but also helps readers differentiate between characters, contributing to a richer reading experience.

Building A Riveting Plot

A captivating plot is the backbone of a fiction manuscript, keeping readers eagerly turning pages. Crafting a compelling narrative involves careful consideration of the story’s structure, pacing, and unexpected twists:

• Story Structure: Outline the key elements of your plot, including the introduction, rising action, climax, falling action, and resolution. A well-structured plot provides a framework for a seamless and engaging reading experience.
• Pacing: Balance the pacing of your narrative to maintain tension and interest. Alternate between moments of action and reflection, allowing readers to absorb the unfolding events while staying connected to the characters.
• Conflict and Resolution: Introduce conflicts that resonate with your characters and propel the story forward. The resolution should be satisfying and provide closure while leaving room for lingering questions or anticipation.
• Twists and Turns: Incorporate unexpected twists and turns to keep readers on the edge of their seats. Surprise elements add excitement and prevent the narrative from becoming predictable.

Research And Fact-Checking

Non-fiction manuscripts rely heavily on accurate information and a thorough understanding of the subject matter. Research and fact-checking are paramount to establishing credibility and delivering a compelling narrative:

• Extensive Research: Dive deep into your chosen topic, using a variety of reputable sources. Verify information through multiple channels to ensure accuracy and completeness.
• Citation and Attribution: Properly cite sources and provide attribution for data, quotes, and references. This not only upholds ethical standards but also allows readers to explore the material further.
• Interviews and Expert Insights: If applicable, conduct interviews with experts or individuals relevant to your subject. First-hand accounts and expert insights enhance the authenticity and depth of your non-fiction manuscript.

Organizing Information Effectively

Non-fiction manuscripts often deal with a wealth of information, requiring thoughtful organization to make the content accessible and engaging for readers:

• Clear Structure: Develop a clear and logical structure for your manuscript. This could include chronological order, thematic organization, or a problem-solution framework, depending on the nature of your content.
• Subheadings and Signposts: Use subheadings and signposts to guide readers through the content. This aids in navigation and allows readers to locate specific information easily.
• Visual Elements: Incorporate visual elements such as graphs, charts, or images to enhance understanding. Visual aids can break up dense text and clarify complex concepts.
• Transitions: Ensure smooth transitions between different sections or topics. Thoughtful transitions help maintain a coherent flow and prevent readers from feeling disoriented.

Tips For Manuscript Success

As the manuscript crafting process unfolds, certain tips can significantly contribute to the success of your work. From setting realistic goals to overcoming obstacles like writer’s block, these insights will guide you through the thorough journey of bringing your manuscript to fruition.

Tip 1: Setting Realistic Goals

• Clear Milestones: Break down the writing process into clear milestones. Setting achievable goals for research, drafting, and revisions ensures steady and measurable progress.
• Realistic Timelines: Be mindful of your schedule and commitments. Establish realistic timelines that align with your availability, allowing for a sustainable writing routine without overwhelming yourself.
• Flexibility: While goals provide structure, be flexible in adapting to unexpected challenges or inspirations. Allow your manuscript to evolve organically, even if it means adjusting initial plans.

Tip 2: Overcoming Writer’s Block

• Change of Environment: Move to a different writing space or take a break outdoors. A change of scenery can stimulate creativity and break the monotony that often leads to writer’s block.
• Freewriting: Set aside dedicated time for freewriting. Put pen to paper or fingers to the keyboard without any specific goal, allowing thoughts to flow freely. This can help overcome mental blocks and spark inspiration.
• Focus on a Different Section: If a particular section is causing frustration, temporarily shift your focus to another part of the manuscript. This can reignite enthusiasm and create a sense of accomplishment.

Tip 3: Staying Motivated Throughout The Process

• Celebrate Small Wins: Acknowledge and celebrate small achievements, whether it’s completing a challenging chapter or reaching a word count milestone. Recognizing progress boosts motivation.
• Connect with Fellow Writers: Join writing groups or forums to connect with other writers. Sharing experiences, tips, and encouragement fosters a sense of community and accountability.
• Visualize the End Goal: Envision the satisfaction of completing your manuscript and the potential impact it can have on readers. Keeping the end goal in mind serves as a powerful motivator during challenging moments.

