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How to Write a Thesis Introduction

What types of information should you include in your introduction .

In the introduction of your thesis, you’ll be trying to do three main things, which are called Moves :

• Move 1 establish your territory (say what the topic is about)
• Move 2 establish a niche (show why there needs to be further research on your topic)
• Move 3 introduce the current research (make hypotheses; state the research questions)

Each Move has a number of stages. Depending on what you need to say in your introduction, you might use one or more stages. Table 1 provides you with a list of the most commonly occurring stages of introductions in Honours theses (colour-coded to show the Moves ). You will also find examples of Introductions, divided into stages with sample sentence extracts. Once you’ve looked at Examples 1 and 2, try the exercise that follows.

Most thesis introductions include SOME (but not all) of the stages listed below. There are variations between different Schools and between different theses, depending on the purpose of the thesis.

Stages in a thesis introduction

• state the general topic and give some background
• provide a review of the literature related to the topic
• define the terms and scope of the topic
• outline the current situation
• evaluate the current situation (advantages/ disadvantages) and identify the gap
• identify the importance of the proposed research
• state the research problem/ questions
• state the research aims and/or research objectives
• state the hypotheses
• outline the order of information in the thesis
• outline the methodology

Example 1: Evaluation of Boron Solid Source Diffusion for High-Efficiency Silicon Solar Cells (School of Photovoltaic and Renewable Energy Engineering)

Example 2: Methods for Measuring Hepatitis C Viral Complexity (School of Biotechnology and Biological Sciences)

Note: this introduction includes the literature review.

Now that you have read example 1 and 2, what are the differences?

Example 3: The IMO Severe-Weather Criterion Applied to High-Speed Monohulls (School of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering)

Example 4: The Steiner Tree Problem (School of Computer Science and Engineering)

Introduction exercise

Example 5.1 (extract 1): The effects of Fluoride on the reproduction of three native Australian plant Species (School of Geography)

Example 5.2 (extract 2): The effects of Fluoride on the reproduction of three native Australian plant Species (School of Geography)

Example 5.3

Example 5.4 (extract 4): The effects of Fluoride on the reproduction of three native Australian plant Species (School of Geography)

Example 5.5 (extract 5): The effects of Fluoride on the reproduction of three native Australian plant Species (School of Geography)

Example 5.6 (extract 6): The effects of Fluoride on the reproduction of three native Australian plant Species (School of Geography)

Well, firstly, there are many choices that you can make. You will notice that there are variations not only between the different Schools in your faculty, but also between individual theses, depending on the type of information that is being communicated. However, there are a few elements that a good Introduction should include, at the very minimum:

• Either Statement of general topic Or Background information about the topic;
• Either Identification of disadvantages of current situation Or Identification of the gap in current research;
• Identification of importance of proposed research
• Either Statement of aims Or Statement of objectives
• An Outline of the order of information in the thesis

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Reference management. Clean and simple.

How to write a good thesis introduction

1. Identify your readership

2. hook the reader and grab their attention, 3. provide relevant background, 4. give the reader a sense of what the paper is about, 5. preview key points and lead into your thesis statement, frequently asked questions about writing a good thesis introduction, related articles.

Many people struggle to write a thesis introduction. Much of your research prep should be done and you should be ready to start your introduction. But often, it’s not clear what needs to be included in a thesis introduction. If you feel stuck at this point not knowing how to start, this guide can help.

Tip: If you’re really struggling to write your thesis intro, consider putting in a placeholder until you write more of the body of your thesis. Then, come back to your intro once you have a stronger sense of the overall content of your thesis.

A good introduction draws readers in while providing the setup for the entire project. There is no single way to write an introduction that will always work for every topic , but the points below can act as a guide. These points can help you write a good thesis introduction.

Before even starting with your first sentence, consider who your readers are. Most likely, your readers will be the professors who are advising you on your thesis.

You should also consider readers of your thesis who are not specialists in your field. Writing with them in your mind will help you to be as clear as possible; this will make your thesis more understandable and enjoyable overall.

Tip: Always strive to be clear, correct, concrete, and concise in your writing.

The first sentence of the thesis is crucial. Looking back at your own research, think about how other writers may have hooked you.

It is common to start with a question or quotation, but these types of hooks are often overused. The best way to start your introduction is with a sentence that is broad and interesting and that seamlessly transitions into your argument.

Once again, consider your audience and how much background information they need to understand your approach. You can start by making a list of what is interesting about your topic:

• Are there any current events or controversies associated with your topic that might be interesting for your introduction?
• What kinds of background information might be useful for a reader to understand right away?
• Are there historical anecdotes or other situations that uniquely illustrate an important aspect of your argument?

A good introduction also needs to contain enough background information to allow the reader to understand the thesis statement and arguments. The amount of background information required will depend on the topic .

There should be enough background information so you don't have to spend too much time with it in the body of the thesis, but not so much that it becomes uninteresting.

Tip: Strike a balance between background information that is too broad or too specific.

Let the reader know what the purpose of the study is. Make sure to include the following points:

• Briefly describe the motivation behind your research.
• Describe the topic and scope of your research.
• Explain the practical relevance of your research.
• Explain the scholarly consensus related to your topic: briefly explain the most important articles and how they are related to your research.

At the end of your introduction, you should lead into your thesis statement by briefly bringing up a few of your main supporting details and by previewing what will be covered in the main part of the thesis. You’ll want to highlight the overall structure of your thesis so that readers will have a sense of what they will encounter as they read.

A good introduction draws readers in while providing the setup for the entire project. There is no single way to write an introduction that will always work for every topic, but these tips will help you write a great introduction:

• Identify your readership.
• Grab the reader's attention.
• Provide relevant background.
• Preview key points and lead into the thesis statement.

A good introduction needs to contain enough background information, and let the reader know what the purpose of the study is. Make sure to include the following points:

• Briefly describe the motivation for your research.

The length of the introduction will depend on the length of the whole thesis. Usually, an introduction makes up roughly 10 per cent of the total word count.

The best way to start your introduction is with a sentence that is broad and interesting and that seamlessly transitions into your argument. Consider the audience, then think of something that would grab their attention.

In Open Access: Theses and Dissertations you can find thousands of recent works. Take a look at any of the theses or dissertations for real-life examples of introductions that were already approved.

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Writing a Dissertation: The Introduction

The introduction to your dissertation or thesis may well be the last part that you complete, excepting perhaps the abstract. However, it should not be the last part that you think about.

You should write a draft of your introduction very early on, perhaps as early as when you submit your research proposal , to set out a broad outline of your ideas, why you want to study this area, and what you hope to explore and/or establish.

You can, and should, update your introduction several times as your ideas develop. Keeping the introduction in mind will help you to ensure that your research stays on track.

The introduction provides the rationale for your dissertation, thesis or other research project: what you are trying to answer and why it is important to do this research.

Your introduction should contain a clear statement of the research question and the aims of the research (closely related to the question).

It should also introduce and briefly review the literature on your topic to show what is already known and explain the theoretical framework. If there are theoretical debates in the literature, then the introduction is a good place for the researcher to give his or her own perspective in conjunction with the literature review section of the dissertation.

The introduction should also indicate how your piece of research will contribute to the theoretical understanding of the topic.

Drawing on your Research Proposal

The introduction to your dissertation or thesis will probably draw heavily on your research proposal.

If you haven't already written a research proposal see our page Writing a Research Proposal for some ideas.

The introduction needs to set the scene for the later work and give a broad idea of the arguments and/or research that preceded yours. It should give some idea of why you chose to study this area, giving a flavour of the literature, and what you hoped to find out.

Don’t include too many citations in your introduction: this is your summary of why you want to study this area, and what questions you hope to address. Any citations are only to set the context, and you should leave the bulk of the literature for a later section.

Unlike your research proposal, however, you have now completed the work. This means that your introduction can be much clearer about what exactly you chose to investigate and the precise scope of your work.

Remember , whenever you actually write it, that, for the reader, the introduction is the start of the journey through your work. Although you can give a flavour of the outcomes of your research, you should not include any detailed results or conclusions.

Some good ideas for making your introduction strong include:

• An interesting opening sentence that will hold the attention of your reader.
• Don’t try to say everything in the introduction, but do outline the broad thrust of your work and argument.
• Make sure that you don’t promise anything that can’t be delivered later.
• Keep the language straightforward. Although you should do this throughout, it is especially important for the introduction.

Your introduction is the reader’s ‘door’ into your thesis or dissertation. It therefore needs to make sense to the non-expert. Ask a friend to read it for you, and see if they can understand it easily.

At the end of the introduction, it is also usual to set out an outline of the rest of the dissertation.

This can be as simple as ‘ Chapter 2 discusses my chosen methodology, Chapter 3 sets out my results, and Chapter 4 discusses the results and draws conclusions ’.

However, if your thesis is ordered by themes, then a more complex outline may be necessary.

Drafting and Redrafting

As with any other piece of writing, redrafting and editing will improve your text.

This is especially important for the introduction because it needs to hold your reader’s attention and lead them into your research.

The best way to ensure that you can do this is to give yourself enough time to write a really good introduction, including several redrafts.

Do not view the introduction as a last minute job.

Continue to: Writing a Literature Review Writing the Methodology

See also: Dissertation: Results and Discussion Dissertation: Conclusions and Extra Sections Academic Referencing | Research Methods

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Research Tips and Infromation

06 Essential Steps for Introduction Section of Dissertation or Thesis

Introduction

Stating the research problem or research question, brief overview of the structure of your dissertation, 1. starting with a compelling opening, 2. providing background information, 3. clearly stating the research problem, 4. stating the research objectives, 5. highlighting the research significance, 6. outlining the dissertation structure, avoiding unnecessary jargon or technical details, seeking feedback and revising the introduction multiple times, common academic phrases that can be used in the introduction section.

Are you on the journey of completing your PhD or Post Graduate dissertation? The introduction section plays a vital role in setting the stage for your research and capturing the reader’s attention from the very beginning. A well-crafted introduction is a gateway to showcasing the significance and value of your work.

In this blog post, we will guide you through the essential elements and expert tips to create an engaging and impactful introduction for your dissertation or thesis.

This comprehensive guide will equip you with the tools to write an introduction that stands out. From capturing the reader’s interest with a compelling opening to defining the research problem, stating objectives, and highlighting the research significance, we’ve got you covered.

Not only will you discover practical strategies for crafting an effective introduction, but you’ll also learn how to keep it concise, avoid jargon, and seek valuable feedback. Additionally, we’ll provide domain-specific examples to illustrate each point and help you better understand the application of these techniques.

By mastering the art of writing an engaging introduction, you’ll be able to captivate your readers, establish the context of your research, and demonstrate the value of your study. So, let’s dive in and unlock the secrets to crafting an introduction that sets the foundation for a remarkable PhD dissertation.

If you are in paucity of time, not confident of your writing skills and in a hurry to complete the writing task then you can think of hiring a research consultant that solves all your problems. Please visit my article on Hiring a Research consultant for your PhD tasks for further details.

Purpose of the Introduction

The introduction should introduce the specific topic of your research and provide the necessary background information. For example: “In recent years, artificial intelligence (AI) has emerged as a transformative technology with applications in various domains. This study focuses on improving the accuracy of image recognition algorithms in computer vision, a crucial area within AI research.”

Clearly articulating the research problem or research question is essential. Here’s an example: “The objective of this study is to develop a more efficient algorithm for large-scale graph analysis, addressing the challenge of processing massive networks in real-time.”

It is important to state the specific objectives or goals of your research. Here’s an example: “The primary objectives of this research are to design and implement a secure communication protocol for Internet of Things (IoT) devices, evaluate its performance under different network conditions, and assess its resistance to potential cyber-attacks.”

It is helpful to provide a brief overview of the structure of your dissertation, indicating the main sections or chapters. Here’s an example: “This dissertation consists of six chapters. Chapter 1 presents the introduction, research problem, objectives, and methodology. Chapter 2 provides a comprehensive literature review of the existing algorithms for sentiment analysis. Chapter 3 details the proposed algorithm for sentiment classification. Chapter 4 presents the experimental setup and results. Chapter 5 discusses the findings and implications. Finally, Chapter 6 concludes the dissertation with recommendations for future research.”

Remember to adapt the examples to your specific research topic and ensure they accurately reflect the purpose of your introduction. By introducing the topic, stating the research problem, outlining the objectives, and providing an overview of the dissertation structure, you will establish the necessary foundation for your research.

Crafting an Effective Introduction in 06 Steps

By starting with a compelling opening, providing background information, clearly stating the research problem and objectives, highlighting the research significance, and outlining the dissertation structure, you will craft an effective introduction.

Starting with a compelling opening can capture the reader’s attention. Here are some examples:

• Anecdote: “Imagine a scenario where autonomous vehicles navigate through busy city streets, making split-second decisions to ensure passenger safety and optimize traffic flow.”
• Question: “Have you ever wondered how social media platforms use recommendation algorithms to personalize your news feed based on your interests and preferences?”
• Fact: “In 2020, the global cybersecurity market reached a value of $167.13 billion, highlighting the increasing need for robust and reliable security solutions in the digital age.”

Providing background information involves discussing existing literature, theories, and concepts. Here’s an example: “Previous studies in the field of natural language processing have focused on sentiment analysis, aiming to classify text into positive, negative, or neutral sentiments. However, current approaches face challenges in accurately capturing the contextual nuances and sarcasm often found in social media data.”

Clearly defining the research problem is crucial. Here’s an example: “The research problem addressed in this study is the efficient scheduling and resource allocation for cloud-based data-intensive applications, considering the dynamic nature of workloads and the varying availability of cloud resources.”

Presenting specific objectives is important in computer science. Here’s an example: “The primary objectives of this research are to develop an energy-efficient routing protocol for wireless sensor networks, investigate the impact of different routing metrics on network performance, and propose adaptive algorithms for dynamic topology changes.”

Explaining the importance and relevance of your research is essential. Here’s an example: “This research on blockchain technology has significant implications for enhancing data security, ensuring transparent and immutable transactions, and revolutionizing various sectors, including finance, supply chain management, and healthcare.”

Providing a brief overview of the main sections or chapters of your dissertation helps the reader understand the organization. Here’s an example: “This dissertation consists of five chapters. Chapter 1 introduces the research problem, objectives, and methodology. Chapter 2 provides a comprehensive literature review. Chapter 3 presents the proposed algorithm and its implementation. Chapter 4 discusses the experimental results and analysis. Finally, Chapter 5 concludes the dissertation, summarizing the findings and suggesting future research directions.”

Remember to tailor these examples to your specific research topic and ensure they align with your own introduction.

Tips for Writing a Strong Introduction

It’s essential to keep the introduction concise and focused on the main points. Avoid going into excessive detail or including unnecessary information. Here’s an example: “To achieve efficient data processing in distributed systems, this study focuses on developing a parallel algorithm for sorting large-scale datasets, aiming to reduce the computational time and improve overall system performance.”

While writing the introduction, it’s crucial to communicate your ideas clearly without overwhelming the reader with technical terms. Here’s an example: “This study investigates the usability of natural language interfaces for human-robot interaction, exploring the potential for seamless and intuitive communication between users and autonomous robotic systems.”

It’s important to seek feedback from your advisor or peers and revise your introduction based on their suggestions. .

Remember to adapt these examples to your specific research topic and ensure they align with your writing style. By keeping the introduction concise and focused, avoiding unnecessary jargon, and seeking feedback while revising multiple times, you will be able to write a strong introduction in any domain of research.

Here are some common academic phrases that can be used in the introduction section . I have included a table with examples to illustrate how these phrases might be used:

Crafting a well-crafted introduction is paramount when it comes to writing a PhD or Post Graduate dissertation. The introduction serves as the gateway to your research, setting the stage for what follows and capturing the reader’s attention. By following the outlined guidelines and tips, you can create an introduction that engages the reader, establishes the context, and highlights the significance of your research.

