communication in past and present essay

Essay About Communication In The Past And Now

How was the communication in the years ago and how will be in the next ten years? In the past, people did not have various ways to communicate as it is today. There were many cons about communication back then. It was hard and slow to communicate each time. Nowadays, people have more choices of communication. There are many social networks to communicate by sharing new things such as status, photo or relationship. Now, it is not only communicate between two people, but it can also communicate in a group. However, people are evolving along with communication. The communication has been developed for a long time and it will be no ending as long as human established new things every day. The communication in the past is totally different from today in terms of difficulty communication, technology and lifestyles. (This is ok.) The first term is communication in the past had been very difficult for several reasons. Formerly, people can communicate either by letter or phone. It was very arduous for people who live far away, especially in case of sending urgent news. The communication was too slow, expensive and there were not many gadgets to communicate back then. To illustrate, if people send the letter to the receiver in another country, therefore it will be more than …show more content…

No matter what century is, people need to communicate. In the past, there were several disadvantages about communication because it was tough to communicate. The communication is not as varied as it is today. People have a limited way to communicate and it is slow and cause miscommunication. Today, the communication has been developed. As a result, people are satisfied with communication and it will be further developed in the next ten years since the communication will be easier, the technology will be more advanced and human are changing their lifestyles (ประโยคนี้เขียนดีกว่า Thesis อีก น่าจะเอาไปทำเป็น thesis

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Ancient forms of human communication include cave drawings, smoke signals, symbols, and carrier pigeons. During the late 1800’s, communication became more advanced with the invention of the typewriter and the telephone. Roughly one hundred years later, a military project resulted in what we know today as the internet. With a little innovation, the internet made social interactions between people easier than ever, although, the convenience may come at a cost. Some theories suggest that heavy reliance on social media for human interaction will weaken communication skills, hinder meaningful social interactions, and negatively impact personal relationships.

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Essay On Ways of Communicating In The Past And Now

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Topic: Communication , Technology , People , Horses , Face

Published: 01/16/2020

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Old Ways of Communication

Communication in the past was totally different from these days, because in the past communication was permeative. There were not many ways of communication that people could use in order to talk with each other. People were communicating face to face and with the invention of paper, they started to write messages to one another.

In addition, they used animals such as pigeons and horses to convey their messages. Pigeons carried messages back and forth between people, but with pigeons it took a long time for a message to reach its destination and occasionally messages got lost. For instance, people used to ride horses from one place to other so that they could send messages. On the contrary, nowadays communication is more advanced. With the help of new technology, people become able to communicate in various ways.

Currently, people communicate using cell phones, emails, SMS and in many other ways. These kinds of communication are faster than the old communication methods (paper messages) and people respond to each other within seconds. For example, people email each other and receive immediate responses. With the presence of technological advances everyday, people create new ways to communicate with each other that facilitates talking and transmitting information in a more convenient manner. In conclusion, communication has changed significantly from the past and with the technological inventions that occurred in the 21st century, communicational techniques have developed and are still developing with the purpose to facilitate ways in which people can reach each other.

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The Past, Present, and Future of Human Communication and Technology Research: An Introduction

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Scott C. D’Urso, The Past, Present, and Future of Human Communication and Technology Research: An Introduction, Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication , Volume 14, Issue 3, 1 April 2009, Pages 708–713, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1083-6101.2009.01459.x

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The study of computer-mediated communication (CMC) and new communication technologies (NCTs) is an established and growing field not only with respect to the new technologies becoming available, but also in the many ways we are adopting them for use. Historically, I have contended that this area of communication research deserves recognition as a primary area of communication studies alongside that of interpersonal, organizational, health, and rhetorical studies among others. While the CMC area is still in its infancy, its impact on a variety of areas of human existence cannot be ignored. That said, when I began to work on this special section of the Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication ( JCMC ), it led me to more systematically consider the question of its place within the larger discipline of communication. This line of research has been gathering strength for more than 25 years and is now a strong and healthy subdiscipline in communication. This special section of JCMC seeks to tie together its rich past, diverse present, and an exciting future of possibilities and challenges. This takes place through a series of essays by some of the key contributors in the field today.

Most of the established areas of research in communication are centered on a solid base of theories. The CMC field is no different. From the work on social presence ( Short, Williams, & Christie, 1976 ), information (media) richness ( Daft & Lengel, 1984 , 1986 ), critical mass ( Markus, 1987 ), social influence ( Fulk, Schmitz, & Steinfeld, 1990 ), social information processing (SIP) ( Walther, 1992 ), social identity and deindividuation (SIDE) ( Spears & Lea, 1992 ), adaptive structuration ( DeSanctis & Poole, 1994 ), hyperpersonal interaction ( Walther, 1996 ), and channel expansion ( Carlson & Zmud, 1999 ) to the mindfulness/mindlessness work of Timmerman (2002) , theory development is central to CMC research. While it can be argued that some CMC theories are not exclusive to the study of CMC, the same can be said of some of the core theories of other primary areas such as interpersonal and organizational communication. What is more important is that scholars in this field of research are using these theories as the basis for research today.

CMC research continues to find its way into many top journals today (see, for example, Gong & Nass, 2007 ; Katz, 2007 ; Ramirez & Wang, 2008 ; Stephens, 2007 ) within our discipline, as well as in sociology, social psychology, and business management (see, for example, D’Urso & Rains, 2008 ; Katz, Rice, & Aspen, 2001 ; Walther, Loh, & Granka, 2005 ). Key contributions to this field date back over 25 years (see, for example, Barnes & Greller, 1992; Baym, 1995; Chesebro, 1985 ; Hunter & Allen, 1992 ; Jones, 1995 ; Korzenny, 1978 ; Parks & Floyd, 1996 ; Reese, 1988 ; Rice, 1980 ; Rice, 1984 ; Sproull & Kiesler, 1986 ; Steinfield, 1992 ). This diversity of publication outlets and the longevity of this research line are but a few of the examples of the breath and depth of CMC research. One key trait of most established fields is the existence of a flagship journal that is the home for that genre of research. In the case of CMC research, JCMC is considered by many to fulfill that role. Published in an online format since 1995, JCMC is now an official publication of the International Communication Association (ICA). Beyond journal publications, it is rather difficult these days to peruse the bookshelves in communication research and not notice the plethora of volumes dedicated to the study of CMC. The importance of the Internet in today's society has undoubtedly played a role in this publication trend; however, many of the books are scholarly and present some of today's best research in this area.

As has been seen with the number of articles and books published on this topic, the numbers of scholars who study CMC are also increasing. Though a number of the key scholars in this field are housed in other areas such as organizational and interpersonal communication, their work routinely looks at how CMC impacts communication (see Contractor & Eisenberg, 1990 ; Fulk, Flanagin, Kalman, Monge, & Ryan, 1996 ; Rice, 1993 ). One key factor in determining if CMC research should be a distinct subset of communication research can be seen at annual conferences such as the National Communication Association (NCA) and ICA. Here, graduate students who are preparing to enter the job market are seeing more and more openings for faculty positions with CMC as a potential area of specialization. This trend does not appear to be going away anytime soon.

Both NCA and ICA have prominent divisions in their respective organizations concerned with understanding CMC. In ICA, the Communication and Technology Division is now the largest in the entire association. In NCA, the Human Communication and Technology Division has a sustained membership of over 500. Looking back at the past several NCA conference programs, one cannot help but notice the presence of this division through the sponsorship of numerous panels and papers. As the recent Cochair for this division, I felt it was time that we made our presence more prominent within NCA. In 2007, we invited a number of prominent scholars to participate in a unique double-length panel discussion. Each of the 10 panelists, featured in the special section, presented and discussed their thoughts on the past, present and future of research in CMC with the audience. The success of the panel, and the interest generated by the panel, led to this special section.

Having reconsidered my original thoughts on identifying CMC research as a primary area of communication research, I have come to the conclusion that it may have become a moot point. CMC scholars are uniquely positioned to study the vast impact that communication technologies have had and are having on our society. Looking back at the past volumes of JCMC , the diversity of topics covered includes: interpersonal, medical, psychological, organizational, political, behavioral, and management studies. This diversity of research across disciplines places the CMC field in a unique position to be at the heart of many disciplinary endeavors in communication. However, is it a distinct and separate field of communication research? Yes, but without its cross-disciplinary approach, its overall impact on communication research may be seen as implausible.

To highlight the varied aspects of CMC research, this special section presents the thoughts of some of the prominent scholars in today's field of CMC. Rice (this issue) begins with what is most likely unique common experience for many as we struggle with our day-to-day interactions with technology. The particular story that Rice relates to us focuses on the embeddedness of CMC in our lives today and the challenges we face in understanding them in a larger context. These experiences and our understanding of their importance to our research are of particular interest to Baym (this issue) who notes that our interactions with technology are seen as a welcome trend. However, we must remain cautious as to what and how we research CMC, both now and in the future. Parks (this issue) offers that a microlevel approach to studying CMC may be problematic as compared to a broader approach to the technologies and their usage over time. To illustrate this point, Jackson's (this issue) discussion of the blending of technologies and concepts through “mashups” drives home the need for a broader approach to how we not only use, but research CMC.

One of the fastest growing areas of CMC research, social networking, represents what Barnes (this issue) considers another aspect of the convergence of CMC and human interaction. This falls in line with Contractor's (this issue) call for understanding the motivations behind why we seek these networked connections through mediated means. The development of future theory and research in this area will have the potential for far reaching implications across the CMC discipline.

From a theory standpoint, Walther (this issue) wonders whether our fields' development suffers from efforts at theoretical consolidation, rather than diversification of explanations and their boundary conditions that are critical in CMC research. Scott (this issue) provides potential directions for research and theory development, but does so with caution, because as he explains, “we can't keep up” with the technological innovations, and it may not be in our best interest to do so. Poole (this issue) sees consolidation of our efforts as a potential route through a combined process of data collection and sharing similar to how other disciplines operate. However we choose to proceed, it is clear, as Fulk and Gould (this issue) note, that we face many challenges ahead, but that the potential to really enhance the field of CMC research lies in our ability to meet these challenges.

I hope you enjoy what we have assembled here in this special section. There are many areas of research, theory development, and new communication technologies for us to ponder now and in the future. We find ourselves in an exciting period in CMC research history and the future looks very promising.

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Carlson , J. R. , & Zmud , R. W. ( 1999 ). Channel expansion theory and the experimental nature of media richness perceptions . Academy of Management Journal , 42 , 153 – 170 .

Chesebro , J. W. ( 1985 ). Computer-mediated interpersonal communication . In B. D. Ruben (Ed.), Information and behavior (Vol. 1, pp. 202 – 222 ). New Brunswick, NJ : Transaction Books .

Contractor , N. S. , & Eisenberg , E. M. ( 1990 ). Communication networks and new media in organizations . In J. Fulk & C. W. Steinfield (Eds.) Organizations and Communication Technology (pp. 145 – 174 ). Newbury Park, CA : Sage .

DeSanctis , G. , & Poole , M. S. ( 1994 ). Capturing the complexity in advanced technology use: Adaptive structuration theory . Organization Science , 5 , 121 – 147 .

Daft , R. L. , & Lengel , R. H. ( 1984 ). Information richness: A new approach to managerial behavior and organization design . In B. M. Staw & L. L. Cummings (Eds.), Research in Organizational Behavior (Vol. 6, pp. 191 – 233 ). Greenwich, CT : JAI Press .

Daft , R. L. , & Lengel , R. H. ( 1986 ). Organizational information requirements, media richness, and structural determinants . Management Science , 32 , 554 – 571 .

D’Urso , S. C. , & Rains , S. A. ( 2008 ). Examining the scope of channel expansion: A test of channel expansion theory with new and traditional communication media . Management Communication Quarterly , 21 , 486 – 507 .

Fulk , J. , Flanagin , A. J. , Kalman , M. E. , Monge , P. R. , & Ryan , T. ( 1996 ). Connective and communal public goods in interactive communication systems . Communication Theory , 6 , 60 – 87 .

Fulk , J. , Schmitz , J. , & Steinfield , C. W. ( 1990 ). A social influence model of technology use . In J. Fulk & C. Steinfield (Eds.), Organization and communication technology (pp. 117 – 140 ). Newbury Park, CA : Sage .

Gong , L. & Nass , C. ( 2007 ). When a talking-face computer agent is half-human and half-humanoid: Human identity and consistency preference . Human Communication Research , 33 , 163 – 193 .

Hunter , J. , & Allen , M. ( 1992 ). Adaptation to electronic mail . Journal of Applied Communication Research , 20 , 254 – 274 .

Jones , S. G. ( 1995 ). Understanding community in the information age . In S. G. Jones (Ed.), Cybersociety: Computer-mediated communication and community (pp. 10 – 35 ). Thousand Oaks, CA : Sage .

Katz , J. E. ( 2007 ). Mobile media and communication: Some important questions . Communication Monographs , 74 , 389 – 394 .

Katz , J. E. , Rice , R. E. , & Aspden , P. ( 2001 ). The Internet, 1995-2000: Access, civic involvement, and social interaction . American Behavioral Scientist , 45 , 405 – 419 .

Korzenny , F. ( 1978 ). A theory of electronic propinquity: Mediated communication in organizations . Communication Research , 5 , 3 – 23 .

Markus , M. L. ( 1987 ). Toward a “critical mass” theory of interactive media: Universal access, interdependence and diffusion . Communication Research , 14 , 491 – 511 .

Parks , M. R. , Floyd , K. ( 1996 ). Making friends in cyberspace . Journal of Communication , 46 , 80 – 97 .

Ramirez , A. & Wang , Z. ( 2008 ). When online meets offline: An expectancy violations theory perspective on modality switching . Journal of Communication , 58 , 20 – 39 .

Reese , S. D. ( 1988 ). New communication technologies and the information worker: The influence of occupation . Journal of Communication , 38 , 59 – 70 .

Rice , R. E. ( 1980 ). The impacts of computer-mediated organizational and interpersonal communication . In M. Williams (Ed.), Annual review of information science and technology , 15 (pp. 221 – 249 ). White Plains, NY : Knowledge Industry Publications .

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Rice , R. E. ( 1993 ). Media appropriateness: Using social presence theory to compare traditional and new organizational media . Human Communication Research , 19 , 451 – 484 .

Short , J. , Williams , E. , & Christie , B. ( 1976 ). The social psychology of telecommunication . London : John Wiley .

Spears , R , & Lea , M. ( 1992 ). Social influence and the influence of the “social” in computer-mediated communication . In M. Lea (Ed.), Contexts of computer-mediated communication (pp. 30 – 65 ). London : Harvester-Wheatsheaf .

Sproull , L. , & Kiesler , S. ( 1986 ). Reducing social context cues: Electronic mail in organizational communication . Management Science , 32 , 1492 – 1512 .

Steinfield , C. ( 1992 ). Computer-mediated communications in organizational settings: Emerging conceptual frameworks and directions for research . Management Communication Quarterly , 5 , 348 – 365 .

Stephens , K. K. ( 2007 ). The successive use of information and communication technologies at work . Communication Theory , 17 , 486 – 507 .

Timmerman , C. E. ( 2002 ). The moderating effect of mindlessness/mindfulness upon media richness and social influence explanations of organizational media use . Communication Monographs , 69 , 111 – 131 .

Walther , J. B. ( 1992 ). Interpersonal effects in computer-mediated interaction: A relational perspective . Communication Research , 19 , 52 – 90 .

Walther , J. B. ( 1996 ). Computer-mediated communication: Impersonal, interpersonal, and hyperpersonal interaction . Communication Research , 23 , 1 – 43 .

Walther , J. B. , Loh , T. , Granka , L. ( 2005 ). Let me count the ways: The interchange of verbal and nonverbal cues in computer-mediated and face-to-face affinity . Journal of Language and Social Psychology , 24 , 36 – 65 .

Scott C. D’Urso (Ph.D., 2004, University of Texas at Austin) is an Assistant Professor of Communication Studies at Marquette University, where he teaches courses focused on organizational and corporate communication and new communication technology. Scott's primary research interests include organizational use of communication technologies such as e-mail, instant messaging and chat. He has published manuscripts on privacy and surveillance in the workplace, communication channel selection, crisis communication and stakeholder issues. He is currently working on several projects including digital divides in organizations, virtual team decision-making, and the role of online identity creation and privacy concerns with social networking websites. Prior to a career in academia, Scott worked for several years as a multimedia specialist/manager of a multimedia production department for a government defense contractor in the Southwest.

The author wishes to thank Yun Xia, and all of the officers of the Human Communication and Technology Division of NCA (past and present) as well as all of the authors who contributed to this special section, and finally, Aimee R. Hardinger, who served as editorial assistant for this special section.

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1.1 Communication: History and Forms

Learning objectives.

• Define communication.
• Discuss the history of communication from ancient to modern times.
• List the five forms of communication.
• Distinguish among the five forms of communication.
• Review the various career options for students who study communication.

Before we dive into the history of communication, it is important that we have a shared understanding of what we mean by the word communication . For our purposes in this book, we will define communication as the process of generating meaning by sending and receiving verbal and nonverbal symbols and signs that are influenced by multiple contexts. This definition builds on other definitions of communication that have been rephrased and refined over many years. In fact, since the systematic study of communication began in colleges and universities a little over one hundred years ago, there have been more than 126 published definitions of communication (Dance & Larson, 1976). In order to get a context for how communication has been conceptualized and studied, let’s look at a history of the field.

From Aristotle to Obama: A Brief History of Communication

While there are rich areas of study in animal communication and interspecies communication, our focus in this book is on human communication. Even though all animals communicate, as human beings we have a special capacity to use symbols to communicate about things outside our immediate temporal and spatial reality (Dance & Larson). For example, we have the capacity to use abstract symbols, like the word education , to discuss a concept that encapsulates many aspects of teaching and learning. We can also reflect on the past and imagine our future. The ability to think outside our immediate reality is what allows us to create elaborate belief systems, art, philosophy, and academic theories. It’s true that you can teach a gorilla to sign words like food and baby , but its ability to use symbols doesn’t extend to the same level of abstraction as ours. However, humans haven’t always had the sophisticated communication systems that we do today.

Some scholars speculate that humans’ first words were onomatopoetic. You may remember from your English classes that onomatopoeia refers to words that sound like that to which they refer—words like boing , drip , gurgle , swoosh , and whack . Just think about how a prehistoric human could have communicated a lot using these words and hand gestures. He or she could use gurgle to alert others to the presence of water or swoosh and whack to recount what happened on a hunt. In any case, this primitive ability to communicate provided an evolutionary advantage. Those humans who could talk were able to cooperate, share information, make better tools, impress mates, or warn others of danger, which led them to have more offspring who were also more predisposed to communicate (Poe, 2011). This eventually led to the development of a “Talking Culture” during the “Talking Era.” During this 150,000 year period of human existence, ranging from 180,000 BCE to 3500 BCE, talking was the only medium of communication, aside from gestures, that humans had (Poe, 2011).