Frequently Asked Questions

What is a manuscript.

A manuscript is a handwritten or typed document, typically the original draft of a book, article, or document before it is published. It serves as the author’s work in progress, containing the text before final edits or printing.

What is a manuscript in research?

In research, a manuscript is a written document presenting original findings, methodologies, and conclusions of a study. It undergoes peer review before potential publication in academic journals, contributing to the dissemination of scientific knowledge.

What is a book manuscript?

A book manuscript is the complete, written text of an author’s work submitted for publication. It encompasses the entire content of a book, including chapters, sections, and any supplementary materials, serving as the basis for editorial and publishing processes.

What is a manga manuscript?

A manga manuscript is the original hand-drawn or digitally created work submitted by a mangaka (manga artist) to a publisher. It includes the detailed illustrations and dialogue that form the basis for the production of a manga series or volume.

What is a manuscript for a journal?

A manuscript for a journal is a written document containing original research findings, methodology, analysis, and conclusions. It follows the journal’s guidelines and undergoes peer review, aiming for publication to contribute to scholarly discourse within a specific academic or scientific field.

What is a manuscript page?

A manuscript page is a single sheet or leaf of a handwritten or typed document, often containing text, illustrations, or other content. In publishing, it refers to the formatted page of a manuscript submitted for review, editing, or publication.

What is a novel manuscript?

A novel manuscript is the complete written text of a novel submitted by an author for publication. It includes the entire narrative, chapters, and other elements, serving as the basis for editorial processes before the novel is prepared for printing and distribution.

You May Also Like

Common topics in Botany papers include taxonomy, plant physiology, ecology and biodiversity, plant pathology, and genetics.

The answer to the question, “Can literature review include newspaper articles?” is provided in this comprehensive guide. Read more.

Looking for interesting and manageable research topics in education? Your search ends right here because this blog post provides 50 […]

Ready to place an order?

USEFUL LINKS

Learning resources, company details.

• How It Works

Automated page speed optimizations for fast site performance

• Jun 16, 2022

Thesis Writing: Parts of a Thesis Manuscripts and How to Write Them

Thesis writing can be scary, stressful, and may seem like a difficult process! I know from experience. But the good news is you're not the only person doing it, and I'm here to tell you that it is doable! You don't have to suffer through this daunting task. Here's a quick and complete guide on writing your thesis, including all the parts needed.

But if you’re in the part where you have to write your manuscript, you are well aware that your thesis is not a Facebook post. So, here’s a quick and complete guide on the parts of your manuscript, how to write them, and some thesis hacks for you so you can finish writing your thesis by the due date and with swagger, too.

Every format for a thesis manuscript is specific to what your university or institution requires. However, here are the parts that, in most cases, should be contained in your thesis manuscript.

The Preliminary Pages

The preliminary pages of your thesis should contain all your manuscript's necessities and basic information. This is consist of the following some of these are required while some are optional.

Table of contents

List of tables

List of figures

Dedication (optional)

Acknowledgment (optional)

The title page or the first page of your manuscript should include the following information – the complete title of your thesis, author, institution, department, date of delivery, research advisers and co-advisers, their institution, and email address.

Abstracts are a crucial part of scientific writing and can be tricky to write. A good abstract explains in very few words why the paper is important, summarizes the major results, and then presents their implications. It should be concise and readable. It should capture the essence of the paper in one paragraph. An abstract can be read and understood without reading the rest of the paper but hopefully tempts the reader to do so.

The table of contents should list all headings and subheadings contained in the paper with the page numbers. Similarly, the list of tables and list of figures should also list down all the figures and tables used in the paper and their respective titles and page numbers. This is a necessary part of the manuscript so that readers can quickly locate a table or figure in the thesis.

The author may include the dedication and acknowledgment i n the preliminary pages. These sections contain your recognition and appreciation to everyone who has helped you technically, intellectually, and financially.

Main Contents

The body of your manuscript should contain a detailed discussion of your topic, methods, the results you obtained, and the conclusions achieved in the study. The main content of your thesis should contain the following chapters that can also have sections and subsections depending on the topic and nature of your research.