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How to write a fantastic thesis introduction (+15 examples)

The thesis introduction, usually chapter 1, is one of the most important chapters of a thesis. It sets the scene. It previews key arguments and findings. And it helps the reader to understand the structure of the thesis. In short, a lot is riding on this first chapter. With the following tips, you can write a powerful thesis introduction.

Disclosure: This post may contain affiliate links, which means I may earn a small commission if you make a purchase using the links below at no additional cost to you . I only recommend products or services that I truly believe can benefit my audience. As always, my opinions are my own.

Elements of a fantastic thesis introduction

Open with a (personal) story, begin with a problem, define a clear research gap, describe the scientific relevance of the thesis, describe the societal relevance of the thesis, write down the thesis’ core claim in 1-2 sentences, support your argument with sufficient evidence, consider possible objections, address the empirical research context, give a taste of the thesis’ empirical analysis, hint at the practical implications of the research, provide a reading guide, briefly summarise all chapters to come, design a figure illustrating the thesis structure.

An introductory chapter plays an integral part in every thesis. The first chapter has to include quite a lot of information to contextualise the research. At the same time, a good thesis introduction is not too long, but clear and to the point.

A powerful thesis introduction does the following:

• It captures the reader’s attention.
• It presents a clear research gap and emphasises the thesis’ relevance.
• It provides a compelling argument.
• It previews the research findings.
• It explains the structure of the thesis.

In addition, a powerful thesis introduction is well-written, logically structured, and free of grammar and spelling errors. Reputable thesis editors can elevate the quality of your introduction to the next level. If you are in search of a trustworthy thesis or dissertation editor who upholds high-quality standards and offers efficient turnaround times, I recommend the professional thesis and dissertation editing service provided by Editage . 

This list can feel quite overwhelming. However, with some easy tips and tricks, you can accomplish all these goals in your thesis introduction. (And if you struggle with finding the right wording, have a look at academic key phrases for introductions .)

Ways to capture the reader’s attention

A powerful thesis introduction should spark the reader’s interest on the first pages. A reader should be enticed to continue reading! There are three common ways to capture the reader’s attention.

An established way to capture the reader’s attention in a thesis introduction is by starting with a story. Regardless of how abstract and ‘scientific’ the actual thesis content is, it can be useful to ease the reader into the topic with a short story.

This story can be, for instance, based on one of your study participants. It can also be a very personal account of one of your own experiences, which drew you to study the thesis topic in the first place.

Start by providing data or statistics

Data and statistics are another established way to immediately draw in your reader. Especially surprising or shocking numbers can highlight the importance of a thesis topic in the first few sentences!

So if your thesis topic lends itself to being kick-started with data or statistics, you are in for a quick and easy way to write a memorable thesis introduction.

The third established way to capture the reader’s attention is by starting with the problem that underlies your thesis. It is advisable to keep the problem simple. A few sentences at the start of the chapter should suffice.

Usually, at a later stage in the introductory chapter, it is common to go more in-depth, describing the research problem (and its scientific and societal relevance) in more detail.

You may also like: Minimalist writing for a better thesis

Emphasising the thesis’ relevance

A good thesis is a relevant thesis. No one wants to read about a concept that has already been explored hundreds of times, or that no one cares about.

Of course, a thesis heavily relies on the work of other scholars. However, each thesis is – and should be – unique. If you want to write a fantastic thesis introduction, your job is to point out this uniqueness!

In academic research, a research gap signifies a research area or research question that has not been explored yet, that has been insufficiently explored, or whose insights and findings are outdated.

Every thesis needs a crystal-clear research gap. Spell it out instead of letting your reader figure out why your thesis is relevant.

* This example has been taken from an actual academic paper on toxic behaviour in online games: Liu, J. and Agur, C. (2022). “After All, They Don’t Know Me” Exploring the Psychological Mechanisms of Toxic Behavior in Online Games. Games and Culture 1–24, DOI: 10.1177/15554120221115397

The scientific relevance of a thesis highlights the importance of your work in terms of advancing theoretical insights on a topic. You can think of this part as your contribution to the (international) academic literature.

Scientific relevance comes in different forms. For instance, you can critically assess a prominent theory explaining a specific phenomenon. Maybe something is missing? Or you can develop a novel framework that combines different frameworks used by other scholars. Or you can draw attention to the context-specific nature of a phenomenon that is discussed in the international literature.

The societal relevance of a thesis highlights the importance of your research in more practical terms. You can think of this part as your contribution beyond theoretical insights and academic publications.

Why are your insights useful? Who can benefit from your insights? How can your insights improve existing practices?

Formulating a compelling argument

Arguments are sets of reasons supporting an idea, which – in academia – often integrate theoretical and empirical insights. Think of an argument as an umbrella statement, or core claim. It should be no longer than one or two sentences.

Including an argument in the introduction of your thesis may seem counterintuitive. After all, the reader will be introduced to your core claim before reading all the chapters of your thesis that led you to this claim in the first place.

But rest assured: A clear argument at the start of your thesis introduction is a sign of a good thesis. It works like a movie teaser to generate interest. And it helps the reader to follow your subsequent line of argumentation.

The core claim of your thesis should be accompanied by sufficient evidence. This does not mean that you have to write 10 pages about your results at this point.

However, you do need to show the reader that your claim is credible and legitimate because of the work you have done.

A good argument already anticipates possible objections. Not everyone will agree with your core claim. Therefore, it is smart to think ahead. What criticism can you expect?

Think about reasons or opposing positions that people can come up with to disagree with your claim. Then, try to address them head-on.

Providing a captivating preview of findings

Similar to presenting a compelling argument, a fantastic thesis introduction also previews some of the findings. When reading an introduction, the reader wants to learn a bit more about the research context. Furthermore, a reader should get a taste of the type of analysis that will be conducted. And lastly, a hint at the practical implications of the findings encourages the reader to read until the end.

If you focus on a specific empirical context, make sure to provide some information about it. The empirical context could be, for instance, a country, an island, a school or city. Make sure the reader understands why you chose this context for your research, and why it fits to your research objective.

If you did all your research in a lab, this section is obviously irrelevant. However, in that case you should explain the setup of your experiment, etcetera.

The empirical part of your thesis centers around the collection and analysis of information. What information, and what evidence, did you generate? And what are some of the key findings?

For instance, you can provide a short summary of the different research methods that you used to collect data. Followed by a short overview of how you analysed this data, and some of the key findings. The reader needs to understand why your empirical analysis is worth reading.

You already highlighted the practical relevance of your thesis in the introductory chapter. However, you should also provide a preview of some of the practical implications that you will develop in your thesis based on your findings.

Presenting a crystal clear thesis structure

A fantastic thesis introduction helps the reader to understand the structure and logic of your whole thesis. This is probably the easiest part to write in a thesis introduction. However, this part can be best written at the very end, once everything else is ready.

A reading guide is an essential part in a thesis introduction! Usually, the reading guide can be found toward the end of the introductory chapter.

The reading guide basically tells the reader what to expect in the chapters to come.

In a longer thesis, such as a PhD thesis, it can be smart to provide a summary of each chapter to come. Think of a paragraph for each chapter, almost in the form of an abstract.

For shorter theses, which also have a shorter introduction, this step is not necessary.

Especially for longer theses, it tends to be a good idea to design a simple figure that illustrates the structure of your thesis. It helps the reader to better grasp the logic of your thesis.

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Writing your dissertation - structure and sections

Posted in: dissertations

In this post, we look at the structural elements of a typical dissertation. Your department may wish you to include additional sections but the following covers all core elements you will need to work on when designing and developing your final assignment.

The table below illustrates a classic dissertation layout with approximate lengths for each section.

Hopkins, D. and Reid, T., 2018.  The Academic Skills Handbook: Your Guid e to Success in Writing, Thinking and Communicating at University . Sage.

Your title should be clear, succinct and tell the reader exactly what your dissertation is about. If it is too vague or confusing, then it is likely your dissertation will be too vague and confusing. It is important therefore to spend time on this to ensure you get it right, and be ready to adapt to fit any changes of direction in your research or focus.

In the following examples, across a variety of subjects, you can see how the students have clearly identified the focus of their dissertation, and in some cases target a problem that they will address:

An econometric analysis of the demand for road transport within the united Kingdom from  1965 to 2000

To what extent does payment card fraud affect UK bank profitability and bank stakeholders?  Does this justify fraud prevention?

A meta-analysis of implant materials for intervertebral disc replacement and regeneration.

The role of ethnic institutions in social development; the case of Mombasa, Kenya.

Why haven’t biomass crops been adopted more widely as a source of renewable energy in the United Kingdom?

Mapping the criminal mind: Profiling and its limitation.

The Relative Effectiveness of Interferon Therapy for Chronic Hepatitis C

Under what conditions did the European Union exhibit leadership in international climate change negotiations from 1992-1997, 1997-2005 and 2005-Copenhagen respectively?

The first thing your reader will read (after the title) is your abstract. However, you need to write this last. Your abstract is a summary of the whole project, and will include aims and objectives, methods, results and conclusions. You cannot write this until you have completed your write-up (look at our six point checklist for writing an abstract ).

Introduction

Your introduction should include the same elements found in most academic essay or report assignments, with the possible inclusion of research questions. The aim of the introduction is to set the scene, contextualise your research, introduce your focus topic and research questions, and tell the reader what you will be covering.  It should move from the general  and work towards the specific. You should include the following:

• Attention-grabbing statement (a controversy, a topical issue, a contentious view, a recent problem etc)
• Background and context
• Introduce the topic, key theories, concepts, terms of reference, practices, (advocates and critic)
• Introduce the problem and focus of your research
• Set out your research question(s) (this could be set out in a separate section)
• Your approach to answering your research questions.

See also Writing your introduction .

Literature review

Your literature review is the section of your report where you show what is already known about the area under investigation and demonstrate the need for your particular study. This is a significant section in your dissertation (30%) and you should allow plenty of time to carry out a thorough exploration of your focus topic and use it to help you identify a specific problem and formulate your research questions.

You should approach the literature review with the critical analysis dial turned up to full volume. This is not simply a description, list, or summary  of everything you have read. Instead, it is a synthesis of your reading, and should include analysis and evaluation of readings, evidence, studies and data, cases, real world applications and views/opinions expressed.  Your supervisor is looking for this detailed critical approach in your literature review, where you unpack sources, identify strengths and weaknesses and find gaps in the research.

In other words, your literature review is your opportunity to show the reader why your paper is important and your research is significant, as it addresses the gap or on-going issue you have uncovered.

See also:  Developing your literature review - getting started  and   Developing your literature review - top tips

You need to tell the reader what was done. This means describing the research methods and explaining your choice. This will include information on the following:

• Are your methods qualitative or quantitative... or both? And if so, why?
• Who (if any) are the participants?
• Are you analysing any documents, systems, organisations? If so what are they and why are you analysing them?
• What did you do first, second, etc?
• What ethical considerations are there?

It is a common style convention to write what was done rather than what you did, and write it so that someone else would be able to replicate your study.

Here you describe what you have found out. You need to identify the most significant patterns in your data, and use tables and figures to support your description. Your tables and figures are a visual representation of your findings, but remember to describe what they show in your writing. There should be no critical analysis in this part (unless you have combined results and discussion sections).

Here you show the significance of your results or findings. You critically analyse what they mean, and what the implications may be. Talk about any limitations to your study, evaluating the strengths and weaknesses of your own research, and make suggestions for further studies to build on your findings. In this section, your supervisor will expect you to dig deep into your findings and critically evaluate what they mean in relation to previous studies, theories, views and opinions.

This is a summary of your project, reminding the reader of the background to your study, your objectives, and showing how you met them. Do not include any new information that you have not discussed before.

This is the list of all the sources you have cited in your dissertation. Ensure you are consistent and follow the conventions for the particular referencing system you are using. (Note: you shouldn't include books you've read but do not appear in your dissertation).

Include any extra information that your reader may like to read. It should not be essential for your reader to read them in order to understand your dissertation. Your appendices should be labelled (e.g. Appendix A, Appendix B, etc). Examples of material for the appendices include detailed data tables (summarised in your results section), the complete version of a document you have used an extract from, etc.

Adapted from: https://www2.le.ac.uk/offices/ld/all-resources/writing/writing-resources/planning-and-conducting-a-dissertation-research-project

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How to Write a Compelling Thesis Introduction

The introduction to your thesis is like a first impression: you want it to be great. It is the first chapter and appears before the literature review and after the table of contents. You want the introduction to set the stage for your reader: tell them what you’re writing about, why, and what comes next. So how can you write a compelling thesis introduction?

Structure and elements of a thesis introduction

Before you write a compelling thesis introduction, you need to know what elements belong in this section and how it should be structured. A typical thesis introduction includes:

• A clear thesis statement
• An explanation of the context (brief background) for the study
• The focus and scope of the paper
• An explanation of the relevance and importance of your research
• A description of the objectives of your research and how your methodology achieves them
• A guide to the structure of the rest of the thesis (roadmap)

A thesis introduction is typically about 10% of the total length of your paper. If your introduction includes diagrams or figures, the length may be longer. It is critical to include all of the points above when writing a clear and compelling introduction. You may include additional elements if you feel they are essential in introducing your topic to the audience.

Thesis introduction: Getting started

If you do decide to write your introduction first, you can draw on the information in your thesis/dissertation proposal to help construct your draft.

How should you draft your thesis introduction, and when should you do it?

Despite the fact that your introduction comes first in the structure of your thesis, there is absolutely no need to write it first. Starting your thesis is often difficult and overwhelming, and many writers suffer from blank page syndrome —the paralysis of not knowing where to start. For this reason, some people advocate writing a kind of placeholder introduction when you begin, just to get something written down. You are free to write the introduction section at the beginning, middle, or end of the thesis drafting process . I personally find it preferable to write the introduction to a paper after I have already drafted a significant portion of the remainder of the paper. This is because I can draw on what I have written already to make sure that I cover all of the important points above.

However, if you do decide to write your introduction first, you can draw on the information in your thesis/dissertation proposal  to help construct your draft. Just keep in mind that you will need to revisit your introduction after you have written the rest of your thesis to make sure it still provides an accurate roadmap and summary of the paper for your readers.

Topic and background information

When you introduce your topic, you want to draw your reader in.

Your thesis introduction should begin by informing the reader what your topic is and providing them with some relevant background information. The amount of background information you provide in this step will actually depend on what type of thesis/dissertation you are writing.

If you are writing a paper in the natural sciences or some social sciences, then it will have a separate background section after the introduction. Not a lot of background information is needed here. You can just state the larger context of the research. However, if your paper is structured such that there is no separate background chapter, then this portion of your thesis will be a bit longer and that is okay.

When you introduce your topic, you want to draw your reader in. Provide them with the reasons your research is interesting and important so that they will want to keep reading. Don’t be afraid to offer up some surprising facts or an interesting anecdote. You don’t need to be sensationalist, but your writing does not have to be dry and boring also! It is encouraged that you try to connect to your reader by offering them a relevant fact or story about your topic.

Example (topic) Weaknesses in financial regulatory systems in the United States

Example (context): Highlight some news stories about banks allowing money laundering on a massive scale, which financed gangs and led to more street drugs in major American cities. You could include a story about someone personally impacted by drugs in their neighborhood and then connect the presence of drugs to the gangs who were allowed to launder their money through big banks.

Focus and scope of your thesis

Once you have introduced your reader to the broader topic and provided some background information, you might want to explain the specific focus and scope of your thesis.

Once you have introduced your reader to the broader topic and provided some background information, you might want to explain the specific focus and scope of your thesis. What aspect of your topic will you research in particular? Why? What will your research not cover, and why? While this second part is optional, it is often helpful to be very specific about the aims of your research.

Example : Regulatory capture in the Federal Reserve and how it contributes to lax enforcement of anti-money laundering regulations.