The beginning of the “Manuscript Era,” around 3500 BCE, marked the turn from oral to written culture. This evolution in communication corresponded with a shift to a more settled, agrarian way of life (Poe, 2011). As hunter-gatherers settled into small villages and began to plan ahead for how to plant, store, protect, and trade or sell their food, they needed accounting systems to keep track of their materials and record transactions. While such transactions were initially tracked with actual objects that symbolized an amount—for example, five pebbles represented five measures of grain—symbols, likely carved into clay, later served as the primary method of record keeping. In this case, five dots might equal five measures of grain.

During this period, villages also developed class systems as more successful farmers turned businessmen prospered and took leadership positions. Religion also became more complex, and a new class of spiritual leaders emerged. Soon, armies were needed to protect the stockpiled resources from others who might want to steal it. The emergence of elite classes and the rise of armies required records and bookkeeping, which furthered the spread of written symbols. As clergy, the ruling elite, and philosophers began to take up writing, the systems became more complex. The turn to writing didn’t threaten the influential place of oral communication, however. During the near 5,000-year period of the “Manuscript Era,” literacy, or the ability to read and write, didn’t spread far beyond the most privileged in society. In fact, it wasn’t until the 1800s that widespread literacy existed in the world.

The end of the “Manuscript Era” marked a shift toward a rapid increase in communication technologies. The “Print Era” extended from 1450 to 1850 and was marked by the invention of the printing press and the ability to mass-produce written texts. This 400-year period gave way to the “Audiovisual Era,” which only lasted 140 years, from 1850 to 1990, and was marked by the invention of radio, telegraph, telephone, and television. Our current period, the “Internet Era,” has only lasted from 1990 until the present. This period has featured the most rapid dispersion of a new method of communication, as the spread of the Internet and the expansion of digital and personal media signaled the beginning of the digital age.

The evolution of communication media, from speaking to digital technology, has also influenced the field of communication studies. To better understand how this field of study developed, we must return to the “Manuscript Era,” which saw the production of the earliest writings about communication. In fact, the oldest essay and book ever found were written about communication (McCroskey, 1984). Although this essay and book predate Aristotle, he is a logical person to start with when tracing the development of the communication scholarship. His writings on communication, although not the oldest, are the most complete and systematic. Ancient Greek philosophers and scholars such as Aristotle theorized about the art of rhetoric , which refers to speaking well and persuasively. Today, we hear the word rhetoric used in negative ways. A politician, for example, may write off his or her opponent’s statements as “just rhetoric.” This leads us to believe that rhetoric refers to misleading, false, or unethical communication, which is not at all in keeping with the usage of the word by ancient or contemporary communication experts. While rhetoric does refer primarily to persuasive communication messages, much of the writing and teaching about rhetoric conveys the importance of being an ethical rhetor , or communicator. So when a communicator, such as a politician, speaks in misleading, vague, or dishonest ways, he or she isn’t using rhetoric; he or she is being an unethical speaker.

The study of rhetoric focused on public communication, primarily oratory used in discussions or debates regarding laws and policy, speeches delivered in courts, and speeches intended to praise or blame another person. The connections among rhetoric, policy making, and legal proceedings show that communication and citizenship have been connected since the study of communication began. Throughout this book, we will continue to make connections between communication, ethics, and civic engagement.

Much of the public speaking in ancient Greece took place in courtrooms or in political contexts.

Karen Neoh – Courtroom – CC BY 2.0.

Ancient Greek rhetoricians like Aristotle were followed by Roman orators like Cicero. Cicero contributed to the field of rhetoric by expanding theories regarding the five canons of rhetoric, which include invention, arrangement, style, delivery, and memory. Invention refers to the use of evidence and arguments to think about things in new ways and is the most studied of the five canons. Arrangement refers to the organization of speech, style refers to the use of language, and delivery refers to the vocal and physical characteristics of a speaker. Memory is the least studied of the five canons and refers to the techniques employed by speakers of that era to retain and then repeat large amounts of information. The Age of Enlightenment in the 1700s marked a societal turn toward scientific discovery and the acquisition of knowledge, which led to an explosion of philosophical and scientific writings on many aspects of human existence. This focus on academic development continued into the 1900s and the establishment of distinct communication studies departments.

Communication studies as a distinct academic discipline with departments at universities and colleges has only existed for a little over one hundred years (Keith, 2008). Although rhetoric has long been a key part of higher education, and colleges and universities have long recognized the importance of speaking, communication departments did not exist. In the early 1900s, professors with training and expertise in communication were often housed in rhetoric or English departments and were sometimes called “professors of speech.” During this time, tension began to build between professors of English who studied rhetoric as the written word and professors of speech who studied rhetoric as the spoken word. In 1914, a group of ten speech teachers who were members of the National Council of Teachers of English broke off from the organization and started the National Association of Academic Teachers of Public Speaking, which eventually evolved into today’s National Communication Association. There was also a distinction of focus and interest among professors of speech. While some focused on the quality of ideas, arguments, and organization, others focused on coaching the performance and delivery aspects of public speaking (Keith, 2008). Instruction in the latter stressed the importance of “oratory” or “elocution,” and this interest in reading and speaking aloud is sustained today in theatre and performance studies and also in oral interpretation classes, which are still taught in many communication departments.

The formalization of speech departments led to an expanded view of the role of communication. Even though Aristotle and other ancient rhetoricians and philosophers had theorized the connection between rhetoric and citizenship, the role of the communicator became the focus instead of solely focusing on the message. James A. Winans, one of the first modern speech teachers and an advocate for teaching communication in higher education, said there were “two motives for learning to speak. Increasing one’s chance to succeed and increasing one’s power to serve” (Keith, 2008). Later, as social psychology began to expand in academic institutions, speech communication scholars saw places for connection to further expand definitions of communication to include social and psychological contexts.

Today, you can find elements of all these various aspects of communication being studied in communication departments. If we use President Obama as a case study, we can see the breadth of the communication field. Within one department, you may have fairly traditional rhetoricians who study the speeches of President Obama in comparison with other presidential rhetoric. Others may study debates between presidential candidates, dissecting the rhetorical strategies used, for example, by Mitt Romney and Barack Obama. Expanding from messages to channels of communication, scholars may study how different media outlets cover presidential politics. At an interpersonal level, scholars may study what sorts of conflicts emerge within families that have liberal and conservative individuals. At a cultural level, communication scholars could study how the election of an African American president creates a narrative of postracial politics. Our tour from Aristotle to Obama was quick, but hopefully instructive. Now let’s turn to a discussion of the five major forms of communication.

Forms of Communication

Forms of communication vary in terms of participants, channels used, and contexts. The five main forms of communication, all of which will be explored in much more detail in this book, are intrapersonal, interpersonal, group, public, and mass communication. This book is designed to introduce you to all these forms of communication. If you find one of these forms particularly interesting, you may be able to take additional courses that focus specifically on it. You may even be able to devise a course of study around one of these forms as a communication major. In the following we will discuss the similarities and differences among each form of communication, including its definition, level of intentionality, goals, and contexts.

Intrapersonal Communication

Intrapersonal communication is communication with oneself using internal vocalization or reflective thinking. Like other forms of communication, intrapersonal communication is triggered by some internal or external stimulus. We may, for example, communicate with our self about what we want to eat due to the internal stimulus of hunger, or we may react intrapersonally to an event we witness. Unlike other forms of communication, intrapersonal communication takes place only inside our heads. The other forms of communication must be perceived by someone else to count as communication. So what is the point of intrapersonal communication if no one else even sees it?

Intrapersonal communication is communication with ourselves that takes place in our heads.

Sarah – Pondering – CC BY 2.0.

Intrapersonal communication serves several social functions. Internal vocalization, or talking to ourselves, can help us achieve or maintain social adjustment (Dance & Larson, 1972). For example, a person may use self-talk to calm himself down in a stressful situation, or a shy person may remind herself to smile during a social event. Intrapersonal communication also helps build and maintain our self-concept. We form an understanding of who we are based on how other people communicate with us and how we process that communication intrapersonally. The shy person in the earlier example probably internalized shyness as a part of her self-concept because other people associated her communication behaviors with shyness and may have even labeled her “shy” before she had a firm grasp on what that meant. We will discuss self-concept much more in Chapter 2 “Communication and Perception” , which focuses on perception. We also use intrapersonal communication or “self-talk” to let off steam, process emotions, think through something, or rehearse what we plan to say or do in the future. As with the other forms of communication, competent intrapersonal communication helps facilitate social interaction and can enhance our well-being. Conversely, the breakdown in the ability of a person to intrapersonally communicate is associated with mental illness (Dance & Larson, 1972).

Sometimes we intrapersonally communicate for the fun of it. I’m sure we have all had the experience of laughing aloud because we thought of something funny. We also communicate intrapersonally to pass time. I bet there is a lot of intrapersonal communication going on in waiting rooms all over the world right now. In both of these cases, intrapersonal communication is usually unplanned and doesn’t include a clearly defined goal (Dance & Larson, 1972). We can, however, engage in more intentional intrapersonal communication. In fact, deliberate self-reflection can help us become more competent communicators as we become more mindful of our own behaviors. For example, your internal voice may praise or scold you based on a thought or action.

Of the forms of communication, intrapersonal communication has received the least amount of formal study. It is rare to find courses devoted to the topic, and it is generally separated from the remaining four types of communication. The main distinction is that intrapersonal communication is not created with the intention that another person will perceive it. In all the other levels, the fact that the communicator anticipates consumption of their message is very important.

Interpersonal Communication

Interpersonal communication is communication between people whose lives mutually influence one another. Interpersonal communication builds, maintains, and ends our relationships, and we spend more time engaged in interpersonal communication than the other forms of communication. Interpersonal communication occurs in various contexts and is addressed in subfields of study within communication studies such as intercultural communication, organizational communication, health communication, and computer-mediated communication. After all, interpersonal relationships exist in all those contexts.

Interpersonal communication can be planned or unplanned, but since it is interactive, it is usually more structured and influenced by social expectations than intrapersonal communication. Interpersonal communication is also more goal oriented than intrapersonal communication and fulfills instrumental and relational needs. In terms of instrumental needs, the goal may be as minor as greeting someone to fulfill a morning ritual or as major as conveying your desire to be in a committed relationship with someone. Interpersonal communication meets relational needs by communicating the uniqueness of a specific relationship. Since this form of communication deals so directly with our personal relationships and is the most common form of communication, instances of miscommunication and communication conflict most frequently occur here (Dance & Larson, 1972). Couples, bosses and employees, and family members all have to engage in complex interpersonal communication, and it doesn’t always go well. In order to be a competent interpersonal communicator, you need conflict management skills and listening skills, among others, to maintain positive relationships.

Group Communication

Group communication is communication among three or more people interacting to achieve a shared goal. You have likely worked in groups in high school and college, and if you’re like most students, you didn’t enjoy it. Even though it can be frustrating, group work in an academic setting provides useful experience and preparation for group work in professional settings. Organizations have been moving toward more team-based work models, and whether we like it or not, groups are an integral part of people’s lives. Therefore the study of group communication is valuable in many contexts.

Since many businesses and organizations are embracing team models, learning about group communication can help these groups be more effective.

RSNY – Team – CC BY-NC-ND 2.0.

Group communication is more intentional and formal than interpersonal communication. Unlike interpersonal relationships, which are voluntary, individuals in a group are often assigned to their position within a group. Additionally, group communication is often task focused, meaning that members of the group work together for an explicit purpose or goal that affects each member of the group. Goal-oriented communication in interpersonal interactions usually relates to one person; for example, I may ask my friend to help me move this weekend. Goal-oriented communication at the group level usually focuses on a task assigned to the whole group; for example, a group of people may be tasked to figure out a plan for moving a business from one office to another.

You know from previous experience working in groups that having more communicators usually leads to more complicated interactions. Some of the challenges of group communication relate to task-oriented interactions, such as deciding who will complete each part of a larger project. But many challenges stem from interpersonal conflict or misunderstandings among group members. Since group members also communicate with and relate to each other interpersonally and may have preexisting relationships or develop them during the course of group interaction, elements of interpersonal communication occur within group communication too. Chapter 13 “Small Group Communication” and Chapter 14 “Leadership, Roles, and Problem Solving in Groups” of this book, which deal with group communication, will help you learn how to be a more effective group communicator by learning about group theories and processes as well as the various roles that contribute to and detract from the functioning of a group.

Public Communication

Public communication is a sender-focused form of communication in which one person is typically responsible for conveying information to an audience. Public speaking is something that many people fear, or at least don’t enjoy. But, just like group communication, public speaking is an important part of our academic, professional, and civic lives. When compared to interpersonal and group communication, public communication is the most consistently intentional, formal, and goal-oriented form of communication we have discussed so far.

Public communication, at least in Western societies, is also more sender focused than interpersonal or group communication. It is precisely this formality and focus on the sender that makes many new and experienced public speakers anxious at the thought of facing an audience. One way to begin to manage anxiety toward public speaking is to begin to see connections between public speaking and other forms of communication with which we are more familiar and comfortable. Despite being formal, public speaking is very similar to the conversations that we have in our daily interactions. For example, although public speakers don’t necessarily develop individual relationships with audience members, they still have the benefit of being face-to-face with them so they can receive verbal and nonverbal feedback. Later in this chapter, you will learn some strategies for managing speaking anxiety, since presentations are undoubtedly a requirement in the course for which you are reading this book. Then, in Chapter 9 “Preparing a Speech” , Chapter 10 “Delivering a Speech” , Chapter 11 “Informative and Persuasive Speaking” , and Chapter 12 “Public Speaking in Various Contexts” , you will learn how to choose an appropriate topic, research and organize your speech, effectively deliver your speech, and evaluate your speeches in order to improve.

Mass Communication

Public communication becomes mass communication when it is transmitted to many people through print or electronic media. Print media such as newspapers and magazines continue to be an important channel for mass communication, although they have suffered much in the past decade due in part to the rise of electronic media. Television, websites, blogs, and social media are mass communication channels that you probably engage with regularly. Radio, podcasts, and books are other examples of mass media. The technology required to send mass communication messages distinguishes it from the other forms of communication. A certain amount of intentionality goes into transmitting a mass communication message since it usually requires one or more extra steps to convey the message. This may involve pressing “Enter” to send a Facebook message or involve an entire crew of camera people, sound engineers, and production assistants to produce a television show. Even though the messages must be intentionally transmitted through technology, the intentionality and goals of the person actually creating the message, such as the writer, television host, or talk show guest, vary greatly. The president’s State of the Union address is a mass communication message that is very formal, goal oriented, and intentional, but a president’s verbal gaffe during a news interview is not.

Technological advances such as the printing press, television, and the more recent digital revolution have made mass communication a prominent feature of our daily lives.

Savannah River Site – Atmospheric Technology – CC BY 2.0.

Mass communication differs from other forms of communication in terms of the personal connection between participants. Even though creating the illusion of a personal connection is often a goal of those who create mass communication messages, the relational aspect of interpersonal and group communication isn’t inherent within this form of communication. Unlike interpersonal, group, and public communication, there is no immediate verbal and nonverbal feedback loop in mass communication. Of course you could write a letter to the editor of a newspaper or send an e-mail to a television or radio broadcaster in response to a story, but the immediate feedback available in face-to-face interactions is not present. With new media technologies like Twitter, blogs, and Facebook, feedback is becoming more immediate. Individuals can now tweet directly “at” (@) someone and use hashtags (#) to direct feedback to mass communication sources. Many radio and television hosts and news organizations specifically invite feedback from viewers/listeners via social media and may even share the feedback on the air.

The technology to mass-produce and distribute communication messages brings with it the power for one voice or a series of voices to reach and affect many people. This power makes mass communication different from the other levels of communication. While there is potential for unethical communication at all the other levels, the potential consequences of unethical mass communication are important to consider. Communication scholars who focus on mass communication and media often take a critical approach in order to examine how media shapes our culture and who is included and excluded in various mediated messages. We will discuss the intersection of media and communication more in Chapter 15 “Media, Technology, and Communication” and Chapter 16 “New Media and Communication” .

“Getting Real”

What Can You Do with a Degree in Communication Studies?

You’re hopefully already beginning to see that communication studies is a diverse and vibrant field of study. The multiple subfields and concentrations within the field allow for exciting opportunities for study in academic contexts but can create confusion and uncertainty when a person considers what they might do for their career after studying communication. It’s important to remember that not every college or university will have courses or concentrations in all the areas discussed next. Look at the communication courses offered at your school to get an idea of where the communication department on your campus fits into the overall field of study. Some departments are more general, offering students a range of courses to provide a well-rounded understanding of communication. Many departments offer concentrations or specializations within the major such as public relations, rhetoric, interpersonal communication, electronic media production, corporate communication. If you are at a community college and plan on transferring to another school, your choice of school may be determined by the course offerings in the department and expertise of the school’s communication faculty. It would be unfortunate for a student interested in public relations to end up in a department that focuses more on rhetoric or broadcasting, so doing your research ahead of time is key.

Since communication studies is a broad field, many students strategically choose a concentration and/or a minor that will give them an advantage in the job market. Specialization can definitely be an advantage, but don’t forget about the general skills you gain as a communication major. This book, for example, should help you build communication competence and skills in interpersonal communication, intercultural communication, group communication, and public speaking, among others. You can also use your school’s career services office to help you learn how to “sell” yourself as a communication major and how to translate what you’ve learned in your classes into useful information to include on your resume or in a job interview.

The main career areas that communication majors go into are business, public relations / advertising, media, nonprofit, government/law, and education. [1] Within each of these areas there are multiple career paths, potential employers, and useful strategies for success. For more detailed information, visit http://whatcanidowiththismajor.com/major/communication-studies .

• Business. Sales, customer service, management, real estate, human resources, training and development.
• Public relations / advertising. Public relations, advertising/marketing, public opinion research, development, event coordination.
• Media. Editing, copywriting, publishing, producing, directing, media sales, broadcasting.
• Nonprofit. Administration, grant writing, fund-raising, public relations, volunteer coordination.
• Government/law. City or town management, community affairs, lobbying, conflict negotiation / mediation.
• Education. High school speech teacher, forensics/debate coach, administration and student support services, graduate school to further communication study.
• Which of the areas listed above are you most interested in studying in school or pursuing as a career? Why?
• What aspect(s) of communication studies does/do the department at your school specialize in? What concentrations/courses are offered?
• Whether or not you are or plan to become a communication major, how do you think you could use what you have learned and will learn in this class to “sell” yourself on the job market?

Key Takeaways

• Getting integrated: Communication is a broad field that draws from many academic disciplines. This interdisciplinary perspective provides useful training and experience for students that can translate into many career fields.
• Communication is the process of generating meaning by sending and receiving symbolic cues that are influenced by multiple contexts.
• Ancient Greeks like Aristotle and Plato started a rich tradition of the study of rhetoric in the Western world more than two thousand years ago. Communication did not become a distinct field of study with academic departments until the 1900s, but it is now a thriving discipline with many subfields of study.