Introduction

Results and Discussion

Conclusions

Recommendations

The introduction to a research paper is one of the most critical aspects. While the first part of your introduction should grab your reader's attention, the following sections should give a concise overview of previous research in this area and then explain why your study is necessary. This chapter of the manuscript can also add sections such as preliminaries and the statement of the problem. The preliminaries section should discuss the background of the study and some fundamental concepts required to understand the thesis.

The methods or methodology chapter is the part of the thesis that tackles the technical details of the whole experiment and lab equipment and procedure to the theoretical background underlying your entire research question. If the field of the research is not based on a lab experiment, then this section may discuss the methodology, even the theoretical ones, of how the author arrived at the results of the study. For this reason, it's often referred to as "the boring but important part."

Some authors take the results and discussion separately as chapters, while some don’t. This chapter should thoroughly present and discuss the results obtained after applying the methodologies discussed in the previous chapter and explain the results. The discussion part of this chapter should focus on interpreting and making analyses based on the derived results and observations. It should also be able to relate the interpretations of the results from past studies.

Lastly, the conclusions and recommendations , like results and discussion, are also sometimes taken together as just one chapter. Either way, it is essential to include both of these sections in the manuscript. The conclusion should contain all the generalizations and most significant statements you can make based on the results you obtained. The implications of the results could also be included in this section. The recommendations are written to suggest further studies for other authors and researchers on how to extend the work you have done or the field you focused on. The goal of this section is to recommend future studies related to your results so that other authors will cite or utilize your study.

Bibliography

The last part of your manuscript is the bibliography or the list of references and resources you used in your thesis. This is also considered a critical part of your manuscript because, without this section, the whole manuscript will be invalidated because of not acknowledging other people’s works that you have utilized in your study. The format of the bibliography should be based on the given format assigned or required in your institution. Moreover, the references listed in the bibliography should also be cited correctly in the parts of the paper that you have used them. After the bibliography, most of the time, the appendices are also included in the thesis, especially if you have to include the calculations, codes, tables, lists, or other materials necessary in the study but are not contained in the main contents of your manuscript.

There are many different writing styles, but the best one is the one your reader will understand. You may find most of these sections tiring or painful to write at times, but if you're serious about your thesis, you could get it done excellently.

As you write your thesis, remember that it will not be perfect the first time around. Every time you read something over or look back at what you've written, there will be things that flow better than they did in your mind, and there will also be things that don't make sense. Do not be afraid of making mistakes, and do not procrastinate! The best way to get better at writing is to force yourself to sit down and write!

Recent Posts

Thesis Defense Tips: What to Expect and How to Ace It

Tips on Using Google Scholar

Why can’t everyone be a writer?

Comentarios

• Langson Library
• Science Library
• Grunigen Medical Library
• Law Library
• Connect From Off-Campus
• Accessibility
• Gateway Study Center

Email this link

Thesis / dissertation formatting manual (2024).

• Filing Fees and Student Status
• Submission Process Overview
• Electronic Thesis Submission
• Paper Thesis Submission
• Formatting Overview
• Fonts/Typeface
• Pagination, Margins, Spacing
• Paper Thesis Formatting
• Preliminary Pages Overview
• Copyright Page
• Dedication Page
• Table of Contents
• List of Figures (etc.)
• Acknowledgements
• Text and References Overview
• Figures and Illustrations
• Using Your Own Previously Published Materials
• Using Copyrighted Materials by Another Author
• Open Access and Embargoes
• Copyright and Creative Commons
• Ordering Print (Bound) Copies
• Tutorials and Assistance
• FAQ This link opens in a new window

Preliminary Pages

The Preliminary Pages require very specific wording, spacing, and layout. Templates and sample pages are provided for your reference.

Only the pages listed below may be included as part of the Preliminary Pages section, and they must appear in this order. No other pages are permitted. All pages are required except the Dedication Page. Lists of Symbols, Tables, Figures, and Illustrations are only required if applicable to the content of your manuscript. 

Note : A Signature Page is NOT a valid part of your manuscript and is not included in the submission of your thesis or dissertation. Committee signatures are now included on the “Ph.D. Form II/Signature Page” or the “Master’s Thesis/Signature Page” that you submit to the Graduate Division. 