You might write about this by explaining that your study focuses on regulatory capture in the Federal Reserve because they are one of the primary regulatory bodies monitoring the financial institutions, which were caught allowing money laundering. You could further specify that you will be focusing specifically on the role the Federal Reserve plays in monitoring banks for compliance with anti-money laundering laws; however, you will not be talking about the role they play in monitoring for compliance in other areas such as loans or mergers. This prepares your reader for what they are going to read and sets their expectations for what will come next.

Explaining the relevance and importance of your research

You must explain to the reader why your research matters, and by implication, why your reader should continue reading!

This is one of the most critical parts of your introduction. You must explain to the reader why your research matters, and by implication, why your reader should continue reading! Your research does not have to be completely revolutionary or groundbreaking to have value. You don’t need to inflate the importance of the thesis/dissertation you are writing when explaining why the research you have done is worthwhile.

Example: Corruption is an increasingly important issue in the maintenance and promotion of democratic norms and good governance. Without the ability to enforce effective penalties against institutions that turn a blind eye to money laundering, democratic governments like the United States will be threatened by the increasing power of bad actors flouting regulations. With the dollar being the global reserve currency, the US must enforce anti-money laundering legislation at home to have any hopes of shutting down global networks of corrupt operators that rely on its financial institutions. Identifying the presence of regulatory capture in the Federal Reserve sounds the alarm bell for lawmakers and regulators and suggests important interventions for policymakers are needed.

The above example clearly explains the wider impact of the issue without making overly broad statements such as “this research will revolutionize financial regulation in the United States as we know it” or “this research provides a roadmap for ending corrupt financial flows.” Just focus on what made the issue important and interesting to you and clearly state it within the broader context you provided earlier on.

Giving your reader a roadmap

At the end of your thesis introduction, you will want to provide your reader with a roadmap to the rest of the thesis.

At the end of your thesis introduction, you will want to provide your reader with a roadmap to the rest of the thesis. This differs from your table of contents in that it provides more context and details for how and why you have structured your thesis the way you have. The format of “first, next, finally” is a clear and easy way to structure this section of your introduction.

Example: First , this study reviews the existing literature on regulatory capture and how it impacts enforcement actions, with a specific focus on financial institutions and the history of the Federal Reserve. Next , it discusses the materials used for this research and how analysis was performed. Finally , it explains the results of the data analysis and investigates what the results mean and implications for future policymaking.

Now your reader knows exactly what to expect and how this fits into your overall aims and objectives. They are primed with the knowledge of your topic, its background, its relevance, and your specific focus in this study.

One common problem people have when writing an introduction to a thesis is actually writing too much . Many students and young researchers fear they won’t have enough to say and then will find themselves with a super long introduction that they somehow need to cut in half. You don’t have to give too much detail in the introduction of your thesis! Remember, the substance of your paper is located in the chapters that follow. If you are struggling with how to cut down (or add to) your introduction, you might benefit from the help of a professional editor who can see your paper with fresh eyes and quickly help you revise it. The introduction is the first part of your thesis/dissertation that people will read, so use these tips to make sure you write a great one! Check out our site for more tips on how to write a good thesis/dissertation, where to find the best thesis editing services , and more about thesis editing and proofreading services .

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Checklist: Tips for writing a compelling thesis introduction

Remember the below points when you are writing a thesis introduction:

Know your audience

Refer to your thesis/dissertation proposal or notes

Make sure you clearly state your topic, aims, and objectives

Explain why your research matters

Try to offer interesting facts or statistics that may surprise your reader and draw their interest

Draw a roadmap of what your paper will discuss

Don’t try to write too much detail about your topic

Remember to revise your introduction as you revise other sections of your thesis

What are the typical elements in an introduction section? +

The typical elements in an introduction section are as follows:

• Thesis statement
• Brief background of the study
• The focus and scope of the article
• The relevance and importance of your research

Do I have to write my introduction first? +

You can write your introduction section whenever you feel ready. Many writers save the introduction section for last to make sure they provide a clear summary and roadmap of the content of the rest of the paper.

How long should my introduction be? +

Most introductions are about 10% of the total paper, but can be longer if they include figures or diagrams.

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How To Write Your Dissertation Introduction

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Inhaltsverzeichnis

• 1 Definition: Dissertation Introduction
• 3 Dissertation Introduction Structure
• 4 Writing a Dissertation Introduction
• 5 Dissertation Introduction Tips
• 6 Dissertation Introduction Example
• 7 In a Nutshell

Definition: Dissertation Introduction

Background information is what needs to appear first when it comes to the dissertation introduction. The structure of the other points doesn’t follow any sequence, and it is entirely up to you. You might consider introducing your main focus by presenting the aims and objectives that explain why your research area is essential, and the overall need for that particular research field. The ‘value’ section is crucial to those who will be judging the merit of your work and needs to be in your dissertation introduction, and this is important because it demonstrates that you have considered how it adds value.

What is a dissertation introduction?

The introduction of your dissertation justifies your dissertation, the thesis, or other research projects. It also explains what you are trying to answer ( research question ) and why it’s essential to do this research. It is important that the aim of the research and what it can offer to the academic community is heavily emphasized.

How do you write an introduction to a dissertation literature review?

The dissertation introduction describes your dissertation topic and provides the right context for reviewing the literature. You should create good reasons, explain the organizational sequence, and also state your scope of the review. The introduction should clearly ouline the main topics that are going to be discussed.

How do you write an introduction to a PhD?

A practical PhD dissertation introduction must establish the research area by situating your research in a broader context. It must also develop and justify your niche by describing why your research is needed. Also, state the significance of your study by explaining how you conducted your research.

Tip: For a full outline of the dissertation structure , take a look at our blog post.

How long should a dissertation introduction be?

The introduction of the dissertation consists of ten percent of the whole paper. If you are writing a dissertation of five thousand words, the introductory section should consist of five hundred words. Refer to your research questions or hypothesis if you’re having trouble writing your dissertation introduction.

What is the purpose of a dissertation introduction?

The primary purpose of writing a dissertation introduction is to introduce the dissertation topic and the primary purpose of your study. You also demonstrate the relevance of your discussion whilst convincing readers of its practical and scientific significance. It’s important that you catch the reader’s attention and this can be done by using persuasive examples from related sources.

How can I start my dissertation introduction?

Some reliable tips for starting your dissertation introduction include the use of a catchy opening sentence that will get the attention of your reader. Don’t mention everything at this point, but only outline your topic and relevant arguments. Additionally, keep your language straightforward and don’t promise anything that cannot be delivered later.

Tip: It can be hard to fight off writer’s block , so head over to our blog article for some tips. However, if you’re still having trouble writing your dissertation introduction, start writing the body of the dissertation and come back to the introduction later!

Dissertation Introduction Structure

How to structure the introduction of your dissertation:

1. Introduction

Starting your dissertation introduction – this should be the last part to write. You can write a rough draft to help guide you. It’s crucial to draw the reader’s attention with a well-built beginning. Set your research introduction stage with a clear focus and purpose that gives a direction.

2. Topic and its context

Topic and context – introduce your problem and give the necessary background information. Aim to show why the question is timely or essential. Mention a relevant news item like an academic debate.

3. Focus and scope area

Focus and scope – after introduction part, narrow down and focus on defining the scope of your research. For instance, what demographics or communities are you researching? What geographical area are you investigating?

4. Relevance and principal importance

Relevance and importance – show how your research will address the problem gap in your identified research area. Cite relevant literature and describe how the new insights will contribute to the importance of your research. Explain how your research will build on existing research to help solve a practical or theoretical problem.

5. Questions, aims and objectives

Questions and objectives – this is where you set up the expectations of the remaining part of your dissertation. You can formulate the research questions depending on your topic, focus, and discipline. Also, state the methods that you used to get the answers to your questions here if your dissertation doesn’t have a methodology chapter. If your research aims at testing hypotheses, formulate them here.

6. Overview summary

Overview of the structure – this part summarizes sections and shows how the introduction of your dissertation contributes to your aims and objectives. Keep this part short by using one or two sentences to describe the contents of each section.

7. Receive the editor´s feedback

Receive the editor’s feedback – some professional editors will proofread and edit your paper based on instructions given, such as the academic style. They will also check grammar, vague sentences, and style consistency and provide a report on your language use, structure, and layout.

Writing a Dissertation Introduction

In academic writing , there are active steps that a writer can take to attract the reader’s interest. Establish a specific area by showing your target audience that it’s significant and exciting. Introduce and evaluate previous research in the same area. Determine a niche by indicating the gaps in previous studies.

An excellent dissertation introduction allows you to:

• List hypotheses or research questions
• State the nature of your research primary purposes
• Indicate the outline of your academic project
• Announce important research findings
• State the value of previous studies in that field.

Dissertation Introduction Tips

Knowing when to use which tense in your dissertation or thesis is a common problem. A dissertation introduction is a plan of a study not yet conducted, so any reference needs to be in the future tense. Any reference to a study that is already published should be in the past tense. Statements regarding a program, theory, policy, or a concept that is still in effect should be in the present tense. Stay impersonal and make use of a list.

For example, say: firstly, secondly, etc., rather than first, second, etc.

Use ‘a’ when talking about something in general and ‘the’ when talking about something in particular., dissertation introduction example.

How to write a dissertation introduction:

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In a Nutshell

• A dissertation introduction is like a road map that tells your audience the direction your research will take.
• The introduction is the summary of the general context and scope of your topic and gives reference to previous literature on the subject.
• It includes the purpose of your research and the reasoning about why it’s relevant to conduct the study.
• It describes the research processes and gives an idea of the study, and also addresses the type of references available.
• It provides a summary of the specific questions and issues to address in the proposal.

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• Dissertation & Thesis Outline | Example & Free Templates

Dissertation & Thesis Outline | Example & Free Templates

Published on 8 June 2022 by Tegan George .

A thesis or dissertation outline is one of the most critical early steps in your writing process . It helps you to lay out and organise your ideas and can provide you with a roadmap for deciding what kind of research you’d like to undertake.

Generally, an outline contains information on the different sections included in your thesis or dissertation, such as:

• Your anticipated title
• Your abstract
• Your chapters (sometimes subdivided into further topics like literature review, research methods, avenues for future research, etc.)

In the final product, you can also provide a chapter outline for your readers. This is a short paragraph at the end of your introduction to inform readers about the organisational structure of your thesis or dissertation . This chapter outline is also known as a reading guide or summary outline.

Table of contents

How to outline your thesis or dissertation, dissertation and thesis outline templates, chapter outline example, sample sentences for your chapter outline, sample verbs for variation in your chapter outline, frequently asked questions about outlines.

While there are some inter-institutional differences, many outlines proceed in a fairly similar fashion.

• Working Title
• ‘Elevator pitch’ of your work (often written last).
• Introduce your area of study, sharing details about your research question, problem statement , and hypotheses . Situate your research within an existing paradigm or conceptual or theoretical framework .
• Subdivide as you see fit into main topics and sub-topics.
• Describe your research methods (e.g., your scope, population , and data collection ).
• Present your research findings and share about your data analysis methods.
• Answer the research question in a concise way.
• Interpret your findings, discuss potential limitations of your own research and speculate about future implications or related opportunities.

To help you get started, we’ve created a full thesis or dissertation template in Word or Google Docs format. It’s easy adapt it to your own requirements.

 Download Word template    Download Google Docs template

It can be easy to fall into a pattern of overusing the same words or sentence constructions, which can make your work monotonous and repetitive for your readers. Consider utilising some of the alternative constructions presented below.

Example 1: Passive construction

The passive voice is a common choice for outlines and overviews because the context makes it clear who is carrying out the action (e.g., you are conducting the research ). However, overuse of the passive voice can make your text vague and imprecise.

Example 2: IS-AV construction

You can also present your information using the ‘IS-AV’ (inanimate subject with an active verb) construction.

A chapter is an inanimate object, so it is not capable of taking an action itself (e.g., presenting or discussing). However, the meaning of the sentence is still easily understandable, so the IS-AV construction can be a good way to add variety to your text.

Example 3: The I construction

Another option is to use the ‘I’ construction, which is often recommended by style manuals (e.g., APA Style and Chicago style ). However, depending on your field of study, this construction is not always considered professional or academic. Ask your supervisor if you’re not sure.

Example 4: Mix-and-match

To truly make the most of these options, consider mixing and matching the passive voice , IS-AV construction , and ‘I’ construction .This can help the flow of your argument and improve the readability of your text.

As you draft the chapter outline, you may also find yourself frequently repeating the same words, such as ‘discuss’, ‘present’, ‘prove’, or ‘show’. Consider branching out to add richness and nuance to your writing. Here are some examples of synonyms you can use.

A thesis or dissertation outline is one of the most critical first steps in your writing process. It helps you to lay out and organise your ideas and can provide you with a roadmap for deciding what kind of research you’d like to undertake.

When you mention different chapters within your text, it’s considered best to use Roman numerals for most citation styles. However, the most important thing here is to remain consistent whenever using numbers in your dissertation .

All level 1 and 2 headings should be included in your table of contents . That means the titles of your chapters and the main sections within them.

The contents should also include all appendices and the lists of tables and figures, if applicable, as well as your reference list .

Do not include the acknowledgements or abstract   in the table of contents.

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How to Structure a Dissertation – A Step by Step Guide

Published by Owen Ingram at August 11th, 2021 , Revised On September 20, 2023

A dissertation – sometimes called a thesis –  is a long piece of information backed up by extensive research. This one, huge piece of research is what matters the most when students – undergraduates and postgraduates – are in their final year of study.

On the other hand, some institutions, especially in the case of undergraduate students, may or may not require students to write a dissertation. Courses are offered instead. This generally depends on the requirements of that particular institution.

If you are unsure about how to structure your dissertation or thesis, this article will offer you some guidelines to work out what the most important segments of a dissertation paper are and how you should organise them. Why is structure so important in research, anyway?

One way to answer that, as Abbie Hoffman aptly put it, is because: “Structure is more important than content in the transmission of information.”

Also Read:   How to write a dissertation – step by step guide .

How to Structure a Dissertation or Thesis

It should be noted that the exact structure of your dissertation will depend on several factors, such as:

• Your research approach (qualitative/quantitative)
• The nature of your research design (exploratory/descriptive etc.)
• The requirements set for forth by your academic institution.
• The discipline or field your study belongs to. For instance, if you are a humanities student, you will need to develop your dissertation on the same pattern as any long essay .

This will include developing an overall argument to support the thesis statement and organizing chapters around theories or questions. The dissertation will be structured such that it starts with an introduction , develops on the main idea in its main body paragraphs and is then summarised in conclusion .

However, if you are basing your dissertation on primary or empirical research, you will be required to include each of the below components. In most cases of dissertation writing, each of these elements will have to be written as a separate chapter.

But depending on the word count you are provided with and academic subject, you may choose to combine some of these elements.

For example, sciences and engineering students often present results and discussions together in one chapter rather than two different chapters.

If you have any doubts about structuring your dissertation or thesis, it would be a good idea to consult with your academic supervisor and check your department’s requirements.

Parts of  a Dissertation or Thesis

Your dissertation will  start with a t itle page that will contain details of the author/researcher, research topic, degree program (the paper is to be submitted for), and research supervisor. In other words, a title page is the opening page containing all the names and title related to your research.

The name of your university, logo, student ID and submission date can also be presented on the title page. Many academic programs have stringent rules for formatting the dissertation title page.

Acknowledgements

The acknowledgments section allows you to thank those who helped you with your dissertation project. You might want to mention the names of your academic supervisor, family members, friends, God, and participants of your study whose contribution and support enabled you to complete your work.

However, the acknowledgments section is usually optional.

Tip: Many students wrongly assume that they need to thank everyone…even those who had little to no contributions towards the dissertation. This is not the case. You only need to thank those who were directly involved in the research process, such as your participants/volunteers, supervisor(s) etc.