There are five forms of communication: intrapersonal, interpersonal, group, public, and mass communication.

• Intrapersonal communication is communication with oneself and occurs only inside our heads.
• Interpersonal communication is communication between people whose lives mutually influence one another and typically occurs in dyads, which means in pairs.
• Group communication occurs when three or more people communicate to achieve a shared goal.
• Public communication is sender focused and typically occurs when one person conveys information to an audience.
• Mass communication occurs when messages are sent to large audiences using print or electronic media.
• Getting integrated: Review the section on the history of communication. Have you learned any of this history or heard of any of these historical figures in previous classes? If so, how was this history relevant to what you were studying in that class?
• Come up with your own definition of communication. How does it differ from the definition in the book? Why did you choose to define communication the way you did?
• Over the course of a day, keep track of the forms of communication that you use. Make a pie chart of how much time you think you spend, on an average day, engaging in each form of communication (intrapersonal, interpersonal, group, public, and mass).

Dance, F. E. X. and Carl E. Larson, The Functions of Human Communication: A Theoretical Approach (New York, NY: Holt, Reinhart, and Winston, 1976), 23.

Keith, W., “On the Origins of Speech as a Discipline: James A. Winans and Public Speaking as Practical Democracy,” Rhetoric Society Quarterly 38, no. 3 (2008): 239–58.

McCroskey, J. C., “Communication Competence: The Elusive Construct,” in Competence in Communication: A Multidisciplinary Approach , ed. Robert N. Bostrom (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1984), 260.

Poe, M. T., A History of Communications: Media and Society from the Evolution of Speech to the Internet (New York, NY: Cambridge University Press, 2011), 27.

• What Can I Do with This Major? “Communication Studies,” accessed May 18, 2012, http://whatcanidowiththismajor.com/major/communication-studies ↵

Communication in the Real World Copyright © 2016 by University of Minnesota is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

Communication: How it Has Changed Over Time

The way we communicate has changed significantly through time, from telephone, to emails, to social media.

Telephones… Emails… Social media... The way we communicate has significantly changed over time. And no I don’t mean going from grunting to actually speaking; although if you have teenagers perhaps that could apply.

Giving Mixed Signals

Since the dawn of time, humans have found ways to communicate with each other. Whether this was using smoke signals, drawings or hand signs, each method had its own restrictions. These forms of communication were replaced when humans found the ability to communicate through sound, therefore leading to the creation of languages.

The more ‘simplistic’ methods of communication were very limited. A smoke signal couldn’t mean ‘help’, ‘it’s someone’s birthday’ and ‘someone’s died’, simply because the surrounding people wouldn’t know which message they were conveying. The last thing the people of the middle ages needed was people partying whilst they were under attack!

The ability to speak revolutionised communication, allowing messages to be sent with emotions were past the point of *insert angry grunt here*. 

Emotions allow us to express our feelings more clearly. In the jump from giving signals to speaking, people were more easily understood.

The Postal Service: The Pigeon Can Finally Retire

When The General Post Office was established in 1660, our methods of communication changed again. Letters had been used for thousands of years, but the postal service allowed citizens to send them to anywhere in the country. 

This was the first big push into getting more people to learn English.

“Can you connect me to line 58 please?”

The shift into digital communication started in 1876, with the invention of the telephone. Over the following decades, trust in new technology grew, and phones made their way into homes across the nation. By the 1930s, telephone communication was a standard practice used by the general public in their day-to-day lives.

The transition from letters to phone calls enabled people to express emotions  audibly.

The Modern Era: Tweet, Poke, Snap

Letters became emails, telephones became smartphones and newspapers became the internet over the last few decades, with technology evolving at an increased pace.

Smart phones don’t just let us call people from anywhere, but also email, text, direct message and a thousand other methods of communication. People can be accessed anytime of the day from pretty much anywhere. Socialising no longer has to be done at the local pub, it can be done from anywhere - come on get the pints in! 

As texting became more and more popular, the new ‘text language’ was created, essentially shortening words and phrases to easy-to-type abbreviations. Nowadays you're more likely to read ‘lol’, than hear someone's laugh. Next came emojis: the simplest way to express emotions digitally. Used by millions of users everyday, the little emoticons are loved by many.

Social Media: Love It or Hate It

Where we are today, communication is definitely a lot more difficult. Social media allows for people to live fake lives, and cover up their true feelings. We as humans naturally crave physical presence, even though we're surrounded by people online, we often still feel isolated.

The platforms allow us to share opinions with others around the globe, giving people much wider insight into the lives of others. Being able to reach family and friends from afar is also always beneficial to people to help them feel connected.

Challenge Us!

We're ready for it., let's get something going....

The Evolution of Untethered Communications (1997)

Chapter: 1 past, present, and future, 1 past, present, and future.

Humans have long dreamed of possessing the capability to communicate with each other anytime, anywhere. Kings, nation-states, military forces, and business cartels have sought more and better ways to acquire timely information of strategic or economic value from across the globe. Travelers have often been willing to pay premiums to communicate with family and friends back home. As the twenty-first century approaches, technical capabilities have become so sophisticated that stationary telephones, facsimile (fax) machines, computers, and other communications devices—connected by wires to power sources and telecommunications networks—are almost ubiquitous in many industrialized countries. The dream is close to becoming reality. The last major challenge is to develop affordable, reliable, widespread capabilities for "untethered" communications, a term coined by the U.S. military and referring to the union of wireless and mobile technologies. Because "untethered" is not a widely used term, this report concentrates on "wireless" communications systems that use the radio frequency (RF) part of the electromagnetic spectrum. These systems and their component technologies are widely deployed to serve mobile users.

Mobile wireless communications is a shared goal of both the U.S. military and civilian sectors, which traditionally have enjoyed a synergistic relationship in the development and deployment of communications technology. The balance of that long-standing interdependence is changing now as a result of trends in the marketplace and defense operations and budgets. These trends suggest that market forces will propel advances

in technology to meet rising consumer expectations. However, the military may need to take special measures to field cost-effective, state-of-the-art untethered communications systems that meet defense requirements.

This chapter lays the foundation for an analysis of military needs in this area by chronicling the evolution of military and civilian applications of communications technology, from ancient times leading up to the horizon of 2010. Section 1.1 is an overview of the challenge facing the U.S. military. Section 1.2 provides an historical perspective on the development of communications infrastructures. Section 1.3 outlines the wireless systems currently used by the U.S. military and the related research and development (R&D) activities. Sections 1.4 through 1.7 recount the evolution and current status of commercial wireless systems. Section 1.8 compares the development paths for wireless technologies in the United States, Europe, and Japan.

1.1 Overview

In the final years of the twentieth century, all aspects of wireless communications are subject to rapid change throughout the world. Dimensions of change include the following:

These changes are fueled by opportunities for profit and public benefit as perceived by executives, investors, and governments. Although the patterns are global, the details differ significantly from country to country. Each dimension of change is complex and all of them interact. Overall, the dynamic nature of wireless communications creates a mixture of confusion and opportunity for stakeholders throughout the world.

A principal attraction of wireless communications is its capability to serve mobile users. Because mobility is an important feature of military operations, the U.S. armed forces have always played a leading role in the development and deployment of wireless communications technology.

In the coming years, however, it appears that the commercial sector will have sufficient incentives and momentum to push the technical envelope on its own. At the same time, flat or declining defense budgets are motivating the military to adopt commercial products and services to an increasing extent. Yet there are significant differences between military and commercial requirements. Thus, it is important to examine carefully the opportunities for, and limitations to, military use of commercial wireless communications products and services.

In contrast to other areas of information technology, wireless communications has yet to converge toward a single technical standard or even a very small number of them. Instead it appears that diversity will endure for the foreseeable future. In this environment, the management and coordination of complex, diverse systems will be an ongoing challenge, particularly for the U.S. military, which coincidentally has to adapt to new threats and responsibilities after more than half a century of following the paradigm set by World War II and the Cold War. Information is now assuming greater strategic importance than ever before in warfare and other military operations, and so the wide deployment of cost-effective, state-of-the-art wireless communications systems has become particularly critical.

The present situation recalls previous epochs in which breakthroughs in hardware—aircraft carriers, jet aircraft, tactical missiles, nuclear weapons—have led to radical revisions of military doctrine. The next great revolution in military affairs could be shaped by information technology: global communications, ubiquitous sensors, precision location, and pervasive information processing. Advanced command, control, communications, computing, and intelligence (C 4 I) systems could make it possible to monitor an adversary, target specific threats, and neutralize them with the best available weapon. Admiral William Owens, former vice chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, has called such an integrated capability a ''system of systems." Using such a system, a commander could observe the battle from a computer screen, select the most threatening targets, and destroy them with the press of a button. Battles would be won by the side with the best information, not necessarily the one with the largest battalions.

But unlike the military hardware of the past, information technology is advancing at a breakneck pace in a worldwide marketplace, driven not by military requirements but by the industrial and consumer sectors. Increasingly these technologies are available worldwide, and the best technology is no longer limited to U.S. manufacture and control. Highly accurate position data transmitted by satellite are now available to any yachtsman. High-resolution satellite photographs are for sale around the

world. Any nation can purchase the latest communications gadgets from the electronics stores of Tokyo.

Therein lies the challenge for the U.S. military: how to exploit the advances in affordable technology fueled by worldwide consumer demand while also maintaining technical capabilities that significantly exceed those of any potential adversary.

1.2 Historical Perspective

Throughout most of history, the evolution of communications technologies has been intimately intertwined with military needs and applications. Some of the earliest government-sponsored R&D projects focused on communications technologies that enabled command and control. A synergistic relationship then evolved between the military and commercial sectors that accelerated the technology development process. Now large corporations develop the latest communications technologies for international industrial and consumer markets shaped by government regulation and international agreements. World trade in telecommunications equipment and services was valued at $115 billion in 1996 ( The Economist , 1997).

Modern wireless communication systems are rooted in telephony and radio technologies dating back to the end of the nineteenth century and the older telegraphy systems dating back to the eighteenth century. Wireless systems are also influenced by and increasingly linked to much newer communications capabilities, such as the Internet, which originated in the 1960s. All wireless systems transmit signals over the air using different frequency transmission bands designated by government regulation. Table 1-1 provides an overview of wireless RF communications systems and services and the frequency bands they use. 1 Each frequency band has both advantages and disadvantages. At low frequencies the signal propagates along the ground; attenuation is low but atmospheric noise levels are high. Low frequencies cannot carry enough information for video services. At higher frequencies there is less atmospheric noise but more attenuation, and a clear line of sight is needed between the transmitter and receiver because the signals cannot penetrate objects. These frequencies offer greater bandwidth, or channel capacity.

1.2.1 Communications Before the Industrial Age

The annals of antiquity offer examples of muscle-powered communications: human runners, homing pigeons, and horse relays. Perhaps the earliest communications infrastructure was the road network of Rome, which carried not only the legions needed to enforce the emperor's will

but also messengers to direct forces far from the capital. Ancient societies also developed systems that obviated the need for physical delivery of information. These systems operated within line-of-sight distances (later extended by telescope): smoke signals, torch signaling, flashing mirrors, signal flares, and semaphore flags (Holzman and Pehrson, 1995). Observation stations were established along hilltops or roads to relay messages across great distances.

1.2.2 Telegraphy

The first comprehensive infrastructure for transmitting messages faster than the fastest form of transportation was the optical telegraph, developed in 1793. Napoleon considered this his secret weapon because it brought him news in Paris and allowed him to control his armies beyond the borders of France. The optical telegraph consisted of a set of articulated arms that encoded hundreds of symbols in defined positions. Under a military contract, the signaling stations were deployed on strategic hilltops throughout France, linking Paris to its frontiers. By the mid-1800s, 556 stations enabled transmissions across more than 5,000 kilometers (km).

The optical telegraph was superseded by the electrical telegraph in 1838, when Samuel Morse developed his dot-and-dash code. Now information could be transmitted beyond visible distances without significant delay. In an 1844 demonstration on a government-funded research testbed, Morse sent the message "What Hath God Wrought?" from Baltimore to the U.S. Capitol (Bray, 1995).

The rapid deployment of telegraphic lines around the world was driven by the need of nineteenth-century European powers to communicate with their colonial possessions. High-risk technology investments were required. After the use of rubber coating was demonstrated on cables deployed across the Rhine River, the first transatlantic cable was laid in 1858, but it failed within months. A new cable designed by Lord Kelvin was laid in 1866 and operated successfully on a continuous basis.

The result was a rapidly expanding telegraphic network that reached every corner of the globe. By 1870, Great Britain communicated directly with North America, Europe, the Middle East, and India. Other nations scrambled to duplicate that system's global reach, for no nation could trust its critical command messages to the telegraphic lines of a foreign power.

1.2.3 Early Wireless

Within a few decades of its widespread deployment, telegraphy began to lose customers to a new technology—radio. In 1895 Guglielmo

Marconi demonstrated that electromagnetic radiation could be detected at a distance. Great Britain's Royal Navy was an early and enthusiastic customer of the company that Marconi created to develop radio communications. In 1901 Marconi bridged the Atlantic Ocean by radio, and regular commercial service was initiated in 1907 (Masini, 1996).

The importance of this new technology became evident with the onset of World War I. Soon after hostilities began, the British cut Germany's overseas telegraphic cables and destroyed its radio stations. Then Germany cut Britain's overland cables to India and those crossing the Baltic to Russia. Britain enlisted Marconi to put together a string of radio stations quickly to reestablish communications with its overseas possessions.

The original Marconi radios were soon replaced by more advanced equipment that exploited the vacuum tube's capability to amplify signals and operate at higher frequencies than did older systems. In 1915 the first wireless voice transmission between New York and San Francisco signaled the beginning of the convergence of radio and telephony. The first commercial radio broadcast followed in 1920 (Lewis, 1993). The use of higher frequencies (called shortwaves) exploited the ionosphere as a reflector, greatly increasing the range of communications. By World War II, shortwave radio had developed to the point where small radio sets could be installed in trucks or jeeps or carried by a single soldier. The first portable two-way radio, the Handie-Talkie, appeared in 1940. Two-way mobile communications on a large scale revolutionized warfare, allowing for mobile operations coordinated over large areas.

1.2.4 Telephony

The telephone was first demonstrated in 1876. A telephone network based on mechanical switches and copper wires then grew rapidly. The high cost of the cables limited the number of conversations possible at any one time; as demand increased, multiplexing techniques, such as time division and frequency division, were developed.

A mix of independent operators ran telephone services in the early days. Subscribers to different services could not call each other even when in the same town. In 1913 the U.S. government allowed American Telephone and Telegraph (AT&T) to assume control of the national telephone network in return for becoming a regulated monopoly delivering "universal" service. Yet it was not until the 1950s that unified network signaling was offered to subscribers, allowing them to make direct-dial long-distance telephone calls (Calhoun, 1992). Since then, the rapid extension of the long-distance telephone network has been made possible by advances in photonic communications and network control technologies.

1.2.5 Communications Satellites

The concept of using geosynchronous satellites for communications purposes was first suggested in 1945 by the science fiction writer Arthur C. Clarke, then employed at Britain's Royal Aircraft Establishment, part of the Ministry of Defence. Satellites of this type are positioned above the equator and move in synch with Earth's rotation. In 1954 J.R. Pierce at AT&T's Bell Telephone Laboratories developed the concept of orbital radio relays and identified the key design issues for satellites: passive versus active transmission, station keeping, attitude control, and remote vehicle control (Bray, 1995). Pierce advocated an approach of reaching geostationary orbit in successive stages of technology development, starting with nonsynchronous, low-orbit satellites. Hughes Aircraft Company advocated a geostationary concept based on the company's patented station-keeping techniques.

In 1957 the Soviet Union launched Sputnik, the first satellite to be placed in orbit. Amateur radio operators were able to pick up its low-power transmissions all over the world. In 1960 the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and Bell Laboratories launched the first U.S. communications satellite, Echo-1, in a low Earth orbit. The first satellite-based voice message was sent by President Dwight Eisenhower using passive transmission techniques. The next advance in satellite technology was the successful launch of the TELSTAR system by NASA and Bell Laboratories. Using active transmission technology TELSTAR delivered the first television transmission across the Atlantic in 1962. Because it was placed in an elliptical orbit that varied from low to medium altitudes, the satellite was visible contemporaneously to Earth stations on both sides of the Atlantic for only about 30 minutes at a time. Clearly geostationary orbits were desirable if satellites were to be used for continuous telephone and television communications across long distances.

In 1963 Hughes Aircraft and NASA achieved geosynchronous orbit (known as GEO today) with the successful launch of the SYNCOM satellite. The satellite was placed in an orbit of approximately 36,210 km, a distance that allowed it to remain stationary over a given point on Earth's surface. SYNCOM led the way for the next several decades of satellite systems by demonstrating that synchronous orbit was achievable, and that station keeping and attitude control were feasible. Today most satellites, both military and commercial, are of the GEO variety.

COMSAT was formed by an act of Congress in 1962 and represented U.S. commercial interests in satellite technology development at Intelsat, established in 1964 as an international, government-chartered organization to coordinate worldwide satellite communications issues. INTELSAT-II (Early Bird) was launched into a geosynchronous orbit in

1965 and supported 240 telephone links or one television channel. Channel capacities are now measured in the tens of thousands of voice channels (the INTELSAT-VI, launched in 1987, supports 80,000 voice channels).

The first military satellites, the DSCS-I group, were launched by the U.S. Air Force in 1966. Three launches placed 26 lightweight (100-pound) satellites in near-geosynchronous orbit. These systems supported digital voice and data communications using spread-spectrum technology (an important signal-processing approach discussed extensively in Chapter 2). The satellites were replaced in the 1970s by the DSCS-II group, which increased channel capacity by using spot-beam antennas with high gain to boost the received power. The first cross-linked military satellites, the LES 8/9, were launched in 1976. This demonstration fostered a vision of space-based architectures—without vulnerable ground relays—for communication, navigation, surveillance, and reconnaissance.

Satellites offer several advantages over land-based communications systems. Rapid, two-way communications can be established over wide areas with only a single relay in space, and global coverage with only a few relay hops. Earth stations can now be set up and moved quickly. Furthermore, satellite systems are virtually immune to impairments such as multipath fading (channel impairments are discussed in Chapter 2). But with the rapid deployment of undersea fiber-optic links, the use of satellite channels for telephony has been on the decline. The high capacity of fiber provides for competitive costs, which, combined with low latency, have attracted consumers. The future of the satellite industry depends on the emergence of applications other than fixed telephony channels. A new generation of satellite systems is being deployed to provide mobile telephone services (see Section 1.5).

