research topics on gender identity

MINI REVIEW article

Sexual orientation and gender identity: review of concepts, controversies and their relation to psychopathology classification systems.

• Instituto Universitário de Lisboa ISCTE-IUL, CIS, Lisboa, Portugal

Numerous controversies and debates have taken place throughout the history of psychopathology (and its main classification systems) with regards to sexual orientation and gender identity. These are still reflected on present reformulations of gender dysphoria in both the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual and the International Classification of Diseases, and in more or less subtle micro-aggressions experienced by lesbian, gay, bisexual and trans patients in mental health care. The present paper critically reviews this history and current controversies. It reveals that this deeply complex field contributes (i) to the reflection on the very concept of mental illness; (ii) to the focus on subjective distress and person-centered experience of psychopathology; and (iii) to the recognition of stigma and discrimination as significant intervening variables. Finally, it argues that sexual orientation and gender identity have been viewed, in the history of the field of psychopathology, between two poles: gender transgression and gender variance/fluidity.

Numerous controversies and debates have taken place throughout the history of psychopathology and mental health care with regards to lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender (LGBT) people. The present paper aims to review relevant concepts in this literature, its historical and current controversies, and their relation to the main psychopathology classification systems.

Concepts and Definitions

Concepts and definitions that refer to sexual orientation and gender identity are an evolving field. Many of the terms used in the past to describe LGBT people, namely in the mental health field, are now considered to be outdated and even offensive.

Sexual orientation refers to the sex of those to whom one is sexually and romantically attracted ( American Psychological Association, 2012 ). Nowadays, the terms ‘lesbian’ and ‘gay’ are used to refer to people who experience attraction to members of the same sex, and the term ‘bisexual’ describe people who experience attraction to members of both sexes. It should be noted that, although these categories continue to be widely used, sexual orientation does not always appear in such definable categories and, instead, occurs on a continuum ( American Psychological Association, 2012 ), and people perceived or described by others as LGB may identify in various ways ( D’Augelli, 1994 ).

The expression gender identity was coined in the middle 1960s, describing one’s persistent inner sense of belonging to either the male and female gender category ( Money, 1994 ). The concept of gender identity evolved over time to include those people who do not identify either as female or male: a “person’s self concept of their gender (regardless of their biological sex) is called their gender identity” ( Lev, 2004 , p. 397). The American Psychological Association (2009a , p. 28) described it as: “the person’s basic sense of being male, female, or of indeterminate sex.” For decades, the term ‘transsexual’ was restricted for individuals who had undergone medical procedures, including genital reassignment surgeries. However, nowadays, ‘transsexual’ refers to anyone who has a gender identity that is incongruent with the sex assigned at birth and therefore is currently, or is working toward, living as a member of the sex other than the one they were assigned at birth, regardless of what medical procedures they may have undergone or may desire in the future (e.g., Serano, 2007 ; American Psychological Association, 2009a ; Coleman et al., 2012 ). In this paper we use the prefix trans when referring to transsexual people.

Since the 1990’s the word transgender has been used primarily as an umbrella term to describe those people who defy societal expectations and assumptions regarding gender (e.g., Lev, 2004 ; American Psychological Association, 2009a ). It includes people who are transsexual and intersex, but also those who identify outside the female/male binary and those whose gender expression and behavior differs from social expectations. As in the case of sexual orientation, people perceived or described by others as transgender – including transsexual men and women – may identify in various ways (e.g., Pinto and Moleiro, 2015 ).

Discrimination and Impact on Mental Health

Lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender people often suffer from various forms of discrimination, stigma and social exclusion – including physical and psychological abuse, bullying, persecution, or economic alienation ( United Nations, 2011 ; Bostwick et al., 2014 ; European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights, 2014 ). Moreover, experiences of discrimination may occur in various areas, such as employment, education and health care, but also in the context of meaningful interpersonal relationships, including family (e.g., Milburn et al., 2006 ; Feinstein et al., 2014 ; António and Moleiro, 2015 ). Accordingly, several studies strongly suggest that experiences of discrimination and stigmatization place LGBT people at higher risk for mental distress ( Cochran and Mays, 2000 ; Dean et al., 2000 ; Cochran et al., 2003 ; Meyer, 2003 ; Shilo, 2014 ).

For example, LGB populations may be at increased risk for suicide ( Hershberger and D’Augelli, 1995 ; Mustanski and Liu, 2013 ), traumatic stress reactions ( D’Augelli et al., 2002 ), major depression disorders ( Cochran and Mays, 2000 ), generalized anxiety disorders ( Bostwick et al., 2010 ), or substance abuse ( King et al., 2008 ). In addition, transgender people have been identified as being at a greater risk for developing: anxiety disorders ( Hepp et al., 2005 ; Mustanski et al., 2010 ); depression ( Nuttbrock et al., 2010 ; Nemoto et al., 2011 ); social phobia and adjustment disorders ( Gómez-Gil et al., 2009 ); substance abuse ( Lawrence, 2008 ); or eating disorders ( Vocks et al., 2009 ). At the same time, data on suicide ideation and attempts among this population are alarming: Maguen and Shipherd (2010) found the percentage of attempted suicides to be as high as 40% in transsexual men and 20% in transsexual women. Nuttbrock et al. (2010) , using a sample of 500 transgender women, found that around 30% had already attempted suicide, around 35% had planned to do so, and close to half of the participants expressed suicide ideation. In particular, adolescence has been identified as a period of increased risk with regard to the mental health of transgender and transsexual people ( Dean et al., 2000 ).

In sum, research clearly recognizes the role of stigma and discrimination as significant intervening variables in psychopathology among LGBT populations. Nevertheless, the relation between sexual orientation or gender identity and stress may be mediated by several variables, including social and family support, low internalized homophobia, expectations of acceptance vs. rejection, contact with other LGBT people, or religiosity ( Meyer, 2003 ; Shilo and Savaya, 2012 ; António and Moleiro, 2015 ; Snapp et al., 2015 ). Thus, it seems important to focus on subjective distress and in a person-centered experience of psychopathology.

On the History of Homosexuality and Psychiatric Diagnoses

While nowadays we understand that higher rates of psychological distress among LGB people are related to their minority status and to discrimination, by the early 20th century, psychiatrists mostly regarded homosexuality as pathological per se ; and in the mid-20th century psychiatrics, physicians, and psychologists were trying to “cure” and change homosexuality ( Drescher, 2009 ). In 1952, the American Psychiatric Association published its first edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM-I), in which homosexuality was considered a “sociopathic personality disturbance.” In DSM-II, published in 1968, homosexuality was reclassified as a “sexual deviation.” However, in December 1973, the American Psychiatric Association’s Board of Trustees voted to remove homosexuality from the DSM.

The most significant catalyst to homosexuality’s declassification as a mental illness was lesbian and gay activism, and its advocacy efforts within the American Psychiatric Association ( Drescher, 2009 ). Nevertheless, during the discussion that led to the diagnostic change, APA’s Nomenclature Committee also wrestled with the question of what constitutes a mental disorder. Concluding that “they [mental disorders] all regularly caused subjective distress or were associated with generalized impairment in social effectiveness of functioning” ( Spitzer, 1981 , p. 211), the Committee agreed that homosexuality by itself was not one.

However, the diagnostic change did not immediately end the formal pathologization of some presentations of homosexuality. After the removal of the “homosexuality” diagnosis, the DSM-II contained the diagnosis of “sexual orientation disturbance,” which was replaced by “ego dystonic homosexuality” in the DSM-III, by 1980. These diagnoses served the purpose of legitimizing the practice of sexual “conversion” therapies among those individuals with same-sex attractions who were distressed and reported they wished to change their sexual orientation ( Spitzer, 1981 ; Drescher, 2009 ). Nonetheless, “ego-dystonic homosexuality” was removed from the DSM-III-R in 1987 after several criticisms: as formulated by Drescher (2009 , p. 435): “should people of color unhappy about their race be considered mentally ill?”

The removal from the DSM of psychiatric diagnoses related to sexual orientation led to changes in the broader cultural beliefs about homosexuality and culminated in the contemporary civil rights quest for equality ( Drescher, 2012 ). In contrast, it was only in 1992 that the World Health Organization ( World Health Organization, 1992 ) removed “homosexuality” from the International Classification of Diseases (ICD-10), which still contains a diagnosis similar to “ego-dystonic homosexuality.” However, this is expected to change in the next revision, planned for publication in 2017 ( Cochran et al., 2014 ).

Controversies on Gender Dysphoria and (Trans)Gender Diagnoses

Mental health diagnoses that are specific to transgender and transsexual people have been highly controversial. In this domain, the work of Harry Benjamin was fundamental for trans issues internationally, through the Harry Benjamin International Gender Dysphoria Association (presently, the World Professional Association for Transgender Health, WPATH). In the past few years, there has been a vehement discussion among interested professionals, trans and LGBT activists, and human rights groups concerning the reform or removal of (trans)gender diagnoses from the main health diagnostic tools. However, discourses on this topic have been inconclusive, filled with mixed messages and polarized opinions ( Kamens, 2011 ). Overall, mental health diagnoses which are specific to transgender people have been criticized in large part because they enhance the stigma in a population which is already particularly stigmatized ( Drescher, 2013 ). In fact, it has been suggested that the label “mental disorder” is the main factor underlying prejudice toward trans people ( Winter et al., 2009 ).

The discussion reached a high point during the recent revision process of the DSM-5 ( American Psychiatric Association, 2013 ), in which the diagnosis of “gender identity disorder” was revised into one of “gender dysphoria.” Psychiatric diagnosis was thus limited to those who are, in a certain moment of their lives, distressed about living with a gender assignment they experience as incongruent with their gender identity ( Drescher, 2013 ). The change of criteria and nomenclature “is less pathologizing as it no longer implies that one’s identity is disordered” ( DeCuypere et al., 2010 , p. 119). In fact, gender dysphoria is not a synonym for transsexuality, nor should it be used to describe transgender people in general ( Lev, 2004 ); rather, “[it] is a clinical term used to describe the symptoms of excessive pain, agitation, restless, and malaise that gender-variant people seeking therapy often express” ( Lev, 2004 , p. 910). Although the changes were welcomed (e.g., DeCuypere et al., 2010 ; Lev, 2013 ), there are still voices arguing for the “ultimate removal” ( Lev, 2013 , p. 295) of gender dysphoria from the DSM. Nevertheless, attention is presently turned to the ongoing revision of the ICD. Various proposals concerning the revision of (trans)gender diagnoses within ICD have been made, both originating from transgender and human rights groups (e.g., Global Action for Trans ∗ Equality, 2011 ; TGEU, 2013 ) and the health profession community (e.g., Drescher et al., 2012 ; World Professional Association for Transgender Health, 2013 ). These include two main changes: the reform of the diagnosis of transsexualism into one of “gender incongruence”; and the change of the diagnosis into a separate chapter from the one on “mental and behavioral disorders.”

Mental Health Care Reflecting Controversies

There is evidence that LGBT persons resort to psychotherapy at higher rates than the non-LGBT population ( Bieschke et al., 2000 ; King et al., 2007 ); hence, they may be exposed to higher risk for harmful or ineffective therapies, not only as a vulnerable group, but also as frequent users.

Recently, there has been a greater concern in the mental health field oriented to the promotion of the well-being among non-heterosexual and transgender people, which has paralleled the diagnostic changes. This is established, for instance, by the amount of literature on gay and lesbian affirmative psychotherapy which has been developed in recent decades (e.g., Davis, 1997 ) and, also, by the fact that major international accrediting bodies in counseling and psychotherapy have identified the need for clinicians to be able to work effectively with minority clients, namely LGBT people. The APA’s guidelines for psychotherapy with lesbian, gay, and bisexual client ( American Psychological Association, 2000 , 2012 ) are a main reference. These ethical guidelines highlight, among several issues, the need for clinicians to recognize that their own attitudes and knowledge about the experiences of sexual minorities are relevant to the therapeutic process with these clients and that, therefore, mental health care providers must look for appropriate literature, training, and supervision.

However, empirical research also reveals that some therapists still pursue less appropriate clinical practices with LGBT clients. In a review of empirical research on the provision of counseling and psychotherapy to LGB clients, Bieschke et al. (2006) encountered an unexpected recent explosion of literature focused on “conversion therapy.” There are, in fact, some mental health professionals that still attempt to help lesbian, gay, and bisexual clients to become heterosexual ( Bartlett et al., 2009 ), despite the fact that a recent systematic review of the peer-reviewed journal literature on sexual orientation change efforts concluded that “efforts to change sexual orientation are unlikely to be successful and involve some risk of harm” ( American Psychological Association, 2009b , p. 1).

Moreover, there is evidence of other forms of inappropriate (while less blatant) clinical practices with LGBT clients (e.g., Garnets et al., 1991 ; Jordan and Deluty, 1995 ; Liddle, 1996 ; Hayes and Erkis, 2000 ). Even those clinicians who intend to be affirmative and supportive of LGBT individuals can reveal subtle heterosexist bias in the work with these clients ( Pachankis and Goldfried, 2004 ). Examples of such micro-aggressions ( Sue, 2010 ) might be automatically assuming that a client is heterosexual, trying to explain the etiology of the client’s homosexuality, or focusing on the sexual orientation of a LGB client despite the fact that this is not an issue at hand (e.g., Shelton and Delgado-Romero, 2011 ). Heterosexual bias in counseling and psychotherapy may manifest itself also in what Brown (2006 , p. 350) calls “sexual orientation blindness,” i.e., struggling for a supposed neutrality and dismissing the specificities related to the minority condition of non-heterosexual clients. This conceptualization of the human experience mostly in heterosexual terms, found in the therapeutic setting, does not seem to be independent of psychotherapist’s basic training and the historical heterosexist in the teaching of medicine and psychology ( Simoni, 1996 ; Alderson, 2004 ).

With regards to the intervention with trans people, for decades the mental health professionals’ job was to sort out the “true” transsexuals from all other transgender people. The former would have access to physical transition, and the later would be denied any medical intervention other than psychotherapy. By doing this, whether deliberately or not, professionals – acting as gatekeepers – pursued to ‘ensure that most people who did transition would not be “gender-ambiguous” in any way’ ( Serano, 2007 , p. 120). Research shows that currently trans people still face serious challenges in accessing health care, including those related to inappropriate gatekeeping ( Bockting et al., 2004 ; Bauer et al., 2009 ). Some mental health professionals still focus on the assessment of attributes related to identity and gender expressions, rather than on the distress with which trans people may struggle with ( Lev, 2004 ; Serano, 2007 ). Hence, trans people may feel the need to express a personal narrative consistent with what they believe the clinicians’ expectations to be, for accessing hormonal or surgical treatments ( Pinto and Moleiro, 2015 ). Thus, despite the revisions of (trans)gender diagnoses within the DSM, more recent diagnoses seem to still be used as if they were identical with the diagnosis of transsexualism – in a search for the “true transsexual” ( Cohen-Kettenis and Pfäfflin, 2010 ). It seems clear that social and cultural biases have significantly influenced – and still do – diagnostic criteria and the access to hormonal and surgical treatments for trans people.

Controversies and debates with regards to medical classification of sexual orientation and gender identity contribute to the reflection on the very concept of mental illness. The agreement that mental disorders cause subjective distress or are associated with impairment in social functioning was essential for the removal of “homosexuality” from the DSM in the 1970s ( Spitzer, 1981 ). Moreover, (trans)gender diagnoses constitute a significant dividing line both within trans related activism (e.g., Vance et al., 2010 ) and the health professionals’ communities (e.g., Ehrbar, 2010 ). The discussion has taken place between two apposite positions: (1) trans(gender) diagnoses should be removed from health classifying systems, because they promote the pathologization and stigmatization of gender diversity and enhance the medical control of trans people’s identities and lives; and (2) trans(gender) diagnoses should be retained in order to ensure access to care, since health care systems rely on diagnoses to justify medical treatment – which many trans people need. In fact, trans people often describe experiences of severe distress and argue for the need for treatments and access to medical care ( Pinto and Moleiro, 2015 ), but at the same time reject the label of mental illness for themselves ( Global Action for Trans ∗ Equality, 2011 ; TGEU, 2013 ). Thus, it may be important to understand how the debate around (trans)diagnoses may be driven also by a history of undue gatekeeping and by stigma involving mental illness.

The present paper argues that sexual orientation and gender identity have been viewed, in the history of the field of psychopathology, between two poles: gender transgression and gender variance/fluidity.

On the one hand, aligned with a position of “transgression” and/or “deviation from a norm,” people who today are described as LGBT were labeled as mentally ill. Inevitably, classification systems reflect(ed) the existing social attitudes and prejudices, as well as the historical and cultural contexts in which they were developed ( Drescher, 2012 ; Kirschner, 2013 ). In that, they often failed to differentiate between mental illness and socially non-conforming behavior or fluidity of gender expressions. This position and the historical roots of this discourse are still reflected in the practices of some clinicians, ranging from “conversion” therapies to micro-aggressions in the daily lives of LGBT people, including those experienced in the care by mental health professionals.

On the other hand, lined up with a position of gender variance and fluidity, changes in the diagnostic systems in the last few decades reflect a broader respect and value of the diversity of human sexuality and of gender expressions. This position recognizes that the discourse and practices coming from the (mental) health field may lead to changes in the broader cultural beliefs ( Drescher, 2012 ). As such, it also recognizes the power of medical classifications, health discourses and clinical practices in translating the responsibility of fighting discrimination and promoting LGBT people’s well-being.

In conclusion, it seems crucial to emphasize the role of specific training and supervision in the development of clinical competence in the work with sexual minorities. Several authors (e.g., Pachankis and Goldfried, 2004 ) have argued for the importance of continuous education and training of practitioners in individual and cultural diversity competences, across professional development. This is in line with APA’s ethical guidelines ( American Psychological Association, 2000 , 2012 ), and it is even more relevant when we acknowledge the significant and recent changes in this field. Furthermore, it is founded on the very notion that LGBT competence assumes clinicians ought to be aware of their own personal values, attitudes and beliefs regarding human sexuality and gender diversity in order to provide appropriate care. These ethical concerns, however, have not been translated into training programs in medicine and psychology in a systematic manner in most European countries, and to the mainstreaming of LGBT issues ( Goldfried, 2001 ) in psychopathology.

Conflict of Interest Statement

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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Mustanski, B. S., Garofalo, R., and Emerson, E. M. (2010). Mental health disorders, psychological distress, and suicidality in a diverse sample of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender youths. Res. Pract. 100, 2426–2432. doi: 10.2105/AJPH.2009.178319

Nemoto, T., Bodeker, B., and Iwamoto, M. (2011). Social support, exposure to violence, and transphobia: correlates of depression among male-to-female transgender women with a history of sex work. Am. J. Public Health 101, 1980–1988. doi: 10.2105/AJPH.2010.197285

Nuttbrock, L., Hwahng, S., Bockting, W., Rosenblum, A., Mason, M., Macri, M., et al. (2010). Psychiatric impact of gender-related abuse across the life course of male-to-female transgender persons. J. Sex Res. 47, 12–23. doi: 10.1080/00224490903062258

Pachankis, J. E., and Goldfried, M. R. (2004). Clinical issues in working with lesbian, gay, and bisexual clients. Psychotherapy Theor. Res. Pract. Train. 41, 227–246. doi: 10.1037/0033-3204.41.3.227

Pinto, N., and Moleiro, C. (2015). Gender trajectories: transsexual people coming to terms with their gender identities. Prof. Psychol. Res. Pract. 46, 12–20. doi: 10.1037/a0036487

Serano, J. (2007). Whipping Girl. A Transsexual Woman on Sexism and the Scapegoating of Femininity. Berkeley, CA: Seal Press.

Shelton, K., and Delgado-Romero, E. A. (2011). Sexual orientation microaggressions: the experience of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and queer clients in psychotherapy. J. Couns. Psychol. 58, 210–221. doi: 10.1037/a0022251

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Shilo, G. Z. (2014). The Impact of Minority Stressors on the Mental and Physical Health of Lesbian. Gay, and Bisexual Youths and Young Adults. Health Soc. Work 39, 161–171.

Simoni, J. M. (1996). Confronting heterosexism in the teaching of psychology. Teach. Psychol. 23, 220–226. doi: 10.1207/s15328023top2304_3

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Spitzer, R. L. (1981). The diagnostic status of homosexuality in the DSM-III: a reformulation of the issues. Am. J. Psychiatry 138, 210–215. doi: 10.1176/ajp.138.2.210

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TGEU (2013). TGEU’s Position on the Revision of the ICD z10. Available at: http://www.tgeu.org/sites/default/files/TGEU%20Position%20ICD%20Revision_0.pdf

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Vance, S., Cohen-Kettenis, P. T., Drescher, J., Meyer-Bahlburg, H. F., Pfäfflin, F., and Zucker, K. J. (2010). Opinions about the dsm gender identity disorder diagnosis: results from an international survey administered to organizations concerned with the welfare of transgender people. Int. J. Transgend. 12, 1–14. doi: 10.1080/15532731003749087

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Keywords : sexual orientation, gender identity, transgender, discrimination, psychopathology, mental health care

Citation: Moleiro C and Pinto N (2015) Sexual orientation and gender identity: review of concepts, controversies and their relation to psychopathology classification systems. Front. Psychol. 6:1511. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01511

Received: 29 July 2015; Accepted: 18 September 2015; Published: 01 October 2015.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2015 Moleiro and Pinto. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Carla Moleiro, Instituto Universitário de Lisboa ISCTE-IUL, CIS, Avenida das Forças Armadas, 1649-026 Lisbon, Portugal, [email protected]

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

Top 10 gender research reads from 2021

• From CGIAR GENDER Platform
• Published on 18.02.22
• Impact Area Gender equality

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In our series of recommended reading lists, gender experts provide starting points for researchers, students, practitioners and others looking to dive deeper into research on gender and a wide variety of topics.