Perhaps the smallest yet important part of a thesis, an abstract contains 5 parts:

• A brief introduction of your research topic.
• The significance of your research.
•  A line or two about the methodology that was used.
• The results and what they mean (briefly); their interpretation(s).
• And lastly, a conclusive comment regarding the results’ interpretation(s) as conclusion .

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Tip: Make sure to highlight key points to help readers figure out the scope and findings of your research study without having to read the entire dissertation. The abstract is your first chance to impress your readers. So, make sure to get it right. Here are detailed guidelines on how to write abstract for dissertation .

Table of Contents

Table of contents is the section of a dissertation that guides each section of the dissertation paper’s contents. Depending on the level of detail in a table of contents, the most useful headings are listed to provide the reader the page number on which said information may be found at.

Table of contents can be inserted automatically as well as manually using the Microsoft Word Table of Contents feature.

List of Figures and Tables

If your dissertation paper uses several illustrations, tables and figures, you might want to present them in a numbered list in a separate section . Again, this list of tables and figures can be auto-created and auto inserted using the Microsoft Word built-in feature.

List of Abbreviations

Dissertations that include several abbreviations can also have an independent and separate alphabetised  list of abbreviations so readers can easily figure out their meanings.

If you think you have used terms and phrases in your dissertation that readers might not be familiar with, you can create a  glossary  that lists important phrases and terms with their meanings explained.

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Introduction

Introduction chapter  briefly introduces the purpose and relevance of your research topic.

Here, you will be expected to list the aim and key objectives of your research so your readers can easily understand what the following chapters of the dissertation will cover. A good dissertation introduction section incorporates the following information:

• It provides background information to give context to your research.
• It clearly specifies the research problem you wish to address with your research. When creating research questions , it is important to make sure your research’s focus and scope are neither too broad nor too narrow.
• it demonstrates how your research is relevant and how it would contribute to the existing knowledge.
• It provides an overview of the structure of your dissertation. The last section of an introduction contains an outline of the following chapters. It could start off with something like: “In the following chapter, past literature has been reviewed and critiqued. The proceeding section lays down major research findings…”
• Theoretical framework – under a separate sub-heading – is also provided within the introductory chapter. Theoretical framework deals with the basic, underlying theory or theories that the research revolves around.

All the information presented under this section should be relevant, clear, and engaging. The readers should be able to figure out the what, why, when, and how of your study once they have read the introduction. Here are comprehensive guidelines on how to structure the introduction to the dissertation .

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Literature Review 

The  literature review chapter  presents previous research performed on the topic and improves your understanding of the existing literature on your chosen topic. This is usually organised to complement your  primary research  work completed at a later stage.

Make sure that your chosen academic sources are authentic and up-to-date. The literature review chapter must be comprehensive and address the aims and objectives as defined in the introduction chapter. Here is what your literature research chapter should aim to achieve:

• Data collection from authentic and relevant academic sources such as books, journal articles and research papers.
• Analytical assessment of the information collected from those sources; this would involve a critiquing the reviewed researches that is, what their strengths/weaknesses are, why the research method they employed is better than others, importance of their findings, etc.
• Identifying key research gaps, conflicts, patterns, and theories to get your point across to the reader effectively.

While your literature review should summarise previous literature, it is equally important to make sure that you develop a comprehensible argument or structure to justify your research topic. It would help if you considered keeping the following questions in mind when writing the literature review:

• How does your research work fill a certain gap in exiting literature?
• Did you adopt/adapt a new research approach to investigate the topic?
• Does your research solve an unresolved problem?
• Is your research dealing with some groundbreaking topic or theory that others might have overlooked?
• Is your research taking forward an existing theoretical discussion?
• Does your research strengthen and build on current knowledge within your area of study? This is otherwise known as ‘adding to the existing body of knowledge’ in academic circles.

Tip: You might want to establish relationships between variables/concepts to provide descriptive answers to some or all of your research questions. For instance, in case of quantitative research, you might hypothesise that variable A is positively co-related to variable B that is, one increases and so does the other one.

Research Methodology

The methods and techniques ( secondary and/or primar y) employed to collect research data are discussed in detail in the  Methodology chapter. The most commonly used primary data collection methods are:

• questionnaires
• focus groups
• observations

Essentially, the methodology chapter allows the researcher to explain how he/she achieved the findings, why they are reliable and how they helped him/her test the research hypotheses or address the research problem.

You might want to consider the following when writing methodology for the dissertation:

• Type of research and approach your work is based on. Some of the most widely used types of research include experimental, quantitative and qualitative methodologies.
• Data collection techniques that were employed such as questionnaires, surveys, focus groups, observations etc.
• Details of how, when, where, and what of the research that was conducted.
• Data analysis strategies employed (for instance, regression analysis).
• Software and tools used for data analysis (Excel, STATA, SPSS, lab equipment, etc.).
• Research limitations to highlight any hurdles you had to overcome when carrying our research. Limitations might or might not be mentioned within research methodology. Some institutions’ guidelines dictate they be mentioned under a separate section alongside recommendations.
• Justification of your selection of research approach and research methodology.

Here is a comprehensive article on  how to structure a dissertation methodology .

Research Findings

In this section, you present your research findings. The dissertation findings chapter  is built around the research questions, as outlined in the introduction chapter. Report findings that are directly relevant to your research questions.

Any information that is not directly relevant to research questions or hypotheses but could be useful for the readers can be placed under the  Appendices .

As indicated above, you can either develop a  standalone chapter  to present your findings or combine them with the discussion chapter. This choice depends on  the type of research involved and the academic subject, as well as what your institution’s academic guidelines dictate.

For example, it is common to have both findings and discussion grouped under the same section, particularly if the dissertation is based on qualitative research data.

On the other hand, dissertations that use quantitative or experimental data should present findings and analysis/discussion in two separate chapters. Here are some sample dissertations to help you figure out the best structure for your own project.

Sample Dissertation

Tip: Try to present as many charts, graphs, illustrations and tables in the findings chapter to improve your data presentation. Provide their qualitative interpretations alongside, too. Refrain from explaining the information that is already evident from figures and tables.

The findings are followed by the  Discussion chapter , which is considered the heart of any dissertation paper. The discussion section is an opportunity for you to tie the knots together to address the research questions and present arguments, models and key themes.

This chapter can make or break your research.

The discussion chapter does not require any new data or information because it is more about the interpretation(s) of the data you have already collected and presented. Here are some questions for you to think over when writing the discussion chapter:

• Did your work answer all the research questions or tested the hypothesis?
• Did you come up with some unexpected results for which you have to provide an additional explanation or justification?
• Are there any limitations that could have influenced your research findings?

Here is an article on how to  structure a dissertation discussion .

Conclusions corresponding to each research objective are provided in the  Conclusion section . This is usually done by revisiting the research questions to finally close the dissertation. Some institutions may specifically ask for recommendations to evaluate your critical thinking.

By the end, the readers should have a clear apprehension of your fundamental case with a focus on  what methods of research were employed  and what you achieved from this research.

Quick Question: Does the conclusion chapter reflect on the contributions your research work will make to existing knowledge?

Answer: Yes, the conclusion chapter of the research paper typically includes a reflection on the research’s contributions to existing knowledge.  In the “conclusion chapter”, you have to summarise the key findings and discuss how they add value to the existing literature on the current topic.

Reference list

All academic sources that you collected information from should be cited in-text and also presented in a  reference list (or a bibliography in case you include references that you read for the research but didn’t end up citing in the text), so the readers can easily locate the source of information when/if needed.

At most UK universities, Harvard referencing is the recommended style of referencing. It has strict and specific requirements on how to format a reference resource. Other common styles of referencing include MLA, APA, Footnotes, etc.

Each chapter of the dissertation should have relevant information. Any information that is not directly relevant to your research topic but your readers might be interested in (interview transcripts etc.) should be moved under the Appendices section .

Things like questionnaires, survey items or readings that were used in the study’s experiment are mostly included under appendices.

An Outline of Dissertation/Thesis Structure

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FAQs About Structure a Dissertation

What does the title page of a dissertation contain.

The title page will contain details of the author/researcher, research topic , degree program (the paper is to be submitted for) and research supervisor’s name(s). The name of your university, logo, student number and submission date can also be presented on the title page.

What is the purpose of adding acknowledgement?

The acknowledgements section allows you to thank those who helped you with your dissertation project. You might want to mention the names of your academic supervisor, family members, friends, God and participants of your study whose contribution and support enabled you to complete your work.

Can I omit the glossary from the dissertation?

Yes, but only if you think that your paper does not contain any terms or phrases that the reader might not understand. If you think you have used them in the paper,  you must create a glossary that lists important phrases and terms with their meanings explained.

What is the purpose of appendices in a dissertation?

Any information that is not directly relevant to research questions or hypotheses but could be useful for the readers can be placed under the Appendices, such as questionnaire that was used in the study.

Which referencing style should I use in my dissertation?

You can use any of the referencing styles such as APA, MLA, and Harvard, according to the recommendation of your university; however, almost all UK institutions prefer Harvard referencing style .

What is the difference between references and bibliography?

References contain all the works that you read up and used and therefore, cited within the text of your thesis. However, in case you read on some works and resources that you didn’t end up citing in-text, they will be referenced in what is called a bibliography.

Additional readings might also be present alongside each bibliography entry for readers.

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This article is a step-by-step guide to how to write statement of a problem in research. The research problem will be half-solved by defining it correctly.

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• How It Works

How To Structure Your Literature Review

3 options to help structure your chapter.

By: Amy Rommelspacher (PhD) | Reviewer: Dr Eunice Rautenbach | November 2020 (Updated May 2023)

Writing the literature review chapter can seem pretty daunting when you’re piecing together your dissertation or thesis. As  we’ve discussed before , a good literature review needs to achieve a few very important objectives – it should:

• Demonstrate your knowledge of the research topic
• Identify the gaps in the literature and show how your research links to these
• Provide the foundation for your conceptual framework (if you have one)
• Inform your own  methodology and research design

To achieve this, your literature review needs a well-thought-out structure . Get the structure of your literature review chapter wrong and you’ll struggle to achieve these objectives. Don’t worry though – in this post, we’ll look at how to structure your literature review for maximum impact (and marks!).

But wait – is this the right time?

Deciding on the structure of your literature review should come towards the end of the literature review process – after you have collected and digested the literature, but before you start writing the chapter. 

In other words, you need to first develop a rich understanding of the literature before you even attempt to map out a structure. There’s no use trying to develop a structure before you’ve fully wrapped your head around the existing research.

Equally importantly, you need to have a structure in place before you start writing , or your literature review will most likely end up a rambling, disjointed mess. 

Importantly, don’t feel that once you’ve defined a structure you can’t iterate on it. It’s perfectly natural to adjust as you engage in the writing process. As we’ve discussed before , writing is a way of developing your thinking, so it’s quite common for your thinking to change – and therefore, for your chapter structure to change – as you write. 

Need a helping hand?

Like any other chapter in your thesis or dissertation, your literature review needs to have a clear, logical structure. At a minimum, it should have three essential components – an  introduction , a  body   and a  conclusion . 

Let’s take a closer look at each of these.

1: The Introduction Section

Just like any good introduction, the introduction section of your literature review should introduce the purpose and layout (organisation) of the chapter. In other words, your introduction needs to give the reader a taste of what’s to come, and how you’re going to lay that out. Essentially, you should provide the reader with a high-level roadmap of your chapter to give them a taste of the journey that lies ahead.

Here’s an example of the layout visualised in a literature review introduction:

Your introduction should also outline your topic (including any tricky terminology or jargon) and provide an explanation of the scope of your literature review – in other words, what you  will   and  won’t   be covering (the delimitations ). This helps ringfence your review and achieve a clear focus . The clearer and narrower your focus, the deeper you can dive into the topic (which is typically where the magic lies). 

Depending on the nature of your project, you could also present your stance or point of view at this stage. In other words, after grappling with the literature you’ll have an opinion about what the trends and concerns are in the field as well as what’s lacking. The introduction section can then present these ideas so that it is clear to examiners that you’re aware of how your research connects with existing knowledge .

2: The Body Section

The body of your literature review is the centre of your work. This is where you’ll present, analyse, evaluate and synthesise the existing research. In other words, this is where you’re going to earn (or lose) the most marks. Therefore, it’s important to carefully think about how you will organise your discussion to present it in a clear way. 

The body of your literature review should do just as the description of this chapter suggests. It should “review” the literature – in other words, identify, analyse, and synthesise it. So, when thinking about structuring your literature review, you need to think about which structural approach will provide the best “review” for your specific type of research and objectives (we’ll get to this shortly).

There are (broadly speaking)  three options  for organising your literature review.

Option 1: Chronological (according to date)

Organising the literature chronologically is one of the simplest ways to structure your literature review. You start with what was published first and work your way through the literature until you reach the work published most recently. Pretty straightforward.

The benefit of this option is that it makes it easy to discuss the developments and debates in the field as they emerged over time. Organising your literature chronologically also allows you to highlight how specific articles or pieces of work might have changed the course of the field – in other words, which research has had the most impact . Therefore, this approach is very useful when your research is aimed at understanding how the topic has unfolded over time and is often used by scholars in the field of history. That said, this approach can be utilised by anyone that wants to explore change over time .

For example , if a student of politics is investigating how the understanding of democracy has evolved over time, they could use the chronological approach to provide a narrative that demonstrates how this understanding has changed through the ages.

Here are some questions you can ask yourself to help you structure your literature review chronologically.

• What is the earliest literature published relating to this topic?
• How has the field changed over time? Why?
• What are the most recent discoveries/theories?

In some ways, chronology plays a part whichever way you decide to structure your literature review, because you will always, to a certain extent, be analysing how the literature has developed. However, with the chronological approach, the emphasis is very firmly on how the discussion has evolved over time , as opposed to how all the literature links together (which we’ll discuss next ).

Option 2: Thematic (grouped by theme)

The thematic approach to structuring a literature review means organising your literature by theme or category – for example, by independent variables (i.e. factors that have an impact on a specific outcome).

As you’ve been collecting and synthesising literature , you’ll likely have started seeing some themes or patterns emerging. You can then use these themes or patterns as a structure for your body discussion. The thematic approach is the most common approach and is useful for structuring literature reviews in most fields.

For example, if you were researching which factors contributed towards people trusting an organisation, you might find themes such as consumers’ perceptions of an organisation’s competence, benevolence and integrity. Structuring your literature review thematically would mean structuring your literature review’s body section to discuss each of these themes, one section at a time.

Here are some questions to ask yourself when structuring your literature review by themes:

• Are there any patterns that have come to light in the literature?
• What are the central themes and categories used by the researchers?
• Do I have enough evidence of these themes?

PS – you can see an example of a thematically structured literature review in our literature review sample walkthrough video here.

Option 3: Methodological

The methodological option is a way of structuring your literature review by the research methodologies used . In other words, organising your discussion based on the angle from which each piece of research was approached – for example, qualitative , quantitative or mixed  methodologies.

Structuring your literature review by methodology can be useful if you are drawing research from a variety of disciplines and are critiquing different methodologies. The point of this approach is to question  how  existing research has been conducted, as opposed to  what  the conclusions and/or findings the research were.

For example, a sociologist might centre their research around critiquing specific fieldwork practices. Their literature review will then be a summary of the fieldwork methodologies used by different studies.

Here are some questions you can ask yourself when structuring your literature review according to methodology:

• Which methodologies have been utilised in this field?
• Which methodology is the most popular (and why)?
• What are the strengths and weaknesses of the various methodologies?
• How can the existing methodologies inform my own methodology?

3: The Conclusion Section

Once you’ve completed the body section of your literature review using one of the structural approaches we discussed above, you’ll need to “wrap up” your literature review and pull all the pieces together to set the direction for the rest of your dissertation or thesis.