Preliminary Pages Order

• Title Page (no page number)
• Copyright Page (no page number)
• Dedication Page (optional, page number ii if included)
• Table of Contents  (if Dedication Page is included, Table of Contents is page iii. If no Dedication, Table of Contents is page ii)
• List(s) of Figures/Illustrations/Formulae/Terms/etc.  (required, if applicable. Each new list should begin on a new page)
• Acknowledgements  (alt. spelling: Acknowledgments)
• Vita  (PhD dissertations ONLY. Should not be more than 3 pages)

Pagination - Preliminary Pages

Preliminary Pages are numbered with lowercase Roman numerals.

• The Title Page is counted in determining the total number of pages in this section but is NOT numbered.
• The Copyright Page is not counted or numbered.
• Your first numbered page will either be your Dedication Page if you have one, or your Table of Contents if you do not have a Dedication Page.
• There is no page i in the manuscript. 
• The subsequent pages are then numbered consecutively with lowercase Roman numerals through the end of the Abstract.
• Dashes, periods, underlining, letter suffixes, other text (including last names), and other stylizations are not permitted before, after, or under your page numbers.
• << Previous: II. Preliminary Pages
• Next: Title Page >>
• Last Updated: Feb 20, 2024 2:09 PM
• URL: https://guides.lib.uci.edu/gradmanual

Off-campus? Please use the Software VPN and choose the group UCIFull to access licensed content. For more information, please Click here

Software VPN is not available for guests, so they may not have access to some content when connecting from off-campus.

• Share full article

Advertisement

Supported by

Race/Related

Harlem Was No Longer the Same After This Dinner Party

Harlem was synonymous with the arts. But what I didn’t know was how that had come to be.

By Veronica Chambers

This article is also a weekly newsletter. Sign up for Race/Related here .

As a kid growing up in Brooklyn, Harlem always seemed like a magical place. I learned about the Studio Museum in Harlem and artists like Alma Thomas and Romare Bearden. Langston Hughes’s poems were featured on posters in my local library, and everybody knew Duke Ellington because of his signature tune, “Take the A Train,” written by Billy Strayhorn. There were the Apollo Theater, where Ella Fitzgerald first sang, and dance troupes like the Alvin Ailey American Dance Theater and Dance Theater of Harlem. Harlem was synonymous with the arts. But what I didn’t know was how that had come to be.

My senior thesis in college was on the dinner party that launched the Harlem Renaissance. It was amazing to me that a group of creative giants had prioritized art to serve as a case study in marrying talent to opportunity. The people I knew often said that art could make a difference, but the Harlem Renaissance showed me it was truly possible. In the early 1920s, Black Americans were excluded from many of the fields in which other Americans were building bases of power and generational wealth: from the unions to Wall Street and Congress. But as the historian David Levering Lewis noted, “no exclusionary rules had been laid down regarding a place in the arts. Here was a small crack in the wall of racism, a fissure that was worth trying to widen.”

So on March 21, 1924, two Black academics, Alain Locke and Charles S. Johnson, invited more than 100 guests to the Civic Club in Manhattan with a grand plan to give young Black artists a shot at the kinds of opportunities they’d rarely had before: book deals with major publishing houses, their artwork on display in museums, their songs on radio and Broadway rotation. The party was, as we wrote about it recently in the Times , a major success. In the decade afterward, more than 40 major works by Black Americans were published. Levering Lewis wrote in When Harlem was in Vogue that no more than five Black American writers published significant books between 1908 and 1923.

What we know now, and what we’ll keep exploring in this series about the 100th anniversary of the Harlem Renaissance , is how that kind of creativity and hope can take on an astonishing velocity. From the inimitable voice of the writer Zora Neale Hurston and the painted murals of Aaron Douglas to the song stylings of Louis Armstrong, Harlem was forever changed after the Civic Club dinner. Wallace Thurman, a poet who lived in Harlem during the Renaissance, noted that the neighborhood had become “almost a Negro Greenwich Village. Every other person you meet is writing a novel, a poem or a drama.”