This time, we asked the CGIAR GENDER Platform team members to pick out their top gender research reads from 2021. Explore below for their selection of the most interesting, important and captivating publications released last year.

Top picks by Nicoline de Haan, CGIAR GENDER Platform Director

#1  rural youth in southern nigeria.

There are three clear reasons why  Rural Youth in Southern Nigeria: Fractured Lives and Ambitious Futures   by Crossouard et al. sticks in my mind. First, because it is about youth. We often talk about youth and their importance for the future, but I have not seen much research about rural youth. As the CGIAR GENDER Platform evolves, we will work more on youth issues, so it is important we have more theoretical thinking and evidence in this space. My second reason is linked to the article’s approach: years ago, I was in the field in Kenya with a PhD student doing research on how rural education was preparing youth for the future, and she found that the education system was not at all linked to the realities. This article looks at that issue as well. Finally, I picked this because it is about Nigeria, and having spent seven years of my career there, Nigeria always interests me. It was also good to see a CGIAR scientist involved in this research.

#2 Gender equality in climate policy and practice

Gender Equality in Climate Policy and Practice Hindered by Assumptions  by Lau et al. is one of those articles that should have been written a long time ago. It lays out the assumptions we are still dealing with in gender in agriculture research. For example, that women are caring and connected to the environment; that women are a homogenous and vulnerable group; that gender equality is a women’s issue; and that gender equality is a numbers game. The authors very nicely show how these assumptions hinder progress on climate change and how they can even be counterproductive. Now that this article is out there for the public, we can move on and really deal with the issues at hand!

Top picks by Marlene Elias, CGIAR GENDER Platform Alliances Module Lead

#3 gender expertise in environment and development.

This book,  Negotiating Gender Expertise in Environment and Development  by Resurrección and Elmhirst, is thoughtful and beautifully written. It brings together critical reflections from gender experts on their experiences working in environment and development organizations, including CGIAR. It takes an innovative format: a series of conversations between the co-editors and writers, Bernadette Resurrección and Rebecca Elmhirst, and gender experts who are working to place gender and social inclusion issues at the center of research and practice on sustainability and environmental management. These conversations surface the motivations, negotiations, achievements and daily struggles of these professionals as they navigate the complexities of all that is implied by working on gender in largely technical fields. Every chapter has a different flavor, but all will resonate with those of us working in this area; and make us nod our heads, sigh, laugh (or cry!) and better understand our profession and ourselves.

#4 Masculinities in forests

Colfer’s book,  Masculinities in Forests: Representations of Diversity , focuses on how masculinities relate to forest management, drawing on her experience working in different forest contexts, from the USA to Indonesia. It takes a timely dive into diverse masculinities and how these shape practices in forest management, all the while recognizing men’s agency in expressing different masculine identities. Aside from the rich content that is discussed, couched in an accessible framework and language, I appreciated that the book examines masculinities among professionals working in the field of forestry as well as among various forest communities. I was also very impressed by how Colfer was able to re-examine decades of ethnographic research through a new lens to write this book. Wow!

Top picks by Els Lecoutere, CGIAR GENDER Platform Science Officer

#5 diffusion and dilution.

Doss’  Diffusion and Dilution: The Power and Perils of Integrating Feminist Perspectives into Household Economics  is important to me is because it acknowledges the advances we have made in integrating feminist economic perspectives into mainstream economics, but also points out areas for improvement. It helps us to stay focused. Personally, I find the call for careful consideration of benefits versus potential harm, and proper training of enumerators when collection data about domestic and gender-based violence, extremely important. I sometimes feel we make the decision to collect data about domestic and gender-based violence too lightly. The article further opens the discussion about two other pet topics of mine: First, how can we better capture the complexity of households, including the web of power relations between different members, in which individuals make decisions? Second, how can we measure social norms and their importance for people’s capabilities and choices? How can these be changed and what are the effects?

#6 A review of evidence 

I keep going back to this brief,   A Review of Evidence on Gender Equality, Women’s Empowerment and Food Systems  by Njuki et al., mainly for its gendered food systems framework. The framework brings the different ways in which gender affects capabilities, choices and outcomes in food systems together. It provides a theoretical basis for various key questions in gender in agricultural and food system research and shows how this is supported by evidence. To me, its key contribution is the way it disentangles the different ‘entry points’ of gender constraints. Gender inequalities cannot only creep into biophysical, technological or economic drivers of food systems, shocks and vulnerabilities affecting these drivers can also affect men and women differently. Finally, the conceptualization of gendered food systems as systems underscores the dynamic, interdependent nature of the different elements and the need for a holistic approach to achieve gender equality in agriculture and food systems.

Top pick by Hazel Malapit and Elizabeth Bryan, CGIAR GENDER Platform Methods Module Co-leads

#7 advancing gender equality.

If you don’t have time to read the whole book, read the introduction.  Pyburn and van Eerdewijk’s introduction  to Advancing Gender Equality through Agricultural and Environmental Research excellently presents the topics discussed in the book, which features contributions from 55 CGIAR gender researchers. The book flips an often-posed question: instead of asking what gender equality can do for agricultural development, it asks how agricultural and environmental research can advance gender equality. One of the best overviews of gender research in CGIAR, the introductory chapter contextualizes CGIAR gender research within our organization’s struggles to address gender and within the broader thinking around gender and development. The introduction provides summaries of each chapter as well as information on the methodological and geographic breakdown of studies reviewed.

#8 Gender and agricultural economics

As gender researchers in the GCIAR are well aware, women and men in developing countries have different preferences and interests, and good policies and programs take these differences into account. But what about what researchers themselves bring to the table? This article,  How Women Saved Agricultural Economics , by Offutt and McCluskey, points out that women (and minorities) tend to be under-represented in economics positions in government and academia, and are not recognized for their achievements with awards and editorships due to both overt discrimination and implicit bias. Yet, the authors say, the diversity resulting from women’s increased presence in field has increased the relevance of the discipline over the last several decades. This research documents the importance of increasing representation in academic fields where women (and other minorities) are traditionally under-represented. While this study focuses on agricultural economics in the United States, it has prompted further analysis of how these patterns apply in other countries, such as India and Kenya, and within other institutions.

Top picks by Ranjitha Puskur, CGIAR GENDER Platform Evidence Module Lead

#9 food and agriculture systems.

Foresight studies on agriculture tend to not integrate social dimensions as these often do not render themselves to quantitative measurement. This article,  Food and Agriculture Systems Foresight Study: Implications for Gender, Poverty and Nutrition  by Lentz, is a rare review that argues for mainstreaming a gender, poverty and nutrition focus into foresight research. This would help ensure that we reduce the risk of entrenching gender inequalities and promoting technologies that exacerbate inequality, and that we are able to inform policy- and innovation-led pathways. Having dabbled in participatory foresight analysis using scenario planning, visioning and backcasting, this piqued my curiosity. The paper offers helpful insights into how and when to bundle or sequence interventions and the need to understand the effects of interventions on the whole agri-food system. It offers a very engaging and useful read, even for those who are unfamiliar with foresight methods.

#10 Gender and land ownership

The issue of women’s limited land ownership is sticky and has occupied central stage in debates and discourses for a while. Nowhere have we been able to make any significant progress in reducing the gender gaps in land ownership. Cheryl Doss (2018) questioned the myth of women owning less than one percent of land globally. This continues to be a complex issue, with the definition of “ownership” being only one of the tricky issues. Agarwal’s 2021 paper,  How Many and Which Women Own Land in India? , uses longitudinal data from the Village Level Studies (VLS), collected by the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) from a set of Indian villages between 2009 and 2014, to look at which women are more likely to own land, why and how these patterns changed over the years. We at the CGIAR GENDER Platform have also been highlighting the need to focus more on unpacking intersectionalities to have better insights that can inform targeted solutions. This paper provides a very good example of the importance of intersectional approaches and it highlights the gap and the critical need for a national and state-level datasets.

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Gender dysphoria in adolescence: current perspectives

Riittakerttu kaltiala-heino.

1 Faculty of Medicine and Life Sciences, University of Tampere, Tampere, Finland

2 Department of Adolescent Psychiatry, Tampere University Hospital, Tampere, Finland

3 Vanha Vaasa Hospital, Vaasa, Finland

Hannah Bergman

4 Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden

Marja Työläjärvi

Louise frisén.

Increasing numbers of adolescents are seeking treatment at gender identity services in Western countries. An increasingly accepted treatment model that includes puberty suppression with gonadotropin-releasing hormone analogs starting during the early stages of puberty, cross-sex hormonal treatment starting at ~16 years of age and possibly surgical treatments in legal adulthood, is often indicated for adolescents with childhood gender dysphoria (GD) that intensifies during puberty. However, virtually nothing is known regarding adolescent-onset GD, its progression and factors that influence the completion of the developmental tasks of adolescence among young people with GD and/or transgender identity. Consolidation of identity development is a central developmental goal of adolescence, but we still do not know enough about how gender identity and gender variance actually evolve. Treatment-seeking adolescents with GD present with considerable psychiatric comorbidity. There is little research on how GD and/or transgender identity are associated with completion of developmental tasks of adolescence.

Gender dysphoria and related concepts

The fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) 1 defines gender dysphoria (GD) as a condition in which a person has marked incongruence between the expressed or experienced gender and the biological sex at birth. This causes clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational or other important areas of functioning. Individuals with GD experience a strong desire to be treated as the other gender (or some alternative gender different from their assigned gender) and/or to be rid of their sex characteristics, and/or the strong conviction of having feelings and reactions typical of the other gender (or some alternative gender). The previous diagnostic term, gender identity disorder, was rejected in the DSM-5 to avoid pathologizing identity.

According to the International Classification of Diseases (ICD)-10, 2 transsexualism is defined as a desire to live and be accepted as a member of the opposite sex, usually accompanied by a sense of discomfort with or the inappropriateness of one’s anatomical sex and a wish to undergo surgery and hormonal treatment to make the body as congruent as possible with the individual’s preferred sex. The forthcoming ICD-11 will reconceptualize gender identity-related diagnoses using gender incongruence as the main term. 3

In addition to the DSM-5 diagnostic term, gender dysphoria can also refer to anxiety and distress about gender features at large. Gender nonconformity refers to behaviors and an appearance that are considered atypical of an individual’s assigned gender. Gender variance refers to a spectrum of gender experience, in contrast to the dichotomized conception of gender. The term “transgender” is used as an umbrella term to refer to wider variation of gender identities. Not all who identify as transgender or display gender nonconformity or gender variance suffer from dysphoria.

In this article, we use the DSM-5 and ICD-10 terms “gender dysphoria (GD)” and “transsexualism/transsexual”, respectively, when referring to diagnosed clinical samples, and also when referring to the literature published when earlier versions of the DSM classification were in use. We use “transgender” to refer to self-identified population samples and “gender dysphoria” to refer to those who present clinical symptoms.

How common are GD and transgender identity among adults and adolescents?

The number of people who seek treatment suggest that male-to-female transsexualism has a prevalence of 6.8/100,000 and female-to-male transsexualism has a prevalence of 2.6/100,000 among adults. 4 , 5 In the Netherlands, 0.6% of men and 0.2% of women (aged 15–70 years) reported incongruent gender identity and a desire to undergo sex reassignment (SR). 6 Population surveys have suggested that about 0.5% of adults in the general population identify as transgender. 5 , 7

The number of adolescents contacting specialized gender identity services has risen considerably over the past decade across Europe and North America. 8 , 9 No conclusions regarding the prevalence of GD in general or of GD/transsexualism specifically can be drawn based on these increases. Studies using short (one to three item) self-reports of gender identity and its variance suggest that 0.17%–1.3% of adolescents and young adults identify as transgender. 5 , 10 A school-based survey eliciting gender experiences with scales commonly used at gender identity services suggested that 1.3% of 16–19 year olds had potentially clinically significant gender dysphoria. 11

Gender identity

Identity is the way one understands, describes and expresses oneself and the reflection of those entities to others. Identity consists of many integrated aspects such as gender, nationality, language, academic and occupational endeavors, and religious and political convictions. It is affected by interpersonal relationships, society and different events throughout the life course. 12 Adolescence is an important period of identity formation and integration. 12 , 13 Adolescents and young adults establish their identity by actively exploring identity-related choices and making identity commitments in their chosen directions. 12 , 13

Gender identity concerns the individual’s core sense of being “female”, “male” or another gender. The development of gender identity is a complex process affected by multiple factors. 14 , 15 In the research tradition of gender identity, the broad focus has been on the theme “sex differences”, and two major topics have received the most attention: the description and measurement of sex differences and the etiology of these differences. 16 Several theories have been proposed. According to early psychodynamic theories, gender variant behavior was hypothesized to derive from parent–infant interpersonal issues or trauma (see Gray et al 15 ). However, these theories have not undergone adequate scientific testing. Gender identity development has mostly been described from the viewpoint of cognitive and social learning theories, which argue that human beings are active constructors of cognitive schemas, including gender, in continuous interaction with the environment. 14 Other theories on processes of gender typing have focused on proximal and distal biological influences, genetic and epigenetic or hormonal and neural mechanisms as well as brain anatomy differences in the etiology of gendered behavior and gender variance. 17 – 19 There are structural and functional sex differences in the brain, some of them observable across the life span and others only during specific developmental phases. Sex differences in the brain are largely determined by steroid hormone exposure during a perinatal sensitive period that alters subsequent hormonal and non-hormonal responses throughout the lifespan, but they also depend on genes on sex chromosomes. Moreover, there is continuous interaction between genes and experiences, “epigenetics”, which changes the expression of genes without any change in the underlying DNA sequence. Research suggests that, for example, early social experiences may act as such epigenetic influence that they ultimately shape lasting sex differences in brain and behavior, 20 – 22 but a lot more research is needed in this field to obtain solid knowledge relevant for understanding GD.

While the theories proposed in the past have generally been either essentialist or social cognitive/constructivist in nature, researchers today are expanding the focus to include the bio-psycho-social processes that probably occur across development. 14 , 15 , 23

Childhood GD and puberty development

GD in childhood (GDC) 1 describes a feeling of incongruence between the experienced (psychological) gender and the sex assigned at birth. A corresponding diagnosis is included in the ICD-10. 2 Healthy children vary considerably in their gendered behaviors. 15 The diagnosis of GD in prepubescent children has been widely discussed throughout the history of gender identity research, mainly in terms of weighing the risk of stigmatization against diagnosis as a means of access to publicly funded or insurance-covered health care. 3 , 24 The prevalence of GDC is not known. 5

Adolescence is a crucial time for identity and psychosexual development in young people with gender identity concerns. 25 The outcomes of GDC have been discussed in terms of its persistence and desistence. For most children with GDC, whether GD will persist or desist will probably be determined between the ages of 10 and 13 years, 26 although some may need more time. 27 Evidence from the 10 available prospective follow-up studies from childhood to adolescence (reviewed in the study by Ristori and Steensma 28 ) indicates that for ~80% of children who meet the criteria for GDC, the GD recedes with puberty. Instead, many of these adolescents will identify as non-heterosexual. 17 , 29 Steensma et al 26 interviewed adolescents with different outcomes of GDC (persistence or desistance). The adolescents mentioned social environment, the anticipated results of bodily changes and first romantic and/or sexual experiences as central factors in the desistance or persistence of GD.

Treatment of GD intensifying in puberty: the Dutch model

The most commonly used guidelines for the treatment of GD in children and adolescents are those of The Endocrine Society 30 and the Standard of Care from the World Professional Association for Transgender Health, 31 which are based on the so-called Dutch Model protocols published and practiced at the Amsterdam Gender Clinic in the Netherlands. 32

The Dutch protocol recommends medical treatment if GD intensifies in puberty, while the care for children with GD and their families consists of providing information, psychological support, parental or/and family counseling. In adolescents, medical treatment is recommended at age 12 years and older for those who are in or beyond the early stages (Tanner II–III) of puberty and are still experiencing persistent GD. Puberty suppression with gonadotropin-releasing hormone analogs is part of the protocol for these patients. The purpose of puberty suppression is to relieve the psychological suffering caused by the development of secondary sex characteristics, to give the adolescent time to make a balanced decision regarding whether to undergo actual medical gender-confirming treatment (with cross-sex hormones and surgery) and to make social “passing” in the experienced gender easier. Cross-sex hormones are used for adolescents aged 16 years and older who continue to experience persistent GD. People aged 18 years and older with a diagnosis of GD may undergo SR surgery. 32

Outcome of and ethical debates around medical interventions for GD in adolescence

The Dutch protocol is largely used, but it has its critics. 33 – 35 Controversy regarding the use of drugs for puberty touches on fundamental ethical concepts in pediatrics: the best interests of the minor, autonomy and the role of social context. Professionals recognize the distress of young people with GD and feel an urge to treat them. At the same time, most of these professionals have doubts because of the lack of data regarding long-term physical and psychological outcomes. 36 , 37

Reports of the outcomes of puberty suppression treatment in adolescents have shown reasonable safety and good outcomes regarding patient satisfaction and psychosocial functioning, but research is still scarce. Nevertheless, puberty suppression is not indicated in a considerable proportion of gender dysphoric minors because of several reasons, for example, severe psychiatric comorbidity, considerable instability of psychosocial support or onset of GD later during puberty and diagnostic uncertainty; 38 – 40 nevertheless, more follow-up data even from patients who are fulfilling the criteria for “the Dutch model” are still needed. 37

Psychiatric disorders among adolescents with GD

Descriptive studies of adolescents referred to specialized gender identity services at different centers in Europe and North America have mainly suggested that ~40%–45% of these young people present with clinically significant psychopathology. 38 , 39 , 41 – 50 The lowest figures for psychiatric comorbidity (one-third of the presenting population) were reported in the Netherlands, 41 and the highest (up to three quarters) was reported in Finland and Canada. 39 , 50 Gender-referred adolescents actually appear to display clinically significant psychopathology to the same extent as adolescents referred to mental health services due to other reasons. 48 , 50 The most commonly reported disorders are depression and anxiety disorders. Self-harm and suicidal ideation/behavior are also common, whereas conduct disorder and antisocial development do not appear central in this population.

Likewise, community-level information suggests that transgender-identifying youth present four to six times more often with depression and three to four times more often with self-harm and/or suicidal behavior compared with cisgender adolescents. 10 , 51 Clinical and population data, though scarce, also suggest an overrepresentation of eating pathology among adolescents with GD or transgender identity. 46 , 52

An increased prevalence of autism spectrum disorders (ASDs), varying from ~6% to over 20%, has been reported among samples of adolescents referred to gender identity services. 39 , 42 , 46 , 53 This vastly exceeds the estimated prevalence of 0.6%–0.7% 54 in the general population. In comparison, among children and early adolescents with ASDs, gender variance is >7-fold more common than among non-referred controls. 53 , 55

Hypotheses to explain this are manifold. The theory of the extreme male brain suggests that individuals with ASD demonstrate an extreme of the typical male pattern of behaviors and cognitions originating from high levels of fetal testosterone. High fetal levels could likewise contribute to GD in natal girls, explaining their male identity and behavior. However, this theory cannot explain the association between ASD and GD in natal boys. Social factors-related hypotheses propose that the social perception and communication difficulties typical of autism could make a child more likely to miss social cues regarding how to conform to gender norms or to identify with the opposite sex when he/she faces difficulties joining the peer group of her/his own sex. Hypotheses focusing on individual psychological characteristics suggest, firstly, that gender could be among the preoccupations or obsessions often seen in ASDs. On the other hand, the development of atypical gender identity in autism could relate to the developmental rigidity typical of autism. Individuals with ASD might not reach normative flexibility in gender development necessary to deal with gender variant feelings, which might lead to the overrepresentation of ASD in GD. 53 , 56 The suggested causes, however, remain speculative. In a recent study, both boys and girls with GD displayed elevated levels of autistic symptomatology in all subdomains of autism, which did not exclusively support any of the suggested hypotheses. 56 Nevertheless, ASDs pose particular challenges for the diagnosis and treatment of GD in adolescents.

GD and the developmental tasks of adolescence

“Developmental tasks” refer to the normative developmental milestones that should be reached during a given developmental stage. 57 , 58 They arise from interactions among physical development, personal attributes and societal expectations. Favorable completion of the developmental tasks of a given stage is a prerequisite for success in the subsequent stages. The developmental tasks of adolescence were first formulated by Havighurst 57 and comprise accepting one’s body, adopting a masculine or feminine social role, achieving emotional independence from parents, developing close relationships with peers of the same and opposite genders, preparing for an occupation, preparing for marriage and family life, establishing a personal value or an ethical system and achieving socially responsible behavior. Although puberty now occurs earlier and the transition to adulthood occurs later than they did when these developmental tasks were initially proposed, they remain relevant. 58 The relationship with one’s own body and the acquisition of a gendered social role – not necessarily binary – are by definition challenging for adolescents with GD. In the following sections, we discuss the available information on GD/transgender identity and the other developmental tasks of adolescence.