The conclusion is where you’ll present the key findings of your literature review. In this section, you should emphasise the research that is especially important to your research questions and highlight the gaps that exist in the literature. Based on this, you need to make it clear what you will add to the literature – in other words, justify your own research by showing how it will help fill one or more of the gaps you just identified.

Last but not least, if it’s your intention to develop a conceptual framework for your dissertation or thesis, the conclusion section is a good place to present this.

Example: Thematically Structured Review

In the video below, we unpack a literature review chapter so that you can see an example of a thematically structure review in practice.

Let’s Recap

In this article, we’ve  discussed how to structure your literature review for maximum impact. Here’s a quick recap of what  you need to keep in mind when deciding on your literature review structure:

• Just like other chapters, your literature review needs a clear introduction , body and conclusion .
• The introduction section should provide an overview of what you will discuss in your literature review.
• The body section of your literature review can be organised by chronology , theme or methodology . The right structural approach depends on what you’re trying to achieve with your research.
• The conclusion section should draw together the key findings of your literature review and link them to your research questions.

If you’re ready to get started, be sure to download our free literature review template to fast-track your chapter outline.

Psst… there’s more!

This post is an extract from our bestselling Udemy Course, Literature Review Bootcamp . If you want to work smart, you don't want to miss this .

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27 Comments

Great work. This is exactly what I was looking for and helps a lot together with your previous post on literature review. One last thing is missing: a link to a great literature chapter of an journal article (maybe with comments of the different sections in this review chapter). Do you know any great literature review chapters?

I agree with you Marin… A great piece

I agree with Marin. This would be quite helpful if you annotate a nicely structured literature from previously published research articles.

Awesome article for my research.

I thank you immensely for this wonderful guide

It is indeed thought and supportive work for the futurist researcher and students

Very educative and good time to get guide. Thank you

Great work, very insightful. Thank you.

Thanks for this wonderful presentation. My question is that do I put all the variables into a single conceptual framework or each hypothesis will have it own conceptual framework?

Thank you very much, very helpful

This is very educative and precise . Thank you very much for dropping this kind of write up .

Pheeww, so damn helpful, thank you for this informative piece.

I’m doing a research project topic ; stool analysis for parasitic worm (enteric) worm, how do I structure it, thanks.

comprehensive explanation. Help us by pasting the URL of some good “literature review” for better understanding.

great piece. thanks for the awesome explanation. it is really worth sharing. I have a little question, if anyone can help me out, which of the options in the body of literature can be best fit if you are writing an architectural thesis that deals with design?

I am doing a research on nanofluids how can l structure it?

Beautifully clear.nThank you!

Lucid! Thankyou!

Brilliant work, well understood, many thanks

I like how this was so clear with simple language 😊😊 thank you so much 😊 for these information 😊

Insightful. I was struggling to come up with a sensible literature review but this has been really helpful. Thank you!

You have given thought-provoking information about the review of the literature.

Thank you. It has made my own research better and to impart your work to students I teach

I learnt a lot from this teaching. It’s a great piece.

I am doing research on EFL teacher motivation for his/her job. How Can I structure it? Is there any detailed template, additional to this?

You are so cool! I do not think I’ve read through something like this before. So nice to find somebody with some genuine thoughts on this issue. Seriously.. thank you for starting this up. This site is one thing that is required on the internet, someone with a little originality!

I’m asked to do conceptual, theoretical and empirical literature, and i just don’t know how to structure it

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• How to write an essay introduction | 4 steps & examples

How to Write an Essay Introduction | 4 Steps & Examples

Published on February 4, 2019 by Shona McCombes . Revised on July 23, 2023.

A good introduction paragraph is an essential part of any academic essay . It sets up your argument and tells the reader what to expect.

The main goals of an introduction are to:

• Catch your reader’s attention.
• Give background on your topic.
• Present your thesis statement —the central point of your essay.

This introduction example is taken from our interactive essay example on the history of Braille.

The invention of Braille was a major turning point in the history of disability. The writing system of raised dots used by visually impaired people was developed by Louis Braille in nineteenth-century France. In a society that did not value disabled people in general, blindness was particularly stigmatized, and lack of access to reading and writing was a significant barrier to social participation. The idea of tactile reading was not entirely new, but existing methods based on sighted systems were difficult to learn and use. As the first writing system designed for blind people’s needs, Braille was a groundbreaking new accessibility tool. It not only provided practical benefits, but also helped change the cultural status of blindness. This essay begins by discussing the situation of blind people in nineteenth-century Europe. It then describes the invention of Braille and the gradual process of its acceptance within blind education. Subsequently, it explores the wide-ranging effects of this invention on blind people’s social and cultural lives.

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Table of contents

Step 1: hook your reader, step 2: give background information, step 3: present your thesis statement, step 4: map your essay’s structure, step 5: check and revise, more examples of essay introductions, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about the essay introduction.

Your first sentence sets the tone for the whole essay, so spend some time on writing an effective hook.

Avoid long, dense sentences—start with something clear, concise and catchy that will spark your reader’s curiosity.

The hook should lead the reader into your essay, giving a sense of the topic you’re writing about and why it’s interesting. Avoid overly broad claims or plain statements of fact.

Examples: Writing a good hook

Take a look at these examples of weak hooks and learn how to improve them.

• Braille was an extremely important invention.
• The invention of Braille was a major turning point in the history of disability.

The first sentence is a dry fact; the second sentence is more interesting, making a bold claim about exactly  why the topic is important.

• The internet is defined as “a global computer network providing a variety of information and communication facilities.”
• The spread of the internet has had a world-changing effect, not least on the world of education.

Avoid using a dictionary definition as your hook, especially if it’s an obvious term that everyone knows. The improved example here is still broad, but it gives us a much clearer sense of what the essay will be about.

• Mary Shelley’s  Frankenstein is a famous book from the nineteenth century.
• Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein is often read as a crude cautionary tale about the dangers of scientific advancement.

Instead of just stating a fact that the reader already knows, the improved hook here tells us about the mainstream interpretation of the book, implying that this essay will offer a different interpretation.

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Next, give your reader the context they need to understand your topic and argument. Depending on the subject of your essay, this might include:

• Historical, geographical, or social context
• An outline of the debate you’re addressing
• A summary of relevant theories or research about the topic
• Definitions of key terms

The information here should be broad but clearly focused and relevant to your argument. Don’t give too much detail—you can mention points that you will return to later, but save your evidence and interpretation for the main body of the essay.

How much space you need for background depends on your topic and the scope of your essay. In our Braille example, we take a few sentences to introduce the topic and sketch the social context that the essay will address:

Now it’s time to narrow your focus and show exactly what you want to say about the topic. This is your thesis statement —a sentence or two that sums up your overall argument.

This is the most important part of your introduction. A  good thesis isn’t just a statement of fact, but a claim that requires evidence and explanation.

The goal is to clearly convey your own position in a debate or your central point about a topic.

Particularly in longer essays, it’s helpful to end the introduction by signposting what will be covered in each part. Keep it concise and give your reader a clear sense of the direction your argument will take.

As you research and write, your argument might change focus or direction as you learn more.

For this reason, it’s often a good idea to wait until later in the writing process before you write the introduction paragraph—it can even be the very last thing you write.

When you’ve finished writing the essay body and conclusion , you should return to the introduction and check that it matches the content of the essay.

It’s especially important to make sure your thesis statement accurately represents what you do in the essay. If your argument has gone in a different direction than planned, tweak your thesis statement to match what you actually say.

To polish your writing, you can use something like a paraphrasing tool .

You can use the checklist below to make sure your introduction does everything it’s supposed to.

Checklist: Essay introduction

My first sentence is engaging and relevant.

I have introduced the topic with necessary background information.

I have defined any important terms.

My thesis statement clearly presents my main point or argument.

Everything in the introduction is relevant to the main body of the essay.

You have a strong introduction - now make sure the rest of your essay is just as good.

• Argumentative
• Literary analysis

This introduction to an argumentative essay sets up the debate about the internet and education, and then clearly states the position the essay will argue for.

The spread of the internet has had a world-changing effect, not least on the world of education. The use of the internet in academic contexts is on the rise, and its role in learning is hotly debated. For many teachers who did not grow up with this technology, its effects seem alarming and potentially harmful. This concern, while understandable, is misguided. The negatives of internet use are outweighed by its critical benefits for students and educators—as a uniquely comprehensive and accessible information source; a means of exposure to and engagement with different perspectives; and a highly flexible learning environment.

This introduction to a short expository essay leads into the topic (the invention of the printing press) and states the main point the essay will explain (the effect of this invention on European society).

In many ways, the invention of the printing press marked the end of the Middle Ages. The medieval period in Europe is often remembered as a time of intellectual and political stagnation. Prior to the Renaissance, the average person had very limited access to books and was unlikely to be literate. The invention of the printing press in the 15th century allowed for much less restricted circulation of information in Europe, paving the way for the Reformation.

This introduction to a literary analysis essay , about Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein , starts by describing a simplistic popular view of the story, and then states how the author will give a more complex analysis of the text’s literary devices.

Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein is often read as a crude cautionary tale. Arguably the first science fiction novel, its plot can be read as a warning about the dangers of scientific advancement unrestrained by ethical considerations. In this reading, and in popular culture representations of the character as a “mad scientist”, Victor Frankenstein represents the callous, arrogant ambition of modern science. However, far from providing a stable image of the character, Shelley uses shifting narrative perspectives to gradually transform our impression of Frankenstein, portraying him in an increasingly negative light as the novel goes on. While he initially appears to be a naive but sympathetic idealist, after the creature’s narrative Frankenstein begins to resemble—even in his own telling—the thoughtlessly cruel figure the creature represents him as.

If you want to know more about AI tools , college essays , or fallacies make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples or go directly to our tools!

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Your essay introduction should include three main things, in this order:

• An opening hook to catch the reader’s attention.
• Relevant background information that the reader needs to know.
• A thesis statement that presents your main point or argument.

The length of each part depends on the length and complexity of your essay .

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• Published: 04 March 2024

Dynamic chloride ion adsorption on single iridium atom boosts seawater oxidation catalysis

• Xinxuan Duan 1 , 2   na1 ,
• Qihao Sha 1   na1 ,
• Pengsong Li 3 ,
• Tianshui Li 1 ,
• Guotao Yang 1 ,
• Wei Liu 1 ,
• Ende Yu 4 ,
• Daojin Zhou 1 ,
• Jinjie Fang 5 ,
• Wenxing Chen   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-9669-4358 6 ,
• Yizhen Chen   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-8499-2013 7 ,
• Lirong Zheng 8 ,
• Jiangwen Liao   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-9850-5450 8 ,
• Zeyu Wang   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-8135-553X 9 ,
• Yaping Li 1 ,
• Hongbin Yang 10 ,
• Guoxin Zhang 11 ,
• Zhongbin Zhuang   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-7187-1266 5 , 12 ,
• Sung-Fu Hung   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-7423-2723 13 ,
• Changfei Jing 14 ,
• Jun Luo   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-5084-2087 15 ,
• Lu Bai 16 ,
• Juncai Dong   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-8860-093X 8 ,
• Hai Xiao   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-9399-1584 9 ,
• Wen Liu   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-8884-7799 1 ,
• Yun Kuang 1 , 4 ,
• Bin Liu   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-4685-2052 10 , 17 &
• Xiaoming Sun   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-3831-6233 1  

Nature Communications volume  15 , Article number:  1973 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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• Electrocatalysis

Seawater electrolysis offers a renewable, scalable, and economic means for green hydrogen production. However, anode corrosion by Cl - pose great challenges for its commercialization. Herein, different from conventional catalysts designed to repel Cl - adsorption, we develop an atomic Ir catalyst on cobalt iron layered double hydroxide (Ir/CoFe-LDH) to tailor Cl - adsorption and modulate the electronic structure of the Ir active center, thereby establishing a unique Ir-OH/Cl coordination for alkaline seawater electrolysis. Operando characterizations and theoretical calculations unveil the pivotal role of this coordination state to lower OER activation energy by a factor of 1.93. The Ir/CoFe-LDH exhibits a remarkable oxygen evolution reaction activity (202 mV overpotential and TOF = 7.46 O 2 s −1 ) in 6 M NaOH+2.8 M NaCl, superior over Cl - -free 6 M NaOH electrolyte (236 mV overpotential and TOF = 1.05 O 2 s −1 ), with 100% catalytic selectivity and stability at high current densities (400-800 mA cm −2 ) for more than 1,000 h.

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Introduction

Grid-scale water electrolysis is promising for storing renewable electricity into molecular hydrogen bond 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 . Using earth-abundant seawater as feedstock instead of desalinated water provides a more sustainable strategy for renewable hydrogen production 5 , 6 , 7 , which yields NaCl as a byproduct at the same time 8 . However, seawater has a salinity of ~3.5 wt%, in which most of the salt is NaCl (~0.5 M). Implementation of seawater electrolysis technology confronts many challenges, especially at the anode side where severe catalyst corrosion and competitive chloride oxidation reaction (ClOR) occur simultaneously 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 , which significantly hinder its commercialization. Efficient and sustained seawater electrolysis demands a highly active and selective anode that is able to work in the presence of concentrated Cl − 13 , 14 . Previous attempts of seawater electrolysis mostly focused on the prohibition of Cl − adsorption on the anode catalyst so as to prevent ClOR. For instance, Koper et al. 15 electrodeposited MnO x on IrO 2 to improve the oxygen evolution reaction (OER) selectivity in acidic seawater electrolysis because of the weak chloride binding on MnO x surface. Ni, Co, Fe-based sulfides 16 , phosphides 17 , selenides 18 , and boron-modified cobalt iron layered double hydroxides 19 showed anti-corrosion ability in alkaline seawater electrolysis due to the in situ formed Cl − repelling anion or polyanion layer. Unfortunately, this also weakened the adsorption of O-intermediates of OER, which might decrease the OER activity. Additionally, at high overpotential (i.e., high current density), the Cl − repelling strategy becomes less effective due to the enhanced driving force of Cl - adsorption 20 , 21 , 22 .

Herein, we design an atomic Ir catalyst on cobalt iron layered double hydroxide (Ir/CoFe-LDH) for electrochemical seawater oxidation. Different from conventional catalysts designed to completely repel Cl − adsorption for seawater electrolysis, the atomic Ir sites on CoFe-LDH allow Cl − adsorption to modulate the electronic structure of Ir active center. As a result, the Ir/CoFe-LDH exhibits a remarkable OER performance in alkaline seawater electrolysis with an overpotential as low as 202 mV at the current density of 10 mA cm −2 , 34 mV lower than that in NaOH electrolyte. Moreover, the Ir/CoFe-LDH affords a remarkable activity at industrial-relevant current densities (0.4–0.8 A cm −2 ) with close to 100% oxygen Faradaic efficiency for more than 1000 h. Meanwhile, it can also operate stably in real seawater, reaching 10 mA cm −2 with an overpotential of 208 mV, and maintains stable operation for more than 2000 h at a current density of 1 A/cm 2 . Both in situ experiments and theoretical analyses show that the dynamic chloride ion adsorption on single Ir atom during OER can effectively reduce the energy barrier to form *OOH (the rate-determining step of OER) and thus boost water oxidation catalysis, while at the same time maintaining a high energy barrier for the competitive ClOR.

Results and discussion

Synthesis and structural characterization of ir/cofe-ldh.