1.2.6 Mobile Radio and the Origins of Cellular Telephony

The early development of mobile radio was driven by public safety needs. In 1921 Detroit became the first city to experiment with radio-dispatched police cars. However, transmission from vehicles was limited by the difficulty of producing small, low-power transmitters suitable for use in automobiles. Two-way systems were first deployed in Bayonne, New Jersey, in the 1930s. The system operated in "push-to-talk" (i.e., half-duplex) mode; simultaneous transmission and reception, or full-duplex mode, was not possible at the time (Calhoun, 1988).

Frequency modulation (FM), invented in 1935, virtually eliminated background static while reducing the need for high transmission power, thus enabling the development of low-power transmitters and receivers for use in vehicles. World War II stimulated commercial FM manufacturing capacity and the rapid development of mobile radio technology. The

need for thousands of portable communicators accelerated advances in system packaging and reliability and reduced costs. In 1946 public mobile telephone service was introduced in 25 cities across the United States. The initial systems used a central transmitter to cover a metropolitan area. The inefficient use of spectrum and the coarseness of the electronic filters severely limited capacity: Thirty years after the introduction of mobile telephone service the New York system could support only 543 users.

A solution to this problem emerged in the 1970s when researchers at Bell Laboratories developed the concept of the cellular telephone system, in which a geographical area is divided into adjacent, non-overlapping, hexagonal-shaped "cells." Each cell has its own transmitter and receiver (called a base station) to communicate with the mobile units in that cell; a mobile switching station coordinates the handoff of mobile units crossing cell boundaries. Throughout the geographical area, portions of the radio spectrum are reused, greatly expanding system capacity but also increasing infrastructure complexity and cost.

In the years following the establishment of the mobile telephone service, AT&T submitted numerous proposals to the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) for a dedicated block of spectrum for mobile communications. Other than allowing experimental systems in Chicago and Washington, D.C., the FCC made no allocations for mobile systems until 1983, when the first commercial cellular system—the advanced mobile phone system (AMPS)—was established in Chicago. Cellular technology became highly successful commercially with the miniaturization of subscriber handsets.

1.2.7 The Internet and Packet Radio

The original concepts underlying the Internet were developed in the mid-1960s at what is now the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA), then known as ARPA. The original application was the ARPANET, which was established in 1969 to provide survivable computer communications networks. The ARPANET relied heavily on packet switching concepts developed in the 1960s at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, the RAND Corporation, and Great Britain's National Physical Laboratory (Kahn et al., 1978; Hafner and Lyon, 1996; Leiner et al., 1997). This approach was a departure from the circuit-switching systems used in telephone networks (see Box 1-1).

The first ARPANET node was located at the University of California at Los Angeles. Additional nodes were soon established at Stanford Research Institute (now SRI International), the University of California at Santa Barbara, and the University of Utah. The development of a host-to-host protocol, 2 the network control protocol (NCP), followed in 1970,

enabling network users to develop applications. At the same time, the ALOHA Project at the University of Hawaii was investigating packet-switched networks over fixed-site radio links. The ALOHANET began operating in 1970, providing the first demonstration of packet radio access in a data network (Abramson, 1985). The contention protocols used in ALOHANET served as the basis for the "carrier-sense multiple access with collision detection" (CSMA/CD) protocols used in the Ethernet local area network (LAN) developed at Xerox Palo Alto Research Center in 1973. The widespread use of Ethernet LANs to connect personal computers (PCs) and workstations allowed broad access to the Internet, a term that emerged in the late 1970s with the design of the Internet protocol (IP). The need to link wired, packet radio, and satellite networks led to the specifications for the transmission control protocol (TCP), which replaced NCP and shifted the responsibility for transmission from the network to the end hosts, thereby enabling the protocol to operate no matter how unreliable the underlying links. 3

The development of microprocessors, surface acoustic wave filters, and communications protocols for intelligent management of the shared radio channel contributed to the advancement of packet radio technology in the 1970s. In 1972 ARPA launched the Packet Radio Program, aimed at developing techniques for the mobile battlefield, and SATNet, an experimental satellite network. In 1983 ARPA launched a second-generation packet radio program, Survivable Adaptive Networks, to demonstrate how packet radio networks could be scaled up to encompass much larger numbers of nodes and operate in the harsh environment likely to be encountered on the mobile battlefield.

FIGURE 1-1 Military radios are designed for different uses. Combat net radios, for example, are designed for communications within a battle group.

1.3 Military Wireless Systems And Research

1.3.1 terrestrial systems.

Radio communications technology is widely used by U.S. military units at all levels. The many different types of military radios and applications cause a variety of communication problems. The military environment magnifies common difficulties such as the failure of one radio type to communicate with another type (interoperability), failure of one user to communicate with another (connectivity), incompatibility of new radios with old radios (legacy systems), and one radio at a location interfering with another radio at the same location (co-site interference).

In general, U.S. military radio systems can be categorized by the location of users and the information they broadcast and receive (see Figure 1-1). Multiple radios are often gathered together in an aircraft, shipboard radio room, or communications van to form tactical radio complexes and command-and-control centers. The radios operate simultaneously using many different waveforms across several frequency bands (e.g., high frequency [HF], very high frequency [VHF], and ultrahigh frequency [UHF]).

Combat net radios take the form of either a single radio in a vehicle (much like a car radio) or a device like a "walkie-talkie" carried around by a soldier. Most of the information broadcast on combat net radios consists of voice communications, often to share position information. Many of today's combat net radios have been enhanced to carry data in addition to voice. In general, combat net radios have fewer capabilities and cost less than do tactical radios (see Table 1-2). Military radios generally cost much more than commercial systems supporting similar applications.

Deployed military radios have various shortcomings. For example, the mobile subscriber equipment (MSE), the U.S. Army's mobile telephone system for the battlefield, was designed to be like a cellular telephone but is outdated compared to current technology. The single-channel

ground and airborne radio system (SINCGARS) has been updated with recent technology, including programmable microprocessors, application-specific integrated circuits (ASICs), and surface-mount technology, but it implements a series of outdated waveform standards for single-channel digital voice. Furthermore, SINCGARS has experienced severe co-site interference problems because it hops transmission frequencies within the VHF band, a design capability that helps prevent jamming by adversaries but results in hops onto channels already in use for other communications traffic. The mobile subscriber radio terminal (MSRT) costs $70,000 and is about the size of a microwave oven; an updated version, introduced in 1994, is no less expensive and no smaller. Numerous HF radios have been built by the Army, but most are in storage because these radios are not simple push-to-talk designs and user training for the difficult HF channel has not been widespread.

The problems posed by individual radios are exacerbated by the difficulties encountered in linking communications systems of varying sophistication together (see Box 1-2). Special interfaces can be designed; SINCGARS, for example, can be interfaced into the MSRT. Inherent interoperability is among the features sought in sophisticated future systems. But in the near term, front-line troops will continue to use both existing and evolving radios, such as SINCGARS, mobile tactical satellite (TACSAT)

terminals, MSE, MSRT, and packet radios. The Army is struggling with how to upgrade the MSE, a proprietary system. The SINCGARS is expected to be replaced and upgraded with a tri-service joint tactical radio in 1999.

The U.S. Department of Defense established IP as the underlying ''building code" for the Army, making a commitment to migrate all communications networks to the same basic structure as the Internet to position the military to integrate and leverage the advances in commercial information technologies. The Army's Task Force XXI "Tactical Internet" (Booz-Allen & Hamilton, 1995) was the first major experimental fielding of this new architecture (Sass and Eldridge, 1994; Sass, 1996).

1.3.2 Satellite Systems

Satellite systems play a major role in military communications. They are attractive alternatives to land-based systems because they provide mobile and tactical communications to a large number of users over a wide geographical area. In addition, communication links can be added or deleted quickly, and satellites are less vulnerable to destruction or enemy exploitation than are land-based systems.

The DOD uses both military and commercial satellites to meet its communications needs. Fleet communications are supported by the government-owned FLTSAT and contractor-owned LEASAT systems, both of which are geosynchronous. The U.S. Air Force uses FLTSAT, the elliptical-orbit Satellite Data System, and the DSCS-III satellites to support the AFSATCOM satellite system. The DSCS, a vital component of the global defense communications system, is the DOD's primary system for long-haul, high-volume trunk traffic. The operational DSCS space segment consists of a mix of DSCS-II and DSCS-III satellites.

In 1982 the military began developing new satellite and terminal technology for MILSTAR, a millimeter-wave system operating in the 30–60 gigahertz (GHz) range. This new system consists of both geosynchronous and inclined-orbit satellites. The system provides enhanced antijam (AJ) capabilities as well as hardening against nuclear attack. Only a few of the planned eight MILSTAR satellites have been deployed so far. The complete system would provide two satellites per coverage area over the continental United States and the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian oceans.

In general, existing tactical-satellite ground terminals incorporate new technology (e.g., microprocessors, ASICs, surface-mount technology) but are still forced to implement legacy waveforms. As a result, they have generally not kept pace with innovations in commercial communications waveforms and standards. In the case of MILSTAR, the military uses a noncommercial frequency band and is therefore unable to use—or take advantage of the price reductions in—commercial hardware. The new Joint Tactical Terminal (one of the systems listed in Table 1-2) is designed using modern radio technology, perhaps even including software-defined radios (see Section 1.3.3.2). High data rates sufficient for multimedia transmissions can be achieved only with the most advanced technology. For example, the global broadcast system (GBS), part of the U.S. Navy's UHF Follow-On satellites 8, 9, and 10, has bandwidth exceeding 100 megabits per second (Mbps) and worldwide coverage.

The most widely used military satellite system is the global positioning system (GPS), which encompasses 18 to 24 satellites in inclined orbits transmitting spread-spectrum signals. The GPS receivers extract precise time and frequency information from these signals to determine with

great accuracy the receiver location, velocity, and acceleration. The system can be used by anyone with a receiver. 4 Commercial GPS receivers are used for numerous applications, including surveying, aircraft and ship navigation, and even recreational activities on land. Although launching and upkeep of the entire fleet of satellites are paid for by the United States, commercial GPS receivers were used by both sides in the Gulf War.

1.3.3 Research Initiatives in Untethered Communications

The DOD's vision for future communications systems is typically expressed in general terms, such as "multimedia to the foxhole" (see Box 1-3). For example, the Army's architecture for the digitized battlefield of the twenty-first century consists of fixed high-bandwidth infrastructure at the Army, theater, and corps levels, integrated with the DOD's global grid (a concept for spanning the world with high-bandwidth computing and communications systems) and based on asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) wide-area networking technology (Sass and Gorr, 1995). Bandwidth is allocated not only up and down the command hierarchy but also horizontally to cooperating formations. At the division level and below, wireless extensions provided by mobile radio access points (RAPs) will link the front-line combat communications systems to the infrastructure in the rear areas. The RAP is a wheeled or tracked vehicle with an on-the-move antenna system. The RAPs carry extensive communications systems and are interconnected by high-capacity trunk radios capable of

communicating at up to 45 Mbps over a range of 30 km. Satellites or other systems may provide back-up communications.

To the committee's knowledge, the operational requirements for future untethered communications have not been translated into technical specifications. In the future, technical specifications will need to be formulated in a way that will make it possible to determine which commercial technologies are capable of meeting military needs. As an alternative, some general DOD requirements can be inferred from military plans and the known technical capabilities of existing and emerging communications technologies. For example, future military wireless systems will require high data rates—the long-range goal is at least 10 Mbps—and the capability to transmit over broad and variable frequency bands (some experimental radios are designed to span frequencies from 2 MHz to 2 GHz). The systems will need to be rapidly deployable and the infrastructure will need to be mobile. Multilevel communications security that encompasses the most secure levels possible will be needed. Furthermore, to enable worldwide strategic communications, the new equipment will need to be interoperable with older military systems as well as those used by foreign allies and international forces. There are more than 17 different U.S. defense communications networks, and none are readily interoperable at present. New concepts and technologies will clearly be needed to meet all these requirements.

To meet its future communications requirements, the DOD is funding a number of research and demonstration projects, typically pursuing high-risk ventures with potentially high payoff. The most comprehensive DOD-funded initiative dealing with untethered communications is the Global Mobile Information Systems (GloMo) program initiated by DARPA in 1994. Other relevant research initiatives deal with software-defined radios, communications systems, and radio technology (Leiner et al., 1996).

1.3.3.1 Global Mobile Information Systems Program

The overarching goal of GloMo is to develop technology for robust end-to-end information systems in a global mobile environment by exploiting commercial products and generating new technologies with applications in both commercial and military domains. The program supports a wide range of research projects, which are identified based on the priorities of GloMo managers rather than on a systems approach to the development of top-down solutions. Notably missing from the program, for example, is a comprehensive assessment of the suitability of various network architectures, even though all other component needs are dictated by the system design. (Network architecture issues are discussed in detail in Chapters 2 and 3.) The GloMo program currently focuses on

developing innovative technologies that span the following research thrusts.

Design Infrastructure . This effort spans tools, languages, and environments for designing and deploying wireless systems. Research areas include computer-aided design tools for estimating power and designing low-power systems, design libraries and models for mixed-signal integrated circuits (ICs) suitable for implementing highly integrated RF chip sets, and simulation tools for modeling the propagation of radio waves and higher-level protocols.

Untethered Nodes . This effort focuses on high-performance, modular, low-cost, and low-power wireless nodes. Research activities are aimed at developing the next generation of agile, highly integrated radio technology. Radio control points are exposed to higher software layers to make radios and applications more adaptable to changing needs and conditions. Complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) technology (an inexpensive, low-power technology) is being pushed to its limits to achieve high-speed RF circuitry coupled to high levels of integration. Several activities are combining custom signal processing for audio and video with the radio circuitry. In these efforts radios are viewed as modular building blocks that can be combined to yield systems with different cost-performance-function attributes. Some projects are investigating the architectures of software radios, in which many of the radio functions are performed by software combined with very-high-performance processing architectures.

Network Protocols and Algorithms . This effort deals with the development of robust network architectures and techniques for rapid deployment of wireless networks. Research efforts include the development of new packet-radio routing schemes such as dynamic routing protocols for ad hoc networking. The concepts being studied are not limited to end-node mobility: Other possibilities include base-station mobility and network reconfiguration as base stations are repositioned in a battlefield scenario.

End-to-End Networking . This effort addresses how best to operate across a heterogeneous mix of underlying networks, both wireless and wired. Research areas include extensions to TCP/IP that will enable mobile users to access the Internet, satellite extensions to the Internet, and overlay wireless networking that supports mobility across diverse wireless subnetworks inside buildings and in the wider area.

Mobile Applications Support . This effort deals with the development of distributed computing techniques that will enable applications to adapt

to varying network connectivity and quality of service (QoS) needs. The techniques being studied include software agents (sometimes called mediators or proxies) that adapt data representations to the capabilities of bandwidth-constrained wireless links; methods of performing computations in the wireline infrastructure on behalf of power- and display-limited portable devices such as personal digital assistants (PDAs); capabilities to move code between wired and portable nodes to provide location-dependent or new functionality when the node is poorly connected; file system structures that operate whether well connected, disconnected, or poorly connected to a wired infrastructure; event-notification protocols that enable applications to learn of changes to the underlying network connectivity and QoS; and techniques for structuring applications to exploit information about their current location.

1.3.3.2 Software-Defined Radio Research

The DOD is devoting considerable attention to designing and demonstrating software-defined radios, none of which is in production as yet. The most prominent of these initiatives is the SpeakEASY program sponsored by DARPA, the Air Force Rome Laboratory, and the Army Communication Electronics Command. The key objective of SpeakEASY is to change the paradigm for military radios. In the past, radios were based on "point designs" with negligible capabilities for functional upgrades or waveform changes—capabilities that define SpeakEASY. In phase 1 of the program, analog-to-digital (A/D) converters were used to complete the radio signal path and high-speed digital signal processors (DSPs) were used for filtering and demodulation. The key technologies demonstrated in phase 1 include digital frequency conversion and wideband signal processing.

In SpeakEASY phase 2, modular radio elements (separate modules for the analog elements, A/D converter, and DSPs) will be integrated on an open-architecture bus. The key objective of phase 2 is to demonstrate a software-defined networking radio with support for legacy and future waveform evolution using a single architecture. This approach increases production volume, reduces costs, and enhances logistical support. The open-architecture design implies that competitive bids would be sought for commercial boards, modules, and software. Other goals include the use of commercial modules in the radio and the commercialization of any functions developed specifically for the radio.

The Naval Research Laboratory has an ongoing research program focusing on a software-defined radio known as the Joint C 4 I Terminal (JCIT). The JCIT grew out of an Army requirement for an advanced, helicopter-based command-and-control system. The JCIT will incorporate

multiple software-defined radios for combat net, intelligence communications, and military data links on a single platform.

Also under development is the advanced communications engine (ACE), which evolved from a project sponsored by DARPA. The ACE is a software-defined digital radio with capabilities for multiple simultaneous band and channel transmissions (it has six receiving and transmitting channels). The initial prototypes demonstrate "dual-use" (i.e., both military and commercial) capabilities including those of combat net radios SINCGARS and Have Quick (a UHF system designed to provide secure air-to-air and air-to-ground communications with AJ capabilities) and commercial avionics radios such as GPS, VHF air to ground, and the aircraft communications addressing and reporting system.

A very ambitious program, Millennium, was initiated to design an ultra-wideband radio. One objective was to demonstrate extremely high speed (approximately 1 billion samples per second) A/D data converters for both military and commercial communications. After the data conversion process, all tuning, filtering, demodulation, and decoding functions are performed by software (these processes and the associated technologies are discussed in Chapter 2).

1.3.3.3 Communications Systems Research

Several important research programs focus on complete communication systems. The DARPA Battlefield Awareness and Data Dissemination (BADD) program combines radios, ATM routers, and various communications networks and airborne relays from the Army's digital battlefield technology development effort for the deployment of high-speed data and large-file image transfer to the forward area. The Bosnia Command and Control Augmentation program, which is phase 1 of the GBS and focuses on satellite communications, grew out of BADD testing. Phase 2 of the GBS involves the incorporation of DirecTV transponders into Navy UHF satellites. Phase 3 will provide the means for stand-alone satellite transfer of high-speed data and large-file images.

1.3.3.4 Radio Component Research

The DOD's Extremely Lightweight Antenna program produced a compact, lightweight (under 2 pounds), and wideband (85 MHz to 2.2 GHz) antenna. The antenna incorporates a directional wideband satellite beam as well as low-gain omnidirectional radiation patterns. The DARPA Advanced Digital Receiver Technology program was initiated to demonstrate technology elements for software-defined receivers in communications,

radar, and electronic warfare. Several of these functions might be merged into one digital receiver unit.

1.3.3.5 Small Unit Operations

The Small Unit Operations Situational Awareness System includes a significant wireless communications component. One goal of the research is to create a radio system for exchanging information among groups of up to 12 foot soldiers operating in an area of approximately 4 km 2 .

1.3.3.6 Modeling and Simulation

The Scalable Self-Organizing Simulations (S3) Program, supported by DARPA and the National Science Foundation, uses parallel computers to simulate communications networks. This program includes projects that create models and a library of computer programs for simulating mobility, radio propagation, and teletraffic patterns in large-scale wireless networks.