GD in adolescence and relationships with parents

Parents of adolescents with GD and/or transgender identity may face special challenges that are shaped by a variety of factors, such as ethnicity, religious background, social class and the prevailing attitudes in their community and society. 59 , 60 These challenges likely shape the support that a nonconforming adolescent can receive. Adverse parental reactions toward an adolescent’s gender nonconformity have been noted as a special risk, 61 but parents of sexual- and gender-minority offspring have also reported particular positive aspects of being a parent in this situation, such as personal growth, unconditional love, activism, social connection and closer relationships. 62 However, few studies have empirically explored the parental reactions and support among youth with GD and/or transgender identity.

In a Canadian community study of transgender-identifying youth, 63 of those who had disclosed their gender identity to their parents, 34% considered their parents “very” supportive and 25% considered their parents “somewhat” supportive. Forty-two percent reported that their parents were “not very” or “not at all” supportive. However, the study was based on a nonrandom sample and solely adolescent self-reports, so findings need to be interpreted with caution and causalities cannot be concluded. Strong perceived parental support was, nevertheless, associated with many positive mental health outcomes. Lack of parental support was associated with inadequate housing and homelessness in addition to negative psychological outcomes. Better parental support has also been associated with fewer risk-taking sexual behaviors among transgender youth. 64

In a community study of trans female adolescents and young adults, 65 more than half of the participants reported that their parents supported their gender identity, showed their support in many ways and believed the respondent could have a happy future as a trans adult. However, approximately two in five respondents had not experienced parental acceptance. Parental acceptance was associated with perceiving parents as the primary source of social support.

In a school-based survey 51 transgender-identifying adolescents felt less often (odds Ratio 0.3) than their cis-gender peers that at least one parent cared for them.

Studies of clinically referred gender dysphoric youth have rarely addressed parent-related issues. Simons et al 66 reported that in a clinical sample of adolescents with GD, parental support was significantly associated with higher life satisfaction, lower perceived burden of being transgender and fewer depressive symptoms. In a Finnish study comparing childhood gender identity in community and clinical samples, a smaller proportion of adolescents with GD than of non-referred adolescents in the population agreed with the statement ”I always felt that my parents cared fore me.” 11 It was also noticed that the clinically referred adolescents with GD less commonly lived with both their parents than the adolescents in the normal population (48% vs. 78%). 67 In British and Spanish samples of gender-referred adolescents, parental divorce was observed in the background of approximately three in five participants, but the authors did not compare this finding with a corresponding rate in the general population. 46 , 49

Gender nonconformance and peer relationships in adolescence

During adolescence, peer relationships are critical for psychological well-being. 68 , 69 Peer relationships also shape development, including aspects of gender identity consolidation. 70 Loneliness and social isolation from peer relationships is associated with developmental difficulties and impaired mental health. 71 , 72 An important peer network-related risk factor is bullying. 73

Observations in referred samples of adolescents with GD suggest considerable peer relationship difficulties. In both the UK 46 and in Finland, 39 approximately half of adolescents who presented at a specialized gender identity service reported significant experiences of being bullied. In the Finland study, 45% of the referred adolescents also had a history of marked periods of social isolation in childhood and/or adolescence. In the Netherlands and in Canada, self-, parent and teacher ratings indicated poorer peer relationships among adolescents referred for GD than in the same-aged population 47 , 48 and poor peer relationships were an important correlate of mental health problems in this group. Similarly, in another Canadian comparison among gender-referred, mental health-referred and general population adolescents bullying was reported by the GD group more commonly than by population controls, and to the same extent as by those referred due to mental health issues. Gender-related bullying was most common among the GD group. 74

On the population level, Clark et al 51 found that trans-gender-identifying adolescents had 4.5-fold increased odds of being bullied and were approximately twice as likely to report being afraid for their personal safety, having been in a serious physical fight and having been hit or otherwise harmed by others, compared with their cisgender-identifying peers. They also less commonly felt that their friends cared about them and that school was okay.

Gender-nonconforming behavior is characteristic of both sexual- and gender-minority youth and has been associated with an increased likelihood of experiencing bullying and harassment in peer groups. 75 , 76 Adolescents with GD likely represent the extreme end of gender nonconformity, and this may strongly contribute to their experiences of being bullied. Bullying and stigmatization have also been suggested to (partially) mediate the association between gender nonconformity and lower mental well-being across adolescence. 74 , 77 – 79

However, not all the difficulties the gender dysphoric adolescents face in peer relationships can be explained by gender expression-related victimization or discrimination. In the Finnish clinical sample, of the gender identity-referred adolescents who had experienced severe bullying at school, three quarters had been bullied before they ever questioned their gender. Likewise, three-quarters of them reported that the bullying had not been related to gender expression or sexual identity, but to other factors such as not being slim, being successful at school or having unfashionable hobbies and interests. 39 Bullying is a severe problem regardless of the reported reasons for it, but it is important to acknowledge that adolescents who develop GD also have unrelated difficulties that may need attention.

GD, transgender identity and sexuality in adolescence

Sexual orientation and gender identity are different entities, and transgender people present with a variety of sexual orientations. Nevertheless, sexual orientation has long been used to subtype GD/transsexualism. 80 During adolescence, the different facets of sexual orientation – attraction, behavior and identity – may still be developing. It may be more important to determine whether adolescents with GD or transgender identity display developmentally appropriate and favorable involvement in romantic and erotic relationships.

In adolescence, sexual development accelerates. Young people’s experiences of a maturing and changing body, sexuality and their developing gender identity affect intrapersonal, interpersonal and societal interactions. 81 In Western countries, between one-tenth and one-third of adolescents first experience sexual intercourse by the age of 15, and the vast majority experience it by age 20. 82 , 83 Various practices of kissing and petting typically precede first sexual intercourse by several years. Early sexual activity has been viewed as a problem behavior associated with risky sexual behaviors, psychosocial difficulties and emotional and behavioral disorders. 82 , 83 In contrast, in the late stages of adolescent development, a lack of experiences might suggest developmental difficulties.

GD and/or transgender identification could be expected to be associated with delayed sexual development, given that it is the sexual body, in particular, that is the source of distress in GD and that differing from the mainstream may increase the adolescent’s risk of problems in social relationships, including dating, and sexual encounters. Sexual- and gender-minority adolescents may also have a reduced availability of potential partners and increased challenges in finding potential partners than their heterosexual peers. 84 However, developmental challenges have also been associated with premature and risky sexual behavior. 82 , 85 Adolescents with GD and/or transgender identification could engage in risky sexual behaviors due to identity experiments or because associated mental health problems could increase their search for comfort in intimacy or decrease their self-protection skills.

To the best of our knowledge, the only study focusing on the sexual experiences of treatment-seeking adolescents with GD is that of Bungener et al 86 from the Netherlands. They compared the sexual experiences of 137 transsexual adolescents (mean [SD] age 14.69 [2.2] years) with those of a same-aged adolescent population. Transsexual adolescents had fewer sexual experiences than the same-aged population in all areas measured (falling in love, romantic relationships, kissing, petting, intercourse). However, a majority of the transsexual adolescents had fallen in love and approximately half had been involved in romantic relationships. One quarter had experienced petting while undressed, and 5% had experienced sexual intercourse. Fewer transsexual adolescents than the adolescents in the same-aged population (24% vs. 48%) valued sex as important. In a descriptive study of clinically presenting adolescents with GD in the USA, 45 nearly half of the respondents (mean [SD] age 19.2 [2.9] years) reported being sexually active.

Some population studies provide information regarding transgender identity in adolescence and aspects of sexual development. Korchmaros et al 84 compared the romantic relationships of lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender and questioning (LGBTQ) adolescents and those of adolescents with mainstream sexual and gender identities. Contrary to expectations, the LGBTQ adolescents were more experienced with romantic relationships and more active in initiating relationships both online and offline. Results were not reported separately for the transgender group. Robinson and Espel-age 87 reported that LGBTQ adolescents were more likely to display risky sexual behaviors than same-aged non-LGBTQ youth. However, in more detailed analyses, the risk was associated with homosexual/bisexual orientation and not with transgender identity. Veale et al 88 set out to study pregnancy involvement among transgender youth and the health correlates of this involvement. In a large (n=923) sample of transgender-identifying youth, 540 responded to the pregnancy involvement item. Almost 5% of Canadian transgender adolescents had ever been pregnant or impregnated a partner; approximately the same proportion as their same-aged peers. Those with a history of pregnancy involvement were also more likely to have a history of sexually transmitted disease, but they did not differ from the rest of the transgender youth in terms of hormone use, living in the felt gender, self-reported mental health and level of social support.

Sexual harassment is a common problem among adolescent populations. 89 Transgender-identifying adolescents appear to be at the greatest risk of sexual harassment and to experience the greatest distress due to it. 89 Sexual harassment is suggested to function to maintain heteronormativity, which transgender adolescents likely challenge. Their perception of sexual harassment as more distressing compared with other adolescents could be due to harsher harassment, increased vulnerability due to uncertainty about self, or fear. 89

Similarly, in a large school-based survey study on teen dating violence, 90 the few transgender-identifying youth in the sample reported the highest victimization rates for physical dating violence, psychological dating abuse, cyber dating abuse and sexual coercion. Differences from cisgender adolescents varied from 2- to 7-fold for the different forms of violence. However, the transgender-identifying youth also reported the highest rates of perpetrating dating violence. Minority stress theory 91 posits that the chronic stressors that minorities experience (e.g., gender-based discrimination) shape their coping mechanisms (such as substance use, aggression) and lead to adverse psychosocial and health outcomes. The particular vulnerability to perpetrating dating violence observed among transgender adolescents by Dank et al 90 could be understood through minority stress theory, but more research is needed.

Transgender adolescents and young adults, particularly trans females, are at a disproportionately high risk of contracting human immunodeficiency virus and other sexually transmitted diseases. 79 , 92 The risk of unprotected sex in this population has been associated with sex work and drug use, which are further associated with rejection, stigma and discrimination. 79 , 92 Of the studies of referred samples, only one addressed sex work. 45 In that sample, 6% of the referred adolescents reported engaging in the trading of sex.

Sexual education is an important way to promote positive and responsible sexual behaviors in youth. The planned curricula and practical applications likely vary widely across countries and schools. Sexual- and gender-minority youth were found to desire minority-inclusive sexual education in a study by Gowen and Wingez-Yanez. 93 The sexual- and gender-minority youth felt that the sexual education that was offered isolated them by silencing them, adopting a heterocentric perspective and pathologizing minorities. Reflecting on the available sexual education in light of these findings is appropriate for all educators.

Preparing for occupation: academic performance and socioeconomic status

To the best of our knowledge, research has not specifically focused on academic performance and the progression to work life among adolescents with GD, but given the burden of psychiatric comorbidities among gender-referred youth, special needs regarding education are likely to exist.

Aspects of social relationships are relevant to well-being in school, school performance and pathways to occupation. Transgender youth have been reported to experience bullying and discrimination in schools, not only by peers but even by teachers; consequently, they perceive schools as unsafe places, which again increases the risk of non-attendance and poorer results. 75 , 94 Gender- and sexuality-related victimization may impair academic performance through, for example, decreased motivation, concentration and self-efficacy and the resulting school avoidance and harmful coping strategies. 94 , 95 Nevertheless, being “out” at school improves self-esteem among gender- and sexual-minority youth and increases their well-being, which can have a positive impact on academic performance. 94

School dropout is strongly linked to social exclusion. School dropout was associated with high masculinity in girls and low masculinity combined with high femininity in boys in a study of late-adolescent school dropouts and attenders in the Netherlands. 96 The authors suggested that such deviation from gender norms increases the risk of unpopularity among peers, which again predisposes individuals toward school dropout. However, school dropout was also associated with very masculine attitudes and self-evaluations among boys. The role of gendered behaviors, attitudes and experiences in school adjustment and academic performance deserves further research.

In Clark et al’s 51 school-based survey, adolescents reporting non-cisgender identity came disproportionately often from families with high socioeconomic deprivation and less often felt that their family got along. Any explanation for this remains unknown; however, young people are likely to stay in the same socioeconomic position as their parents. 97 Jacob and Cox 98 also pinpointed transgender people’s greater risk of having a disadvantaged socioeconomic status (in the USA), associating this with increased unemployment, and employment in low-paid jobs, because of stigmatization.

Why the increase in referrals?

Zucker et al 99 observed an increase in the number of adolescents presenting at gender identity services in the early 2000s. Since then, several gender identity services for minors from across Western countries have reported increases. 8 , 9 , 42 , 49 Simultaneously, the earlier overrepresentation of natal boys has equaled or turned to overrepresentation of natal girls. 9 Natal girls now comprise from half 49 to ~90% 39 of clinical adolescent samples. The reasons for these changes are not known. The increase in referrals could be attributable to enhanced provision of services, or the threshold for seeking help may now be lower due to increased knowledge and improved societal acceptance. Aitken et al, 9 however, did not find evidence supporting a lowered threshold to gender identity services. Sociocultural features related to what kind of identities are available for whom, and sex-related differences of pressure to conform may play a role.

Research regarding the clinical treatment of adolescents with GD has mainly focused on childhood-onset GD that intensifies during puberty, and the Dutch treatment protocol is also tailored for this group. There is little empirical knowledge regarding young people who experience their first signs of GD in adolescence, well after the onset of puberty, especially regarding biological girls. 50 , 100 Among a treatment-seeking sample in the UK, 18% experienced their first feelings of GD in adolescence 46 compared with approximately two-thirds of the Finnish sample, 39 and for the majority of adolescent-onset cases, GD presented in the context of severe mental disorders and general identity confusion. In such situations, appropriate treatment for psychiatric comorbidities may be warranted before conclusions regarding gender identity can be drawn. Gender-referred adolescents actually display psychopathology to the same extent as mental health–referred youth. 48 , 50 In a nationwide long-term follow-up study of adult cases, psychiatric morbidity, suicide attempts and suicide mortality persisted as elevated after juridical and medical SR. 101

Emerging discussions raise concern for post-pubertally abruptly emerging cross-gender identification (“rapid onset”), particularly among biological girls, suggesting a role for intensive media influences and generous group validation as shaping the understanding of, and giving new meanings to, the body discomfort common among female adolescents at large. 100 The persistence of increasing adolescent-onset transgender identification is not known. 5 , 100

More empirical research is needed regarding virtually all aspects of GD in adolescence to create treatment approaches that optimize these young people’s future psychosocial health and well-being. It seems unlikely that all the psychopathology observed in the referred samples is secondary to gender identity issues and would resolve with hormonal and later surgical treatments. There is still no clear consensus regarding hormonal treatment for adolescents because long-term data are unavailable; 36 actually, only one long-term follow up has been carried out, with a highly selected intervention group and an at baseline non-comparable comparison group. 102

An affirmative approach 103 is increasingly implemented in the health care of gender nonconforming children. This includes, based on a comprehensive psychological and psychosocial assessment, work with the children and their families and schools to support the gender-nonconforming minors to express themselves in a way that feels most comfortable for them. With the starting point that gender presentations are fluid and changing over time, gender variant children need to be allowed to freely explore a range of gender identities and expressions. A debate concerns whether or not a prepubertal child should be allowed to completely transition to live in other than birth gender. Concerns include that childhood transition may be forcing adolescents to proceed to biomedical interventions, as stepping back may be psychologically troublesome, even though identity development has taken a new direction. 28 , 104

The etiology of gender incongruence remains unknown. Gender identity differentiation does not occur in a psychosocial vacuum; instead, research in the field suggests that the developmental course is influenced by numerous psychosocial factors, likely in continuous interaction with biological factors. 23 , 105 Gray et al 15 noted that the general narrative in the research literature concerning gender variation among children focuses on gender “atypical” behavior and deviation from “normative patterns”, thus viewing gender in a binary way instead of as a wider spectrum of (healthy) identities, personalities and behaviors among children. This is surely relevant for adolescents as well. These authors also requested a shift in research paradigms away from the study of outcomes of sexuality and gender identity and the child/adolescent in isolation toward outcomes of adjustment and the child/adolescent in contexts that affect adjustment. Along with further discussions of the best treatment interventions, it is relevant to attempt to contribute to societal attitudes that enable children and adolescents with gender variance to express themselves and successfully complete the developmental tasks common to all, independent of gender.

The authors report no conflicts of interest in this work.

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• Published: 28 April 2020

The impact a-gender: gendered orientations towards research Impact and its evaluation

• J. Chubb   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-9716-820X 1 &
• G. E. Derrick   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-5386-8653 2  

Palgrave Communications volume  6 , Article number:  72 ( 2020 ) Cite this article

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A Correction to this article was published on 19 May 2020

This article has been updated

Using an analysis of two independent, qualitative interview data sets: the first containing semi-structured interviews with mid-senior academics from across a range of disciplines at two research-intensive universities in Australia and the UK, collected between 2011 and 2013 ( n  = 51); and the second including pre- ( n  = 62), and post-evaluation ( n  = 57) interviews with UK REF2014 Main Panel A evaluators, this paper provides some of the first empirical work and the grounded uncovering of implicit (and in some cases explicit) gendered associations around impact generation and, by extension, its evaluation. In this paper, we explore the nature of gendered associations towards non-academic impact (Impact) generation and evaluation. The results suggest an underlying yet emergent gendered perception of Impact and its activities that is worthy of further research and exploration as the importance of valuing the ways in which research has an influence ‘beyond academia’ increases globally. In particular, it identifies how researchers perceive that there are some personality traits that are better orientated towards achieving Impact; how these may in fact be gendered. It also identifies how gender may play a role in the prioritisation of ‘hard’ Impacts (and research) that can be counted, in contrast to ‘soft’ Impacts (and research) that are far less quantifiable, reminiscent of deeper entrenched views about the value of different ‘modes’ of research. These orientations also translate to the evaluation of Impact, where panellists exhibit these tendencies prior to its evaluation and describe the organisation of panel work with respect to gender diversity.

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Introduction

The management and measurement of the non-academic impact Footnote 1 (Impact) of research is a consistent theme within the higher education (HE) research environment in the UK, reflective of a drive from government for greater visibility of the benefits of research for the public, policy and commercial sectors (Chubb, 2017 ). This is this mirrored on a global scale, particularly in Australia, where, at the ‘vanguard’ (Upton et al., 2014 , p. 352) of these developments, methods were first devised (but were subsequently abandoned) to measure research impact (Chubb, 2017 ; Hazelkorn and Gibson, 2019 ). What is broadly known in both contexts as an ‘Impact Agenda’—the move to forecast and assess the ways in which investment in academic research delivers measurable socio-economic benefit—initially sparked broad debate and in some instances controversy, among the academic community (and beyond) upon its inception (Chubb, 2017 ). Since then, the debate has continued to evolve and the ways in which impact can be better conceptualised and implemented in the UK, including its role in evaluation (Stern, 2016 ), and more recently in grant applications (UKRI, 2020 ) is robustly debated. Notwithstanding attempts to better the culture of equality and diversity in research, (Stern, 2016 ; Nature, 2019 ) in the broader sense, and despite the implementation of the Impact agenda being studied extensively, there has been very little critical engagement with theories of gender and how this translates specifically to more downstream gendered inequities in HE such as through an impact agenda.

The emergence of Impact brought with it many connotations, many of which were largely negative; freedom was questioned, and autonomy was seen to be at threat because of an audit surveillance culture in HE (Lorenz, 2012 ). Resistance was largely characterised by problematising the agenda as symptomatic of the marketisation of knowledge threatening traditional academic norms and ideals (Merton, 1942 ; Williams, 2002 ) and has led to concern about how the Impact agenda is conceived, implemented and evaluated. This concern extends to perceptions of gendered assumptions about certain kinds of knowledge and related activities of which there is already a corpus of work, i.e., in the case of gender and forms of public engagement (Johnson et al., 2014 ; Crettaz Von Roten, 2011 ). This paper explores what it terms as ‘the Impact a-gender’ (Chubb, 2017 ) where gendered notions of non-academic, societal impact and how it is generated feed into its evaluation. It does not wed itself to any feminist tradition specifically, however, draws on Carey et al. ( 2018 ) to examine, acknowledge and therefore amend how the range of policies within HE and how implicit power dynamics in policymaking produce gender inequalities. Instead, an impact fluidity is encouraged and supported. For this paper, this means examining how the impact a-gender feeds into expectations and the reward of non-academic impact. If left unchecked, the propagation of the impact a-gender, it is argued, has the potential to guard against a greater proportion of women generating and influencing the use of research evidence in public policy decision-making.

Scholars continue to reflect on ‘science as a gendered endeavour’ (Amâncio, 2005 ). The extensive corpus of historical literature on gender in science and its originators (Merton, 1942 ; Keller et al., 1978 ; Kuhn, 1962 ), note the ‘pervasiveness’ of the ‘masculine’ and the ‘objective and the scientific’. Indeed, Amancio affirmed in more recent times that ‘modern science was born as an exclusively masculine activity’ ( 2005 ). The Impact agenda raises yet more obstacles indicative of this pervasiveness, which is documented by the ‘Matthew’/‘Matilda’ effect in Science (Merton, 1942 ; Rossiter, 1993 ). Perceptions of gender bias (which Kretschmer and Kretschmer, 2013 hypothesise as myths in evaluative cultures) persist with respect to how gender effects publishing, pay and reward and other evaluative issues in HE (Ward and Grant, 1996 ). Some have argued that scientists and institutions perpetuate such issues (Amâncio, 2005 ). Irrespective of their origin, perceptions of gendered Impact impede evaluative cultures within HE and, more broadly, the quest for equality in excellence in research impact beyond academia.