Iridium-based catalyst has been widely used in catalyzing water electrolysis 23 , 24 , 25 , 26 and chloralkaline process 27 , 28 , 29 , in which the Ir-chloride bond strength determines its selectivity 30 , 31 , 32 . LDH elemental combinations with lower electronegativity may exhibit enhanced electron coupling with metal single atoms 33 . Based on electronegativity values (Fe (1.83) < Co (1.88) < Ni (1.92)), it is anticipated that noble metal single atoms on CoFe LDHs may demonstrate superior OER performance. In this work, we develop a two-step synthesis to prepare single Ir atom catalysts with tunable single atomic Ir coordination structure on layered double hydroxide (LDH), as shown in Supplementary Fig.  1 . In the first step, CoFe-LDH was synthesized through a co-precipitation method. Subsequently, dilute solutions of IrCl 3 and NaOH were added to the homogeneous LDH colloid to anchor atomic Ir onto CoFe-LDH as well as tune the chloride bonding on the single atomic Ir sites. SEM images reveal that both CoFe-LDH and Ir/CoFe-LDH exhibit uniform nanosheet structures, with no noticeable changes in surface morphology upon Ir loading (Supplementary Fig.  2 ). The Ir in the as-prepared Ir/CoFe-LDH catalyst was determined to be ~0.5 wt% by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) characterization shows clean surface of Ir/CoFe-LDH without formation of nanoparticles/nanoclusters (Supplementary Fig.  3 ). The high angle annular dark field scanning transmission electron microscope (HADDF-STEM) images clearly show bright spots, which can be assigned to single Ir atoms anchored on the surface of CoFe-LDH (Fig.  1a ). Meanwhile, Ir atoms still show isolated bright spots at the same position in the HAADF-STEM images with a 30° tilt (Supplementary Fig.  4 ), confirming single atomic dispersion of Ir. There seems to be a cluster in the yellow circle in Supplementary Fig.  5a and in the red circle in Supplementary Fig.  5b , however, they both display single atoms at other viewing angles, indicating that the “agglomeration” of Ir single atoms may just be caused by viewing angles. Dr. probe STEM simulation software 34 was used to fit the HAADF-STEM image of Ir/CoFe-LDH, which also suggests single atomic dispersion of Ir with different brightness (Supplementary Figs.  6 and 7 ). The elemental mapping (Fig.  1b ) analysis shows homogeneous distribution of Ir along with Cl on the surface of CoFe-LDH. Furthermore, X-ray diffraction (XRD) patterns of the as-prepared CoFe-LDH and Ir/CoFe-LDH display the same Bragg reflections in good agreement with the hexagonal-phase LDH (black line, PDF#40-0215, as shown in Fig.  1c ) , in accordance with the selected area electron diffraction (SAED) patterns (Supplementary Fig.  8 ).

a HAADF-STEM image of Ir/CoFe-LDH showing single atomic Ir dispersion on CoFe-LDH. b Dark-field TEM image of Ir/CoFe-LDH and the corresponding elemental mappings showing the distribution of Fe, Co, Cl, and Ir elements. c XRD patterns of the as-prepared CoFe-LDH and Ir/CoFe-LDH. d XANES spectra and ( e ) Fourier-transformed Ir L 3 -edge EXAFS spectra of Ir/CoFe-LDH, Ir foil, IrCl 3 and IrO 2 . f k 3 -weighted EXAFS spectrum with fitting (dashed line).

To further confirm the atomic structure of Ir, in situ DRIFTs measurements of Ir/CoFe-LDH and Ir cluster /CoFe-LDH were performed (Supplementary Fig.  9 ). After adsorption of CO on Ir/CoFe-LDH, two bands (2080 and 2010 cm −1 ) can be clearly seen in the C–O vibrational frequency region (Supplementary Fig.  9a ). These two bands can be assigned to the symmetric (vs) and the anti-symmetric (vas) vibrational modes of Ir gem-dicarbonyl, Ir(CO) 2 , respectively, on the basis of reports of atomically dispersed Ir(CO) 2 gem-dicarbonyl supported on TiO 2 and γ-Al 2 O 3 35 . Of note, dicarbonyl species can only be formed on isolated species 36 , thus confirming the atomic dispersion of Ir in Ir/CoFe-LDH. In contrast, Ir cluster /CoFe-LDH exhibits multiple overlapped IR peaks between 2000 and 2080 cm −1 (Supplementary Fig.  9b ). The strongest peak at 2046 cm −1 is assigned to the linear binding of CO on Ir clusters, which indicates the existence of Ir clusters. However, this atop peak is not observed in Ir/CoFe-LDH, further providing experimental validation for the atomic dispersion of Ir in Ir/CoFe-LDH (Supplementary Fig.  9c ). These results suggest the absence of Ir clusters or nanoparticles in Ir/CoFe-LDH, consistent with the HAADF-STEM results.

X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) was performed to examine the surface electronic structure and the influence between the CoFe-LDH and the single atomic Ir (Supplementary Fig.  10 ). The high-resolution Ir 4f XPS spectrum showed two distinct peaks belonging to Ir 4f 7/2 and Ir 4f 5/2: according to the binding energy of the standard samples of IrO 2 and H 2 IrCl 6 (Supplementary Fig.  11 ), the Ir 4f 7/2 at 61.7 eV and 62.4 eV were identified as the Ir-O and Ir-Cl, respectively (the satellites of Ir-O and Ir-Cl were taken into consideration in fitting the XPS spectrum). The high-resolution Cl 2p XPS spectrum can be deconvoluted into 199.1 eV and 198.45 eV, originating from Ir-Cl and Cl - on LDH 37 , 38 . Comparing the valence states of Co and Fe in Ir/CoFe-LDH and CoFe-LDH, it was noticed that Co and Fe have obvious shift of binding energy, indicating strong electronic interaction between single atomic Ir and CoFe-LDH.

To further determine the electronic structure and local coordination environment of atomic Ir, X-ray absorption near edge structure (XANES) and extended X-ray absorption fine structure (EXAFS) were performed 39 , 40 . The Ir L 3 -edge XANES spectrum (Fig.  1d ) indicates that the valence state of Ir in Ir/CoFe-LDH is slightly higher than +4. In the EXAFS spectra (Fig.  1e ) as referred to Ir foil, IrCl 3, and IrO 2 , the Ir/CoFe-LDH displays two peaks at 1.62 and 1.99 Å, which can be assigned to Ir-O and Ir-Cl, respectively. Furthermore, the absence of Ir-Ir and Ir-O-Ir bonds suggested atomically distributed Ir. The EXAFS fitting data (Fig.  1f , Supplementary Fig.  12 and Supplementary Table  1 ) showed Ir-O bonds (1.99 Å) with a coordination number (CN) of 3.1 and Ir-Cl bonds (2.33 Å) with a CN of 2.5 without Ir-Ir or Ir–(O)–Ir contribution in Ir/CoFe-LDH. Additionally, there are backscatter contributions of Ir and M (Co and Fe) at 3.20 Å with a CN of 2.0 at the second shell.

Electrochemical performance of Ir/CoFe-LDH

The OER performance of the as-prepared Ir/CoFe-LDH was measured in 6.0 M sodium hydroxide (NaOH) aqueous solution using a three-electrode configuration. Supplementary Fig.  13 displays the scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images of the working electrode. The saturated calomel electrode (SCE) (Supplementary Figs.  14 and 15 ) reference electrode against RHE scale was directly measured by a three-electrode setup, consisting of 2 Pt wires and 1 reference electrode to be calibrated at saturation of H 2 (Supplementary Fig.  16 ). The cyclic voltammetry (CV) curve (Fig.  2a ) reveals that the Ir/CoFe-LDH just requires an overpotential of 236 mV to reach a current density of 10 mA cm −2 , which is 141 mV and 535 mV lower than that of CoFe-LDH and commercial IrO 2 , respectively. Different from CoFe-LDH, significant reduction in the Co 2+ /Co 3+ redox peaks are observed after loading single atomic Ir (Supplementary Fig.  17 ). It suggests that the oxidation peak at 1.24 V versus RHE and the reduction peak at 1.17 versus RHE is a redox couple, which could be assigned to the redox of Ir. And the oxidation peak at 1.33 V versus RHE and the reduction peak at 1.07 vs. RHE is a redox couple, which could be assigned to the redox of Co. Interestingly, when NaCl is added into the electrolyte to mimic the accumulate-to-saturated seawater (6 M NaOH + 2.8 M NaCl) 8 , there shows a 34 mV decrease in overpotential from 236 mV to 202 mV to reach a current density of 10 mA cm −2 (Fig.  2b ), suggesting that presence of NaCl improve the catalytic performance of Ir/CoFe-LDH. In addition, the turnover frequency (TOF) per Ir-site on Ir/CoFe-LDH (0.76 O 2 s −1 ) at the potential of 1.45 V (vs. RHE) in saturated seawater electrolyte is 6.3 times greater than that in NaOH electrolyte (0.12 O 2 s −1 ) (Fig.  2b ). Taking into consideration the potential issue of excessive catalyst loading at 2 mg/cm², five data points with different catalyst’s loading in the range of 0.1–2 mg/cm² were selected to examine the relationship between catalyst’s loading and activity (Supplementary Fig.  18a, b ). The findings indicate a linear correlation between catalyst’s loading and performance within 0.1–0.5 mg/cm² range. Beyond 0.5 mg/cm², the change in catalyst loading shows minimal effect on catalytic performance (reaching a plateau region). Thus, within the linear region, the CV data associated with a catalyst’s loading of 0.1 mg/cm² was employed for the precise determination of TOF values. The results demonstrate that, at a voltage of 1.5 V (vs. RHE), the TOF value per Ir site on Ir/CoFe/LDH in 6 M NaOH + 2.8 M NaCl (7.46 O 2 s −1 ) is 7 times higher than that in 6 M NaOH (1.05 O 2 s −1 ) (Supplementary Fig.  18c ). Meanwhile, it should be noted that the loading amount of Ir should be carefully tailored; insufficient or over-loading would cause less efficient catalysis (Supplementary Figs.  19 – 21 and Supplementary Tables  2 and 3 ), which matches to the characteristic of the reported monatomic catalyst. For selectivity, even in saturated seawater electrolyte, Ir/CoFe-LDH displays a close to 100% OER Faradaic efficiency (Supplementary Fig.  22 ).

a CV curves of Ir/CoFe-LDH, CoFe-LDH, and IrO 2 recorded in 6 M NaOH (the resistance used for iR calibration is 1.53, 1.54, and 1.6 Ω, respectively). b Comparison of CV curves and TOF of Ir/CoFe-LDH recorded in 6 M NaOH and 6 M NaOH + 2.8 M NaCl (the resistance used for iR calibration is 1.55, and 1.53 Ω, respectively). c Comparison of OER overpotential at a current density of 10 mA cm −2 of Ir/CoFe-LDH in electrolyte with different Cl − /OH − ratios in 1 M NaOH. The inset shows the OER overpotential of Ir/CoFe-LDH at a current density of 10 mA cm −2 with different Cl − /OH − ratios in 1 M (white), 2 M (yellow), 3 M (orange), and 6 M NaOH (red). Three measurements were conducted for each data point with the error bars corresponding to the standard deviation. d The change in current density and TOF when the electrolyte was switched from 6 M NaOH to 6 M NaOH + 2.8 M NaCl recorded at 1.48 V versus reversible hydrogen electrode (RHE). e The stability test performed in 6 M NaOH + 2.8 M NaCl. (All the catalyst mass-loading was 2 mg/cm 2 , and the PH of the electrolyte measures 14.78.).

The OER performance of Ir/CoFe-LDH exhibits sensitivity to the electrolyte composition with varying NaOH and NaCl ratios. Notably, an optimized [Cl − ]/[OH − ] ratio for OER emerges as a significant consideration (Fig.  2c ). By altering the NaOH concentration to 1 M, 2 M, 3 M, and 6 M, the OER overpotential at a current density of 10 mA cm −2 experiences an initial decrease followed by an increase, correlating with the rise in Cl − concentration. Remarkably, the optimal OER performance consistently appears at the [Cl − ]/[OH − ] ratio of 1:2 (Supplementary Fig.  23 ), highlighting the critical impact of Cl − on OER performance.

In addition, when examined in sole NaOH electrolyte at a voltage of 1.49 V (vs. RHE), the current density of Ir/CoFe-LDH decreased from 47 mA cm −2 to 36 mA cm −2 in less than 7 h (Fig.  2d ). Intriguingly, the incorporation of NaCl into the NaOH electrolyte promptly elevated the current density from 36 mA cm −2 to 85 mA cm −2 within less than 6 s. Besides, it was noted that Br − exhibited a similar capability to enhance the OER activity of Ir/CoFe-LDH, while conversely, F − was found to diminish the catalytic activity (Supplementary Fig.  24 ). In contrast, other noble metal single atoms introduced onto CoFe-LDH (such as Ru/CoFe-LDH or Rh/CoFe-LDH) did not exhibit such pronounced OER activity enhancement through halogen modification (Supplementary Fig.  25 ), underscoring the distinctive role played by Ir. This distinctiveness might be attributed to the robust Ir-X (X = Cl, Br or F) interaction, as evident from the UV-visible spectra (Supplementary Fig.  26 ). At the same time, no significant OER activity enhancement could be observed in NaOH combined with other salt (e.g., Na 2 SO 4 ) electrolyte (Supplementary Fig.  27 ).

To investigate whether SO 4 2− would impact the Ir-Cl coordination, we conducted cyclic voltammetry tests on Ir/CoFe-LDH in a solution of 6 M NaOH + 2.8 M NaCl. Subsequently, we gradually introduced 0.03 M Na 2 SO 4 (the sulfate ion concentration in seawater 41 ) and continued the CV tests. The results indicate virtually sustained performance (within 3 mV), affirming that SO 4 2− does not affect the catalyst’s activity (Supplementary Fig.  28 ). To demonstrate whether SO 4 2− under cyclic conditions would displace coordinated Cl − , we conducted a 2-h CV test, the results showed no discernible change in performance before and after the CV cycling (Supplementary Fig.  29 ). Subsequently, more SO 4 2− was introduced into the electrolyte, eventually reaching a concentration of 0.3 M SO 4 2− (tenfold enrichment of sulfate concentration in real seawater). CV curves indicate that the catalyst’s performance fluctuation is negligible (≤5 mV) within the range SO 4 2− concentration of 0.03 M ~ 0.3 M (Supplementary Fig.  28 ). This suggests that after the formation of a stable Ir-Cl coordination state, the presence of SO 4 2− does not exert any discernible influence on the performance.

Besides activity and selectivity, stability is another crucial consideration for practical application 42 . The deactivation of LDH can be attributed to local pH reduction, interlayer acidification, cation dissolution, or oxidation of metal centers to high-valent cations leading to their leaching 43 and in seawater environment, the presence of chloride ions may exacerbate these risks. The stability of Ir/CoFe-LDH was further accessed in 6 M NaOH + 2.8 M NaCl solution at current densities ranging from 400 to 800 mA cm −2 to meet the industry requirements. The applied potentials showed a negligible increase after 1000 h of continuous reaction (Fig.  2e ). Meanwhile, performance in real seawater holds significant implications for the application of seawater electrolysis technology. Ir/CoFe-LDH required an overpotential of only 208 mV to achieve a current density of 10 mA cm −2 in a 6 M NaOH + seawater electrolyte (Supplementary Fig.  30 ), indicating its practicability under real industrial conditions. Additionally, CV tests conducted after stability tests at 24, 200, and 400 h confirm the stability of Ir/CoFe-LDH under realistic operating conditions (Supplementary Fig.  31 ). An electrolyzer with Ir/CoFe-LDH as an anode and NiCoFeP as a cathode at a current density of 1 A/cm 2 in a 6 M NaOH + seawater environment was tested. The results illustrate that the electrolyzer can maintain stable performance under high current density for over 2000 h (Supplementary Fig.  32 ), confirming the viability of Ir/CoFe-LDH catalyst for real seawater electrolysis.