1.4 Commercial Terrestrial Mobile Telephone Systems And Services

Commercial wireless communications systems have exhibited remarkable growth over the past decade (see Figure 1-2). There are currently more than 50 million U.S. cellular subscribers (Hill, 1997) and more than 34 million U.S. paging subscribers (Mooney, 1997). An estimated 17 percent of the U.S. population now has cellular service, compared to 95 percent with wireline telephone service (Hill, 1997). There are also 50 million subscribers to systems based on the global system for mobile communications (GSM) standard, the European cellular technology. Worldwide, the total number of subscribers to cellular systems is projected at just under 200 million (Hill, 1997). It should be noted that these figures, as market research estimates, are fundamentally imprecise and, moreover, tend to be volatile because of the dynamic nature of the wireless industry.

Throughout the world, wireless communication systems are enabling developing countries to provide instant telephone service to new subscribers who otherwise would have to wait years for wireline access. Although wireless users are still far outnumbered by the approximately 700 million wireline telephone users worldwide, the number of new wireless subscribers is growing 15 times faster than the wireline subscriber base, and this pace is expected to accelerate in the coming years. Analysts predict that, by the year 2010, there will be equal numbers of wireless and wireline connections throughout the world.

Wireless mobile telephone systems can be divided into three generations.

FIGURE 1-2 The number of U.S. cellular subscribers and cell sites soared between 1984 and 1996. Note that 1984 figures are for January 1985. Source: Reproduced with the Cellular Telephone Industry Association's permission from the CTIA's Semi-Annual Data Survey.

The first generation, introduced in the 1980s and early 1990s, uses analog cellular and cordless telephone technology. Second-generation systems transmit speech in digital format. They provide advanced calling features and some nonvoice services. There are two categories of second-generation systems. High-tier systems feature high-power transmitters, base stations with coverage ranges on the order of kilometers, and subscribers moving at vehicular speeds. Low-tier systems, serving subscribers moving at pedestrian speeds, have low-power transmitters with a range on the order of 100 meters (m). Some of these systems are designed primarily for indoor use. Third-generation systems, planned for introduction after 2002, are expected to integrate disparate services, including broadband information services that cannot be delivered with second-generation technology. Many users are looking forward to the increased convenience promised by the integration or compatibility of systems (see Box 1-4). In addition to terrestrial mobile telephone systems, other commercial wireless systems include satellite communications, mobile data systems, and wireless local area networks (LANs).

1.4.1 First-Generation Systems

Of the original wireless communications systems deployed in the 1980s, the most popular was the analog cordless telephone, which uses

radio to connect a portable handset to a unit that is wired to the public switched telephone network. Hundreds of millions of such devices have been produced, and the technology has been standardized in Europe under the cordless telephone first-generation (CT0, CT1, and CT1+) standards. There is no single U.S. standard. Analog cordless telephones have ranges limited to tens of meters and require a dedicated telephone line. Cellular systems have enabled much greater mobility.

In establishing cellular service in 1983 the FCC divided the United States into 734 cellular markets (called metropolitan statistical areas and rural service areas), each with an "A-side" and "B-side" cellular service provider. Historically, the designation of A or B indicated the origins of the cellular provider: An A-side provider did not originate in the traditional telephone business and was called a nonwireline carrier, whereas a B-side provider had roots in traditional services and was called a wireline carrier. Each cellular carrier is licensed to use 25 MHz of radio spectrum in the 800-MHz band to provide two-way telephone and data communications for its particular market. Because the U.S. analog cellular system is standardized with AMPS, any cellular telephone is capable of working in any part of the country.

The AMPS cellular standard uses analog FM and full-duplex radio channels. The frequency division multiple access (FDMA) technique enables multiple users to share the same region of spectrum. This standard supports clear communication and inexpensive mobile telephones, but the transmissions are easy to intercept on a standard radio receiver and therefore are susceptible to eavesdropping. As of late 1996, 88 percent of all cellular telephones in the United States used the AMPS standard (digital

cellular standards have only recently become available). Outside of the United States and Canada, a wide variety of incompatible analog cellular systems have been deployed (see Table 1-3). The European cellular service, which predated the AMPS system, used the Nordic mobile telephone (NMT) standard beginning in 1982. Other European nations and Japan also developed analog standards.

1.4.2 Second-Generation Systems

Spurred by growing consumer demand for wireless services, standards organizations in North America, Europe, and Japan have specified new technologies to meet consumer expectations and make efficient use of allocated spectrum bands. These second-generation systems use advanced digital signal processing, compression, coding, and network-control techniques to conserve radio bandwidth, prevent eavesdropping and unauthorized use of networks, and also support additional services (e.g., voice mail, three-way calling, and text transmission retrieval).

In the United States, second-generation technologies have been deployed in the original 800-MHz cellular bands and in personal communications bands around 1900 MHz that were allocated by the FCC between 1995 and 1997. In Europe and most other parts of the world, second-generation technologies are deployed in the 900-MHz cellular bands and in 1800-MHz personal communications bands. Japan operates digital cellular systems in various bands between 800 MHz and 1500 MHz as well as a personal communications band near 1900 MHz.

The most widespread second-generation techniques include three high-tier standards: the European standard, GSM; and two North American standards, IS-136, a time division multiple access (TDMA) technique, and IS-95, a code division multiple access (CDMA) technique. 5 The GSM standard, which has been adopted in more than 100 countries, specifies a complete wide-area communications system. The other two standards specify only the communications between mobile telephones and base stations. A separate standard, IS-41, governs communications between mobile switching centers and other infrastructure elements in the United States. Table 1-4 summarizes the properties of the principal high-tier second-generation systems.

Among low-tier standards, the personal handyphone system (PHS) provides mobile telephone services to several million Japanese subscribers. Two other standards, digital European cordless telecommunications (DECT) and cordless telephone second generation (CT2), from the basis of several wireless business telephone (i.e., private branch exchange, or PBX) products. A fourth low-tier system is the personal access communications system (PACS), a U.S. standard. Although PACS has attracted considerable industry interest, it has not been widely deployed to date. Table 1-5 summarizes the properties of low-tier systems.

In addition to the 1900-MHz licensed personal communications bands (see Table 1-5, the fifth column), the FCC has allocated the 1910–1930 MHz band for unlicensed low-tier systems. Commercial products based on DECT, PHS, and a modified version of PACS (designated PACS-UB, for unlicensed band) are under consideration for deployment in the 1910–1930 MHz band.

Each of the second-generation systems has distinct features and limitations, but none was designed specifically with the problems of large, complex organizations such as the military in mind. Nevertheless, it is possible to combine disparate approaches in a customized network built to meet the unique voice and data communications needs of an organization with national reach (see Box 1-5).

The commercial success of second-generation wireless telephone systems has stimulated widespread interest in enhancing their capabilities to meet public expectations for advanced information services. For example, new speech-coding techniques offering improved voice quality have been introduced to all three high-tier systems. Efforts are also under way to make these systems more attractive for data services. Accordingly, standards for fax-signal transmission have been established, and standards for circuit-switched data transmission at rates of up to 64 kilobits per second (kbps) are under development for GSM and CDMA. In addition, technology for packet-switched data transmission, suitable for providing wireless Internet access, is being developed for all second-generation systems. The technology base will continue to grow as R&D organizations worldwide design innovations for a third generation of wireless communications systems. 6

1.4.3 Third-Generation Systems

The original concept for third-generation wireless systems emerged from an International Telecommunications Union (ITU) initiative known as the future public land mobile telecommunication system (FPLMTS). 7 Over the past decade the ITU advanced the concept of a wireless system that would encompass technical capabilities a clear step above those of second-generation cellular systems. The current name for the third-generation system is International Mobile Telecommunications-2000 (IMT-2000). The number refers to an early target date for implementing the new technology and also the frequency band (around 2000 MHz) in which it would be deployed.

As envisioned in the IMT-2000 project, the third-generation wireless system would have a worldwide common radio interface and network. It would support higher data rates than do second-generation systems yet be less expensive. It would also advance other aspects of wireless communications by reducing equipment size, extending battery life, and improving ease of operation. In addition, the system would support the services required in developing as well as developed nations. Box 1-6 lists the complete set of goals established in 1990 for FPLMTS.

Since 1990 IMT-2000 recommendations have been approved that elaborate on the initial goals, establish security principles, prescribe a network architecture, present a plan for developing nations, establish radio interface requirements, and specify a framework for a satellite component. The ITU anticipated an international competition leading to a radio interface that could be developed and deployed by the year 2000. The competing radio interfaces would provide minimum outdoor data rates of 384 kpbs and an indoor rate of 2 Mbps. Other than providing a forum for discussion of

standards proposals, the ITU has not adopted clear plans of how to proceed beyond the point of reviewing the proposals.

The 1995 World Radio Conference set aside spectrum for nations to consider for the deployment of IMT-2000. The bands are 1920-1980 MHz and 2110-2170 MHz for terrestrial communications and 1980-2010 MHz and 2170-2200 MHz for satellites. As noted in Table 1-4 and Table 1-5, the United States has already allocated spectrum bands to personal communications that include part of the lower IMT-2000 band, making it unlikely

that U.S. service providers could deploy IMT-2000 at all. Early on, attention to the ITU work was limited in both Europe and the United States, where growth in second-generation digital cellular and personal communications markets has been strong. It was the Japanese, virtually alone among all nations, who insisted that the ITU program proceed as fast as possible because they were running out of spectrum for their cellular and personal communications systems. 8 The Japanese were able to keep the IMT-2000 program on schedule, resulting in an ITU call for radio-interface proposals, now due in mid-1998. In support of this effort, the Japanese radio standards group is developing one or more Japanese standards for use in the ITU-2000 spectrum. Presumably the standard(s) will be submitted to the ITU for possible worldwide use.

Meanwhile, the European telecommunications industry established a framework for developing third-generation mobile wireless technology. The universal mobile telephone system (UMTS) is intended to replicate the commercial success achieved a decade earlier with GSM. The UMTS schedule calls for establishing the technology base by December 1997, deploying a minimum system in 2002, and achieving a full system in 2005. The technical goals of UMTS closely resemble many of the IMT-2000 goals. The Europeans plan to propose the technologies adopted for UMTS as candidates for IMT-2000.

In the United States, action on this issue did not take place until mid-1997, when the four U.S. CDMA cellular infrastructure manufacturers—Lucent Technologies, Motorola, Nortel, and QUALCOMM, Inc.—announced a third-generation program called Wideband cdmaOne. Like many candidate systems under consideration in Europe and Japan, the U.S. system uses a 5-MHz CDMA signal, although the operating parameters and design features differ from those of foreign counterparts. Additional U.S. proposals for IMT-2000 could emerge from other communities of companies supporting other digital radio interface standards. 9

Among related developments, interest in "nomadicity" is growing within the Internet community in the United States. As originally conceived, the national information infrastructure (NII) placed little emphasis on the wireless delivery of information to mobile users (Computer Science and Telecommunications Board, 1994). But with the growth in demand for Internet services, reflected by the transition to private suppliers, providers are seeking to leverage Internet technology either directly or as part of heterogeneous networks. Plans are being made to accommodate nomads (i.e., mobile users) who draw on a variety of communications, computing, and information systems simultaneously, a concept that will require attention by multiple industries to issues such as security, interoperability, and synchronization within and between systems (Cross-Industry Working Team, 1995).

Other ITU activities are addressing network aspects of IMT-2000. 10 Here again the Japanese have made major contributions toward the establishment of a single worldwide network to support wireless systems. Only in mid-1997 did the U.S. and European delegations begin to make significant contributions, concerned about their current investments in cellular and personal communications networks and the possible effects of establishing a worldwide network that was incompatible with their systems. The latest U.S. and European proposals emphasize the idea of a family of networks supporting a family of radio interfaces through the use of appropriate gateways to achieve worldwide roaming and interoperability.

Although it is clear that many new wireless communications technologies will emerge in the 2002-2005 time frame, it is not clear when and how they will be commercialized. The robust evolution of second-generation systems will limit commercial incentives to introduce a new generation of systems. It is possible that advances in second-generation systems will meet future demand for mobile telephone services and that a demonstrated demand for high-bit-rate data services will be necessary to stimulate the commercial deployment of third-generation technology.

1.5 Commercial Satellite Systems

Satellite systems can be classified by frequency and orbit. Above 1 GHz a satellite signal easily penetrates the ionosphere. Transmission at higher frequencies is desirable because additional bandwidth is available there, but then expensive components are needed to overcome signal attenuation, absorption, and path loss (see Chapter 2 for a discussion of channel impairments). Most satellite systems are of the GEO variety, offering configuration simplicity, wide footprint (i.e., one satellite covers an entire geographical region), and fixed satellite-to-ground-terminal characteristics. But GEO systems also have a number of disadvantages, including long propagation delays (a round-trip takes approximately half a second), high transmitter-power requirements, and poor coverage at the far northern and southern latitudes. Moreover, GEO satellites are expensive to launch, and, because only a handful of satellites are typically used to achieve global coverage, they are vulnerable to single points of failure.

The International Maritime Satellite (INMARSAT) Organization, formed in 1979, is now backed by the governments of 75 member countries. Its first satellites (INMARSAT-A) became operational in 1982, supporting voice and low-rate data applications with analog FM technology. By the end of 1993, 30,000 ground terminals were in operation. The next generation of INMARSAT satellites (INMARSAT-B and C) used digital technology, but data rates remained low (600 bps). With the introduction of INMARSAT-M in 1996 it is now possible to use laptop computer-sized satellite terminals

for voice and low-rate (2.4 kbps) data transmission. However, the voice quality of this system remains poor due to propagation delay, and data transmission rates are 10 times slower than those of a standard modem.

In the late 1980s QUALCOMM deployed the OMNITracs vehicle-tracking and communications system for both North America (using GSTAR satellites) and Europe (using EUTELSAT satellites). The service provides two-way messaging and automatic position reporting. By 1997 more than 200,000 trucks, most of them in the United States, were equipped with the system. The use of such systems in Europe has been restricted by high equipment costs and expectations for less-costly alternatives with the next generation of systems.

Recently introduced GEO systems for data communications include Mobilesat in Australia and MSAT in North America (see Table 1-6). Innovations in GEO systems include spot beams for custom broadcast coverage and improved on-board processing. Although GEO satellite communications systems are not fully mobile (i.e., the terminals are not handheld), innovations in terminal design have enabled the development of private networks and rapidly reconfigurable systems. Very small aperture terminals (VSATs) use small Earth-station antennas to form private networks through links to GEO satellites. The VSAT is the result of more than 20 years of advances in digital Earth-station technology. The applications have evolved from point-to-point transmission links to networking terminals that leverage the broadcasting capability of satellites.

The VSAT terminals offer various types of access. Fast-response protocols are used for time-sensitive transactions such as credit card purchases and hotel or airline reservations, throughput-efficient access is used for file transfers, and circuit-switched access is used for speech and digital video. (Throughput is the fraction of time during which a channel can be used.) An important feature of VSAT technology is ease of deployment: Installation takes approximately 2 hours. Companies are now installing VSATs at the rate of more than 1,500 per month. There are more than 200,000 VSATs worldwide, operating in nearly every country; individual networks range in size from as few as 20 nodes operating in a shared-hub environment to nearly 10,000 in the General Motors Corporation network.

In 1994 direct-broadcast satellites (DBSs) became operational, some two decades after the first experiments were performed with this technology. These systems broadcast a signal from a GEO satellite with sufficient power to allow direct reception in a home, office, or vehicle with an inexpensive receiver. The two primary applications for DBS systems are television and radio; emerging applications include DirecPC and GBS. Systems for direct-broadcast television are operational in Europe, Japan, and the United States. By the end of 1996 these systems had more than 2.5 million U.S. subscribers. Digital audio broadcasting (DAB) has the potential to provide every radio within a service area with continuous transmissions of a sound quality comparable to that of a compact disc. Systems are being tested around the world that deliver DAB from satellites as well as from terrestrial antennas.

Communications systems using non-GEO satellites are emerging as major players in commercial wireless applications. These satellites are characterized as either medium Earth orbit (MEO) or low Earth orbit (LEO). The LEOs, deployed in either circular or elliptical orbits of 500 to 2,000 km, offer several advantages including reduced propagation delay and low transmit-power requirements, allowing the use of handheld terminals. But at these altitudes a system requires many satellites to achieve global coverage. Furthermore, satellite movement relative to the ground terminal introduces Doppler shift in the received signal, and each satellite is visible from a ground terminal for only a few minutes at a time so that handoffs between satellites are frequent. The MEO satellites offer features that represent a compromise between LEOs and GEOs. The MEOs are deployed in circular orbits at an altitude of about 10,000 km. Approximately 10 to 15 satellites (more than GEOs but fewer than LEOs) are required for global coverage, and average visibility is one to two hours per satellite (less than for GEOs but more than for LEOs). The Doppler shift in MEOs is also considerably less than that in LEOs, but higher transmit power is required.

The majority of new satellite systems that will become operational by the year 2000 are LEO or MEO systems. These satellites can be categorized further by size. Big LEO/MEOs (see Table 1-7) support voice and data communications with large satellites (weighing 400–2,000 kilograms [kg]) and operate at frequencies above 1 GHz. Little LEOs use much smaller satellites (weighing 40–100 kg) and operate in the UHF and VHF bands, thereby enabling the use of inexpensive transmission hardware for both the satellite and ground terminal. The 36-satellite Orbcomm system is an example.

Most of these systems provide voice and low-rate data to mobile users with handheld terminals. The link rates for little LEOs are asymmetric, with lower rates on the uplink (ground to satellite) than on the downlink (satellite to ground) because of power limitations in the handheld unit. Teledesic is unusual because it is intended primarily for broadband wireless data communications with stationary terminals at integrated services digital network (ISDN) rates. Teledesic and Iridium have direct intersatellite communication links independent of the ground segment, enabling the provision of services to countries lacking a communications infrastructure. Iridium is designed to consist of 66 satellites arranged in six planes, all in a nearly polar orbit. Each satellite is expected to serve as a "switchboard in the sky," routing each channel of voice traffic through various other satellites in the system; communications are eventually delivered to an appropriate ground-based gateway to terrestrial telecommunications.

Globalstar is a LEO digital telecommunications system that will begin offering wireless telephone, data, paging, fax, and position location services worldwide beginning in 1998. The 48-satellite constellation operating 1,410 km from the planet surface serves as a "bent-pipe" relay to local ground-based infrastructure.

1.6 Mobile Data Services

Commercial packet-switched mobile data services emerged after the success of short-message, alphanumeric one-way paging systems. Mobile data networks provide two-way, low-speed, packet-switched data communication links with some restrictions on the size of the message (10 to 20 kilobytes) in early systems. Services provided by mobile data networks include the following:

The first commercial mobile data network was Ardis, a private network developed in 1983 by IBM Corporation and Motorola to enable IBM to provide computing facilities in the field. By 1990 Ardis was deployed in more than 400 metropolitan areas and 10,700 cities and towns using 1,300 base stations. By 1994 Ardis (since then owned by Motorola) provided nationwide roaming for approximately 35,000 users, at a rate of 45 million messages per month, and a data rate of 19.2 kbps.