To borrow from Van Den Brink and Benschop ( 2012 ), gender is conceptualised as an integral part of organisational practices, situated within a social construction of feminism (Lorber, 2005 ; Poggio, 2006 ). This article uses the notion of gender differences and inequality to refer to the ‘ hierarchical distinction in which either women and femininity and men and masculinity are valued over the other ’ (p. 73), though this is not precluding of individual preferences. Indeed, there is an emerging body of work focused on gendered associations not only about ‘types’ of research and/or ‘areas and topics’ (Thelwall et al., 2019 ), but also about what is referred to as non-academic impact. This is with particular reference to audit cultures in HE such as the Research Excellence Framework (REF), which is the UK’s system of assessing the quality of research (Morley, 2003 ; Yarrow and Davies, 2018 ; Weinstein et al., 2019 ). While scholars have long attended to researching gender differences in relation to the marketisation of HE (Ahmed, 2006 ; Bank, 2011 ; Clegg, 2008 ; Gromkowska-Melosik, 2014 ; Leathwood et al., 2008 ), and the gendering of Impact activities such as outreach and public engagement (Ward and Grant, 1996 ), there is less understanding of how far academic perceptions of Impact are gendered. Further, how these gendered tensions influence panel culture in the evaluation of impact beyond academia is also not well understood. As a recent discussion in the Lancet read ‘ the causes of gender disparities are complex and include both distal and proximal factors ’. (Lundine et al., 2019 , p. 742).

This paper examines the ways in which researchers and research evaluators implicitly perceive gender as related to excellence in Impact both in its generation and in its evaluation. Using an analysis of two existing data sets; the pre-evaluation interviews of evaluators in the UK’s 2014 Research Excellence Framework and interviews with mid-senior career academics from across the range of disciplines with experience of building impact into funding applications and/ or its evaluation in two research-intensive universities in the UK and Australia between 2011 and 2013, this paper explores the implicitly gendered references expressed by our participants relating to the generation of non-academic, impact which emerged inductively through analysis. Both data sets comprise researcher perceptions of impact prior to being subjected to any formalised assessment of research Impact, thus allowing for the identification of unconscious gendered orientations that emerged from participant’s emotional and more abstract views about Impact. It notes how researchers use loaded terminology around ‘hard’, and ‘soft’ when conceptualising Impact that is reminiscent of long-standing associations between epistemological domains of research and notions of masculinity/femininity. It refers to ‘hard’ impact as those that are associated with meaning economic/ tangible and efficiently/ quantifiably evaluated, and ‘soft’ as denoting social, abstract, potentially qualitative or less easily and inefficiently evaluated. By extending this analysis to the gendered notions expressed by REF2014 panellists (expert reviewers whose responsibility it is to review the quality of the retrospective impact articulated in case studies for the purposes of research evaluation) towards the evaluation of Impact, this paper highlights how instead of challenging these tendencies, shared constructions of Impact and gendered productivity in academia act to amplify and embed these gendered notions within the evaluation outcomes and practice. It explores how vulnerable seemingly independent assessments of Impact are to these widespread gendered- associations between Impact, engagement and success. Specifically, perceptions of the excellence and judgements of feasibility relating to attribution, and causality within the narrative of the Impact case study become gendered.

The article is structured as follows. First, it reviews the gender-orientations towards notions of ‘hard’ and ‘soft’ excellence in forms of scholarly distinction and explores how this relates to the REF Impact evaluation criteria, and the under-representation of women in the academic workforce. Specifically, it hypothesises the role of how gendered notions of excellence that construct academic identities contribute to a system that side-lines women in academia. This is despite associating the generation of Impact as a feminised skill. We label this as the ‘Impact a-gender’. The article then outlines the methodology and how the two, independent databases were combined and convergent themes developed. The results are then presented from academics in the UK and Australia and then from REF2014 panellists. This describes how the Impact a-gender currently operates through academic cultural orientations around Impact generation, and in its evaluation through peer-review panels by members of this same academic culture. The article concludes with a recommendation that the Impact a-gender be explored more thoroughly as a necessary step towards guiding against gender- bias in the academic evaluation, and reward system.

Literature review

Notions of impact excellence as ‘hard’ or ‘soft’.

Scholars have long attempted to consider the commonalities and differences across certain kinds of knowledge (Becher, 1989 , 1994 ; Biglan, 1973a ) and attempts to categorise, divide and harmonise the disciplines have been made (Biglan, 1973a , 1973b ; Becher, 1994 ; Caplan, 1979 ; Schommer–Aikins et al., 2003 ). Much of this was advanced with a typology of the disciplines from (Trowler, 2001 ), which categorised the disciplines as ‘hard’ or ‘soft’. Both anecdotally and in the literature, ‘soft’ science is associated with working more with people and less with ‘things’ (Cassell, 2002 ; Thelwall et al., 2019 ). These dichotomies often lead to a hierarchy of types of Impact and oppose valuation of activities based on their gendered connotations.

Biglan’s system of classifying disciplines into groups based on similarities and differences denotes particular behaviours or characteristics, which then form part of clusters or groups—‘pure’, ‘applied’, ‘soft’, ‘hard’ etc. Simpson ( 2017 ) argues that Biglan’s classification persists as one of the most commonly referred to models of the disciplines despite the prominence of some others (Pantin, 1968 ; Kuhn, 1962 ; Smart et al., 2000 ). Biglan ( 1973b ) classified the disciplines across three dimensions; hard and soft, pure and applied, life and non-life (whether the research is concerned with living things/organisms) . This ‘taxonomy of the disciplines’ states that ‘pure-hard’ domains tend toward the life and earth sciences,’pure-soft’ the social sciences and humanities, and ‘applied hard’ focus on engineering and physical science with ‘soft-applied’ tending toward professional practice such as nursing, medicine and education. Biglan’s classification looked at levels of social connectedness and specifically found that applied scholars Footnote 2 were more socially connected, more interested and involved in service activities, and more likely to publish in the form of technical reports than their counterparts in the pure (hard) areas of study. This resonates with how Impact brings renewed currency and academic prominence to applied researchers (Chubb, 2017 ). Historically, scholars inhabiting the ‘hard’ disciplines had a greater preference for research; whereas, scholars representing soft disciplines had a greater preference for teaching (Biglan, 1973b ). Further, Biglan ( 1973b ) also found that hard science scholars sought out greater collaborative efforts among colleagues when teaching as opposed to their soft science counterparts.

There are also long-standing gendered associations and connotations with notions of ‘hard’ and ‘soft’ (Storer, 1967 ). Typically used to refer to skills, but also used heavily with respect to the disciplines and knowledge domains, gendered assumptions and the mere use of ‘hard’ or ‘soft’ to describe knowledge production carries with it assumptions, which are often noted in the literature; ‘ we think of physics as hard and of political science as soft ’, Storer explains, adding how ‘hard seems to imply tough, brittle, impenetrable and strong, while soft on the other hand calls to mind the qualities of weakness, gentleness and malleability’ (p. 76). As described, hard science is typically associated with the natural sciences and quantitative paradigms whereas normative perceptions of feminine ‘soft’ skills or ‘soft’ science are often equated with qualitative social science. Scholars continue to debate dichotomised paradigms or ‘types’ of research or knowledge (Gibbons, 1999 ), which is emblematic of an undercurrent of epistemological hierarchy of the value of different kinds of knowledge. Such debates date back to the heated back and forth between scholars Snow (Snow, 2012 ) and literary critic Leavis who argued for their own ‘cultures’ of knowledge. Notwithstanding, these binary distinctions do few favours when gender is then ascribed to either knowledge domain or related activity (Yarrow and Davies, 2018 ). This is particularly pertinent in light of the current drive for more interdisciplinary research in the science system where there is also a focus on fairness, equality and diversity in the science system.

Academic performance and the Impact a-gender

Audit culture in academia impacts unfairly on women (Morley, 2003 ), and is seen as contributory to the wide gender disparities in academia, including the under-representation of women as professors (Ellemers et al., 2004 ), in leadership positions (Carnes et al., 2015 ), in receiving research acknowledgements (Larivière et al., 2013 ; Sugimoto et al., 2015 ), or being disproportionately concentrated in non-research-intensive universities (Santos and Dang Van Phu, 2019 ). Whereas gender discrimination also manifests in other ways such as during peer review (Lee and Noh, 2013 ), promotion (Paulus et al., 2016 ), and teaching evaluations (Kogan et al., 2010 ), the proliferation of an audit culture links gender disparities in HE to processes that emphasise ‘quantitative’ analysis methods, statistics, measurement, the creation of ‘experts’, and the production of ‘hard evidence’. The assumption here is that academic performance and the metrics used to value, and evaluate it, are heavily gendered in a way that benefits men over women, reflecting current disparities within the HE workforce. Indeed, Morely (2003) suggests that the way in which teaching quality is female dominated and research quality is male dominated, leads to a morality of quality resulting in the larger proportion of women being responsible for student-focused services within HE. In addition, the notion of ‘excellence’ within these audit cultures implicitly reflect images of masculinity such as rationality, measurement, objectivity, control and competitiveness (Burkinshaw, 2015 ).

The association of feminine and masculine traits in academia (Holt and Ellis, 1998 ), and ‘gendering its forms of knowledge production’ (Clegg, 2008 ), is not new. In these typologies, women are largely expected to be soft-spoken, nurturing and understanding (Bellas, 1999 ) yet often invisible and supportive in their ‘institutional housekeeping’ roles (Bird et al., 2004 ). Men, on the other hand are often associated with being competitive, ambitious and independent (Baker, 2008 ). When an individual’s behaviour is perceived to transcend these gendered norms, then this has detrimental effects on how others evaluate their competence, although some traits displayed outside of these typologies go somewhat ‘under the radar’. Nonetheless, studies show that women who display leadership qualities (competitiveness, ambition and decisiveness) are characterised more negatively than men (Rausch, 1989 ; Heilman et al., 1995 ; Rossiter, 1993 ). Incongruity between perceptions of ‘likeability’ and ‘competence’ and its relationship to gender bias is present in evaluations in academia, where success is dependent on the perceptions of others and compounded within an audit culture (Yarrow and Davis, 2018). This has been seen in peer review, reports for men and women applicants, where women were disadvantaged by the same characteristics that were seen as a strength on proposals by men (Severin et al., 2019 ); as well as in teaching evaluations where women receive higher evaluations if they are perceived as ‘nurturing’ and ‘supportive’ (Kogan et al., 2010 ). This results in various potential forms of prejudice in academia: Where traits normally associated with masculinity are more highly valued than those associated with femininity (direct) or when behaviour that is generally perceived to be ‘masculine’ is enacted by a woman and then perceived less favourably (indirect/ unconscious). That is not to mention direct sexism, rather than ‘through’ traits; a direct prejudice.

Gendered associations of Impact are not only oversimplified but also incredibly problematic for an inclusive, meaningful Impact agenda and research culture. Currently, in the UK, the main funding body for research in the UK, UK Research and Innovation (UKRI) uses a broad Impact definition: ‘ the demonstrable contribution that excellent research makes to society and the economy ’ (UKRI website, 2019 ). The most recent REF, REF2014, Impact was defined as ‘ …an effect on, change or benefit to the economy, society, culture, public policy or services, health, the environment or quality of life, beyond academia ’. In Australia, the Australian Research Council (ARC) proposed that researchers should ‘embed’ Impact into the research process from the outset. Both Australia and the UK have been engaged in policy borrowing around the evaluation of societal impact and share many similarities in approaches to generating and evaluating it. Indeed, Impact has been deliberately conceptualised by decision-makers, funders and governments as broad in order to increase the appearance of being inclusivity, to represent a broad range of disciplines, as well as to reflect the ‘diverse ways’ that potential beneficiaries of academic research can be reached ‘beyond academia’. The adoption of societal impact as a formalised criterion in the evaluation of research excellence was initially perceived to be potentially beneficial for women, due to its emphasis on concepts such as ‘public engagement’; ‘duty’ and non-academic ‘cooperation/collaboration’ (Yarrow and Davies, 2018 ). In addition, the adoption of narrative case studies to demonstrate Impact, rather than adopting a complete metrics-focused exercise, can also be seen as an opportunity for women to demonstrate excellence in the areas where they are over-represented, such as teaching, cultural enrichment, public engagement (Andrews et al., 2005 ), informing public policy and improving public services (Schatteman, 2014 ; Wheatle and BrckaLorenz, 2015). However, despite this, studies highlight how for the REF2014, only 25% of Impact Case Studies for business and management studies were from women (Davies et al., 2020 ).

With respect to Impact evaluation, previous research shows that there is a direct link between notions of academic culture, and how research (as a product of that culture) is valued and evaluated (Leathwood and Reid, 2008 ; p. 120). Geertz ( 1983 ) argues that academic membership is a ‘cultural frame that defines a great part of one’s life’ influences belief systems around how academic work is orientated. This also includes gendered associations implicit in the academic reward system, which in turn influences how academics believe success is to be evaluated, and in what form that success emerges. This has implications in how academic associations of the organisation of research work and the ongoing constructions of professional identity relative to gender, feeds into how these same academics operate as evaluators within a peer review system evaluation. In this case, instead of operating to challenge these tendencies, shared constructions of gendered academic work are amplified to the extent that they unconsciously influence perceptions of excellence and the judgements of feasibility as pertaining to the attribution and causality of the narrative argument. As such, in an evaluation of Impact with its ambiguous definition (Derrick, 2018 ), and the lack of external indicators to signal success independent of cultural constructions inherent in the panel membership, effects are assumed to be more acute. In this way, this paper argues that the Impact a-gender can act to further disadvantage women.

The research combines two existing research data sets in order to explore implicit notions of gender associated with the generation and evaluation of research Impact beyond academia. Below the two data sets and the steps involved in analysing and integrating findings are described along with our theoretical positioning within the feminist literature Where verbatim quotation is used, we have labelled the participants according to each study highlighting their role and gender. Further, the evaluator interviews specify the disciplinary panel and subpanel to which they belonged, as well as their evaluation responsibilities such as: ‘Outputs only’; ‘Outputs and Impact’; and ‘Impacts only’.

Analysis of qualitative data sets

This research involved the analysis and combination of two independently collected, qualitative interview databases. The characteristics and specifics of both databases are outlined below.

Interviews with mid-senior academics in the UK and Australia

Fifty-one semi-structured interviews were conducted between 2011 and 2013 with mid-senior academics at two research-intensive universities in Australia and the UK. The interviews were 30–60 min long and participants were sourced via the research offices at both sites. Participants were contacted via email and invited to participate in a study concerning resistance towards the Impact agenda in the UK and Australia and were specifically asked for their perceptions of its relationship with freedom, value and epistemic responsibility and variations across discipline, career stage and national context. Mostly focused on ex ante impact, some interviewees also described their experiences of Impact in the UK and Australia, in relation to its formal assessment as part of the Excellence Innovation Australia (EIA) for Australia and the Research Excellence Framework (REF) in the UK.

Participants comprised mid to senior career academics with experience of winning funding from across the range of disciplines broadly representative of the arts and humanities, social sciences, physical science, maths and engineering and the life and earth sciences. For the purposes of this paper, although participant demographic information was collected, the relationship between the gender of the participants, their roles, disciplines/career stage was not explicitly explored instead, such conditions were emergent in the subsequent inductive coding during thematic analysis. A reflexive log was collected in order to challenge and draw attention to assumptions and underlying biases, which may affect the author, inclusive of their own gender identity. Further information on this is provided in Chubb ( 2017 ).

Pre- and post-evaluation interviews with REF2014 evaluators

REF2014 in the UK represented the world’s first formalised evaluation of ex-post impact, comprising of 20% of the overall evaluation. This framework served as a unique experimental environment with which to explore baseline tendencies towards impact as a concept and evaluative object (Derrick, 2018 ).

Two sets of semi-structured interviews were conducted with willing participants: sixty-two panellists were interviewed from the UK’s REF2014 Main Panel A prior to the evaluation taking place; and a fifty-seven of these were re-interviewed post-evaluation. Main Panel A covers six Sub-panels: (1) Clinical Medicine; (2) Public Health, Health Services and Primary Care; (3) Allied Health Professions, Dentistry, Nursing and Pharmacy; (4) Psychology, Psychiatry and Neuroscience; (5) Biological Sciences; and (6) Agriculture, Veterinary and Food Sciences. Again, the relationship between the gender of the participants and their discipline is not the focus for the purposes of this paper.

Database combination and identification of common emergent themes

The inclusion of data sets using both Australian and UK researchers was pertinent to this study as both sites were at the cusp of implementing the evaluation of Impact formally. These researcher interviews, as well as the evaluator interviews were conducted prior to any formalised Impact evaluation took place, but when both contexts required ex ante impact in terms of certain funding allocation, meaning an analysis of these baseline perceptions between databases was possible. Further, the inclusion of the post-evaluation interviews with panellists in the UK allowed an exploration of how these gendered perceptions identified in the interviews with researchers and panellists prior to the evaluation, influenced panel behaviour during the evaluation of Impact.

Initially, both data sets were analysed using similar, inductive, grounded-theory-informed approaches inclusive of a discourse and thematic analysis of the language used by participants when describing impact, which allowed for the drawing out of metaphor (Zinken et al., 2008 ). This allowed data combination and analysis of the two databases to be conducted in line with the recommendations for data-synthesis as outlined in Weed ( 2005 ) as a form of interpretation. This approach guarded against the quantification of qualitative findings for the purposes of synthesis, and instead focused on an initial dialogic approach between the two authors (Chubb and Derrick), followed by a re-analysis of qualitative data sets (Heaton, 1998 ) in line with the outcomes of the initial author-dialogue as a method of circumventing many of the drawbacks associated with qualitative data-synthesis. Convergent themes from each, independently analysed data set were discussed between authors, before the construction of new themes that were an iterative analysis of the combined data set. Drawing on the feminist tradition the authors did not apply feminist standpoint theory, instead a fully inductive approach was used to unearth rich empirical data. An interpretative and inductive approach to coding the data using NVIVO software in both instances was used and a reflexive log maintained. The availability of both full, coded, qualitative data sets, as well as the large sample size of each, allowed this data-synthesis to happen.

Researcher’s perceptions of Impact as either ‘hard’ or ‘soft’

Both UK and Australian academic researchers (researchers) perceive a guideline of gendered productivity (Davies et al., 2017 ; Sax et al., 2002 ; Astin, 1978 ; Ward and Grant, 1996 ). This is where men or women are being dissuaded (by their inner narratives, their institutions or by colleagues) from engaging in Impact either in preference to other (more masculine) notions of academic productivity, or towards softer (for women) because they consider themselves and are considered by others to be ‘good at it’. Participants often gendered the language of Impact and introduced notions of ‘hard’ and ‘soft’. On the one hand, this rehearses and resurfaces long-standing views about the ‘Matthew Effect’ because often softer Impacts were seen as being of less value by participants, but also indicates that the word impact itself carries its own connotations, which are then weighed down further by more entrenched gender associations.

Our research shows that when describing Impact, it was not necessarily the masculinity or femininity of the researcher that was emphasised by participants, rather researchers made gendered presumptions around the type of Impact, or the activity used to generate it as either masculine or feminine. Some participants referred to their own research or others’ research as either ‘hard’ or as ‘soft and woolly’. Those who self-professed that their research was ‘soft’ or woolly’ felt that their research was less likely to qualify as having ‘hard’ impact in REF terms Footnote 3 ; instead, they claimed their research would impact socially, as opposed to economically; ‘ stuff that’s on a flaky edge — it’s very much about social engagement ’ (Languages, Australia, Professor, Male) . One researcher described Impact as ‘a nasty Treasury idea,’ comparing it to: a tsunami, crashing over everything which will knock out stuff that is precious ’ . (Theatre, Film and TV, UK, Professor, Male) . This imagery associates the concept of impact with force and weight (or hardness as mentioned earlier) particularly in disciplines where the effect of their research may be far more nuanced and subtle. One Australian research used force to depict the impact of teaching and claimed Impact was like a footprint, and teaching was ‘ a pretty heavy imprint ’ (Environment, UK, Professor, Male) . Participants characterised ‘force and weight’ as masculine, suggesting that some connotations of Impact and the associated activities may be gendered. The word ‘Impact’ was inherently perceived by many researchers as problematic, bound with linguistic connotations and those imposed by the official definitions, which in many cases are perceived as negative or maybe even gendered (Chubb, 2017 ): ‘ The etymology of a word like impact is interesting. I’ve always seen what I do as being a more subtle incremental engagement, relevance, a contribution ’. (Theatre, Film and TV, UK, Professor, Male) .

Researchers associated the word ‘impact’ with hard-ness, weight and force; ‘ anything that sorts of hits you ’ (Languages, UK, Senior Lecturer, Female) . One researcher suggested that Impact ‘ sounds kind of aggressive — the poor consumer! ’ (History, Australia, Professor, Female) . Talking about her own research in the performing arts, one Australian researcher commented: ‘ It’s such a pain in the arse because the Arts don’t fit the model. But in a way they do if you look at the impact as being something quite soft ’ (Music, Australia, Professor, Female) . Likewise, a similar comparison was seen by a female researcher from the mechanical engineering discipline: ‘ My impact case study wasn’t submitted mainly because I’m dealing with that slightly on the woolly side of things ’ (Mechanical Engineering, Australia, Professor, Female) . Largely, gender related comments hailed from the ‘hard’ science and from arts and humanities researchers. Social scientists commented less, and indeed, one levelled that Impact was perhaps less a matter of gender, and more a matter of ability (Chubb, 2017 ): ‘ It’s about being articulate! Both guys and women who are very articulate and communicate well are outward looking on all of these things ’ ( Engineering Education, Australia, Professor, Female).