Furthermore, additional characterizations of post-reaction catalysts were performed to confirm the stability of Ir/CoFe-LDH. SEM after long-term stability test revealed no significant changes in the morphology of the nanosheets (Supplementary Fig.  33 ), while TEM after long-term stability test showed absence of clusters or particles (Supplementary Fig.  34 ). HADDF-STEM characterizations (Supplementary Fig.  35 ) show that the distribution of atomic Ir atoms on CoFe-LDH surface after long-term stability test has no obvious change. There is still no Ir-Ir or Ir–O–Ir signal in the EXAFS data of post-OER catalyst, also revealing isolated dispersion of Ir atoms after long-term OER stability tests. The XRD pattern of the post-OER Ir/CoFe-LDH (Supplementary Fig.  36 ) displays the characteristic peak of LDH at about 11.6°. The XPS measurement of Ir/CoFe-LDH after long-term OER stability test (Supplementary Fig.  37 ) revealed that the oxidation state of Co and Fe showed no significant change, confirming that Ir-Cl coordination could stabilize CoFe-LDH, preventing oxidation and dissolution of CoFe-LDH, thereby ensuring the stability of CoFe-LDH substrate. Furthermore, XPS quantitative analysis indicated a negligible change of the surface Ir concentration before and after OER. The dissolved Ir in the electrolyte after OER stability test was also quantified by inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy (ICP-MS, 9.558 ppb), which is nearly nine times less than the physical mixture of IrO 2 and CoFe-LDH (82.308 ppb), as shown in Supplementary Table  4 . This experimental evidence further substantiates the stability of Ir loading on CoFe-LDH. Ir stabilizes CoFe through controllable Ir-Cl coordination, suppressing CoFe oxidation, in the meanwhile CoFe also stabilizes Ir through strong electronic interaction. All of the above characterizations together with the electrochemical data suggest good stability of Ir/CoFe-LDH in seawater electrolysis. Additionally, it should be noted that at current densities of 600 and 800 mA cm −2 , the overpotential was thermodynamically high enough to trigger the chloride oxidation reaction (thermodynamic potential: 2Cl −  → Cl 2  + 2e − E = 1.33 V versus RHE, Cl −  + 2OH −  → OCl −  + H 2 O + 2e − E = 1.66 V versus RHE at 2.8 M NaCl), but no chlorine or hypochlorite was detected (with oxygen Faradaic efficiency > 99.9935% as shown in Supplementary Figs.  38 – 40 ), suggesting a high OER selectivity for Ir/CoFe-LDH in high concentration NaCl electrolyte.

In situ XAS and Raman characterization of Ir/CoFe-LDH

To explore why and how Cl − can boost the OER activity of Ir/CoFe-LDH, operando EXAFS at the Ir L 3 -edge was performed and compared in NaOH + NaCl (Fig.  3a ) and NaOH (Fig.  3b ) electrolyte. The local coordination of the two Ir/CoFe-LDH samples used for operando EXAFS are nearly the same, implying that the differences of EXAFS spectra in NaOH + NaCl and NaOH electrolyte arise from the catalyst’s structure evolution during OER (Supplementary Fig.  41 and Supplementary Table  5 ). Subsequently, under open circuit voltage (OCV), the coordination of both catalysts remains nearly unaltered (Supplementary Fig.  42 and Supplementary Table  6 ). However, at a potential of 1.57 V versus RHE, only Ir-O coordination was evident in the EXAFS spectrum of Ir/CoFe-LDH immersed in NaOH (Supplementary Fig.  43 and Supplementary Table  7 ), suggesting that OH − formed a competitive adsorption for Ir-Cl coordination. In contrast, both Ir-Cl and Ir-O could be observed at the same applied potential in NaOH + NaCl electrolyte. This observation can be attributed to the substantial Cl − concentration, allowing for the persistence of Ir-Cl coordination. The above results suggest a competitive binding between Cl − and OH − with single atomic Ir sites on CoFe-LDH during OER in the seawater environment, and the dynamic stability of Ir-Cl coordination in seawater may stand as a key factor driving the OER performance enhancement. Concurrently, a distinctive peak at ~2.6 Å was detected in the EXAFS spectra, which could be attributed to the close proximity of Ir and M (M = Co or Fe) due to the oxidation of CoFe-LDH surface to MOOH during the OER process.

a In situ Fourier-transformed EXAFS spectra of Ir/CoFe-LDH in ( a ) NaOH + NaCl and ( b ) NaOH. In situ Raman spectra of Ir/CoFe-LDH recorded in ( c ), ( d ) NaOH + NaCl, and ( e ), ( f ) NaOH. The blue-highlighted portions correspond to the Ir-Cl coordination.

In situ Raman spectroscopy was further performed on Ir/CoFe-LDH to obtain mechanistic insight into the influence of Cl - adsorption over single Ir atomic site on the OER activity. Compared to CoFe-LDH (Supplementary Fig.  44 ), the Raman spectra of Ir/CoFe-LDH at OCV showed a new peak at around 333 cm −1 (Fig.  3c–f ). This peak can be assigned to Ir-Cl vibration according to the standard sample IrCl 3 , as shown in Supplementary Fig.  45 .

Moreover, In NaOH + NaCl environment (Fig.  3c, d ), the presence of Ir-Cl coordination at 333 cm −1 was consistently observed. In contrast, in alkaline electrolytes without Cl addition, Ir-Cl coordination was only observed under open circuit voltage (OCV) condition, and its presence ceased upon application of voltage (Fig.  3e, f ), indicating its dynamic nature. This phenomenon suggests that under high OH − concentration, there is a pronounced competition for adsorption between Cl − and OH − , necessitating a high NaCl concentration to uphold the stability of the coordination. This observation is consistent with our XAS data, where the coordination between Ir and Cl remains intact in high salt concentration environment, whereas it dissipates in an OH − -rich environment. Consequently, it becomes essential to maintain a relatively high salt concentration environment to uphold the Ir-Cl coordination, thereby facilitating the kinetics of OER.

Theoretical investigation

We performed computational studies aimed at identifying the effects of Cl − modulation of the local iridium coordination environment and the resulting impacts on the electronic structure of iridium center as well as the energetics of OER 44 , 45 , 46 . Based on the EXAFS fitting results and the characterization of catalyst after OER, the catalyst was found to undergo reconstruction during OER and the real active structure is the single-atom iridium bound on the surface of oxyhydroxide (i.e., MOOH, M = Co/Fe), and the reconstruction of hydroxide to oxyhydroxide during OER has been observed in the literature 47 , 48 . Hence, we built our simulation models as shown in Supplementary Fig.  46 . Penta-coordinated Ir with three states: Ir coordinated with two OH (Ir- OH,OH ), with one Cl and one OH (Ir −OH,Cl ), and with two Cl (Ir −Cl,Cl ) anchored on the surface of two-layer periodic LDH, were constructed as the simulation models. For pure CoFeOOH, unsaturated Fe sites in the (100) surface were used as the active sites. Thermodynamic analyses (Fig.  4a and Supplementary Fig.  47 ) suggest that the formation of *OOH intermediate is the rate-determining step (RDS) of OER on Fe sites in CoFeOOH and Ir centers in Ir/CoFeOOH. The single Ir atom with 2 OHs (Ir- OH,OH ) could lower the *O/*OOH oxidation free energy from 2.24 eV to 1.73 eV. Mono chloride coordination with Ir (Ir −OH,Cl ) could further lower this free energy to 1.51 eV in preference to Ir- OH,OH and meanwhile enhance the *OH adsorption, which is the key step competing with chloride adsorption and oxidation. However, further coordination with another chloride ion to form two Ir-Cl bonds would increase the free energy of *O/*OOH oxidation to 1.64 eV. The activity sequence of the coordinated Ir species follows Ir −Cl,OH  > Ir- Cl,Cl  > Ir −OH,OH . Figure  4b displays the two-dimensional (2D) map of theoretical OER onset overpotential ( η ) for single atomic Ir anchored on CoFeOOH with different coordination states by assuming the scaling relationship of ΔG OOH  = 0.89ΔG OH  + 3.12 (Supplementary Fig.  47c ). Other halogens like Br − and F − could also affect the adsorption energy of *O and *OH as well as the overpotential of OER, but was not as efficient as Cl − (Supplementary Fig.  47b ) in accordance with the experimental results.

a The activation energy of Ir/CoFe-LDH with three coordination states. b 2D map of theoretical OER onset overpotential ( η ), the contour map is constructed by assuming the scaling relationship of △ G OOH  =  △ G OH  + 3.17. c Projected crystal orbital Hamiltonian population (pCOHP) between the Ir center and the O atom in *OOH. d EPR detection of DMPO-OOH. The sample was taken after 10 min of electrolysis at 1.42 V versus RHE.

To further understand the underlying OER mechanism and the role of Cl, projected crystal orbital Hamiltonian population (pCOHP) analysis between the Ir centers and the O atoms in the adsorbed *OOH were calculated to give information on OOH intermediates adsorption 49 , 50 . We calculated the integrated COHP (ICOHP) up to the highest occupied bands (below the E f ), which directly gave quantitative information on the bonding states. In general, a negative –COHP indicates an antibonding state and a positive –COHP indicates a bonding state 51 , 52 . As shown in Fig.  4c , the lower ICOHP value (−4.60 eV) demonstrates that the molecular orbitals of adsorbed OOH interact much stronger with the Ir bands in Ir −Cl,OH than in IrO 2 (−3.89 eV), Ir −OH,OH (−4.23 eV) and Ir −Cl,Cl (−4.27 eV), indicating stronger OOH adsorption on Ir −Cl,OH . These results suggest that the *OOH formation, which is the RDS of OER, is easier to take place on the Ir −Cl,OH center, thereby promoting the OER kinetics.

To get experimental evidence on the formation of *OOH intermediate, electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy test was performed using 5,5-dimethyl-1-pyrroline N-oxide (DMPO) as an *OOH free radical trapping agent 53 , 54 . As shown in Fig.  4d , the signal originating from *OOH recorded in NaOH + NaCl electrolyte is nearly twice as much as that recorded in NaOH electrolyte, matching well with the COHP data. The enhanced adsorption of OER intermediates can be further deduced from the smaller slope of the open circuit potential (OCP) decay collected in NaOH + NaCl electrolyte as compared to that collected in pure NaOH electrolyte, as shown in Supplementary Fig.  48 .

To further verify the specific role of Ir-Cl, we conducted calculations of the Density of States (DOS) and Projected Density of States (PDOS) for Ir-Cl/CoFe-LDH and Cl/CoFe-LDH. The results indicate that Cl hybridizes with the conduction bands of Co and Fe, but there is no hybridization with the valence bands (Supplementary Fig.  49b ). Upon loading a Ir single-atom, Ir-Cl exhibits significantly stronger hybridization with both the valence and conduction bands (Supplementary Fig.  49a ), highlighting the enhanced orbital hybridization and bonding capability of Ir-Cl. The total density of states (TDOS) data aligns with the partial density of states (PDOS) data, demonstrating a pronounced increase in valence band hybridization in the presence of surface Ir, in contrast to CoFe-Cl case where the valence bands show no interaction (Supplementary Fig.  50 ).

To rationalize the improved OER performance and explore the role of chloridion, kinetic characteristics of Ir/CoFe-LDH in NaOH + NaCl and NaOH electrolyte were systematically studied 55 . The activation energy for OER over the Ir/CoFe-LDH catalyst in NaOH + NaCl electrolyte was estimated to be ~34.21 kJ/mol using the Arrhenius equation, much lower than that in NaOH electrolyte (~66.15 kJ/mol), verifying the much-improved OER kinetics by Cl - adsorption (Supplementary Figs.  51 and 52 ). On the other hand, ClOR displays remarkably high theoretical overpotentials (Supplementary Fig.  53 ), offering a compelling rationale for the enduring near 100% OER selectivity of Ir/CoFe-LDH at industrial current densities (400–800 mA cm −2 ) in seawater electrolysis.

To further demonstrate the stability of Ir/CoFe-LDH, we selected Cl adsorption sites on Co or Fe, respectively. The results indicate that, in the presence of Ir, Cl cannot effectively adsorb onto Co (Supplementary Movie  1 ) or Fe (Supplementary Movie  2 ), respectively (Supplementary Fig.  54 ). The optimization process revealed direct Cl adsorption onto Ir sites, eliminating the existence of stable configurations like Co-Cl or Fe-Cl (Supplementary Figs.  55 and 56 ). Consequently, these two active sites do not exist at presence of Ir. This finding further confirms the significant improvement in the electrochemical stability of CoFe LDH upon the introduction of Ir. The strong Ir-Cl coordination stabilizes the CoFe sites, inhibiting Cl coordination with both metal sites, thus ensuring system stability in seawater electrolysis.

In summary, we have devised an ingenious strategy involving the deposition of single-atom Ir onto CoFe-LDH and leveraging abundant Cl − ions within the seawater milieu to dynamically regulate the coordination state of Ir single-atom catalyst. This orchestration has endowed Ir/CoFe-LDH catalyst with greatly enhanced OER reactivity in seawater, surpassing its performance in alkaline environment. The confluence of operando characterizations and DFT calculations substantiates that the amplified OER performance of Ir/CoFe-LDH in seawater originates from the dynamic regulation of the Cl and OH coordination states on Ir. This chloride-mediated coordination augmentation facilitates robust adsorption of *OOH intermediates in OER, thereby reducing the activation energy barrier for the rate-determining OOH* formation by a factor of 1.93 and significantly increasing the cathodic interfacial electron transfer rate (CIER). Impressively, Ir/CoFe-LDH exhibits a remarkable operational stability at industrial current densities (400–800 mA cm −2 ) in seawater, maintaining uninterrupted activity for over 1000 h while retaining a remarkable 99.99% selectivity. This study not only unveils the immense potential of Ir/CoFe-LDH in seawater electrolysis, but also presents a novel strategy for regulating single-atom Cl coordination in seawater environments, a breakthrough that holds the promise of minimizing energy consumption and costs associated with seawater electrolysis, thereby propelling the practical deployment of this technology.

Iron(III) nitrate nine-hydrate (Fe(NO 3 ) 3 ·9H 2 O, 99.99%), cobalt(II) nitrate hexahydrate (Co(NO 3 ) 2 ·6H 2 O, 99.99%), iridium chloride hydrate (IrCl 3 ·xH 2 O, 99.9%), potassium chloride (KCl, ≥99%) were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich. Sodium hydroxide (NaOH, ≥96%), sodium chloride (NaCl, ≥99.5%), sodium carbonate (Na 2 CO 3 , ≥99.5%) were purchased from Fuchen Chemical Reagent Co., Ltd. Ethanol (CH 3 CH 2 OH, ≥99.5%) was purchased from Tianjin Fuyu Fine Chemical Co., Ltd. 5,5-Dimethyl-1-pyrroline N-oxide (DMPO) was purchased from Dojindo China Beijing Co., Ltd. Carbon fiber paper (Toray 060) was purchased from Suzhou Sinero Technology Co., Ltd. Seawater was taken from the Yellow Sea, China. Deionized (DI) water (resistivity: 18.3 MΩ cm) was used for the preparation of all aqueous solutions.

Preparation of CoFe-LDH

CoFe-LDH was synthesized via a co-precipitation method. In brief, 40 ml solution A: Fe(NO 3 ) 3 ·6H 2 O (0.05 M) and Co(NO 3 ) 2 ·6H 2 O (0.1 M) and 40 ml solution B: NaOH (0.75 M) and Na 2 CO 3 (0.125 M) were firstly prepared. Solution A and B were added dropwisely at the same time into a beaker filled with 40 ml of deionized water. The pH value of the final suspension was adjusted to 8.5 under magnetic stirring, as monitored using a pH meter at room temperature (25 °C). The pH is well controlled since salt solution A and alkali solution B was added at the same time, and the ratio of these two solutions could be adjusted to meet the targeting pH. The resulted suspension was aged for 12 h at 25 °C. Subsequently, the precipitate was collected by centrifugation, and washed 3 times using DI water, followed by ethanol wash for 3 times. The final precipitates were dried in a vacuum oven at 60 °C overnight.