In 1986, Swedish Telecomm and Ericsson Radio Systems AB introduced Mobitex and deployed it in Sweden. This system is available in the United States, Norway, Finland, Great Britain, the Netherlands, and France. The system supports a data rate of 8 Mbps and nationwide roaming (international roaming is planned). This service is distributed by RAM Mobile Data in the United States, where by 1994 it had 12,000 subscribers. A total of 840 base stations are connected to 40 switching centers to cover 100 metropolitan areas and 6,300 cities and towns.

Cellular digital packet data (CDPD) technology was developed by IBM, which together with nine operating companies formed the CDPD Forum to develop an open standard and multivendor environment for a packet-switched network using the physical infrastructure and frequency bands of the AMPS systems. The CDPD specification was completed in 1993 with key contributions from IBM, McCaw Cellular Communications, Inc., and Pacific Communications Sciences, Inc. Deployment of the 19.2-kbps CDPD infrastructure, designed to make use of idle channels in analog cellular systems, commenced in 1995.

In the 1990s Metricom, Inc., developed a metropolitan-area network that was deployed first in the San Francisco Bay area and then in Washington, D.C. The signaling rate of this system is advertised at 100 kbps but the actual data rate is substantially slower. The Metricom system uses ''frequency hopping" spread-spectrum (FHSS) technology in the lower frequencies (around 900 MHz) of the unlicensed industrial, scientific, and medical (ISM) bands. 11

In 1996 the European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) standard for mobile data services, trans-European trunked radio (TETRA), was completed. It is currently being used primarily for public safety purposes. Work is in progress to enhance the digital cellular and personal communications technologies. More recently, the digital cellular standards (GSM, IS-95, PHS, PACS, and IS-136) have been updated to support packet-switched mobile data services at a variety of data rates. Key features

of existing mobile data services are shown in Table 1-8. Although many services are available, the mobile data market has grown more slowly than have voice services.

1.7 Wireless Local Area Networks

Wireless LANs provide data rates exceeding 1 Mbps in coverage areas with dimensions on the order of tens of meters. They are used for a variety of applications, including the following:

In 1990 the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) formed a committee to develop a standard for wireless LANs operating at 1 and 2 Mbps. In 1992 the ETSI chartered a committee to develop a standard for high-performance radio LANs (HIPERLAN) operating at 20 Mbps.

Table 1-9 indicates the technical features of various LAN products (including some that use the infrared portion of the spectrum and are therefore not examined in detail in this report). The market for wireless LAN products is growing rapidly but not nearly as fast as the market for wireless voice applications. The $200 million market for wireless LANs is tiny compared to the cellular industry, which is worth billions (Wickelgren, 1996).

1.8 Comparison Of International Research, Development, And Deployment Strategies

Commercial wireless technologies have followed divergent evolutionary paths in different parts of the world. For example, strong contrasts are evident in the transition from first-generation cellular systems to second-generation systems in the United States and Europe. At first a single U.S. system was used for analog cellular communications, AMPS, and every cellular telephone in the United States and Canada could communicate

with every base station. By contrast, European users were faced with a complex mixture of incompatible analog systems. To maintain mobile telephone service, an international traveler in Europe needed up to five different telephones. The situation was reversed by second-generation systems. Now there is a single digital technology, GSM, deployed throughout Europe (and in more than 100 countries worldwide), whereas the United States has become a technology battleground for three competitors: GSM (DSC-1900), TDMA (IS-136), and CDMA (IS-95).

The differences in technology evolution are due in large measure to different government policies in Europe, the United States, and Japan, the world's principal sources of wireless technologies. Three types of government policies influence developments in wireless systems: policies on radio spectrum regulation, approaches to R&D, and telecommunications industry structure. The reasons for the shifts in the above example can be found primarily in changes in spectrum regulation policies adopted in the 1980s. In establishing first-generation systems in the United States in the late 1970s, the FCC regulated four properties of a radio system: noninterference, quality, efficiency, and interoperability. In the 1980s, deregulation was in vogue and the scope of the FCC's authority was restricted to noninterference; the other properties were deemed commercial issues to be settled in the marketplace. Although this policy stimulated innovation in the U.S. manufacturing industry, it also meant that operating companies had to choose among various competing technologies.

In Europe, the main trend in government regulation in the 1980s was a move from national authority to multinational regulation under the aegis of the European Community (EC; now the European Union [EU]). The EC had a strong interest in establishing continental standards for common products and services, including electric plugs and telephone dialing conventions. In this context the notion of a telephone that could be used throughout Europe had a strong appeal. To advance this notion, the EC offered new spectrum for cellular service on the condition that the operating industries of participating countries agree on a single standard. Attracted by the availability of free spectrum, operating companies (many of them government-owned) in 15 countries put aside national rivalries and adopted the GSM standard.

Thus, a new pattern of technical cooperation was established in Europe. This cooperation was reinforced by the European Commission (the administrative unit of the EU), which funded cooperative precompetitive research focusing on advanced communications systems, first in the Research for Advanced Communications in Europe (RACE) program and then in the Advanced Communications Technologies and Services (ACTS) program. In both programs a consortium of companies and universities

performs the research. Spectrum management rules continue to prescribe a single standard for each service, meaning that an industry consensus is required before a standard is introduced. Once a technology is established, companies enter the competitive phase of product development and marketing. This process promotes a thorough investigation of technologies prior to standardization and assures economies of scale when commercial service begins. In preparation for UMTS, scheduled for initial deployment in 2002, extensive R&D and evaluation of competing prototypes have been under way since 1994. All of this activity will provide European industry with a strong technical base for realizing the goals for mobile communications in the first decade of the next century.

The U.S. approach to communications technology R&D is much more competitive. Individual companies perform much of this research in the context of their product marketing plans. Coordination takes place within diverse standards organizations such as the Telecommunications Industry Association, IEEE, and American National Standards Institute. Some interaction also takes place in the GloMo program, which brings together universities and industry to fill specific technology gaps identified by DARPA program managers. But for the most part standards setting is a competitive rather than cooperative process, with each company or group of companies striving to protect commercial interests. The FCC rules for spectrum management allow license holders to transmit any signals, subject only to constraints on interference with the signals of other license holders. Similar flexibility is extended to unlicensed transmissions. As a consequence, there are multiple competing standards (seven in the case of wideband personal communications) for wireless service in the United States.

Government policies on industry structure also strongly influence technology development. After the FCC issued cellular operating licenses, most of the companies that began offering cellular service had limited technical resources and relied almost entirely on vendors and consultants for technical expertise. Even the cellular subsidiaries of the regional Bell operating companies had to build a new base of expertise: Under the terms of the consent decree that broke up AT&T in 1984, these cellular companies had no access to the abundant technical resources of Bellcore, the research unit of the regional Bell companies. In this environment, much of the new wireless communications technology in the United States has come from the manufacturing industry, with the result that proprietary rather than open network-interface standards have proliferated. The published technical standards for wireless communications were at first confined to the air interface between terminals and base stations. Eventually the industry adopted a standard for intersystem operation to facilitate roaming. Many other interfaces, especially those between switching

centers and base stations, remain proprietary but the situation is changing to allow fully open systems.

By contrast, the European cellular operating industry has been dominated by national telephone monopolies. These companies have strong research laboratories that participate fully in technology creation and standards setting. To gain the advantage of flexibility in equipment procurement, operating companies favor mandatory open interfaces, a preference reflected in the GSM standard.

Little has been published concerning the factors that influence the evolution of wireless communications technology in Japan. In recent years NTT, the dominant telecommunications operating company, has provided a strong coordinating mechanism for creating and standardizing new technology. The biggest success has been PHS, which entered commercial service in 1995 and attracted 4 million subscribers in its first year of operation. The initial R&D for PHS was conducted by NTT, but it licenses many manufacturers to offer PHS equipment. Now many Japanese companies are cooperating in a study of wideband CDMA technology for third-generation systems. A joint experimental trial of one system is scheduled for the end of 1997. In addition to corporate R&D, a government organization, Research and Development Center for Radio Systems, is a significant source of wireless communications technology in Japan.

Worldwide efforts to guide the evolution of wireless communications technology come together in the IMT-2000 project. National delegations to IMT-2000 reflect their country's policies: The U.S. delegation pushes for diversity, 12 the Europeans advocate a structure favorable to UMTS and its descendants, and the Japanese delegation favors convergence to a small number of worldwide standards. Other countries assert their own service needs, which in some cases can be met by mobile communications satellites and in other cases by wireless local loops.

1.9 Summary And Report Organization

The history of wireless communications suggests a number of key points to be considered in evaluating potential future strategies for the DOD and DARPA. Wireless technology has now evolved to a point where the goal of "anytime, anywhere" communications is within reach. Since 1980 consumer demand for cordless and cellular telephones has driven rapid growth in wireless services, especially for voice communications. Wireless data services have not taken off as yet although expectations are high, given the growth of Internet applications. Extensive research is under way to develop third-generation commercial wireless systems, which are expected to be in place before 2010. These trends suggest that

the DOD will continue to have an ample selection of advanced commercial wireless technologies from which to choose.

The DOD, which currently uses a variety of wireless systems based on 1970s and 1980s technology, is relying increasingly on commercial wireless products to cope with reductions in defense budgets and the growing need for flexible systems that can be deployed rapidly. In the Gulf War, the DOD used commercial equipment such as GPS receivers and INMARSAT links and found that performance was comparable to that of technologies designed explicitly to meet military needs. However, the DOD will continue to have unique needs for security, interoperability, and other features that might not be met by commercial products. The gaps between commercial technologies and military needs are difficult to identify precisely because, although the DOD has defined its vision for future untethered systems in general terms, projected operational needs have apparently not been translated into technical specifications that conform to the capabilities of commercial products.

The GloMo program and other military R&D efforts are attempting to meet DOD's future communications needs and have produced some useful results. However, none of these programs has adopted a systems approach to the problem, most notably with respect to the design of a network architecture. There may be other unmet needs as well; however, the committee based its work on first principles rather than an assessment of GloMo. A new strategy may be needed to identify the needs more specifically as a basis for determining where to focus DARPA's R&D efforts and where commercial products will suffice.

The effort to evaluate commercial technologies in light of defense needs will be complicated by the characteristics of the U.S. marketplace. In Europe there is a single standard (GSM) for digital wireless communications, and precompetitive research on new wireless technologies is carried out in cooperative, government-funded programs. The U.S. wireless market features a mixture of competing standards, and most technology R&D is conducted by individual companies. This environment forces operators to choose from an assortment of competing technologies.

The remainder of this report is an attempt to help the DOD devise strategies for making those choices. Chapter 2 provides technical background on the many issues that need to be addressed in designing wireless communications systems, which are extremely complex. The highly technical discussion may not interest all readers but is fundamental to any informed analysis of wireless systems. Chapter 3 explores the opportunities for and barriers to synergy between the military and commercial sectors in the development of wireless technologies. Chapter 4 integrates all the information presented in this report to provide a set of recommendations for the DOD and DARPA.

1. This report does not address unguided optical communications systems, which use the 10 3 –10 7 gigahertz frequency band (infrared, visible, and ultraviolet light), because the commercial products that operate in these bands are designed for indoor applications and therefore would not be of great use in military applications.

2. A protocol is a set of rules, encoded in software, for performing specific functions.

3. The developments since the mid-1970s, when the use of computer networks moved beyond the ARPA research community, paved the way for commercial services. The CSNet project, funded by the National Science Foundation (NSF) for the computer science community, eventually led to the NSFNET and a dramatic increase in the number of interconnected nodes. The commercialization of Internet service was symbolized by the decommissioning of the ARPANET in 1990 and privatization of the NSFNET in 1995.

4. Two types of codes are used to spread the signal. A long code is reserved for use by the military to obtain location information within a few meters of accuracy and timing information within 100 nanoseconds. A shorter code is used by commercial systems to obtain location information accurate to within 100 meters.

5. A fourth digital modulation technique, based on Motorola's iDEN technology, is used by some specialized U.S. mobile radio services in the lower 800-MHz band to provide cellular-like voice, trunked radio, paging, and messaging services.

6. One integrated solution not addressed in detail in this report is the new generation of public safety radio networks. These systems are used in both the military and commercial sectors for applications such as law enforcement and fire fighting. Until recently these systems were characterized simply as 25-kilohertz FM voice radios and 9.6-kbps modems. In the past a municipal law enforcement radio system typically was deployed as a redundant overlay of towers and repeaters separate from the radio systems operated by fire, health, highway, and other municipal departments. Today's tight budgets often force municipalities to pool departmental funds to upgrade public safety radios and establish a single system with enough capacity to meet every user's needs. To assist in this process the Association of Public Safety Communication Officers (APCO), which includes law enforcement, highway, forestry, health, and many other municipal and federal users, recently initiated an ambitious program called Project-25 to reduce the cost of next-generation radios. APCO Project-25 seeks to reduce user dependence on proprietary radios from a single manufacturer (generally the system installer) and introduce cost competition in the upgrading and replacement market at the municipality level. The strategy is to standardize a digital-modulation radio, which would be described as APCO Project-25 compliant, thus opening up public radio purchasing to a variety of competing manufacturers. Some radios that are APCO Project-25 compliant are now available and are being adopted by the Federal Law Enforcement Radio Users Group (representing radio users in the Federal Bureau of Investigation, Drug Enforcement Agency, Secret

Service, Department of the Treasury, and other civilian agencies). The APCO Project-25 process has encouraged an unprecedented level of cooperation among municipal radio users.

7. These activities are carried out by the ITU Radiocommunication Sector (ITU-R) Working Party 8/13, later renamed ITU-R Task Group 8/1.

8. The implementation of standards based on IMT-2000 in Japan clearly would give Japanese companies early experience with the technology and perhaps position them to dominate future world markets for IMT-2000 products.

9. Although optical communications systems are not addressed in detail in this report, in large part because the commercial research focuses on indoor applications, the advantages of laser systems need to be mentioned. A laser produces optical radiation by stimulating emissions from an electronic or chemical material. Unlike light produced by incandescent or fluorescent sources, the resultant beam is coherent and exhibits extremely low angular divergence, properties that enable transmissions spanning great distances (i.e., thousands of miles). The data, voice, images, or other signals are modulated on a beam of light, which is detected by an optical receiver and decoded. The transmitter and receiver need to be in direct visual contact, and so the laser beam is steered in the appropriate direction using mirrors or other optical elements. Laser communications systems offer several advantages over RF systems. The main advantage is high capacity: Systems now under development will support transmissions in the range of hundreds of megabits per second, with systems under consideration attaining the gigabits-per-second range. Another advantage is the low power requirement for point-to-point communications (orders of magnitude lower than RF systems). All the energy is focused into a very narrow beam because the physical dispersion of a laser beam in space is minimal. Furthermore, laser communications systems offer security benefits because almost no energy is diffused outside the laser beam, which is therefore not easily detected by an adversary. This combination of features makes laser communications systems attractive for secure transmissions between hub points in mobile, dynamically changing environments (e.g., between base stations on vehicle-mounted switching facilities). However, laser systems are sensitive to interference from other light sources, such as the sun, and any obstructions of the visual link by dust, rain, or fog. There is also a risk of damage to the eyes of unprotected observers. Finally, components for laser-based systems are much more expensive than those for RF systems and therefore are unlikely to penetrate the commercial market for some time.

10. These activities are carried out by the ITU Telecommunications Sector, Study Group 11.

11. The ISM bands (at 902–928 MHz, 2400–2483 MHz, and 5700–5850 MHz) are available for any wireless device that uses less than 1 watt of transmit power.

12. The United States participates in the IMT-2000 process in Task Group 8/1 through a delegation led by the FCC.

In response to a request from the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency, the committee studied a range of issues to help identify what strategies the Department of Defense might follow to meet its need for flexible, rapidly deployable communications systems. Taking into account the military's particular requirements for security, interoperability, and other capabilities as well as the extent to which commercial technology development can be expected to support these and related needs, the book recommends systems and component research as well as organizational changes to help the DOD field state-of-the-art, cost-effective untethered communications systems. In addition to advising DARPA on where its investment in information technology for mobile wireless communications systems can have the greatest impact, the book explores the evolution of wireless technology, the often fruitful synergy between commercial and military research and development efforts, and the technical challenges still to be overcome in making the dream of "anytime, anywhere" communications a reality.

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Then and now: communication through the ages

• Kailun Zhang
• October 20, 2015

In 2015, getting in contact with someone is hardly ever a problem. From calling, text message and email to Snapchat, Skype and Facebook, there are a multitude of ways to chat. This generation is known for being in a constant state of interaction, but it wasn’t always this easy.

Think about Romeo and Juliet. If only they had iMessage, then maybe they wouldn’t have found themselves in such a pickle. Granted, we’ve come a long way from counting on messengers on horseback to deliver the memo.

There’s been a lot of advancement in how we stay connected. It’s strange to think that there was once a time without even telephones — when the only way to talk to old friends was with pen and paper. Yet, it was once a reality.

Here’s a look back at what it looked like, and the evolution of how we communicate.

Smoke signals Used by Indigenous tribes in the 1500s

Smoke signals are actually one of the oldest forms of long-distance communication. Native tribes had their own signalling systems and soldiers in Ancient China would send smoke off the Great Wall during war.Even today, nothing quite says “help” like sending up some smoulder.

Pigeon post Used by the Romans more than 2,000 years ago

These squawking birds weren’t always just an accessory to cobblestone streets and street meat stands. Thousands of years ago, pigeons were used as a means of communication. Pigeons would carry messages on tiny pieces of rolled up paper in a metal canister attached to their feet. They would be sent to their desired destination, sometimes by train, where they could then be given a response to fly back with.

Fun fact: pigeons actually have an internal compass that allows them to find their way home from thousands of kilometres away.

Snail mail Earliest surviving piece of mail from 255 B.C.

Postal services have been around since humans learned how to write. Through the ages, transportation of snail mail has included dogsleds, donkeys, balloons and submarines. In 2006, Canada Post delivered about five billion pieces of mail, though annual volume has since dropped to below four billion. Nowadays, mail is usually junk, but it makes receiving the rare handwritten letter all the more special.

Electrical telegraph First American electrical telegraph invented in 1836

Telegraphy revolutionized communication by bidding goodbye to physically transported messages. First formally introduced in the 1830s and  1840s, electrical telegraphy used electrical currents sent through long wire — sometimes spanning across an ocean — to deliver messages across long  distances. Morse code was developed by assigning dots and dashes to certain letters to spell out messages.

Another fun fact: Nokia’s original text message — or rather, short message service — tone was actually “SMS” in morse code.