Gendered notions of performativity were also very pronounced by evaluators who were assessing the outputs only, suggesting how these panel cultures are orientated around notions of gender and scientific outputs as ‘hard’ if represented by numbers. The focus on numbers was perceived by the following panellist as ‘ a real strong tendency particularly amongst the Alpha male types ’ within the panel that relate to findings about the association of certain traits—risk aversion, competitiveness, for example, with a masculinised market logic in HE;

And I like that a lot because I think that there is a real strong tendency particularly amongst the Alpha male types of always looking at the numbers, like the numbers and everything. And I just did feel that steer that we got from the panel chairs, both of them were men by the way, but they were very clear, the impact factors and citations and the rank order of a journal is this is information that can be useful, but it’s not your immediate first stop. (Panel 1, Outputs and Impact, Female)

However, a metric-dominant approach was not the result of a male-dominated panel environment and instead, to the panels credit, evaluators were encouraged not to use one-metric as the only deciding factor between star-rating of quality. However, this is not to suggest that metrics did not play a dominant role. In fact, in order to resolve arguments, evaluators were encouraged to ‘ reflect on these other metrics ’ (Panel 3, Outputs only, Male) in order to rectify arguments where the assessment of quality was in conflict. This use of ‘other metrics’ was preferential to a resolution of differences that are based on more ‘soft’ arguments that are based on understanding where differences in opinion might lie in the interpretation of the manuscript’s quality. Instead, the deciding factor in resolving arguments would be the responsibility, primarily, of a ‘hard’ concept of quality as dictated by a numerical value;

Read the paper, judge the quality, judge the originality, the rigour, the impact — if you have to because you’re in dispute with another assessor, then reflect on these other metrics. So I don’t think metrics are that helpful actually if and until you’ve got a real issue to be able to make a decision. But I worry very much that metrics are just such a simple way of making the process much easier, and I’m worried about that because I think there’s a bit of game playing going on with impact factors and that kind of thing. (Panel 3, Outputs Only, Male)

Table 1 outlines the emergent themes, which, through inductive coding participants broadly categorised domains of research, their qualities and associations, types of activities and the gendered assumption generally made by participants when describing that activity. The table is intended only to provide an indicative overview of the overall tendencies of participants toward certain narratives as is not exhaustive, as well as a guide to interpret the perceptions of Impact illustrated in the below results.

Table one describes the dichotomous views that seemed to emerge from the research but it’s important to note that researchers associated Impact as related to gender in subtle, and in some cases overt ways. The data suggests that some male participants felt that female academics might be better at Impact, suggesting that female academics might find it liberating, linked it to a sense of duty or public service, implying that it was second nature. In addition, some male participants associated types of Impact domains as female-orientated activity and the reverse was the case with female and male-orientated ‘types’ of Impact. For example, at one extreme, a few male researchers seemed to perceive public engagement as something, which females would be particularly good at, generalising that they are not competitive ‘ women are better at this! They are less competitive! ’ (Environment, UK, Professor, Male) . Indeed, one male researcher suggested that competitiveness actually helps academics have an impact and does not impede it:

I get a huge buzz from trying to communicate those to a wider audience and winning arguments and seeing them used. It’s not the use that motivates me it’s the process of winning, I’m competitive! (Economics, UK, Professor, Male)

Analysis also revealed evidence that some researchers has gendered perceptions of Impact activities just as evaluators did. Here, women were more likely to promote the importance of engaging in Impact activities, whereas men were focused on producing indicators with hard, quantitative indicators of success. Some researchers implied that public engagement was not something entirely associated with the kinds of Impact needed to advance one’s career and for a few male researchers, this was accordingly associated with female academics. Certain female researchers in the sciences and the arts suggested similarly that there was a strong commitment among women to carry out public engagement, but that this was not necessarily shared by their male counterparts who, they perceived, undervalued this kind of work:

I think the few of us women in the faculty will grapple with that a lot about the relevance of what we’re doing and the usefulness, but for the vast majority of people it’s not there… [She implies that]…I think there is a huge gender thing there that every woman that you talk to on campus would consider that the role of the university is along the latter statement (*to communicate to the public). The vast majority of men would not consider that’s a role of the university. There’s a strong gender thing. (Chemical Engineering, Australia, Professor, Female)

Notwithstanding, it is important to distinguish between engagement and Impact. This research shows that participants perceive Impact activities to be gendered. There was a sense from one arts female researcher that women might be more interested in getting out there and communicating their work but that crucially, it is not the be-all and end- all of doing research: ‘ Women feel that there’s something more liberating, I can empathise with that, but that couldn’t be the whole job ’. Music, Australia, Professor, Female Footnote 4 . When this researcher, who was very much orientated towards Impact, asked if there were enough interviewees, she added ‘ mind you, you’ve probably spoken to enough men in lab coats ’. This could imply that inward-facing roles are associated with male-orientated activity and outward facing roles as perceived as more female orientated. Such sentiments perhaps relate to a binary delineation of women as more caring, subjective, applied and of men as harder, scientific and theoretical/ rational. This links to a broader characterisation of HE as marketised and potentially, more ‘male’ or at least masculinised—where increasing competitiveness, marketisation and performativity can be seen as linked to an increasingly macho way of doing business (Blackmore, 2002 ; Deem, 1998 ; Grummell et al., 2009 ; Reay, n.d. ). The data is also suggestive of the attitude that communication is a ‘soft’ skill and the interpersonal is seen as a less masculine trait. ‘ This is a huge generalisation but I still say that the profession is so dominated by men, undergraduates are so dominated by men and most of those boys will come into engineering because they’re much more comfortable dealing with a computer than with people ’ (Chemical Engineering, Australia, Professor, Female) . Again, this suggests women are more likely to pursue those scientific subjects, which will make a difference or contribute to society (such as nursing or environmental research, certainly those subjects that would be perceived as less ‘hard’ science domains).

There was also a sense that Impact activity, namely in this case public engagement and community work, was associated with women more than men by some participants (Amâncio, 2005 ). However, public engagement and certain social impact domains appeared to have a lower status and intellectual worth in the eyes of some participants. Some inferred that social and ‘soft’ impacts are seen as associated. With discipline. For instance, research concerning STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering and Medicine) subjects with females. They in turn may be held in low esteem. Some of the accounts suggest that soft impacts are perceived by women as not ‘counting’ as Impact:

‘ At least two out of the four of us who are female are doing community service and that doesn’t count, we get zero credit, actually I would say it gets negative credit because it takes time away from everything else ’. (Education Engineering, Australia, Professor, Female)

This was intimated again by another female UK computer scientist who claimed that since her work was on the ‘woolly side’ of things, and her impacts were predominantly in the social and public domain, she would not be taken seriously enough to qualify as a REF Impact case study, despite having won an award for her work:

‘ I don’t think it helps that if I were a male professor doing the same work I might be taken more seriously. It’s interesting, why recently? Because I’ve never felt that I’ve not been taken seriously because I’m a woman, but something happened recently and I thought, oh, you’re not taking me seriously because I’m a woman. So I think it’s a part ’. (Computer Science, UK, Professor, Female)

Researchers also connect the ‘hard’ and ‘soft’ associations with Impact described earlier to male and female traits. The relationship between Impact and gender is not well understood and it is not clear how much these issues are directly relatable to Impact or more symptomatic of the broader picture in HE. In order to get a broader picture, it is important to examine how these gendered notions of Impact translate into its evaluation. Some participants suggested that gender is a factor in the securing of grant money—certainly this comment reveals a local speculation that ‘the big boys’ get the grants, in Australia, at least: ‘ ARC grants? I’ve had a few but nothing like the big boys that get one after the other ,’ (Chemical Engineering, Australia, Professor, Female) . This is not dissimilar to the ‘alpha male’ comments from the evaluators described below who note a tendency for male evaluators to rely on ‘hard’ numbers whose views are further examined in the following section.

Gendered excellence in Impact evaluation

In the pre-evaluation interviews, panellists were asked about what they perceived to be ‘excellent’ research and ‘excellent’ Impact. Within this context, are mirrored conceptualisations of impacts as either ‘soft’ or ‘hard’ as was seen with the interviews with researchers described above. These conceptualisations were captured prior to the evaluation began. They can therefore be interpreted as the raw, baseline assumptions of Impact that are free from the effects of the panel group, showed that there were differences in how evaluators perceived Impact, and that these perceptions were gendered.

Although all researchers conceptualised Impact as a linear process for the purposes of the REF2014 exercise (Derrick, 2018 ), there was a tendency for female evaluators to be open to considering the complexity of Impact, even in a best-case scenario. This included a consideration that Impact as dictated within the narrative might have different indicators of value to different evaluators; ‘ I just think that that whole framing means that there is a form of normative standard of perfect impact ’ (Main Panel, Outputs and Impacts, Female) . This evaluator, in particular, went further to state how that their impression of Impact would be constructed from the comparators available during the evaluation;

‘ Given that I’m presenting impact as a good story, it would be like you saying to me; ‘Can you describe to me a perfect Shakespearean play?’…. well now of course, I can’t. You can give me lots of plays but they all have different kinds of interesting features. Different people would say that their favourite play was different. To me, if you’re taking interpretivist view, constructivist view, there is no perfect normative standard. It’s just not possible ’. (Panel 1, Outputs and Impacts, Female)

Female evaluators were also more sensitive to other complex factors influencing the evaluation of Impact, including time lag; ‘ …So it takes a long time for things like that to be accepted…it took hundreds of studies before it was generally accepted as real ’ (Panel 1, Outputs and Impacts, Female ); as well as the indirect way that research influences policy as a form of Impact;

‘ I don’t think that anything would get four stars without even blinking. I think that is impossible to answer because you have to look at the whole evidence in this has gone on, and how that does link to the impact that is being claimed, and then you would then have to look at how that impact, exactly how that research has impacted on the ways of the world, in terms of change or in terms of society or whatever. I don’t think you can see this would easily get four stars because of the overall process is being looked at, as well as the actual outcome ’ . (Panel 3, Outputs and Impact, Female)

Although these typologies were not absolute, there was a lack of complexity in the nuances around Impact. There was also heavily gendered language around Impacts as measurable, or not, that mirrored the association of Impact as being either ‘hard’, and therefore measurable, or ‘soft, and therefore more nuanced in value. In this way, male evaluators expressed Impact as a causal, linear event that occurred ‘ in a very short time ’ (P2, Outputs and Impact, Male) and involved a single ‘ star ’ (P3, Impacts only, Male) or ‘ impact champion ’ (Main Panel, Outputs and Impacts, Male) that drove it from start (research), to finish (Impact). These associations about Impact being ‘soft’ and ‘hard’ made by evaluators, mirror the responses from researchers in the above sections. In the example below, the evaluator used words such as ‘ strong ’ and ‘ big way ’ to describe Impact success, as well as emphasises causality in the argument;

‘ …if it has affected a lot of people or affected policy in a strong way or created change in a big way, and it can be clearly linked back to the research, and it’s made a difference ’. (Panel 2, Outputs and Impact, Male)

These perhaps show disciplinary differences as much as gendered differences. Further, there was a stronger tendency for male evaluators to strive towards conceptualisations of excellence in Impact as measurable or ‘ it’s something that is decisive and actionable ’ (Panel 6, Impacts, Male) . One male evaluator explained his conceptualised version of Impact excellence as ‘ straightforward ’ and therefore ‘ obviously four-star ’ due to the presence of metrics with which to measure Impact. This was a perception more commonly associated with male evaluators;

‘ …if somebody has been able to devise a — let’s say pancreatic cancer — which is a molecular cancer, which hasn’t made any progress in the last 40 years, and where the mortality is close to 100% after diagnosis, if someone devised a treatment where now suddenly, after diagnosis of pancreatic cancer, 90 percent of the people are now still alive 5 years later, where the mortality rate is almost 0%, who are alive after 5 years. That, of course, would be a dramatic, transformative impact ’. (Panel 1, Outputs and Impact, Male)

In addition, his tendency to seek various numeric indicators for measuring, and therefore assessing Impact (predominantly economic impact), as well as compressing its realisation to a small period of time ( ‘ suddenly ’ ) in a causal fashion, was more commonly expressed in male evaluators. This tendency automatically indicates the association of impacts as either ‘soft’ or ‘hard’ and divided along gendered norms, but also expresses Impact in monetary terms;

‘ Something that went into a patient or the company has pronounced with…has spun out and been taken up by a commercial entity or a clinical entity ’ (Panel 3, Outputs and Impacts, Male) , as well as impacts that are marketised; ‘ A new antimicrobial drug to market ’. (Panel 6, Outputs and Impact, Male) .

There was also the perception that female academics would be better at engagement (Johnson et al., 2014 ; Crettaz Von Roten, 2011 ) due to its link with notions of ‘ duty ’ (as a mother), ‘ engagement ’ and ‘ public service ’ are reflected in how female evaluators were also more open to the idea that excellent Impact is achieved through productive, ongoing partnerships with non-academic stakeholders. Here, the reflections of ‘duty’ from the evaluators was also mirrored by in interviews with researchers. Indeed, the researchers merged perceptions of parenthood, an academic career and societal impact generation. One female researcher drew on her role as a mother as supportive of her ability to participate in Impact generation, ‘ I have kids that age so… ’ (Biology, UK, Senior Lecturer, Female) . Indeed, parenthood emerged from researchers of both genders in relation to the Impact agenda. Two male participants spoke positively about the need to transfer knowledge of all kinds to society referencing their role as parents: ‘ I’m all for that. I want my kids to have a rich culture when they go to school ’ (Engineering, Australia, Professor, Male, E2) , and ‘ My children are the extension of my biological life and my students are an extension of my thoughts ’ (Engineering, Australia, Professor, Male, E1) . One UK female biologist commented that she indeed enjoys delivering public engagement and outreach and implies a reference to having a family as enabling her ability to do so: ‘ It’s partly being involved with the really well-established outreach work ,’ (Biology, UK, Senior Lecturer, Female) .

For the evaluators, the idea that ‘public service’ as second nature for female academics, was reflected in how female evaluators perceived the long, arduous and serendipitous nature of Impact generation, as well as their commitment to assessing the value of Impact as a ‘pathway’ rather than in line with impact as a ‘product’. Indeed, this was highlighted by one male evaluator who suggested that the measurement and assessment of Impact ‘ …needs to be done by economists ’ and that

‘ you [need] to put in some quantification one everything…[that] puts a negative value on being sick and a positive large value on living longer. So, yeah, the greatest impact would be something that saves us money and generates income for the country but something broad and improves quality of life ’. (Panel 2, Impacts, Male)

Since evaluators tend to exercise cognitive bias in evaluative situations (Langfeldt, 2006 ), these preconceived ideas about Impact, its generation and the types of people responsible for its success are also likely to permeate the evaluative deliberations around Impact during the peer review process. What is uncertain is the extent that these messages are dominant within the panel discourse, and therefore the extent that they influence the formation of a consensus within the group, and the ‘dominant definition’ of Impact (Derrick, 2018 ) that emerges as a result.

Notions of gender from the evaluators post-evaluation

Similar notions of gender-roles in academia pertaining to notions of scientific productivity were echoed by academics who were charged with its evaluation as part of the UK’s 2014 Research Excellence Framework. Interviews with evaluators revealed not only that the panel working-methods and characteristics about what constituted a ‘good’ evaluator were implicitly along gendered norms, but also that the assumed credit assumptions of performativity were also based on gender.

In assessments of the Impact criterion, an assessment that is not as amenable to quantitative representation requiring panels to conceptualise a very complex process, with unstandardised measures of significance and reach, there was still a gendered perception of Impact being ‘women’s work’ in academia. This perception was based on the tendency towards conceptualising Impact as ‘slightly grubby’ and ‘not very pure’, which echoes previously reported pre-REF2014 tensions that Impact is a task that an academic does when they cannot do real research (de Jong et al., 2015 );

But I would say that something like research impact is — it seems something slightly grubby. It’s not seen as not — by the academics, as not very pure. To some of them, it seems women’s work. Talking to the public, do you see what I mean? (Main Panel, Outputs and Impact, Female)

In addition, gendered roles also relate to how the panel worked with the assessment of Impact. Previous research has outlined how the equality and diversity assessment of panels for REF2014 were not conducted until after panellists were appointed (Derrick, 2018 ), leading to a lack of equal-representation of women on most panels. Some of the female panellists reflected that this resulted not only in a hyper-awareness of one’s own identity and value as a woman on the panel, but also implicitly associating the role that a female panellist would play in generating the evaluation. One panellist below, reflected that she was the only female in a male-dominated panel, and that the only other females in the room were the panel secretariat. The panellist goes further to explain how this resulted in a gendered-division of labour surrounding the assessment of Impact;

I mean, there’s a gender thing as well which isn’t directing what you’re talking about what you’re researching, but I was the only woman on the original appointed panel. The only other women were the secretariat. In some ways I do — there was initially a very gendered division of perspective where the women were all the ones aggregate the quantitative research, or typing it all up or talking about impact whereas the men were the ones who represented the big agenda, big trials. (Main Panel, Outputs and Impact, Female)

In addition, evaluators expressed opinions about what constituted a good and a bad panel member. From this, the evaluation showed that traits such as the ability to work as a ‘team’ and to build on definitions and methods of assessment for Impact through deliberation and ‘feedback’ were perceived along gendered lines. In this regard, women perceived themselves as valuable if they were ‘happy to listen to discussions’, and not ‘too dogmatic about their opinion’. Here, women were valued if they played a supportive, supplementary role in line with Bellas ( 1999 ), which was in clear distinction to men who contributed as creative thinkers and forgers of new ideas. As one panellist described;

A good panel member is an Irish female. A good panel member was someone who was happy to — someone who is happy to listen to discussions; to not be too dogmatic about their opinion, but can listen and learn, because impact is something we are all learning from scratch. Somebody who wasn’t too outspoken, was a team player. (Panel 3, Outputs and Impact, Female)

Likewise, another female evaluator reflected on the reasons for her inclusion as a panel member was due to her ‘generalist perspective’ as opposed to a perspective that is over prescribed. This was suggestive of how an overly specialist perspective would run counter to the reasons that she was included as a panellist which was, in her opinion, due to her value as an ethnic and gender ‘token’ to the panel;

‘ I think it’s also being able to provide some perspective, some general perspective. I’m quite a generalist actually, I’m not a specialist……So I’m very generalist. And I think they’re also well aware of the ethnic and gender composition of that and lots of reasons why I’m asked on panels. (Panel 1, Outputs and Impact, Female)

Women perceived their value on the panel as supportive, as someone who is prepared to work on the team, and listen to other views towards as a generalist, and constructionist, rather than as an enforced of dogmatic views and raw, hard notions of Impact that were represented through quantitative indicators only. As such, how the panel operated reflects general studies of how work can be organised along gender lines, as well as specific to workload and power in the academy. The similarity between the gendered associations towards conceptualising Impact from the researchers and evaluators, combined with how the panel organises its work along gendered lines, suggests how panel culture echoes the implicit tendencies within the wider research community. The implications of this tendency in relation to the evaluation of non-academic Impact is discussed below.

Discussion: an Impact a-gender?

This study shows how researchers and evaluators in two, independent data sets echoed a gendered orientation towards Impact, and how this implies an Impact a-gender. That gendered notions of Impact emerged as a significant theme from two independent data sets speaks to the importance of the issue. It also illustrates the need for policymakers and funding organisations to acknowledge its potential effects as part of their efforts towards embedding a more inclusive research culture around the generation and evaluation of research impact beyond academia.

Specifically, this paper has identified gendered language around the generation of, and evaluation of Impact by researchers in Australia and the UK, as well as by evaluators by the UK’s most recent Research Excellence Framework in 2014. For the UK and Australia, the prominence of Impact, as well as the policy borrowing between each country (Chubb, 2017 ) means that a reliable comparison of pre-evaluation perceptions of researchers and evaluators can be made. In both data sets presumptions of Impact as either ‘soft’ or ‘hard’ by both researchers and evaluators were found to be gendered. Whereas it is not surprising that panel culture reflects the dominant trends within the wider academic culture, this paper raises the question of how the implicit operation of gender bias surrounding notions of scientific productivity and its measurement, invade and therefore unduly influence the evaluation of those notions during peer-review processes. This negates the motivation behind a broad Impact definition and evaluation as inclusive since unconscious bias towards women can still operate if left unchecked and unmanaged.

Gendered notions of excellence were also related to the ability to be ‘competitive’, and that once Impact became a formalised, countable and therefore competitive criterion, it also become masculine where previously it existed as a feminised concept related to female academic-ness. As a feminised concept, Impact once referred to notions of excellence requiring communication such as public engagement, or stakeholder coordination—the ‘softer’ impacts. However, this association only remains ‘soft’ insofar as Impact remains unmeasurable, or more nuanced in definition. This is especially pertinent for the evaluation of societal impact where already conceived ideas of engagement and ‘ women’s work ’ influence how evaluators assess the feasibility of impact narratives for the purposes of its assessment. This paper also raises the question that notions of gender in relation to Impact persist irrespective of the identities assumed for the purposes of its evaluation (i.e., as a peer reviewer). This is not to say that academic culture in the UK and Australia, where Impact is increasingly being formalised into rewards systems, is not changing. More that there is a tendency in some evaluations for the burden of evidence to be applied differently to genders due to tensions surrounding what women are ‘good’ at doing: engagement, versus what ‘men’ are good at doing regarding Impact. In this scenario, quantitative indicators of big, high-level impacts are to be attributable to male traits, rather than female. This has already been noted in student evaluations of teaching (Kogan et al., 2010 ) and of academic leadership performance where the focus on the evaluation is on how others interpret performance based on already held gendered views about competence based on behaviours (Williams et al., 2014 ; Holt and Ellis, 1998 ). As such, when researchers transcend these gendered identities that are specific to societal impact, there is a danger of an Impact-a-gender bias arising in the assessment and forecasting of Impact. This paper extends this understanding and outlines how this may also be the case for assessments of societal impact.