It’s not too hard to draw a line between the work that was begun then to the work that exists now: the poetry of Mahogany L. Browne and Kwame Alexander, the Black superheroes imagined by Eve L. Ewing and Malcolm Spellman, or the novels by Colson Whitehead, Edwidge Danticat and James McBride. The Harlem Renaissance reshaped the landscape of American culture, and for Black artists around the globe the aperture of what was possible widened.

Invite your friends. Invite someone to subscribe to the Race/Related newsletter. Or email your thoughts and suggestions to [email protected] .

Veronica Chambers is the editor of Narrative Projects, a team dedicated to starting up multi-layered series and packages at The Times. More about Veronica Chambers

A New Light on the Harlem Renaissance

A century after it burst on the scene in new york city, the first african american modernist movement continues to have an impact in the american cultural imagination..

The Dinner Party:  When Charles Johnson and Alain Locke thought that a celebration for Jessie Fauset’s book “There Is Confusion” could serve a larger  purpose, the Harlem Renaissance was born .

A Period of Survival:  During the Harlem Renaissance, some Black people hosted rent parties , celebrations with an undercurrent of desperation in the face of racism and discrimination.

An Ambitious Show:  A new MoMA exhibition, “The Harlem Renaissance and Transatlantic Modernism,” aims to shift our view  of the time when Harlem flourished as a creative capital. It gets it right, our critic writes .

An Enduring Legacy: We asked six artists to share their thoughts on the contributions  that the Harlem Renaissance artists made to history

Crafting a New Life: At the dawn of the Harlem Renaissance, Augusta Savage fought racism to earn acclaim as a sculptor. The path she forged is also her legacy .

Journal of Materials Chemistry A

Fluorosulfide la 2.7 ba 6.3 f 8.7 s 6 with double-layer honeycomb structure enabling fluoride-ion conduction.

Mixed-anion compounds comprise anion-ordered layered structures with fluoride ionic conducting layers, which are not found in conventional metal fluorides. Hence, they represent a new frontier in the search for fluoride-ion conductors. Previous studies investigated only mixed-anion compounds with known crystal structures, but failed to exploit a flexible structural design. In this study, we performed a materials search based on the ternary phase diagram of BaS-LaF 3 -BaF 2 for new fluorosulfide phases and found an unreported fluorosulfide, La 2.7 Ba 6.3 F 8.7 S 6 , showing the fluoride ion conductivity of 4.23×10 −7 S cm −1 at 343 K. La 2.7 Ba 6.3 F 8.7 S 6 forms an anion-ordered two-dimensional crystal lattice with double-honeycomb (La-Ba)F 2 fluoride-ion-conducting layers, which cannot be realized in single-anion compounds. In the (La-Ba)F 2 layers, the fluoride ion conduction is realized through normal F1 site and interstitial F2 site via a vacancy mechanism. The presence of sulfide ions in the crystal structure contributes to the spreading of (La-Ba)F 2 layers along the ab plane, resulting in a longer La-F distance. Material development using a systematic phase diagram search on fluorosulfides allows to increase the variation of the crystal structure for fluoride ion conductors and to discover the novel fluoride ion conducting layers that are inaccessible to single anion compounds.

• This article is part of the themed collection: Journal of Materials Chemistry A HOT Papers

Supplementary files

• Supplementary information PDF (1543K)

Article information

Download Citation

Permissions.

S. Tachibana, C. Zhong, T. Tojigamori, H. MIKI, T. Matsunaga and Y. Orikasa, J. Mater. Chem. A , 2024, Accepted Manuscript , DOI: 10.1039/D3TA07680F

This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 3.0 Unported Licence . You can use material from this article in other publications, without requesting further permission from the RSC, provided that the correct acknowledgement is given and it is not used for commercial purposes.

To request permission to reproduce material from this article in a commercial publication , please go to the Copyright Clearance Center request page .

If you are an author contributing to an RSC publication, you do not need to request permission provided correct acknowledgement is given.

If you are the author of this article, you do not need to request permission to reproduce figures and diagrams provided correct acknowledgement is given. If you want to reproduce the whole article in a third-party commercial publication (excluding your thesis/dissertation for which permission is not required) please go to the Copyright Clearance Center request page .

Read more about how to correctly acknowledge RSC content .

Social activity

Search articles by author.

This article has not yet been cited.

Advertisements