Telephone First telephone patented in 1876

Ah, the telephone — a Canadian legacy. The first long-distance phone call was made by Alexander Graham Bell to his assistant, Thomas Watson, on Aug. 10, 1876, from Brantford to Paris, Ontario. Watson would also receive the first transcontinental phone call in 1915, where Bell said the same thing he said in 1876: “Mr. Watson, come here, I want to see you.” When Bell died in 1922, around 14 million telephones in the U.S. and Canada stopped ringing for one minute in his memory.

Text messaging First text message sent in 1992

The first person to receive a text message was simply wished a “Merry Christmas”.

The concept of sending short, quick messages was first proposed by a man named Friedhelm Hillebrand in 1984. His idea that most sentences and questions fit within 160 characters lives on in today’s 160-character text length and 140-character tweet length.

A study by Experian Marketing Services estimated that 18 to 25 year olds today send an average of 1,914 texts a month, but that may not even account for the tons of messages sent through WiFi rather than cellphone carriers. Now, a mobile phone isn’t a necessary part of sending a text message. Text messaging over the internet is gaining ground with services like iMessage, WhatsApp and even Facebook messenger, which allow texts to be sent over devices such as tablets and iPods.

Video messaging First camera phone sold in 1996 in Japan

The introduction of video calling changed the way people interact. Skype, for example, has probably salvaged many long-distance relationships. But apart from conference calling and video-chatting, apps like Snapchat and Periscope are changing the communication game. People can now rapidly interact face-to-face in small snippets, whether it be a single moment or emotion. They can also add elements to communication that don’t exist in real life — who doesn’t love a good Snapchat filter?

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Quick Thinks: How Being Present Improves Communication

In this “Quick Thinks” podcast episode, Stanford improv experts share advice on getting out of our heads and into the moment at hand.

April 24, 2020

Although it may feel uncomfortable, letting go of our prepared notes and staying in the moment can help us communicate more effectively.

Host Matt Abrahams speaks with Stanford University lecturers and improv theater experts Dan Klein and Adam Tobin on how being present in the moment allows communicators to more authentically connect with their audience.

Think Fast, Talk Smart is a podcast produced by Stanford Graduate School of Business. Each episode provides concrete, easy-to-implement tools and techniques to help you hone and enhance your communication.

Full Transcript

Matt Abrahams : Being in the present moment and listening intently can help both your impromptu and planned communication. In our first podcast episode on spontaneous speaking, I was joined by fellow Stanford lecturers Dan Klein and Adam Tobin. Today I am thrilled to share an important portion of that conversation that didn’t make it into the episode.

My name is Matt Abrahams and I teach Strategic Communications at Stanford GSB and welcome to a “Quick Thinks” episode of Think Fast, Talk Smart.

So here you go: this bonus clip from my conversation with two Stanford improv experts on how being in the present moment helps us to be a better communicator.

Matt Abrahams : We often don’t take the time to be present enough to listen, to understand truly what’s needed in that moment, so we can respond accordingly. Because we’re in our heads, because we’re judging and evaluating, we might miss some nuance or make some assumptions that get in the way of being successful in spontaneous speaking.

Curious to know your thoughts about that listening and that present-orientation.

Dan Klein : Wait, what did you just ask me? I’m sorry.

Adam Tobin : Look, if you’re like, locked into a script or locked into this idea of how you’re going to do it, and something is going on, you’re totally not connecting with your audience, with their needs.

Imagine you’re giving a talk and there’s a fire alarm and the sprinkles go off, and you keep giving your talk. It’s the opposite of actually connecting your material to people. You have to be there and you have to keep bringing the current circumstances to your material so you can get it to people.

Dan Klein : Rafe Chase is a brilliant improviser and director here in the Bay Area, who has created amazing theater for more than 30 years. His advice was, “In the moment when you find yourself thinking about yourself, either in the past of the future, how I did, or how I’m going to do, don’t beat yourself up, but let that be a little trigger/reminder that there’s something to notice right now.” And that’s always true. There’s always something to notice right now.

Adam Tobin : And I would say one of the most powerful ideas that improv gave to me personally and then I’ve applied to speaking and pitching movie ideas and to teaching and this room right now, is “it’s not about you, it’s not just about you. It’s really about them.” It’s about your listener. It’s about your partner. It’s about making your partner look good. And if you can get that awareness out of yourself … There is a great improv maxim that is, “Do what needs to be done, don’t do more, don’t do less, do what needs to be done.” And you only know that if you’re paying attention.

Matt Abrahams : That’s right. And a great way I think for people to help get in that present moment, not when you’re playing improv games, because improv games invite that, but taking time to greet your audience, take time get to know them, ask questions. It brings you into that present moment. You can’t be worried about everything that could happen if I’m shaking your hand and asking you a question. Another way to make sure that you’re listening well and understanding is using paraphrasing. I’m a big fan of paraphrasing, such that you hear the information and demonstrate you heard the information. There’s no sense communicating if you’re not communicating on the topic that’s needed in that moment.

Adam Tobin : I just had an insight about paraphrasing, which is that you’re kind of extending The Now. Right? So now keeps moving past you, but what paraphrasing does is, what they said, you’re saying again, and living in that space for a little moment. Right? Yes, it reaffirms fidelity, “Did I get that message right”, it affirms what they said, “Oh I heard you and you said something.” But also, it’s like, before we rush on to what we think about that, or what that means, let’s take a moment and be in that for a second, and it doesn’t take a long time, but it’s in the now.

Dan Klein : There’s another piece here. I connect this with teaching, and also to speaking, because teaching is a variation of speaking. Sometimes we really want to get a laugh. A laugh gives us indication that everyone is with us and it’s working. It’s a bit of an ego boost. It also says that we’re alive and together. There are some laughs that are actually costly: If you’re just doing your jokes, if you’re making fun of somebody. You might get the laugh but it won’t actually build that connection. But there is a laugh that you can get which comes from highlighting something funny or interesting that someone else did. So if someone does something funny to be celebrated, as the teacher or as the host, to call it out, you get that laugh, but you get it in service of the other person and of the message. I think it’s true in talks as well. If something happens in the room, that you can call out, it gets the laugh, it’s not you generating a joke and saying ‘look at me.’ It’s being present in the moment.

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Explore More

From good to great: what makes a “supercommunicator”, seen & heard: how to make your audience feel understood, sarah friar, mba ’00, on how to make strategic career risks, editor’s picks.

April 03, 2020 Quick Thinks: Tips for Speaking up in Virtual Meetings In this bonus episode of Think Fast, Talk Smart, host Matt Abrahams shares a framework for structuring your comments during a meeting or presentation.

January 17, 2020 Speaking Without a Net: How to Master Impromptu Communication Stanford improv experts discuss the art of in-the-moment communication in this episode of Think Fast, Talk Smart.

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Impact of Technology on Communication Essay

Introduction, advancement of technology in communication, media technology and online communication, the impacts of mobile phone on communication, reference list.

The realm of technology is ever-changing. New advances in applied science have forever transformed the way people interact. Exploring the impact of technology on communication and debating whether people connect with others differently seems to be the topic of the day.

Technology has allowed people to keep in touch no matter the distance. One is able to communicate 24 hours around the clock, seven days a week, 365 days on an interpersonal level.

What are the real impacts of technology on communication? How do electronics mediate and change the ways in which humans interact? How has the emergence of the Internet, mobile phones, and social networks affected society and businesses?

In order to reveal the importance of technology in communication, the essay tries to find answers to these questions. It explores how everything has changed over the years and discusses the connection between technology and communication.

To begin this examination and find answers to these questions, we begin by defining media and communication and outlining the stages of technological advancement from old age to the present day in the field of communication. The paper will highlight the use of the Internet, newspapers, radio, and other media, but it mostly dwells on the use of mobile telephony.

Communication is “the imparting or exchange of information by speaking, writing or using some other medium” (Daniel & Rod, 2011). On the other hand, media is defined as “the main means of mass communication (television, radio, and newspapers) regarded collectively.”

Technology has changed everything in the modern society. The way we communicate has been revolutionized by the advancement of new innovations in the telecommunication sector. Connecting with other people with ease is more feasible in today’s world, and this is due to speed.

Several centuries ago, books and newspapers reigned as the only choice of communication. Then later, innovators brought the radio and television before innovation was taken a notch higher with the coming of the personal computer (Johnson, 1997, p.3).

With every new innovation, the reliance on books and newspapers as the mass medium of communication continued to reduce. With time, human culture has come to understand the power and the mechanisms involved in technology and invention. In today’s world, information has permeated the cycles of change and development.

The world today, past and present, can be studied at ease with the growing information technology. Technology has advanced with sheer velocity allowing different media to shape our thinking and habits. The people who were born during the television era thought that it was the climax of innovation, but they suddenly found themselves acclimating to a new medium, the World Wide Web.

Every time a new medium rolls out, the perceptions towards the previous media you were used to change (Johnson, 1997 p5). Technology proved to be powerful in the sense that no human being can predict what will change and what won’t with certainty.

The irony of it all is the fact that the influence of technology extends beyond generations to come. It is with no doubt that technology has changed the lives of human beings; information and entertainment are being received in a more convenient way.

The innovation of having a conversation using a device called the telephone changed everything in communication. This became magical, and one couldn’t believe such innovation would exist (Tofts, 1997, p.40).

With the emergence of new media technologies, consumers have been empowered to ‘filter’ the information they want to receive. This allows them to have a choice of which news to watch or what information to listen to (Palmer, 2003, p.161).

Media consumption has been made an engaging experience with marketers studying the preferences of the consumers in order to reflect broader social changes in society. In today’s world, the computer is seen as a multi-purpose machine with work and leisure functions, therefore, creating more value.

The rise of the Internet has also made it possible to have virtual offices where the user can work from home or any convenient location. The flow of information from different media has greatly changed the social structures of society at different levels (Barry, 1999).

Digital media has enabled news and event to be channeled in real-time. The combination of the Internet and commerce has given birth to e-commerce sites providing huge potential for marketers to reach out to virtual communities.

In the world today, there are numerous media screens within our surroundings. This ranges from the television sets in our houses, computer monitors at the office, mobile phones and MP3 players in our pockets and handbag.

Even when shopping or waiting to board a plane, you’re most probably staring at screens with entertainment media (Soukup, 2008, p.5). Heavy marketing has been adopted by producers of mobile technologies targeting consumers who possess mobile phones with picture and video capacity (Goggin, 2006, p.170).

Media texts producers have termed mobile media as a “third screen,” a device that consumers carry around with much ease. Unlike television screens, broader communication networks have been integrated into personal computers and mobile phones (Goggin, 2006, p.9).

Train, buses, and airplanes have been dominated by mobile screens providing passengers with entertainment as well as other media content, especially advertisements (Caron & Carona, 2007, p.17). With a lot of commercial media content, the preferences of people change in their everyday lives.

The world of popular media has become chaotic, with hundreds of television channels to choose from, thousands of songs ready for download, and not forgetting millions of web pages to surf.

The emergence of social media like Facebook and Twitter has enabled people to manage interactions and relationships with many friends. Technologies have impacted interpersonal communication enabling people to interact more often than before.

In addition to reducing the distance between people, online communication with tools like Facebook and Twitter enables people to keep track of their contacts with friends and are more aware of the last time they interacted with them. Online communication now incorporates more than one mode of contact, including text, voice, and body language.

A mobile phone is a device that has always been seen as connecting people who are far apart, thus overcoming the geographical distance between them. The number of mobile phone users has continued to increase substantially. The mobile phone has been integrated as part of people’s lives in the sense that it’s available and easy to use, keeping us connected to our families, friends, and business people (Ling, 2004, p.21-24).

The how and when the way we use our mobile phones impacts our communication not only with those we’re communicating with but also with the people within our proximity. At this point, it is paramount to note the changes that have taken place and that have allowed the adoption of mobile phones. The tremendous proliferation of this device has drastically changed the traditional communication model.

Who are the users of mobile phones, and for what purposes do they use them? Has there been any change in the way mobile phone facilitates communication? How has the face to face interaction been affected by mobile calls? Has mobile communication enhanced relationships?

These are some of the questions that arise when we try to fathom the way communication has affected our personal and professional lives. There are sentiments that mobile phones have reduced humans to emotionless beings.

There is no doubt that the revolution brought about the use of mobile phones in the way we communicate. There have been different perceptions among individuals and social levels in society in regard to mobile usage.

When we had fixed telephone lines that were put in a booth, telephones were seen as business tools only and were placed in a fixed, quiet environment. There was restriction when it came to teenagers using these phones (Agar, 2003). The ‘birth’ of mobile phones brought changes, and phone calls became a habit to many irrespective of age or location.

Today, people can use mobile phones wherever they are in private or in public. People have been addicted to their mobile phones more than any other gadget known to man, with the device remaining on throughout. Its portability enables people to carry it wherever they go (Castells, 1996).

A personal virtual network has been created whereby users can be available at all times to communicate with friends, family, and colleagues. The geographical barrier has been destroyed, making people feel close to one another, and the face to face communication has been rendered rather less important with this mediated communication (Richard, 2004, p.22).

Meetings and briefings have become obsolete, with communication being mediated by a computer or a phone. Mobile SMS (short messaging service) service and the Internet has become the preferable communication channels for most teenagers and young people all over the world (Plant, 2000, p.23).

There are places where mobile phones have become taboo devices, places like churches and crucial corporate meetings. At such places, the mobile ring is seen as a nuisance. In other scenarios, it is seen as a destructive device by acting as a third party and especially for dating couples who want to have a private conversation.

Any phone ring is seen as an ‘intruder,’ and this harms the relationship between the partners (Plant, 2000, p.29). In his research, Plant observes that there are those people who use mobile as ’a means of managing privacy where calls are carefully selected’. He categorizes this group of people as ‘hedgehogs.’

The other category is those people who use mobile phones as the key central part of their life. They become so attached to the device and cannot do without it. Plant referred to this group as ‘fox.’ They are regular users who need to feel connected with their families and friend. Their life will be dreadful if they lack the device (2000, p.32).

Telephones have promoted the use of text messaging and modernization since it’s allowing people to communicate more both verbally and by texting in a more convenient and efficient way. SMS has made communication to be more immediate, and users can customize the message at ease with the various applications installed on their mobiles (Richard, 2004, p. 100).

The advanced phones have email support as well as multimedia messages making chatting become a lifestyle for many who conduct business and those initiating intimate communication. It has emerged that SMS has made people become more united.

Users have developed abbreviated messages, which are now universally accepted as an appropriate language. The initial purpose of the phone to make calls has even lost taste with many people, especially the young generation.

According to Reid &Reid, more than 85% of teenagers prefer texting to talking on their mobile usage (Reid & Reid, 2004, p.1). There is ease of communication when it comes to texting in the sense that some formalities are eliminated, making communication more personal.

Texting has helped introverts who may lack the skills to have phone conversations allowing them to express their true self to other people leading to greater understanding and stronger relationships (Reid & Reid, 2004, p.8).

The use of mobile technology has affected the personalities of people to a great extent. Today, more people are hiding their feelings and whereabouts behind mobile phones, and this has raised suspicions among families, friends, and couples.

People go through text messages of others just to find out more about the individual who might even have no clue about what is happening. Contrary to this, most people believe that mobile is so crucial in enhancing the relationship between people no matter the distance and that it bonds us together more than it separates us (Plant, 2000, p.58).

The usage of mobile phones by children and teenagers has changed the way parents bring up their kids. Parenting has really changed as parents try to increase their surveillance and monitor their children’s mobile usage.

Their concern is to know who communicates with their kind and the kind of conversations they normally have. They are worried about the kind of social network the children create in their contact lists.

With the emergence of virtual communities, the influence of mobile phones has spilled over and affects parenting in general. Nonetheless, the primary purpose of mobile phones to facilitate communication has not changed.

There is no doubt that technology has changed the way humans communicate. Great impacts can be seen in the way communication has changed the social structures of our society at all levels. Even in years to come, technology remains the driving force of the way people interact.

The advancement of technology ensures that communication is quicker and that more people remain connected. There has been an evolution in interpersonal skills with the advancement of technology, and users should always be keen on adapting to new ways of communication.

Technology has continually brought new methods of communication leading to the expansion of mediated communication. The reality of having one message shared across a huge audience (mass communication) is now with us. A situation where neither time nor geography can limit the accessibility of information.

We have seen the merging together of newspapers and books with computer technology so that the frequency and ease of reporting information and advertisements can be increased. The exposure of both individuals and society to mediated communication has therefore affected our daily lives, particularly in our culture and the way we communicate.

Agar, J., 2003. Constant Touch: A Global History of the Mobile Phone . Cambridge: Icon Books.

Barry, W., 1999. Networks in the Global Village . Boulder Colo: Westview Press.

Caron, A, & Caronia, L., 2007. Moving cultures: mobile communication in everyday life. Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press.

Castells, M., 1996. The Information Age: Economy, Society and Culture, Volume 1. The Rise of the Network Society . Oxford: Blackwell.

Daniel, C., & Rod, M., 2011.The Dictionary of Media and Communications . Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Goggin, G., 2006. Cell phone culture mobile technology in everyday life. New York: Routledge.

Palmer, D., 2003. The Paradox of User Control’. 5 th Annual Digital Arts and Culture Conference (Proceedings), pp.160-164.

Plant, S., 2000. On the Mobile: the effects of mobile telephones on social and individual life . Web.

Postman, N., 1992. Technopoly: The surrender of culture to technology . New York: Vintage Books.

Reid, D. J. & Reid F. J. M., 2004. Insights into the Social and Psychological Effects of SMS Text Messaging . Web.

Richard, L., 2004. The Mobile Connection: The Cell Phone’s Impact on Society . San Francisco Morgan: Kaufmann.

Soukup, C., 2008. ‘Magic Screens: Everyday Life in an Era of Ubiquitous and Mobile Media Screens’, presented at 94 th annual Convention . San Diego .

Stephen, J., 1997. Interface Culture: How New Technology Transforms the Way We Create and Communicate . San Francisco: Basic Books.

Tofts, D., 1997. ‘ The technology within’ in memory trade: A Prehistory of Cyberculture, North Ryde: 21C Books.

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IvyPanda. (2023, October 28). Impact of Technology on Communication Essay. https://ivypanda.com/essays/impact-of-technology-on-communication/

"Impact of Technology on Communication Essay." IvyPanda , 28 Oct. 2023, ivypanda.com/essays/impact-of-technology-on-communication/.

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IvyPanda . 2023. "Impact of Technology on Communication Essay." October 28, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/impact-of-technology-on-communication/.

1. IvyPanda . "Impact of Technology on Communication Essay." October 28, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/impact-of-technology-on-communication/.

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IvyPanda . "Impact of Technology on Communication Essay." October 28, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/impact-of-technology-on-communication/.

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Communication: Past and Present

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Best Technology Essay Examples

Past and modern communication.