By examining perceptions, as well as using an inductive analysis, this study was able to unearth unconsciously employed gendered notions that would not have been prominent or possible to pick up if we asked the interviewees about gender directly. This was particularly the case for the re-analysis of the post-evaluation interviews. However, future studies might consider incorporating a disciplinary-specific perspective as although the evaluators were from the medical/biomedical disciplines, researchers were from a range of disciplines. This would identify any discipline-specific risk towards an Impact a-gender. Nonetheless, further work that characterises the impact a-gender, as well as explores its wider implications for gender inequities within HE is currently underway.

How research evidence is labelled as excellent and therefore trustworthy, is heavily dictated by an evaluation process that is perceived as impartial and fair. However, if evaluations are compounded by gender bias, this confounds assessments of excellence with gendered expectation of non-academic impact. Consequently, gendered expectations of excellence for non-academic impact has the potential to: unconsciously dissuade women from pursuing more masculinised types of impact; act as a barrier to how female researchers mobilise their research evidence; as well as limit the recognition female researchers gain as excellent and therefore trustworthy sources of evidence.

The aim of this paper was not to criticise the panellists and researchers for expressing gendered perspectives, nor to present evidence about how researchers are unduly influenced by gender bias. The results shown do not support either of these views. However, the aim of this paper was to acknowledge how gender bias in research Impact generation can lead to a panel culture dominated by academics that translate the implicit and explicit biases within academia that influence its evaluation. This paper raises an important question regarding what we term the ‘Impact a-gender’, which outlines a mechanism in which gender bias feeds into the generation and evaluation of a research criterion, which is not traditionally associated with a hard, metrics-masculinised output from research. Along with other techniques used to combat unconscious bias in research evaluation, simply by identifying, and naming the issue, this paper intends to combat its ill effects through a community-wide discussions as a mechanism for developing tools to mitigate its wider effect if left unchecked or merely accepted as ‘acceptable’. In addition, it is suggested that government and funding organisations explicitly refer to the impact a-gender as part of their wider EDI (Equity, Diversity and Inclusion) agendas towards minimising the influence of unconscious bias in research impact and evaluation.

Data availability

Data is available upon request subject to ethical considerations such as consent so as not to compromise the individual privacy of our participants.

Change history

19 may 2020.

An amendment to this paper has been published and can be accessed via a link at the top of the paper.

For the purposes of this paper, when the text refers to non-academic, societal impact, or the term ‘Impact’ we are referring to the change and effect as defined by REF2014/2021 and the larger conceptualisation of impact that is generated through knowledge exchange and engagement. In this way, the paper refers to a broad conceptualisation of research impact that occurs beyond academia. This allows a distinction between Impact as central to this article’s contribution, as opposed to academic impact, and general word ‘impact’.

Impact scholars or those who are ‘good at impact’ are often equated with applied researchers.

One might interpret this as meaning ‘economic impact’.

This is described in the next section as ‘women’s work’ by one evaluator.

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Acknowledgements

This research was funded by the UK Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC) Future Research Leaders Programme (ES/K008897/2). We would also like to acknowledge their peers for offering their views on the paper in advance of publication and in doing so thank Dr. Richard Watermeyer, University of Bath, Professor Paul Wakeling, University of York and Dr. Gabrielle Samuel, Kings College London.

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Chubb, J., Derrick, G.E. The impact a-gender: gendered orientations towards research Impact and its evaluation. Palgrave Commun 6 , 72 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-020-0438-z

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TOP 100 Gender Equality Essay Topics

Table of Contents

Need ideas for argumentative essay on gender inequality? We’ve got a bunch!

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• Advantages and disadvantages of being a woman
• Can movies defy gender stereotypes?
• Sexuality and politics

Feel free to use these powerful topic ideas for writing a good college-level gender equality essay or as a starting point for your study.

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100 Gender Research Topics For Academic Papers

Gender research topics are very popular across the world. Students in different academic disciplines are often asked to write papers and essays about these topics. Some of the disciplines that require learners to write about gender topics include:

Sociology Psychology Gender studies Business studies

When pursuing higher education in these disciplines, learners can choose what to write about from a wide range of gender issues topics. However, the wide range of issues that learners can research and write about when it comes to gender makes choosing what to write about difficult. Here is a list of the top 100 gender and sexuality topics that students can consider.

Controversial Gender Research Topics

Do you like the idea of writing about something controversial? If yes, this category has some of the best gender topics to write about. They touch on issues like gender stereotypes and issues that are generally associated with members of a specific gender. Here are some of the best controversial gender topics that you can write about.

• How human behavior is affected by gender misconceptions
• How are straight marriages influenced by gay marriages
• Explain the most common sex-role stereotypes
• What are the effects of workplace stereotypes?
• What issues affect modern feminism?
• How sexuality affects sex-role stereotyping
• How does the media break sex-role stereotypes
• Explain the dual approach to equality between women and men
• What are the most outdated sex-role stereotypes
• Are men better than women?
• How equal are men and women?
• How do politics and sexuality relate?
• How can films defy gender-based stereotypes
• What are the advantages of being a woman?
• What are the disadvantages of being a woman?
• What are the advantages of being a man?
• Discuss the disadvantages of being a woman
• Should governments legalize prostitution?
• Explain how sexual orientation came about?
• Women communicate better than men
• Women are the stronger sex
• Explain how the world can be made better for women
• Discuss the future gender norms
• How important are sex roles in society
• Discuss the transgender and feminism theory
• How does feminism help in the creation of alternative women’s culture?
• Gender stereotypes in education and science
• Discuss racial variations when it comes to gender-related attitudes
• Women are better leaders
• Men can’t survive without women

This category also has some of the best gender debate topics. However, learners should be keen to pick topics they are interested in. This will enable them to ensure that they enjoy the research and writing process.

Interesting Gender Inequality Topics

Gender-based inequality is witnessed almost every day. As such, most learners are conversant with gender inequality research paper topics. However, it’s crucial to pick topics that are devoid of discrimination of members of a specific gender. Here are examples of gender inequality essay topics.

• Sex discrimination aspects in schools
• How to identify inequality between sexes
• Sex discrimination causes
• The inferior role played by women in relationships
• Discuss sex differences in the education system
• How can gender discrimination be identified in sports?
• Can inequality issues between men and women be solved through education?
• Why are professional opportunities for women in sports limited?
• Why are there fewer women in leadership positions?
• Discuss gender inequality when it comes to work-family balance
• How does gender-based discrimination affect early childhood development?
• Can sex discrimination be reduced by technology?
• How can sex discrimination be identified in a marriage?
• Explain where sex discrimination originates from
• Discuss segregation and motherhood in labor markets
• Explain classroom sex discrimination
• How can inequality in American history be justified?
• Discuss different types of sex discrimination in modern society
• Discuss various factors that cause gender-based inequality
• Discuss inequality in human resource practices and processes
• Why is inequality between women and men so rampant in developing countries?
• How can governments bridge gender gaps between women and men?
• Work-home conflict is a sign of inequality between women and men
• Explain why women are less wealthy than men
• How can workplace gender-based inequality be addressed?

After choosing the gender inequality essay topics they like, students should research, brainstorm ideas, and come up with an outline before they start writing. This will ensure that their essays have engaging introductions and convincing bodies, as well as, strong conclusions.

Amazing Gender Roles Topics for Academic Papers and Essays

This category has ideas that slightly differ from gender equality topics. That’s because equality or lack of it can be measured by considering the representation of both genders in different roles. As such, some gender roles essay topics might not require tiresome and extensive research to write about. Nevertheless, learners should take time to gather the necessary information required to write about these topics. Here are some of the best gender topics for discussion when it comes to the roles played by men and women in society.

• Describe gender identity
• Describe how a women-dominated society would be
• Compare gender development theories
• How equally important are maternity and paternity levees for babies?
• How can gender-parity be achieved when it comes to parenting?
• Discuss the issues faced by modern feminism
• How do men differ from women emotionally?
• Discuss gender identity and sexual orientation
• Is investing in the education of girls beneficial?
• Explain the adoption of gender-role stereotyped behaviors
• Discuss games and toys for boys and girls
• Describe patriarchal attitudes in families
• Explain patriarchal stereotypes in family relationships
• What roles do women and men play in politics?
• Discuss sex equity and academic careers
• Compare military career opportunities for both genders
• Discuss the perception of women in the military
• Describe feminine traits
• Discus gender-related issues faced by women in gaming
• Men should play major roles in the welfare of their children
• Explain how the aging population affects the economic welfare of women?
• What has historically determined modern differences in gender roles?
• Does society need stereotyped gender roles?
• Does nature have a role to play in stereotyped gender roles?
• The development and adoption of gender roles

The list of gender essay topics that are based on the roles of each sex can be quite extensive. Nevertheless, students should be keen to pick interesting gender topics in this category.

Important Gender Issues Topics for Research Paper

If you want to write a paper or essay on an important gender issue, this category has the best ideas for you. Students can write about different issues that affect individuals of different genders. For instance, this category can include gender wage gap essay topics. Wage variation is a common issue that affects women in different countries. Some of the best gender research paper topics in this category include:

• Discuss gender mainstreaming purpose
• Discuss the issue of gender-based violence
• Why is the wage gap so common in most countries?
• How can society promote equality in opportunities for women and men in sports?
• Explain what it means to be transgender
• Discuss the best practices of gender-neutral management
• What is women’s empowerment?
• Discuss how human trafficking affects women
• How problematic is gender-blindness for women?
• What does the glass ceiling mean in management?
• Why are women at a higher risk of sexual exploitation and violence?
• Why is STEM uptake low among women?
• How does ideology affect the determination of relations between genders
• How are sporting women fighting for equality?
• Discuss sports, women, and media institutions
• How can cities be made safer for girls and women?
• Discuss international trends in the empowerment of women
• How do women contribute to the world economy?
• Explain how feminism on different social relations unites men and women as groups
• Explain how gender diversity influence scientific discovery and innovation

This category has some of the most interesting women’s and gender studies paper topics. However, most of them require extensive research to come up with hard facts and figures that will make academic papers or essays more interesting.

Students in high schools and colleges can pick what to write about from a wide range of gender studies research topics. However, some gender studies topics might not be ideal for some learners based on the given essay prompt. Therefore, make sure that you have understood what the educator wants you to write about before you pick a topic. Our experts can help you choose a good thesis topic . Choosing the right gender studies topics enables learners to answer the asked questions properly. This impresses educators to award them top grades.

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LGBTQIA Studies : Research and topic suggestions

Arts & culture.

• queer performance art
• LGBTQIA+ writers
• bullying in schools; opposition to anti-bullying efforts by those who want to maintain traditional gender roles and stereotypes
• gender nonconforming children in schools
• how people who identify as non-binary navigate a world that sees gender in binary terms
• how nonbinary and transgender identities are similar and different
• legal rights of transgender people
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• how sexual orientation (who you're attracted to) differs from gender identity (who you are)
• LGBTQIA+ marches and political movements
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• transgender history-- e.g., search transgender history in San Francisco
• lesbian and gay history-- at what point did sexual behavior come to be seen as an identity?
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• the influence of cultural norms and attitudes of a specific century or decade, and how/why people hid their feelings of same-sex attraction
• was there a time period and location in which the social climate was more accepting of same-sex attraction and desire?
• biography of a specific person in history whose trans identity or same-sex attraction was known or documented
• Important Legislation for LGBTQIA+ people

International

• contrast how LGBTQIA+ people experience life in other countries outside of the United States
• compare and contrast laws and culture within the Asian continent
• which countries are the most and least accepting of LGBTQIA+ people
• LGBTQIA+ couples of differing nationalities-- can they live in the same country?
• LGBTQIA+ rights worldwide (focusing on the "LGBTQIA+ climate" in a specific country or region)
• how are transgender people transforming the medical establishment?
• sexual orientation-- what does biological research tell us about it?
• LGBTQIA+ mental health; research shows LGBTQIA+ people have higher overall rates of depression, anxiety, and substance abuse disorders
• the diagnosis of "gender dysphoria" and how it has been reframed and is no longer a pathology
• parenting as a trans, nonbinary or gender fluid person
• lesbian and gay parenting and adoption
• new reproductive technologies for LGBTQIA+ people
• the history of how LGBTQIA+ people have or have not been integrated into the priesthood of a particular faith
• what new elements have LGBTQIA+ people brought to a particular faith
• LGBTQIA+ themes in the Bible;
• use of the Bible to justify mistreatment of LGBTQIA people
• What it's like to be gay and Muslim
• Gay and Lesbian - Does God Love you?
• 10 Reasons God Loves Gay Christians

Sexual Orientation

• bisexuality and issues that are unique to bisexual people
• asexuality-- what is means, how it is often misunderstood;
• new efforts at asexual visibility coming out stories/ coming out process;
• challenges to the concept of "coming out"

Society & Politics

• recent backlash against LGBTQIA+ people
• gender identity and America's (or another nation's) changing cultural norms
• opposition to gay rights
• discrimination and treatment in the workplace (search also phrases such as "openly gay teachers")
• violence and bullying of LGBTQIA+ people
• marriage of LGBTQIA+ people to heterosexuals in order to "pass" (especially in traditional cultures)
• queer film festivals as a step toward visibility
• same-sex marriage -- who supports it, who opposes it, and which countries have legalized it
• Rainbow capitalism

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Understanding Gender, Sex, and Gender Identity

It's more important than ever to use this terminology correctly..

Posted February 27, 2021 | Reviewed by Kaja Perina

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Representative Marjorie Taylor Greene hung a sign outside her Capitol office door that said “There are TWO genders: MALE & FEMALE. ‘Trust the Science!’” There are many reasons to question hanging such a sign, but given that Rep. Taylor Greene invoked science in making her assertion, I thought it might be helpful to clarify by citing some actual science. Put simply, from a scientific standpoint, Rep. Taylor Greene’s statement is patently wrong. It perpetuates a common error by conflating gender with sex . Allow me to explain how psychologists scientifically operationalize these terms.

According to the American Psychological Association (APA, 2012), sex is rooted in biology. A person’s sex is determined using observable biological criteria such as sex chromosomes, gonads, internal reproductive organs, and external genitalia (APA, 2012). Most people are classified as being either biologically male or female, although the term intersex is reserved for those with atypical combinations of biological features (APA, 2012).

Gender is related to but distinctly different from sex; it is rooted in culture, not biology. The APA (2012) defines gender as “the attitudes, feelings, and behaviors that a given culture associates with a person’s biological sex” (p. 11). Gender conformity occurs when people abide by culturally-derived gender roles (APA, 2012). Resisting gender roles (i.e., gender nonconformity ) can have significant social consequences—pro and con, depending on circumstances.

Gender identity refers to how one understands and experiences one’s own gender. It involves a person’s psychological sense of being male, female, or neither (APA, 2012). Those who identify as transgender feel that their gender identity doesn’t match their biological sex or the gender they were assigned at birth; in some cases they don’t feel they fit into into either the male or female gender categories (APA, 2012; Moleiro & Pinto, 2015). How people live out their gender identities in everyday life (in terms of how they dress, behave, and express themselves) constitutes their gender expression (APA, 2012; Drescher, 2014).

“Male” and “female” are the most common gender identities in Western culture; they form a dualistic way of thinking about gender that often informs the identity options that people feel are available to them (Prentice & Carranza, 2002). Anyone, regardless of biological sex, can closely adhere to culturally-constructed notions of “maleness” or “femaleness” by dressing, talking, and taking interest in activities stereotypically associated with traditional male or female gender identities. However, many people think “outside the box” when it comes to gender, constructing identities for themselves that move beyond the male-female binary. For examples, explore lists of famous “gender benders” from Oxygen , Vogue , More , and The Cut (not to mention Mr. and Mrs. Potato Head , whose evolving gender identities made headlines this week).

Whether society approves of these identities or not, the science on whether there are more than two genders is clear; there are as many possible gender identities as there are people psychologically forming identities. Rep. Taylor Greene’s insistence that there are just two genders merely reflects Western culture’s longstanding tradition of only recognizing “male” and “female” gender identities as “normal.” However, if we are to “trust the science” (as Rep. Taylor Greene’s recommends), then the first thing we need to do is stop mixing up biological sex and gender identity. The former may be constrained by biology, but the latter is only constrained by our imaginations.

American Psychological Association. (2012). Guidelines for psychological practice with lesbian, gay, and bisexual clients. American Psychologist , 67 (1), 10-42. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0024659

Drescher, J. (2014). Treatment of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender patients. In R. E. Hales, S. C. Yudofsky, & L. W. Roberts (Eds.), The American Psychiatric Publishing textbook of psychiatry (6th ed., pp. 1293-1318). American Psychiatric Publishing.

Moleiro, C., & Pinto, N. (2015). Sexual orientation and gender identity: Review of concepts, controversies and their relation to psychopathology classification systems. Frontiers in Psychology , 6 .

Prentice, D. A., & Carranza, E. (2002). What women should be, shouldn't be, are allowed to be, and don't have to be: The contents of prescriptive gender stereotypes. Psychology of Women Quarterly , 26 (4), 269-281. https://doi.org/10.1111/1471-6402.t01-1-00066

Jonathan D. Raskin, Ph.D. , is a professor of psychology and counselor education at the State University of New York at New Paltz.

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• Possible keywords: intimate partner violence, identity abuse, queer communities, LGBT people, intersectionality  
• Possible keywords:  gender identity, transgender people, gender nonconforming people  
• Possible keywords: sex education, bullying prevention, LGBT youth, health promotion  
• Possible keywords: transgender people, health disparities, health care inequality, patient protection

Gender Studies is an interdisciplinary field and may require keywords the aspect of the gender issue combined with keywords related to multiple disciplines (history, politics, medicine, literature, etc.). The ideas below will help get you started. If you need further help with keywords, talk to your professor or set up a research appointment with a librarian.

Note: Terminology in Gender Studies evolves much faster than terminology in databases. You will likely come across outdated and possibly offensive subject descriptions. However, it may be necessary to use such keywords in order to find the research you need.

Some suggested keyword combinations:

• Gender AND [society, psychology, biology, income]
• Women AND [art, history, sex roles, gender expression]
• Men AND [communication, mental health, gender roles]

Look for additional keywords in:

• Abstracts/Summaries even if the article is not relevant to your research, it may provide terms common to the field or other term related to your research.
• Book Indexes are basically keywords lists that help you navigate information in a physical book.
• E.g. "LGBTQ-inclusive sex education" may also be referred to as "comprehensive sex education"
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552 Gender Essay Topics & Research Topics on Gender

Looking for gender research topics for your paper? Look no further! In this awesome list, you will find here plenty of research questions about gender, essay topics, discussion ideas, and more. Check it out!

🏆 Best Essay Topics on Gender

⭐ catchy gender essay topics, 👍 good gender research topics & essay examples, 🌶️ hot gender studies research topics to write about, 🎓 most interesting gender research titles, 💡 simple gender issues topics for research paper, 📌 easy gender essay topics, ❓ research questions about gender, 🔥 interesting research topics on women’s issues, ✅ gender studies topics to write about.