Preparation of Ir/CoFe-LDH

The as-prepared CoFe-LDH (0.2 g) was added to 50 ml DI water under magnetic stirring to form a colloid suspension. Then, 10 ml freshly made aqueous IrCl 3 solution (5 mg) containing 0.02 M NaOH was dropwisely added to the above CoFe-LDH colloid suspension. The suspension was stirred with simultaneous heating at 60 °C for 6 h. Afterwards, the precipitate was collected by centrifugation, washed by DI water and ethanol, each for 3 times. Then, the final precipitates were dried in a vacuum oven at 60 °C overnight.

Preparation of Ir cluster /CoFe-LDH

The as-prepared CoFe-LDH (0.2 g) was added to 50 ml DI water under magnetic stirring to form a colloid suspension. Then, 10 ml freshly made aqueous IrCl 3 solution (10 mg) containing 0.02 M NaOH was dropwisely added to the above CoFe-LDH colloid suspension. The suspension was stirred with simultaneous heating at 60 °C for 6 h. Afterwards, the precipitate was collected by centrifugation, washed by DI water and ethanol each for 3 times. Then, the final precipitates were dried in a vacuum oven at 60 °C overnight.

HAADF-STEM characterization and simulation

Before imaging, the as-prepared catalysts were added into anhydrous ethanol by using an ultrasonator to form a very dilute colloid suspension, then 20 μl suspension was dripped onto 230 mesh Cu grids coated with ultrathin carbon. The high-resolution HAADF-STEM image was acquired using a Thermo Fisher Spectra 300 microscope equipped with an aberration corrector for the probe-forming lens, operated at 300 kV. The beam current was lower than 40 pA and the STEM convergence semi-angle was ~25 mrad, which provided a probe size of ~0.6 Å at 300 kV. The HADDF-STEM images with a 30° tilt of the sample were taken by tilting double tilt holder −30°(α), which can be moved in α (±35°) and β (±30°) directions. The HADDF-STEM image simulations were carried out using Dr. Probe software 34 , the parameters were set as same as the experimental condition. The accuracy of simulation results was 0.008 nm/pix.

Characterization instruments

Transmission electron microscopy measurement was carried out on a JEOL JEM 2100. X-ray powder diffraction (XRD) patterns were recorded on an X-ray diffractometer (Rigaku D/max 2500) with Cu Kα radiation (40 kV, 30 mA, λ  = 1.5418 Å) at a scan rate of 5° min −1 in the 2 θ range from 3 to 90°. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) spectra were recorded on an ESCALAB 250 (Thermo Fisher Scientific USA) photoelectron spectrometer using monochromate Al Kα 150 W X-ray beam. All binding energies were referenced to the C 1s peak (284.8 eV). Specifically, by evaluating the deviation of the binding energy position corresponding to the C 1s peak at 284.8 eV, the obtained difference is then utilized to carry out a comprehensive calibration of the entire dataset. ICP-MS measurement was performed on a Thermo X Series II ICP/MS quadrupole system, Thermo Fisher Scientific to quantify the chemical composition of the catalyst EPR spectroscopy measurement was performed on a Magnettech MS-5000X using 5,5-dimethyl-1-pyrroline N-oxide (DMPO) as the radical trap.

X-ray absorption spectroscopy

The measurements were performed in a typical three-electrode setup in a specially designed Teflon container with a window sealed by Kepton tape. The testing conditions were the same as in the electrochemical characterization case. The measurements were performed at BL-17C at the National Synchrotron Radiation Research Center (NSRRC, Hsinchu, Taiwan). In situ data were collected in total-fluorescence mode using a silicon drift detector.

XANES and EXAFS data analysis

The X-ray absorption near edge structure (XANES) and extended X-ray absorption fine structure (EXAFS) data were analyzed by the software Athena of the IFEFFIT package. The EXAFS spectra were analyzed through post-edge background subtraction from the overall absorption and normalized with respect to the edge-jump step by the software Artemis following previously reported data fitting methodology 56 , 57 , 58 .

In situ Raman test

In situ Raman spectra were collected on LabRAM ARAMIS (Horiba Jobin Yvon, France) with a PSU-H-FDA 532 nm laser source (Changchun New Industries Optoelectronics Tech. Co. Ltd, China). An LMPlanFLN 50× microscope objective lens with a numerical aperture of 0.5 (OLYMPUS, Japan) was used for Raman microscopy. Raman frequency was calibrated by a Si wafer (520.8 cm −1 ) during each experiment. In situ electrochemical Raman experiments were performed in an in situ Raman cell (Tianjin Aida Hengsheng Technology Development Co., Ltd, China) and the prepared catalyst, Hg/HgO, and Pt wire were employed as the working, reference, and counter electrode, respectively. A CHI 660e (Shanghai Chenhua Instrument Co., Ltd, China) electrochemical workstation was used to control the potential where the applied potentials were increased step by step from open circuit potential (OCP) to 1.57 V vs. RHE. Each spectrum was obtained at least three times with an exposure time of 30 s.

In situ DRIFTS experiments

In situ DRIFTS was used to characterize the interaction of the catalyst with CO. The in situ DRIFTS experiments were performed on a Bruker INVENIO R Fourier transform infrared spectrometer equipped with an MCT/A detector cooled by liquid nitrogen and a Harrick diffuse-reflectance attachment. Approximately 50 mg catalyst was loaded in the Harrick Praying Mantis high-temperature reaction chamber equipped with KBr windows (HVC-DRP-5). The chamber was sealed and gases were flown through at atmospheric pressure. High-purity Ar was used as the purging gas, and dilute CO (10% CO-certified grade) was used as the probe gas. The temperature was controlled by a thermocouple in direct contact with the sample. Circulating water was used to cool the body of the reaction chamber (set temperature: 22 °C). All of the in situ characterizations followed the same pretreatment procedure, each reported spectrum is an average of 64 scans. A spectral resolution of 4 cm −1 was used to collect the spectra, which are reported in Kubelka–Munk units. For Ir/CoFe-LDH, the sample was calcined in Ar (99.999%, 30 ml min −1 , 0.2 ml min −1  s −1 ramp rate) at 105 °C (5 °C min −1 ramp rate) for 30 min to remove physically adsorbed H 2 O. The temperature was then cooled in Ar to 25 °C with circulating water and the background spectrum was recorded. The sample was then labeled in CO (10% CO-certified grade, 30 ml min −1 , 0.2 ml min −1  s −1 ramp rate) at 25 °C for 0.5 h. Afterwards, Ar (99.999%, 30 ml min −1 , 0.2 ml min −1  s −1 ramp rate) was purged at 25 °C for 30 min to remove the physical adsorbed CO until there was no change observed in the spectra. The DRIFTS spectra were recorded in the wavenumber range from 1000 to 4000 cm −1 at 298 K with a total of 1000 measurements taken, each separated by a 10-s interval.

Electrochemical measurements

All electrochemical measurements were performed on a three-electrode setup using a CHI 660e electrochemical workstation. A platinum wire and a SCE double salt bridge electrode were served as the counter electrode and the reference electrode, respectively. The SCE double salt bridge, which was purchased from Tianjin Aida Hengsheng Technology Development Co., Ltd, consists of saturated KCl. The working electrode was prepared by the following steps: (1) Preparation of catalyst ink. 2 mg of the as-synthesized catalyst, 1 mg of carbon black, and 10 μl of Nafion solution were dispersed in ethanol (0.7 ml) and deionized water (0.7 ml) under ultrasonication for at least 1 h to form a homogeneous catalyst ink. (2) Coating the catalyst ink onto carbon fiber paper (1 cm × 1 cm, Toray, TGP-H-060): the catalyst ink was drop-casted onto carbon fiber paper (1 cm × 1 cm, Toray, TGP-H-060) 50 μl each time with drying under an infrared lamp, followed by dropping another 50 μl ink until the catalyst mass-loading of the catalyst reached 2 mg/cm 2 . Cyclic voltammetry (CV) was measured from 0 to 1.0 V versus SCE at a scan rate of 2 mV s −1 . The electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) was measured by applying an AC voltage of 5 mV at the overpotential of 10 mV with a frequency from 100 kHz to 0.1 Hz. All polarization curves were corrected for Ohmic-drop compensation with Ohmic resistance obtained by the EIS. The SCE reference electrode against RHE scale was directly measured by a three-electrode setup, consisting of 2 Pt wires and 1 reference electrode to be calibrated. The open circuit potential (OCP) was measured under the condition of purging high-purity H 2 gas into the electrolyte. An OCP was applied after saturation of H 2 gas, obtaining a stable potential. This potential is the potential difference between RHE and the reference electrode. In the choice of electrolyte for testing, the use of 6 M NaOH mirrors the alkalinity levels typically employed in industrial alkaline water electrolysis. Moreover, according to our previous work 8 , it is notable that the maximal solubility of NaCl in 6 M NaOH is 2.8 M, as excess NaCl concentration beyond this threshold results in crystalline precipitation. Importantly, in practical scenarios, electrolyte salt concentrations are unlikely to exceed this limit. By conducting tests under these conditions, we aim to showcase the electrode’s performance at its utmost capacity.

Measurement of activation energy ( E a )

The activation energy of OER is an indicator of reaction kinetics, which is only dependent on the material. The Eq. ( 1 ) is Arrhenius equation, where A is the preexponential factor, R is the ideal gas constant, T is the temperature, and k is a rate constant, which can be applied to determine the activation energy of OER on the catalysts. At a fixed overpotential, the kinetic current ( I k ) has a linear relationship with a rate constant ( k ), as shown in Eq. ( 2 ), where F is Faraday constant, n is the number of transferred electrons, S is the electrode area and C * is concentration. If we assume that mass transport effects are negligible on the OER currents, the I k can be expressed as Eq. ( 3 ), where W is the activation barrier at a constant potential. The kinetic activation energy at a given voltage can be expressed as Eq. ( 4 ). Hence, the activation energy for OER can be defined by Eq. ( 5 ):

Theoretical methods

All theoretical calculations were performed using the projector-augmented wave method and a plane-wave basis set as implementation in the Vienna Ab Initio Simulation Package (VASP). The bulk and surface properties of CoFeOOH were optimized within GGA-PBE. Full optimization of all atom positions in the bulk was performed via the action of a conjugated gradient optimization procedure. The Monkhorst-Pack k -point samplings were set as 3 × 3 × 1 for the geometry optimization, and 13 × 13 × 1 for the computation of electronic structure. And the bulk constants were optimized using the 3 × 3 × 3 Monkhorst-Pack k -point sampling. The cutoff energy for plane-wave basis functions was set to 600 eV with the energy change convergence criterion of 1 × 10 −5  eV. Atomic positions were allowed to relax until the sum of the absolute forces reached down to 0.02 eV Å −1 . Hubbard-U correction method was applied to improve the description of localized Co and Fe d -electrons in the CoFeOOH with U = 5.3 and U = 3.5 for Fe and Co, respectively. The spin polarization, long-range van der Waals interaction (IVDW = 11), and solvent corrections were also included in surface calculations. The solvent effect on adsorbates was considered using the Poisson–Boltzmann implicit solvation model with a dielectric constant of 78.4. The Gibb’s free energies were calculated by:

where the symbols represent the binding energy (Δ E ), the change in zero-point energy (ΔZPE), temperature ( T ), and the entropy change (Δ S ) of the system, respectively. The crystal orbital Hamiltonian population (COHP) was calculated by LOBSTER, and the convergence threshold for the iteration in self-consistent field was set at 1 × 10 −8  eV.

Data availability

Source data are provided with this paper.

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Acknowledgements

The authors thank the help from Dr. Cejun Hu for the help on characterization. X.S. and Y.K. acknowledge financial support from the National Key Research and Development Project (2021YFA1502200), the National Natural Science Foundation of China (21935001), Beijing Natural Science Foundation (Z210016), a long-term subsidy from China’s Ministry of Finance and the Ministry of Education. B.L. acknowledges financial support from the City University of Hong Kong start up fund (9020003) and ITF-RTH-Global STEM Professorship (9446006).

Author information

These authors contributed equally: Xinxuan Duan, Qihao Sha.

Authors and Affiliations

State Key Laboratory of Chemical Resource Engineering, Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Soft Matter Science and Engineering, College of Chemistry, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing, 100029, PR China

Xinxuan Duan, Qihao Sha, Tianshui Li, Guotao Yang, Wei Liu, Daojin Zhou, Yaping Li, Wen Liu, Yun Kuang & Xiaoming Sun

School of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Biotechnology, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, 637459, Singapore

Xinxuan Duan

Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Sciences, CAS Key Laboratory of Colloid, Interface and Chemical Thermodynamics, Institute of Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100190, PR China

Pengsong Li

Ocean Hydrogen Energy R&D Center, Research Institute of Tsinghua University in Shenzhen, Shenzhen, 518057, PR China

Ende Yu & Yun Kuang

State Key Lab of Organic–Inorganic Composites, College of Chemical Engineering, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, 100029, Beijing, PR China

Jinjie Fang & Zhongbin Zhuang

Energy & Catalysis Center, School of Materials Science & Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, 100081, PR China

Wenxing Chen

Hefei National Research Center for Physical Sciences at the Microscale, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, 230026, PR China

Yizhen Chen

Beijing Synchrotron Radiation Facility, Institute of High Energy Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100049, Beijing, PR China

Lirong Zheng, Jiangwen Liao & Juncai Dong

Department of Chemistry, Tsinghua University, 100084, Beijing, PR China

Zeyu Wang & Hai Xiao

Department of Materials Science and Engineering, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, 999077, PR China

Hongbin Yang & Bin Liu

College of Energy, Shandong University of Science and Technology, Tsingtao, 266590, PR China

Guoxin Zhang

Beijing Key Laboratory of Energy Environmental Catalysis, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, 100029, Beijing, PR China

Zhongbin Zhuang

Department of Applied Chemistry and Center for Emergent Functional Matter Science, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu, 300, Taiwan

Sung-Fu Hung

School of Materials Science and Engineering, Tianjin Key Lab of Photoelectric Materials & Devices, Tianjin University of Technology, Tianjin, 300384, PR China

Changfei Jing

ShenSi Lab, Shenzhen Institute for Advanced Study, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Shenzhen, 518110, PR China

CAS Key Laboratory of Standardization and Measurement for Nanotechnology, National Center for Nanoscience and Technology, 100190, Beijing, PR China

Department of Chemistry & Center of Super-Diamond and Advanced Films (COSDAF), City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, 999077, PR China

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Contributions

X.S., B.L., and Y.K. supervised the project. X.D. conceived the idea and carried out the experiments. X.D., Q.S., P.L., and D.Z. conducted material synthesis and electrochemical measurements. Q.S. conducted the in situ DRIFTs and in situ Raman measurements. T.L., G.Y., and W.L. help with the material characterization. W.C., Y.C., and L.Z. conducted the in situ XAS measurements. X.D., Y.L. and E.Y. performed the DFT calculations. H.Y., G.Z., and W.L. assisted with the data analysis. X.S., B.L., Y.K., X.D., and Q.S. wrote the paper. S.H. conducted the in situ XAS measurements in the revised version. J.L. and J.D. analyzed the data of XAS in the revised version. Z.W. and H.X. help with the DFT simulation. J.F. and Z.Z. conducted the ATR-SEIRAS measurements in the revised version. C.J., J.L., and L.B. conducted the HADDF-STEM measurements and simulations. All authors discussed the results and assisted the manuscript preparation.

Corresponding authors

Correspondence to Yun Kuang , Bin Liu or Xiaoming Sun .

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Duan, X., Sha, Q., Li, P. et al. Dynamic chloride ion adsorption on single iridium atom boosts seawater oxidation catalysis. Nat Commun 15 , 1973 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-46140-y

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Received : 01 November 2023

Accepted : 15 February 2024

Published : 04 March 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-46140-y

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