310 words | 2 page(s)

The technological progress over the last few decades has been amazing by any standard and one need not look beyond the communication technologies to realize how much our world has changed. It may be apt to claim we now live in a truly connected society. One of the major differences between communication technologies in the past and present is that communication is not restricted by physical restrictions now as it was in the past in the age of landline phones. Now people are truly connected round-the-clock, whether knowingly or unknowingly because smart phones can even track an individual’s physical location due to integrated GPS capabilities.

Communication is also much more permanent in nature than it was in the past which may be also due to the fact that a significant amount of information now takes place in written form such as on the social media. In other words, our messages now have much long lives now.

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But not all changes have been positive which remind us that even the most beneficial technologies may have certain costs. One cost may have been a decline in face-to-face communication which are more personal in nature in favor of digital communication. It is not uncommon for parents to complain their children are glued to their gadgets even when they are with parents. Another potential cost of advancements in communication technologies has been loss of privacy which is due to several factors such as the relative permanent nature of communication today as well as the difficulty of controlling the audience. This is why schools often ask students to be careful with their social media activity.

Communication technologies have come a long way over the last few decades. Communication is cheaper, more convenient, and more efficient. But at the same time it has also negatively affected face-to-face communication and hurt our privacy among other things.

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Communication – Then and Now

How has changing technology affected people’s lives? What was life like during your parents’ and grandparents’ childhoods? Find out how people communicated in the past.

• How many objects can you find at home to use for communication?
• Ask a parent or grandparent about how they communicated differently when they were your age.
• Draw a picture of a communication object from the past and one from the present.

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Year 1 History

Differences and similarities between students' daily lives and life during their parents’ and grandparents’ childhoods (ACHASSK030)

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How changing technology affected people’s lives (at home and in the ways they worked, travelled, communicated and played in the past) (ACHASSK046)

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Essay Sample on Communication: Past, Present and Future

Introduction.

Communication is a method for transmitting data, starting with one individual or place, then onto the next. Throughout the years, there has been expanded headway in innovation and communication. Electric telegraph started, then persistent development of communication rose (Morse, 1831). Innovation has extraordinarily changed how individuals have been conveying during the previous 20 years, and this shows how the world has made evident upgrades as far as communication and innovation are concerned.

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Email communication took over in 1996, where many people had the option to make their first email record of yahoo, Gmail, and some other service providers. The web became standard in 1999 were dialing up a connection, and downloading a text document took least of 20 minutes. Websites were overwhelmingly invited by the business.

The universal nearness of cell phones became quicker because of the expanded development of web ease of use. This brought to change in public activities of individuals and to make communication more straightforward. Web-based life items like Friendster rose at that point supplanted by Myspace and barely any others before the dispatch of Facebook by Mark Zuckerberg in 2004. Twitter joined yet just permitted individuals to communicate their thoughts with the most extreme characters of 140. The vast majority chuckled at twitter; however, they were refuted since it turned out to be the most basic vehicle of moving data to a mass of individuals around the globe. Web communication was taken to the next level through skype that empowered individuals to complete video conferencing, talks, and chatting in a split second.

Leadership and Communication

Leaders and organizations should have compelling communication divert to get productive and fruitful. Through communication, a leader can have the option to guarantee influence, offer help, make an esteemed framework, and provide the necessary assistance to their group. Any individual is viewed as a leader on the off chance that he has a job taking demeanor. Great communicators can have the option to share what they have with others. Viable communication is the structure for one to turn into a fruitful leader (Deborah J, 2006).

For leaders to guarantee viable communication over all channels, one needs to gauge the advancement of the work activities to decide if communication among him and his representatives is feasible. Also, one should post his data online in blog configuration to guarantee improved communication with clients and utilizes and screen the respondents to the post. Thirdly, directing reviews of the workers and even clients is pivotal to assist you with knowing whether your communication is persuasive. In conclusion, one may ask their group to report back verbal guidance to test whether they comprehend.

Issues Brought About by Communication Changes

Even though the adjustments in communication have been incredibly upset, this progression has additionally prompted adverse effects in the present life. These changes can distract homes and workplaces by drawing people consideration from significant issues whereby an individual may center informal organizations and message applications on cell phones.

Communication changes have contributed significantly to social separation by creating interpersonal web organizations that are intricate, making individuals invest a lot of energy on the web. Privacy issues and cybercrime has become the order in the present society through communication. The online secrecy that network offers is additionally a test. As indicated by the Human Rights Report (2012), the security of our youngsters is likewise under an incredible danger.

Deborah, J. (2006). Leadership communication: a communication approach for senior-level managers. Available at https://www.scholarship.rice.edu

Samuel Morse (1831). Telegraph invention. Article of Samuel F.B Morse papers; Library of Congress, 1794-1919. Retrieved from https://www.loc.cov/samuel-morse on March 25, 2020.

The Human Rights Report (2012). Human rights; Children and the Internet. Internet Society. Retrieved from https://www.internetsociety.org on March 25, 2020.

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Communication: Past, Present and Future

• June 6, 2020

Telecommunication is the transmission of signals over a distance between 2 or more people for the purpose of communication. Telecommunication history dates back thousands of years, it is said to originate from the use of drums and smoke signals which was recorded in Africa, America and Asia.

Moving to more recent times, it was not until the late 18th century that more modern telecommunication systems emerged. Europe was the first continent to embrace most of these new technologies before they expanded across the world. 

Here’s a snapshot timeline of telecommunication highlights:

Telegraph – 1792 – Claude Chappe

Morse code – 1836 – Samuel Morse

Fax Machine – 1843 

Electric Telephone – 1876 – Alexander Graham Bell and Thomas Watson

Phonograph – 1877 – Thomas Edison

Radio – 1920 

TV – 1925 – John Bairde

Computer Telephone Line Switchboard System – 1971 – Erna Hoover

Personal Computers – 1976 

Mobile Phone – 1981 – Nordic

World Wide Web – 1989 – Tim Berners-Lee and Robert Cailliau

Text Message – 1992 – Neil Papworth

Skype – 2003 

Facebook – 2004

YouTube – 2005

Twitter – 2006 

iPhone – 2007 

Whatsapp – 2009 

Instagram – 2010 

Zoom – 2011

Slack – 2013

Chatnels – 2020 

Telecommunication has come a long way over the last few hundred years. First, there was telegraph and fax, then came radio, tv and mobile phones. Next, Industry 4.0 brought about internet, which led to the creation of various online chat and video platforms.

With new innovations in telecommunication products and services, our technology exponentially advances. There’s no shortage of communication channels at our fingertips. 

There are 7 C’s for good communication according to Education Executive :

1. Clear – Be clear about your goal and purpose for communicating, don’t leave your reader to read between the lines.

2. concise – don’t beat around the bush and get to the point because no one likes a rambling story., 3. concrete – adding the right amount of facts and details can help communicate your message, but be careful not to go overboard., 4. correct – this goes beyond grammatical and spelling correctness, you must ensure the level of vocabulary and tone you use matches your audience., 5. coherent – there needs to be a logical flow to your message or argument, and maintain a consistent tone and voice throughout., 6. complete – are all the next steps for the reader clearly defined have you presented all the required information correctly, 7. courteous – your communication should not be passive aggressive or rude, and always do your best to communicate openly, honestly and with empathy..

To improve your communication skills further you should also take the time to listen before you respond. Developing your listening skills is a key aspect of any good communicator, because it’s not always about the words you say, but the words you don’t say.

And the same goes for body language. Because verbal is only a fraction of overall communication, we need to be mindful of our posture, maintaining eye contact and other physical gestures.

Because we cannot always be together physically, especially in a time of physical distancing. Online communication platforms are a connective bridge to keep us together virtually, and our telecommunications technologies continue to grow with the capabilities of AI and machine learning. The future of communication looks bright.   

Want to learn more about our own AI-powered chat messaging platform? Check out Chatnels today and how you could take your business’ communication to the next level. We have a free 3 month trial while BC’s phase 3 restarting plan is in effect. 

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Privacy overview.

Technology of the Past and Present

Living in a rapidly changing world can be challenging, but it also provides numerous opportunities to examine the differences between the lifestyles of people living in the past and present. They are primarily related to technological development since it defines types and quality of communication of any kind. In this way, the Internet and social media shape our mindsets and the perceptions of life goals that we obtain while interacting with others. Moreover, they define the degree of trust in relationships and the number of time people spends together.

Life in the past seems to be more favorable in terms of meaningful connections and focusing on a limited number of people. Due to the lack of opportunities to contact another person any time, day or night, our parents and grandparents valued their relationships more than we do. As for mass media, this source of information was more reliable and, therefore, trusted. The lack of specific opportunities, such as the Internet and other modern technologies, did not prevent people from being sociable. However, it definitely reduced the level of stress resulting from the continuous comparison of oneself with others.

The present-day world with its limitless opportunities for socialization does not improve its quality. Most interactions do not contribute to one’s sense of belonging to the community or society, and they result in the emergence of depression and other mental health issues. People tend to be jealous of others’ successes and compare themselves with those who seem to be luckier than others. Hence, the principal effects of current socialization methods on types and quality of social interactions related to the general worsening of communication and the replacement of meaningful connections by numerous contacts.

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Transportation in the past and present essay 16 models

Last updated Saturday , 16-03-2024 on 10:45 am

Transportation in the past and present essay, through which we learn a lot of information about the means of transportation and how it evolved from horse-drawn vehicles until we reached the latest types of transport. All this will be learned here in Transportation in the past and present essay.

Transportation in the past and present essay

Transportation is one of the most important things that every day has a tremendous development. Here we will know how transportation developed and how it was in the past and how it has become in the present. All of this we will know here through Transportation in the past and present essay.

Transportation

Transport and communication are considered the cornerstones of many human civilizations because of their importance in linking neighboring cities and villages to each other.

Therefore, man has been seeking innovation and discovery for thousands of years to develop and improve these means.

Without transportation there is no Interconnection and communication between people. In this paragraph we will talk about transportation in the past and present.

Transportation in the past  

The development of transport during the stages of history was very slow and difficult, as people were carrying their goods on their heads or on their backs or run on the ground.

In about 5000 BC, people began to use animals to transport loads and goods like mules and donkeys. After 3000 BC, the vehicles were invented. They were made up of four wheels without a motor.

Boats were also invented, and humans began using animals, vehicles and boats to carry loads to many places  faster and easier than before.

In the late 18th century inventors produced the first vehicles, and then the inventions in the means of transport until the fifteenth century AD,  Where improvements have been made in the construction of large vessels; to make long journeys possible across the various seas and oceans.

In the 18th century steam engines were invented, leading to the emergence of steam-powered vehicles and trains. In the late 19th century, oil and natural gas were discovered and harnessed to serve and develop various means of transport by building vessels and vehicles powered by gas and oil engines.

Transportation in the present  

Today’s transportation has seen a significant leap forward, transforming the world into a small village,  These include:

Cars: The development of the world of cars has been a great speed, we are now witnessing many different shapes, types and designs of them, and the car companies are more competitive; to manufacture the latest cars and the fastest and most comfortable and safe.

Trains: trains are one of the most modern means of transport, through which thousands of people are transported through long distances and vast inside or outside their countries, and through which we transfer many different materials and goods, and at a lower price compared to other means.

Buses and trucks: Buses are one of the most important modes of mass transport, transporting many people to and from their workplaces. Buses are used as a public transport.  It is cheap and saves time and effort to move around.

How transportation has changed from past to present

When I wonder about how transportation has changed from the past to the present, I find there is a very wide difference in speed and comfort.

I find that the speed is relative to the person and the extent of his interest in arriving early. Because I see that there is always a lesson that we learn when we travel long distances and time does not go in vain. But there are always interesting events happening around us.

As for convenience, I can say that it has become very different between the past and the present. The old means of transportation were more difficult to move or rest periods in places that were not qualified for that.

Therefore, I find that the current amenities, such as comfortable chairs designed to suit your sitting for a long time, using the best and finest fabrics and materials, is very wonderful. Amenities vary according to the means of transportation, whether it is a plane, train, car, or steamer.

There is a vast difference that helps you spend a safe and comfortable travel. Therefore, it is great that we are living in this present time and enjoy all these convenient means of transportation.

Transportation in the past

In the past, transportation depended on a lot of hard work. Whether to prepare for it since a great time earlier. Preparing many items of food and clothing. And provide plenty of money so that a person can move. This is because of the distances and the presence of large areas that are not qualified for the population, which makes moving from one area to another difficult and fraught with many natural and abnormal risks.

One of the most famous ancient means of transportation was the horse or carts that were drawn by horses. Come later after that car or train.

And certainly cars were not made to carry heavy weights or travel long distances. Also, the roads were not qualified in all countries for movement.

Which makes us feel grateful that we live in a time of more development in the means of transportation and also more grateful for the rehabilitation of all countries of the appropriate infrastructure to facilitate transportation.

Paragraph about transportation

There is no doubt that the means of transportation are of great importance in the growth of the economy of countries.

Man has known the importance of transportation since ancient times and used it to move from one place to another, in addition to using it to transport products and merchandise to the markets.

Transportation has witnessed a great development, as it has become more comfortable and faster than before, and has used clean fuels such as gas and electricity to maintain a clean environment and reduce diseases that were spread due to air pollution with car exhaust.

Car exhaust was causing chest and respiratory diseases as a result of emitting large amounts of carbon dioxide. In addition, car exhaust contains high levels of lead, which is very harmful to health.

Transportation in the past and present

Undoubtedly, the history of transportation development indicates the extent of technological development that occurred during the past few decades. A series of successive inventions have occurred that revolutionized the world of transportation.

Example of transportation in the past

About fifty years ago, my grandfather and my father used the steam train to travel, and its speed was slow as it covered a distance of 100 kilometers in several hours, and the seats were made of wood and uncomfortable, and this train was very noisy as it went, in addition to the smoke coming from it which pollutes the air

An example of transportation in the present

Today, we ride an electric express train, it runs 100 km in several minutes, and its seats are leather, which is very comfortable, and it does not pollute the environment because it uses clean energy, and it does not make noise while it is running.

Compare transportation in the past and present

Undoubtedly, we saw in the old films some of the means of transportation that our ancestors used, and we noticed the great difference between them and modern transportation.

The benefits of technological development in transportation

The technological development in the means of transportation has provided several benefits that have brought all countries economic progress and growth, such as:

• Increasing the speed of transportation, which saved a lot of time, in addition to encouraging many people to travel and move from one place to another.
• Transportation has become more comfortable, in terms of the quality of seats, in addition to providing places on long roads for passengers to rest for some time.
• Transportation is now able to transport heavier loads than in the past.

transportation before and now

Every day scientists and engineers work to improve the properties of transportation. Almost sixty years ago, the steam engine was used in all means of transportation, such as cars, buses, trains, and ships.

This was considered a huge development in the transportation industry. Coal continued to be used to power the steam engine until the discovery of petroleum.

They used gasoline and gas as fuel to obtain the energy needed for the various means of transportation. Then another progress occurred, where gas was used instead of gasoline in many means of transportation.

Transportation past and present

Reduce costs and increase efficiency

The most important concern of scientists specialized in the development of transportation means is to reduce costs and increase efficiency.

Because the most important goal is to improve the transportation service, while maintaining the reduction of transportation costs.

Because this is one of the reasons for the recovery of trade between countries, where the prices of goods do not increase by a high rate as a result of the high cost of transportation.

And the cost reduction leads to a boom in tourism as well, as the cost of transportation is within the reach of many categories of people.

Means of transportation in the past

What is the motivation behind the development of transportation

Global trade is the most powerful driver of transportation development. This trade began since ancient times, when commercial trips were to India to buy spices and fabrics, and transport them to the countries of the Middle East or to Europe. As well as trips to Africa to transport gold and slaves to Europe and America. The means of transportation used in the past depended on animals.

Till the invention of ships, cars and planes, and as a result exports and imports increased. The development of means of transportation had the greatest role in trade exchange between countries.

Transportation then and now essay

Roads and transportation

We cannot talk about transportation without talking about roads. Where there is a close link between road construction and transportation development.

Would it be useful to develop means of transportation without creating roads that allow transportation to move easily?.

Therefore, it has become necessary to establish new roads commensurate with the speed of transportation, as well as with the increasing number of vehicles.

Gas stations are also set up at suitable distances, especially on long roads. Some maintenance centers are also being established, and services are provided to travelers

Transportation today compared to the past

The first modern highway was designed in 1756-1836 by John Loudon Mack, using soil and gravel as paving. And when the means of transportation developed, especially in Germany in 1886 AD and the United States in 1908 AD, the need for the construction of asphalt roads increased accordingly.

The Red Cliffy Nottingham Road became the world’s first paved road. Iron bars were also used to construct the railways on which the trains travel.

Thus, the road and railways were expanded, which revolutionized the travel of people and the transport of goods.

Describe the evolution of transportation and travel essay

What are the benefits of the development of means of transportation and what are its harms?

Undoubtedly, we are benefiting from the tremendous development that has occurred in the means of transportation. It saves us time and becomes more comfortable.

We do not feel the trouble of traveling as our ancestors did in the past. Where travel has become an enjoyable journey, we can watch a movie or enjoy reading a book.

However, there are risks to our lives due to transportation, such as:

• Frequent traffic accidents, which claim the lives of many people.
• Severe congestion, the streets became crowded with public and private cars.
• An increase in the level of pollution in the environment.

A comparison of past and present transportation methods

To compare the means of transportation in the past and the present, we can compare speed, effort, cost and risks.

Comparison in terms of speed

Transportation in the present has become very fast compared to transportation in the past.

Comparison in terms of effort

The current means of transportation provide us with comfort and enjoyment of travel.

Cost comparison

Despite the advantages of modern means of transportation, it is considered less expensive.

Comparison in terms of risk

Modern means of transportation have become more dangerous due to the huge number of means of transportation that are on the road.

Transportation changes from past to present

In the past, humans relied on animals to move from one place to another. Man used donkeys, horses, camels, and mules to move him or carry his goods. Also, some peoples were able to use elephants to move and carry goods.

Then the means of transportation developed little by little, until we reached the modern means of transportation with better quality and lower cost.

Also, we can transport thousands of tons of goods from one country to another with ease. This development had a significant impact on the flourishing of trade and the exchange of goods, whether at the local or international levels.

What is the difference between transportation then and now

The difference between the means of transportation in the past and the present is very big. Scientists will continue to work on the development of means of transportation in the future. As it is the most important reason for economic progress.

You find that local and international trade depends on the development of the transportation network, whether land, sea or air.

In addition to the movement of individuals from one country to another, whether for tourism, work or study. The lower the cost of transportation, the more people will travel and move from one place to another.

The best day of my life speech

The most beautiful day of my life is the day when I turned 18, so I can get a driver’s license, my father promised me that he would buy me a car when I turned 18, I love to drive and I learned to drive last year in preparation for getting the license, today I will I go with my father to the car show, in order to choose the right car for me. I am still confused and did not decide what kind of car to choose, so I will take my older brother with me, to give me advice, I trust him completely.

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