• Gender Roles in The Tempest
• The Social Construction of Gender
• Gender and Sexuality: Essay Example
• The Issue of Gender-Separated Sports
• Elizabethan Era Gender Roles in Shakespeare Plays
• Gender Roles Effects on Children Development
• Gender-Based Violence in South Africa
• Gender Inequality Issue and Solutions Gender equality is a key human right that should be enjoyed by everyone. All people – regardless of their gender – should be able to enjoy the same rights and opportunities.
• The Social Construction of Gender Roles Gender is an underlying characteristic all societies and the social construction of gender roles, behaviors and expectations is an importance aspect of modern society.
• Gender Lightbulb Moment in Personal Experience The sex-role stereotyping and gender bias can be countered by educating people on the importance of diversity.
• Gender-Based Violence and Its Effects: Literature Review Gender-based violence is one of the most persistent issues affecting women around the world, and many literary masterpieces were oriented on the massive spread of this problem.
• Gender-Neutral Toilets in Schools Schools with both gender-expansive and transgender students are often endeavoring to create an enabling environment that addresses the needs of such a diverse population.
• Gender Discrimination Issues and Interventions Women should be encouraged to more actively protect their labor rights, do not be afraid to apply to the prosecutor’s office, the state labor inspectorate, or the court.
• Gender Stereotypes in Western and Eastern Culture Stereotypes claim that the girls from the east are well behaved. They are shy and respectful, quiet and smart.
• “Lanval”: Summary & Analysis of Gender Roles and Courtly Love “Lanval” is one of Marie de France’s lais in which the idea of love is discussed from the specific perspective according to which women and men are equal in their love.
• Gender Discrimination in Society and Social Media: Solutions The paper finds out to what extent discriminatory attitudes are present in different societies and how much social media induce them.
• Preventing Gender-Based Violence Addressing the issue of gender-based violence by introducing both relevant legal practices and educational projects at different levels is a crucial task.
• Gender Differences in Using the English Language This paper investigates gender differences in using the English language to understand the attitudes of men and women when they choose the way of pronunciation and vocabulary.
• Gender Inequality in the Workplace The global fight against gender inequality in the workplace can be successful if appropriate initiatives and interventions are taken at the organizational level.
• Gender Roles in “Wide Sargasso Sea” by Jean Rhys The impacts of colonialism and civilisation on the society in the Jean Rhys’ novel, Wide Sargasso Sea and specifically regarding its impact on gender roles in society.
• Women and Men Empowerment for Gender Equality The current world has emphasized women empowerment that has led to men’s disempowerment. It is important to involve men in the intervention of gender equality.
• Changing Gender Roles in Families This essay analyzes two articles on family gender roles and argues that the changing gender roles in modern society is rapidly being driven by single parent family controversy.
• Women and Gender Roles in “Antigone” by Sophocles Sophocles’ “Antigone” tells a story of a woman who disobeys the order of the ruler of Thebes who decided to leave the body of her brother unburied on the battlefield.
• Horizontal and Vertical Gender Segregation in Employment Gender segregation refers to unequal distribution of men and women in the occupational structure. Vertical segregation refers to placing men at the top of occupational hierarchies.
• Social Learning and Gender Schema Theories The paper states that social learning theory and gender schema theory, studying the same subject, provide their perceptions of gender-role development.
• Gender Differences in Delinquency Research shows that gender is the most influential correlate for juvenile delinquency. In other words, males tend to commit more crimes than women.
• Gender Representation in Akira Kurosawa’s Films This paper is intended to analyze one of the most controversial topics of Kurosawa’s films, specifically gender representation.
• Personal Awareness: Gender Identity Personal awareness is an important aspect of life cause it empowers a person on how to make cognizant decisions. Friends, family and society have a profound impact on personality.
• Multiculturalism as a Threat to Gender Equality To make democratic states realize that tolerance must not equal acceptance and that the specifics of a particular culture must not be projected onto another one.
• Impact of Globalization on Norms and Experiences around Gender Inequality is one of the most prolonged global debates that have refused to go away despite the great strides made through globalization
• Gender and Grade Point Average: Statistical Analysis This research paper aims to assess the relationship between Grade Point Average and gender by applying correlation analysis with stratified sampling.
• Role of Gender in Society In today’s society, equality is an issue that has not been fully achieved and integrated in the society, and hence gender roles are very distinguishable
• Objective Social Structure: Race, Gender, and Class The vast majority of social divisions take place based on race, gender, and class, where one or all three categories are imposed on individuals.
• Gender and Sexuality in Contemporary Culture In the contemporary society, gender and sexuality forms the basis for recognition. In effect, social construction defines that males and females are different creatures.
• Gender Roles in “The Handmaid’s Tale” by Atwood Margaret Atwood’s “The Handmaid’s Tale” is a novel illustrating a dystopian system in which fertile women become the maids of couples who cannot conceive.
• Gender Bias During the Hiring Process Gender bias in hiring has been a problem that many organizations have dealt with, as many employers prefer to hire men because of the notion that they are more committed.
• Gender Stereotyping in the “Pretty Woman” Movie The movie Pretty Woman, starring Julia Roberts and Richard Gere, created quite a bit of stirring among the feminist supporters of the country.
• Gender Stereotyping in Athletic Management In their research, Burton & Parker evaluate the extent of gender stereotypes interference with the representation of women in managerial positions at the middle and senior levels.
• Is Gender a Culturally or Biologically Perscribed Role? The concept of gender as a product of culture or biology has been debated and analyzed by various researchers. The result of this debate has further polarized the topic.
• Postmodern Feminism and Its Theory of Gender as Social Construction Post modern feminists argue that there are no natural building blocks between genders. It is the society that structures human being in a particular way to keep differences.
• Does Gender Affect the Type of Law Violation? One of the most predominant and consistent observations in the criminal justice system is that the type of law violation is often dependent on gender.
• Gender Identity Evolution and Its Results The evolution of gender identity evoked attempts to modify the cultural perceptions of the citizens; in this situation, sex became a less significant characteristic.
• Gender in The Great Gatsby & The Yellow Wallpaper The complexities of men and women in the texts were examined and evaluated on the basis of sexuality and relationship and the inferences would be supported by the text itself.
• Sex and Gender as a Social Phenomenon The paper establishes the differences between sex and gender; defines the term of gender identity; interprets gender from the viewpoint of every sociological angle.
• The Color of Sex: Postwar Histories of Race and Gender The article “The Color of Sex: Postwar Photogenic Histories of Race and Gender in National Geographic Magazines” disclosed how the images of people of color are formed by the popular culture.
• Modern Issues of Gender Studies The study of gender entails consideration of men and women in the society. The subject defines the notion of gender and how society has been shaping the concept over the time.
• Japanese vs. American Male Gender Roles American males perceived their women as weak and powerless creatures requiring protection, whereas the Japanese male stereotypes envisioned their women as being subordinate to men.
• Gender Dynamics in Development This essay opens with the indication of how serious gender dynamics affect life. Gender issues must be understood if development goals are to be realized.
• Gender Discrimination and Performance in the Workplace While talking about the gender discrimination, both sexes are considered although on discrimination the female are mainly on the receiving end.
• Race and Gender Stereotypes in Literature Literary texts are used to advance gender and race-related stereotypes. In this paper, the author examines three literary texts: Araby, The Hound of the Baskervilles and The False Gems.
• Single Parenthood Households and Gender-Related Issues In contemporary society, single parenthood has become common. Marriages between two couples are no longer popular.
• Gender Roles Within Greek Society Gender roles in Greek society were determined by social and cultural traditions, position of women in society and their significance as citizens.
• How Society Influences the Gender Roles Society should reconsider some of the gender roles to close the gap and give people equal opportunities to thrive and explore.
• Addressing the Issue of Gender Equality Gender equality is one of the core problems of the current century. It means providing equal conditions for men and women
• Speech of Emma Watson: Gender Equality The paper discusses the process of Emma Watson makes the first speech called United Nations Address on Gender Equality, focusing on gender equality.
• Sally Haslanger’s “Gender and Race” Review In Sally Haslanger’s philosophical essay ‘Gender and Race: (What) are they? (What) do we want them to be?’ the author utilizes an analytical approach to gender and race.
• Gender, Racial Discrimination, and Exclusion in Toni Morrison’s “Paradise” “Paradise” addresses the issue of racism by narrating a story about African Americans who move to the town of Ruby, in which people repeat certain mistakes.
• Gender Expectations in the Disney Film “The Little Mermaid” This article will show that the Disney’s work magnifies the evolving roles of women in society, and despite the existing tensions and backlash, women are integrating successfully into the society.
• Gender and Sexual activity: Literature Review This literature review focus on various perspectives of gender and sexuality in the context of different arenas of social groups.
• Gender Discrimination Topic for Research Gender discrimination is a social phenomenon based on cultural practices that set a glass ceiling to women in many aspects of life.
• Gender Roles: “What’s That Smell in the Kitchen” by Piercy “What’s That Smell in the Kitchen” by Marge Piercy is a poem that speaks against gender-stereotyped roles in society. It considers as a feminist literary piece of the 20th century.
• Gender Roles in Medea – Stereotypes & Resistance With the help of Medea and Jason, the main characters of the play “Medea”, Euripides presented individuals as complex creatures who carry both women’s and man’s characteristics.
• How Gender Stereotypes Affect Society Gender stereotypes are harmful because they only teach men and women to act in certain ways; they confine people to a set of behaviors associated with their gender.
• Women: Gender Inequality and Discrimination This paper explains whether innate gender differences exist and how they determine the abilities, choices, and aptitudes that differentiate men from women.
• Gender in “The Chrysanthemums” by John Steinbeck John Steinbeck’s The Chrysanthemums focuses on the theme of gender roles and the discrimination of women based on their gender.
• Gender Discrimination in “Disgrace” by J.M Coetzee J.M Coetzee’s book “Disgrace” that has been examined in this paper explores the nature of gender discrimination meted on women in South Africa.
• Performative Acts and Gender Constitution The rationale for Butler’s idea that gender represents actions that are norms and traditions of our society reflects cultural and historical experience.
• The Gender-Based Marketing and Its Negative Sides Many companies nowadays use marketing strategies based on the foundation of gender stereotypes or specific roles and needs associated with genders.
• “Glass Ceiling” in the Theory of Gender Studies The term ‘glass ceiling’ in the theory of gender studies describes an invisible and formally unmarked barrier that limits the advancement of women through the ranks.
• Gender Inequality in Social Inequality This topic was chosen because the problem of gender inequality has existed for a long time and is being solved with varying success.
• Marriage and Inequalities With Gender The issue of bridging gender equality has been the center of debate in the 21 century. The role of women in society could no longer be underestimated.
• Gender, Philosophy, and Religion in the Axial Age The philosophers of the axial age were primarily involved in the discussion of justice as the principal condition of citizens’ wellbeing.
• Sexism and Gender Inequality in Sport The paper reviews an example of sexism and gender inequality and academic scholarship on the topic. Women athletes have faced gender inequality and sexism.
• The Problems of Gender Inequality This paper tells that gender inequality is a serious issue, which affects everyone. It starts with the stereotype of males’ superiority and turns into numerous problems.
• Gender Symbols Usage in International Family-Oriented Marketing The concepts of social structuring and the formation of gender symbols are considered to be the central issues of family-oriented marketing developing on the international level.
• Aspects of Parenting and Gender Roles For children to develop a healthy understanding of gender roles, it is essential that parents choose the right approach to their formation.
• Intersection of Disability Justice, Race, and Gender This paper presents an annotated bibliography on the intersection of disability justice, race, and gender, analyzing intersections of disability justice.
• Role of Gender Stereotypes in Advertising The paper states that it is of great significance to understand the reasons behind the advertisers’ attachment to socially constructed gender differences.
• Gender Stereotyping at Workplaces Many women develop sophisticated coping mechanisms to ignore gender roles in the workplace, leading them to believe they have not experienced inequality.
• Is Gender Natural or Acquired? Gender may be categorized as both natural and acquired since one has the ability to transform from one gender to another.
• Gender Bias in Sports Commentary Observations The analysis of the ESPN coverage of sporting events shows that, although women are portrayed mostly equally, they generally receive less media attention than men.
• Gender Inequality at Google Inc. Some percentage of women employed in Google shows that it is possible and both genders should work hard to get a job there.
• Social Construction of Gender and Sexual Dichotomy Gender is usually divided into two sexes, namely male and female, in modern society. Traditionally, gender is determined by various physiological features, such as genitalia.
• Gender Discrimination as an Ethical Issue Society is related to discrimination, inequality, and ethical injustice due to the increasing rates of incompetence incidence based on racial, gender, or ethnic affiliation.
• Gender and Cultures in Conflict Resolution The conflict resolution measures should not solely end conflicts, but should also help to restore the fighting communities together.
• Gender and Sexuality in “The Exorcist” Film In The Exorcist, the problem of gender and sexuality is implicit since the notions are not explored openly in the film.
• Social Experiment: Informal Norms of Gender Issues The social experiment presents a contradiction between the socially-accepted norms and the understanding of equality between men and women.
• Gender is an Often Culturally-Prescribed Role Over the years, there were debates about notions of “sex” and “gender”. The recent point of view is that gender roles are not universal for every individual.
• Nursing Attitudes toward Trans and Gender-Nonconforming Pediatric Patients The PICO question of the paper: Does nursing knowledge and attitudes toward trans and gender-nonconforming pediatric patients improve cultural competence and healthcare disparities?
• Gender Roles in the Boys Don’t Cry Movie Boys Don’t Cry is a famous movie directed by Kimberly Peirce. It explores the influence of rigid gender-based behavioral expectations on a person’s well-being and safety.
• Gender Pay Gap Problem Overview This paper aims to discuss why the gender pay gap is an important issue that needs to be addressed by the HRM globally.
• Gender Stereotyping in Audi’s Used Car Ad Audi’s Used Car Ad was chosen because it sparked outrage on Chinese social media and worldwide because of the severe misogyny and stereotyping.
• Comparison of Gender Differences in Communication Considering a number of biological, evolutionary, social, and historical aspects, men and women tend to prove different psychological and behavioral patterns.
• Gender & Feminism in A Doll’s House The paper uses a combination of gender focus and reader-response approaches and argues that in “A Doll’s House” women’s self-sacrifice is viewed as a regular responsibility.
• Gender Studies and Feminization in Education Gender studies in education have become a topic of debate since the second half of the twentieth century due to the increasing importance of feminism.
• Gender Display in TV Shows, Movies and News From the television to the movies going to the news, men have always been at the forefront, eventually overshadowing women in the media industry.
• Sexuality in “Love Beyond Gender” by Alysia Abbott The question of sexuality has always been an ongoing issue for human society. Sexual interest impacts the life of an individual and predetermines the choice of a partner.
• Role of Gender in Cartoons and Commercials Gender roles depicted by cartoon characters do not indicate an instance where roles played by men and women overlap.
• Cultural Impact on Gender and Sexuality The biblical understanding of sexuality and gender perceives gender as a result of differences in traditional scripts for boys and girls.
• Understanding Different Gender Roles and the Impact on Marketing There are traditional and nontraditional gender roles that determine how male and female models are used in commercials.
• Gender Is a Culturally Prescribed Role, Rather Than a Biological Sex The debates concerning the notions of “sex” and “gender” have been going on over the years.
• Gender Roles and Psychological Health The emergence of traditional gender roles and the images of masculinity and femininity can be regarded as an attempt to organize society and create stable social structures.
• Shifting Gender Norms in Isabel Allende’s The House of the Spirits The questions of gender equality and the role of women in family and society are central for Isabel Allende’s novel The House of the Spirits that was first published in 1982.
• The Fifth Element: Gender and Sexuality in Cinema The work learns gender and sexuality in the context of the movie The Fifth Element that will add a better understanding of popular mistakes and stereotypes used by cinematographers.
• Gender Stereotypes in Families: Parental Influence on an Adolescent’s Career Choice Gender stereotypes are still persistent in societies that often seem to be egalitarian. These stereotypes are transmitted to younger generations that copy their parents’ role models.
• Role of Mass Media in Gender Issues This paper discusses the role of mass media in the presentation of gender and examines standards from various media sources to demonstrate how some news stories develop.
• Factors Contributing to the Gender Pay Gap in the UK The gender pay gap still exists; this essay will discuss what causes the gap and human resource strategies to eliminate the inequalities in remunerations.
• Gender Stereotypes in Academic and Family Settings Gender stereotypes refer to the assumption about gender features and roles that every woman or man is expected to possess or depict.
• Biology and Culture of Gender Color Stereotypes This paper attempts to answer this question and determine whether the indicated color genders are biologically based or culturally embedded.
• Gender Inequality in Security Sector The assumption of gender composition in the security sector has been linked with the apparent norm that women cannot work in the military.
• Issues of Sex and Gender in Society Today All issues related to gender have been rather acute and debated since early times. One can deftly manipulate people for the sake of one’s benefit.
• Perkin-Gilman’s Feminist Theory and View on Gender Discrimination In “The Yellow Wallpaper”, Gilman depicts in novel structure how the house turns into a women’s jail and how being shut in could lead to mental distress in women.
• Gender and Entrepreneurship Relations This paper analyzes how different factors affect both men and women in deciding to become entrepreneurs. Marital status is a significant factor for entrepreneurial women.
• Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis: An Etiquette Without Gender Discrimination Terms The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis reverses the common perception regarding communications and reality, in which the language reflects the realities of the world and the surroundings.
• The Importance of Gender in Marketing The behaviour of the consumer is the activity aimed directly on the reception, consumption and the arrangements of products and services, including processes of decision-making.
• Female Gender and Changes over the Last 150 Years The main problem of the female gender is that we are living in the so-called “gender prison” because a set of biological characteristics pre determines our behavior.
• Gender Roles in “Herland” by Charlotte Perkins Gilman The primary idea of Gilman, which she developed in her novel “Herland,” is to demonstrate the difference between the two sexes and roles that they usually try to play.
• Gender Stereotypes’ Effects Career and Mental Health This paper discusses the stereotypes about women and shows how they limit the professional development of women and put them at risk of domestic violence and mental health issues.
• Debate on Gender and Sex Inequalities The main aim of this paper was to analyze the distinction between gender and sex. The impacts of the two on social structures were highlighted.
• Contemporary Gender Equality Challenge This essay investigates the issues associated with gender equality on both individual and community levels and identifies the possible responses to those challenges.
• The Gender Pay Gap in Australia The existence of a gender gap is a severe problem for economic equality in a democratic society. This paper tests the idea that a gender pay gap exists using Australian workers.
• Cinderella and Girl: Feminist and Gender Critique Anne Sexton, in her poem Cinderella focuses on the position of women in society on the material of the well-known fairy tale by the Brothers Grimm.
• Gender and Communication in “Modern Family” by Lloyd The family sitcom “Modern Family” promotes the clearly defined notions of masculinity and femininity, sexism, and numerous stereotypes.
• Culture, Gender, and Price in Consumer Behavior Customers’ mindset and behavior are defined by cultural background, gender, and price of products, generating the approximate image of purchases.
• Gender Identity in Life-Span Development Today the question of gender identity is acute for people who struggle to find themselves in a world full of stereotypes and misunderstandings.
• Racial and Gender Diversity in Hollywood Hollywood’s television and film production depict a problematic pattern of bias in opportunities and the overall representation of women and ethnic minorities.
• Gender Issues in the Leadership of the Organization Traditional stereotypes of women as being less suited for leadership roles is also one of the reasons why gender has been linked to leadership.
• Gender Differences in Agressive Behavior The belief that violence is observed mostly in men than in women in the daily observations has a stable base in the records of crime and also in the common perception about gender.
• Gender Studies: The Queer of Color Theory The queer of color theory “seeks to disrupt binarism and normalcy in social institutions and structures” in terms of persons of different races.
• Male Gender Role in the Chinese Workplace The expectations placed on males are very high, given that a man is viewed as both the protector and the provider in the Chinese culture.
• Gender-Neutral Upbringing: Reasonable and Possible? The gender-neutral upbringing gains popularity. The paper finds out if it is reasonable to set the goal of gender-neutrality and if it can ever be accomplished.
• Chip ‘n Dale Rescue Rangers: Gender Roles The domination of the female gender in the cartoon Chip ‘n Dale Rescue Rangers is presented with the expression of the males’ agreement to subject to that domination.
• Gender Intersectionality: Fighting Discrimination This essay explored how gender intersectionality protects the interests of disadvantaged groups of the population.
• The Issue of Gender Inequality in Kenya Kenya is one of the countries in sub-Saharan Africa with oppressive conditions, most preferably the gender inequality and marginalization of a specific proportion of the populace.
• What Will Happen When AI Picks Up Social Biases About Gender? Social biases on gender will not have room when Artificial Intelligence takes over and the systems are put into everyday life.
• Gender Roles in a Modern Society Throughout the history of humanity, a woman has been assigned the role of being dependent on a man and, to some extent, subordinate to him.
• Gender Differences in the Dream Content of Children and Adolescents The article studies the dreams of children of different genders and compares them with previous findings from similar studies for adults.
• Gender Roles in Married at First Sight and Other Media Sources Every society and culture have different gender role expectations. This paper focuses on the comparison of the media sources’ assumptions about genders.
• Gender Pay Gap for Women: The Main Causes The gender pay gap is the analysis of wages earned by women compared to men. The disparity existing for women’s pay is caused by racism, discrimination by sex, and cultural norms.
• Gender Inequality in French Hospitality Industry The study scrutinizes the French hotel and tourism sector and the concerns and challenges women encounter in management roles and compares them to the trends.
• Discussion of Gender and Society Themes in Films The paper discusses gender and society themes in “The Power of Categories”, “How to Survive a Plague”, “Intersexion” and “The Edge Of Gender”.
• The Effects of Gender on Child Obesity The high percentage of women’s obesity prevalence is a result of poor nutrition in childhood and access to greater resources in adulthood.
• Analyzing the Relationship Between Gender and Victimization Women generally do not perform criminal activities as often as men. What is more, they are clearly underrepresented in the criminal justice system.
• Gender Socialization of Children Gender refers to behaviors, mindset and feelings associated with one being male or female. Children learn about their gender through the kind of clothes they put on.
• Issues in Sports: Gender Equality Numerous societies have not recognized that women have the flair to take part in any sport that a man can do, with equivalent expertise if not best.
• Communicative Features of Gender-Neutral Language Though gender differences are not minor, they are based on a social and symbolic setting, which constructs an expression that expresses the meaning a society confers on biological sex.
• Leadership and Gender Relations Analysis In 5 and 20 years, there will not be great changes in gender roles and position of women thus in 25 years gender differences will be eliminated and reduced.
• Advertising and Gender Roles Mass media, especially television imposes certain stereotypes on our consciousness and the most interesting thing is that we take these stereotypes as examples.
• Gender Equality in Jackson’s “The Lottery” The issue of gender relationships has been widely discussed in the literature, and Jackson’s “The Lottery” is one of the strongest examples of the gender inequality problem.
• Diversity and Society: Race, Ethnicity and Gender Self-identification of African American women depends on two important aspects that are ethnicity or race and gender.
• Gender Mainstreaming of European Union Institutions Gender mainstreaming policy ensures that women and men are represented during design, implementation, and evaluation of all policies of European Union institutions.
• Behavioral Learning Approach and Gender-Role Behavior Individuals learn particular behaviors when influenced by various environmental factors associated with specific macro- and micro-social contexts.
• Gender Stereotypes and Misunderstanding Stereotypes predetermine a human life and a female life, in particular, explaining the approaches that can change the situation, and defining the power of stereotypes.
• Income Inequality Based on Gender Income inequality based on gender is the dissimilarity between male and female earnings usually expressed in part by male earnings.
• “Gender Inequality in “”The Yellow Wallpaper””, “”A Rose for Emily””, and “”Trifels””” The paper focuses on analyzing A Rose for Emily, written by William Faulkner, The Yellow Wallpaper, by Charlotte Perkins Gilman, and Susan Glaspell’s Trifles.
• Gender Divide and Solidarity in Susan Glaspell’s ‘Trifles’ Trifles is an one-act play written by Susan Glaspell which crux of the story is the murder of John Wright, and the subsequent investigation of this event by other characters.
• Gender and Race in Langston Hughes’ Poetry of the Spanish Civil War Langston Hughes was a crucial figure in the 1920s Harlem Renaissance, which blossomed black intellectual, literary, and creative life in several American cities, particularly Harlem.
• Gender, Labor, and Power in the Global Apparel Industry by Jane L. Collins Interpretation of the fairy tale in which the demon offers to help a woman spin straw to gold is the depiction of how industries have thrived at the expense of social welfare.
• Shifting Gender Politics in Fashion and Textiles As cultural changes are reflected in cinematography, so does the changing perception of gender influences movies.
• Gender Inequality Among Women in Canada This paper seeks to discuss the approaches to gender inequality, the causes, impacts, and solutions to gender inequality among women in Canada.
• Age and Gender Stratification in Older Adults Age and gender stratification, two dimensions of social stratification, can have an adverse influence on older populations throughout the world.
• The Gender Influence on the Language of Communication This article discusses some gender patterns in the relationship between men and women of different ages, including their conversational communication.
• The Problem of Gender Identity in Sports Allowing athletes to compete regardless of their gender may effectively address gender segregation often shown in sports.
• Gender Identity Development This paper discusses the development of one’s gender identity from an early age and the different factors that affected that development.
• Gender Roles in the Buddhist Culture In the Buddhist culture, women are considered weak beings and require men to provide them with protection. Furthermore, men are considered to be the strong and family breadwinners.
• What About Gender Is Most Interesting to Sociologists? Before the emergence of the discipline of gender studies, there was an understanding that the social is biologically determined.
• Futurama Series Speaks Against Gender Stereotypes Although Futurama may seem to be a sexist series, at first sight, a closer examination reveals several directions in which this work speaks against gender stereotypes.
• Discussion of Gender Roles in Modern World
• Gender Diversity: Impact on the Organizational Performance
• Nature-Nurture Debate of Gender Identity
• Gender Pay Gap in the Modern Society
• Sexism & Gender Wage Gap: Deconstructing the Myths
• Societal and Gender Construction Affecting Incidents of Domestic Violence
• Influence of Culture and Gender on Personality Disorders Diagnosis
• Oppressive Gender Norms and Roles
• Sex and Gender Beyond the Binaries
• ‘Sex Under Pressure: Jerks, Boorish Behavior, and Gender Hierarchy’ by S. A. Anderson
• Gender-Assigned Social Norms: Male Socialization Experiences
• Gender Identity in Athletics: “The Battle Over Title IX and Who Gets to Be a Woman in Sports”
• What Ideas About Gender & Sexuality Are Communicated by Contemporary Fashion Images?
• Themes of Feminism & Gender in A Doll’s House by Henrik Ibsen
• Gender Gap in Financial Literacy
• Gender Studies: Feminine Men and Masculine Women
• Chapter 12 of Introduction to Women’s and Gender Studies by Gills & Jacobs
• Does the Gender Pay Gap Still Exist?
• Sex, Gender, and Inequalities
• The Role of Gender in Interactions via Social Media
• Embracing Gender Identity: Pursuing a Fulfilling and Authentic Life
• Gender Equality: Language and Literature
• The Gender Concept and Its Impact on Health and Wellness
• Gender, Generations, and Communications
• Gender Differences and Self-Esteem in Exact Sciences
• Gender Roles and Inequalities in Advertisement
• Gender Inequality and Feminism in a TV Series
• Discussion of Race and Gender Identity
• Gender in Workplace and Induction Case Study
• Gender and Sexuality in Modern Society
• Absurd of Predetermined Gender Roles in Literature
• Intersectionality in Gender and Sexual Differences
• Gender Stereotypes and Their Role in Advertising
• Gender Quotas in Saudi Arabia: Unpacking the Political Conditions
• Gender Bias in the Aviation Industry
• The Problem of Gender Stereotypes
• Gender, Power, Privilege, and Feminism in the USA
• The Movie”Smurfs”: The Problem of Gender Roles
• “Women’s Assessments of Gender Equality Critique” by Kurzman
• Discusses of the Role of Gender in the Employment
• Gender, Social Structure and Division of Labor
• Evolution, Not Revolution: Gender Law and Women Rights in Saudi Arabia
• Gender and Racial Socialization
• Intersectionality of Religion with Gender, Race, and Class
• Embracing Equality: Gender in Medieval Europe
• Ethical Dilemma of Worldwide Gender Equality
• Primetime TV Shows and Gender Portrayals
• Images and Messages Patterns About Gender Given by Advertisers in Mass Media
• Gender Relations in Roman Society
• Gender Mainstreaming For Effective Development Of Our Company
• Gender Hierarchy in English Language
• Narration and Gender: Hardy’s The Mayor of Casterbridge, Burney’s Evelina, Winterson’s Sexing the Cherry
• Gender Identification in Coed Dormitories
• Gender Bias Issues: Types of Gender Bias in the Workplace and Their Impact on Productivity
• Gender Differences in Managerial Behavior
• Impact of Globalization on Gender Norms and Experiences
• The Gender Dysphoria Concept
• Gender Bias in the Workplace Environment
• Female Gender Bias in College
• Gender Roles in Cartoons
• Gender in the 21st Century: Fighting Dangerous Stereotypes
• Gender Studies: Feminism Varieties
• Gender and Students’ Performance
• The Autism-Gender Relationship Analysis
• Sexual and Gender-Based Violence
• How Societies Construct Gender Identities, Sexual Practices, and Gendered Bodies
• The Gender-Based Pay Inequality Factors
• Gender Differences in the Prevalence and Characteristics of Pain in Spain
• Gender in Sophocles’ Tragedy Antigone
• Children and Gender: Growing Up Trans by Frontline PBS Review
• Gender Pay Gap From Feminist Perspective
• The Gender Pay Gap and Coping Strategies
• Gender Socialization During the First 12 Years of Life
• Heart Disease Risk Profiles and Gender Differences
• “Gender Disparity in Students’ Choices…” by Zhang et al.
• Gender Diversity Within and Beyond School Contexts
• Career-Related Decision-Making and Gender Differences
• Analyzing Gender Bias in the Fire Department
• Forum: Gender and Gender Roles
• The Role of Gender in Social and Moral Development
• Gender and Sexuality and Their Role in Life
• Smoking and Gender Factors of Lung Cancer
• Discussion: Race, Gender, and Science
• Gender Identity and Correctional Institutions
• Global Gender Inequality and Its Main Trends
• Gender and Sexuality in the United States History
• Gender Differences in Schizophrenia
• Gender and Racial Equality Barriers in the Workplace
• The Influence of Gender and Power Disparities on the Workplace
• Gender Norms’ Impact on Men and Women
• Sociology of Race, Gender, Identity, and Sexuality
• Stereotypes of Gender Roles
• The Relationship Between Gender and GPA
• Gender Inequality for Men and Women
• Critical Areas in Women and Gender Studies
• The Types of Law Violations: Gender Effects
• Race, Sex, and Gender in Cultural Anthropology
• Gender as a Social Construct and Related Issues
• The US History, Markets, Geography, and Gender Politics
• Gender Equality Cannot Be a Universal Concept
• Importance of Gender Reveal Ultrasound
• The Gender Pay Gap Problem: Why Women Earn Less
• Gender Role Differences and Immigration
• Sexuality and Gender-Related Behavior During Adolescence
• Society’s Conception of Gender Roles in Media
• Health Care Disparities: Race and Gender
• Issues Associated With Gender and Incarceration
• Gender Stereotype in Advertisement
• Gender Stereotypes Have Changed by Eagly et al.
• Housing Discrimination Across Race, Gender, and Felony History
• Racial and Gender Macroaggression in the White College Campus
• Aspects of Society in Relation to Gender and Sex
• Gender Differences in Development of Schizophrenia
• The Issue of Gender Discrimination Related to Business and Society
• Economic Inequality Between Genders
• Race and Gender in 17th-18th Century American Colonies
• Historical Review of Gender Inequality in the USA
• Gender, Sexuality, Power Relations, and Social Expectations
• Disability: Social Origin and the Role of Aging, Gender, and Race
• Ethics: Discourses of Love and Gender
• Toxic Masculinity and Gender Equality in the US
• Gender Diversity in Organizations
• Telephone Culture and Role of Gender Differences
• Social Work Assignment: Gender, Money, and the Charity Organization Society
• Issues of Female Gender in Modern World
• Gender in Traditional Superhero Costumes
• Gender Roles in Advertisements
• Ethnicity, Race, and Gender as Social Constructs
• Gender Ideology in the 1930s by Alice Kessler-Harris
• Women in Business and Gender Diversity Policy
• Gender and Sexual Scripts in the American Culture
• Gender Disparity in Citations in High-Impact Journal Articles
• Social Constructs of Race and Gender
• Data, Technology, Gender, and Society
• Gender Roles in Trifles Play by Susan Glaspell
• Gil’s Idea of the Paradoxical Body and Gender Constitution and Concerning Black Identity
• The Labels Adolescents Use to Describe Their Gender Identity
• Discussion of the Gender Wage Gap
• Discussion of Sex, Gender, and Culture
• Gender Differences in Aggression
• Fair Treatment of Both Genders and John Rawls’ Theory of Justice
• Intersectionality of Race and Gender
• Gender Equality Strategies in Education
• Sexual Orientation, Gender Identity, and Citizenship
• Gender, Emotional Labor, Harm, and Safety
• Gender and Ethnic Diversity in Leadership
• Gender Equality: Do Women Have Equal Rights?
• The Inclusivity of Language: Gender Issues
• “Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment” by Kabeer
• Gender Equality in the Media Workforce
• Gender Education: Sociological Review
• The Gender-Neutral Conceptualization of Parenting
• Global Misunderstanding of the Idea of Feminism and Gender Equality
• How Gender, Race, and Class Impact Criminality Levels
• Sex and Gender Equality in a Personal Worldview
• Researching of Gender and Work-Life Balance
• The Politics of Gender and Race in the Ilbert Bill Controversy
• Gender Norms and Contemporary Culture
• Gender and Ethnic Diversity in Healthcare
• Expanding Reach: Addressing Gender Barriers in COVID-19 Vaccine Rollout
• Gender Dysphoria in Adolescents
• Gender Impact on Societies Worldwide
• Occupational Gender Segregation and Its Causes
• Gender Equality as Smart Economics’ Policy Agenda
• Marketing and Interaction Through Social Media Platforms and Gender Inequalities
• Comparing Opposite Views on Gender: National Organization for Women vs: Concerned Women for America
• Social Construction of Race and Gender in the United States and Brazil
• Discussion of Gender Bias in Research
• Social Construction of Gender. Sociology in Modules
• Gender Messages From Social Institutions: Family, School, and Mass Media
• Gender-Role Attitudes: Society Values & Standards
• Gender-Oriented Products: Branding and Marketing
• Role of Ideology and Institutions in Gender Inequality
• Doing Genders: Social Constructs of Gender
• Vision of Gender Stratification in an Advertisement
• Relationship Between Gender and Death Anxiety
• Families, Gender Relations and Social Change in Brazil
• Gender Differences in Early Development
• Implications of Current Gender Expectations
• Racial and Gender Disparities Among Evicted Americans
• What Makes an Ideal Society? Revolutionary Ideas for Gender Equality
• Gender Differences in Public Health
• Integration of Gender Equality in Organizational Management
• “Gender Gap in Academic Seminar Questions” by Pells
• Gender Representation in American Pop Culture
• Gender Inequality Articles by Beaumont vs. Eigenberg
• Qualitative Research on the Gender Perception of E-Commerce
• “Gender Wage Gap”: The Pay Disparity Issue
• Factors that Contribute to the Housework Gender Gap
• Gender Inequality in Ohio’s Education and Labor Market
• Influence of Gender on Life and Sexism
• Gender Differences in the Treatment and Outcomes of Patients With ACSs
• Gender Pay Gap: Making Change With Civil Disobedience
• Sexual Agency: The Gender Politics of Campus Sex
• Gender Norms, Roles, and Stereotypes: Act Analysis
• Gender Effect on the Growth of Nursing as a Knowledge-Based Profession
• Gender-Related Barriers to E-commerce Adoption in the UAE
• Intersectionality of Gender With Race, Culture, and Politics
• Representing Islam: Racial and Gender Identities
• Job Limitation and Gender Sensitivity
• Gender, Race, and Trade Unions
• Queer Representation of Gender and Sexual Non-Conformity
• Gender: Do People Choose Their Sexual Orientation?
• Gender Equality: Men as Daycare Professionals
• Gender and Sexual Labeling
• “Is Gender Equality the Silent Killer of Marriages?” Article Analysis
• Dominant Parenting Styles: Gender-Differentiated Parenting Revisited
• “Development of Gender Labeling” by Etaugh
• Trans Individuals’ Sexual and Gender Identities
• Household Composition and Gender Differences
• Factors of the Gender Pay Gap
• Woman and Gender Equality in Canada
• Challenging Gender Norms: Personal Experience
• Gender Norms in Different Cultures
• Gender Issues in the Us Correctional System
• Gender Inequality in Modern Societies and Its Reasons
• Racial and Gender Issues in Modern Society
• Hispanic Community: Alcohol & Substance Abuse Among the Female Gender Population
• Gender Stratification and Divorce Trends
• Gender Gaps in Student Academic Achievement
• The Article About Gender Gap and Delinquency
• Autonomy in Harmonizing Gender Relations
• Gender, Sex, and Sexuality in the U.S.
• Gender Stigmas: From the Past to the Present
• The Impact of Gender on Pay and Their Gap
• Sociological Issues About Social Class and Poverty, Race and Ethnicity, Gender
• Human Rights and Gender Issues: “The Love Suicides at Amijima” & “Tale of Kieu”
• Racial, Ethnic and Gender Categories in the U.S. Census
• “Gender and Education” by David, Ball, Davies, and Reay
• Childhood Gender Analysis: Factors Influencing Gender Perception
• Gender Dysphoria in Adolescents and Adults
• Gender Conflict in “Sweat” by Zora Neale Hurston
• Impact of Gender and Sexuality on Advertisement
• Finding the Link Between Gender and Sexuality
• Gender in Perception of Barriers to E-commerce in UAE
• Gender as a Role, Cultural and Not Biological
• Gender and Cultural Factors in Risky Behavior Among Adolescents in the US and Asia
• Formation of Sexual Identity, Sexual Customs and Gender Bodies
• As Sociologists, is it Possible for us to Make Comparisons on the Basis of Gender?
• The Role of a Gender in the Media
• Influence of Gender and Race on Our Life Experiences
• Gender & Politics in Post- Modernist Society
• Gender Representation: Term Definition
• Identities, Gender & Sexuality: Linguistic Anthropology
• Gender Ideology in the U.S. and Japan
• Transnationalism Issues: Migration and Gender
• Representation of Australian Indigenous Sex and Gender
• Gender Construction and Heterosexism
• The Issue of Gender Pay Discrimination in Canada
• Gender Differences in Depressive Symptoms
• Religious and Biological Approaches of Gender and Nature
• Interrelation of Gender and Contemporary Society: Madonna
• The Problem of Gender Identity Disorder
• Gender Inequality in Democratic Welfare States
• Misconceptions of Gender and Migration Issues
• Gender, Race and Class in American Television
• Development of Voting Rights of Religious, Socioeconomic Groups, Gender, and Racial Minorities
• Gender Question in O’Connor and Williams’ Novels
• Gender Non-Conforming or Transgender Children Care
• Race and Gender: Dimensions of Power
• Gender as a Social Process: Theoretical Foundation
• Race and Gender in Public Relations
• Discrimination Against Racial and Gender Minorities
• Gender Differences in Financial Knowledge
• Value of Genders in Society: Agents of Socialization
• Gender Stereotyping in American Media
• Gender and the Rights of Women in Morocco and Saudi Arabia
• Gender in the Saudi Arabian Educational Setting
• Gender Norm Violation Study: Evaluating Impact on the Society
• Economic Benefits of Gender Equality in the European Union
• The Concept of Gender Socialization and Ageism
• Gender Studies. “A Cyborg Manifesto” by Haraway
• Gender Issues and the U.S. Constitutional Law: Wal-Mart Stores, Inc. v. Dukes et al.
• Race and Gender in Public Relations Field
• Gender Discrimination and Intervention Program
• Gender Pay Gap as a Serious Social Issue
• Gender Stereotypes of the US Women
• Gender Stereotypes: Data Presentation Strategy
• Data Analysis Proposal: Gender Stereotypes
• Gender Stereotypes: Research Question
• Issue of Gender Discrimination in Different Societies
• Gender Roles and Social Groups
• Gender Stereotypes in Family and Academic Settings
• Gender Stereotypes and Employment’ Correlation
• The Gender Stereotypes in the Workplace
• Gender Identities Within the Farm Family
• Rethinking Sexual Harassment and Gender Discrimination
• Gender Differences in Mate Selection
• Preventative Care Depending on Age and Gender
• Gender Equity and Social Justice in Schoolchildren
• Gender-Based Social Responsibilities and Structure
• Transgender and Gender Non-Conforming Children
• Community Health Status: Development, Gender, Genetics
• Gender Stereotypes in Family: Research Methods
• Homonationalism and Gender Identity in Catholicism
• Global Sense: Female Leadership and Gender Equity
• Gender-Based Discrimination during Surgical Training
• Gender Inequality as an International Issue
• Gender Equality and Women’s Rights
• Emotion Perception and Gender Factor in Stress
• Gender Stereotypes in Families: Parents’ Gender Roles and Children’s Aspirations
• Gender Stereotypes Formation in Children
• Parents’ Gender Roles and Children’s Aspirations
• ANOVA Research: Person’s Gender and Level of Education
• Gender Stereotypes Developed Within Families
• Sexism and Gender: Culture and Conflict Reflection
• Pauli Murray’s Advocacy for Civil and Gender Rights
• Gender, Race and Sexuality Issues in Society
• Gender in Fiction and Sociological Literature
• Gender Stereotyping among Children
• Women’s Views on Long-Existing Gender Stereotypes
• Racial Gender Inequality in the United States
• Promotion and Gender: Scenario Analysis
• Women’s Stereotypes of Gender Roles Distribution
• Gender Stereotypes in Women’s Opinion Study
• The Five-Factor Theory, Personality, and Gender
• The Gender Differences Concept
• Gender in Arab Politics, State and Business
• Age and Gender in Childhood Obesity Prevention
• Gender Discrimination and Equality Promotion at Work
• Gender-Neutral Schools in Sweden
• Gender Stereotyping Experiment: The Level of Gender Stereotyping in Society
• Gender Changes in the Film “Far from Heaven” by Todd Haynes
• Gender Dysphoria: Classification, Causes and Treatment
• Gender Inequality in India and Iran Politics
• Do Child Toys Restrict Criteria for Gender?
• Gender Studies: Same-Sex Marriage
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• Articles on Gender, its Development, and Cultural Aspects
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• Global Inequality: Gender, Racial and Ethnic Inequality
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• Are Gender Roles Damaging Society?
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• Did the First World War Represent an Irrevocable Crisis of Gender in the UK?
• How Is Gender Represented in Advertisements?
• What Are the Stages of Gender Transition?
• Can Additional Training Help Close the ADHD Gender Gap?
• Are Gender Stereotypes Perpetuated in Children’s Magazines?
• Are Gender Roles Defined by Society or by Genetics?
• What Are the Three Gender Identities?
• What Is Gender Identity and Why Is It Important?
• How Does Bullying Affect People Based on Gender or Race?
• Women’s Rights in Conflict Zones
• The Role of Women in STEM Fields
• Prevalence of Violence against Women in the US
• Strategies for Equality in Leadership and Politics
• How Can Women Achieve Work-Life Balance?
• Women’s Empowerment and Economic Development
• Gender-Related Factors Influencing Women’s Earnings
• Healthcare Access, Quality, and Reproductive Rights of Women
• Gender Stereotypes’ Impact on Women’s Opportunities
• The Overlapping Identities and Challenges of Diverse Women.
• Intersectionality and Experiences of Gender
• The Struggle for Equality and LGBTQ+ Rights
• Comparison of Gender-Specific Challenges and Stigmas
• Strategies for the Elimination of Gender Wage Gap
• How Access to Healthcare Relates to Reproductive Justice
• Why Are Women Underrepresented in Positions of Power?
• Toxic Masculinity and its Harmful Effects on Men and Society
• Gender Disparities and Promotion of Inclusivity in Schools
• The Influence of Culture and Media on Gender Roles and Socialization
• Gender Discrimination, Harassment, and Bias in the Workplace

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StudyCorgi. (2021, September 9). 552 Gender Essay Topics & Research Topics on Gender. https://studycorgi.com/ideas/gender-essay-topics/

"552 Gender Essay Topics & Research Topics on Gender." StudyCorgi , 9 Sept. 2021, studycorgi.com/ideas/gender-essay-topics/.

StudyCorgi . (2021) '552 Gender Essay Topics & Research Topics on Gender'. 9 September.

1. StudyCorgi . "552 Gender Essay Topics & Research Topics on Gender." September 9, 2021. https://studycorgi.com/ideas/gender-essay-topics/.

Bibliography

StudyCorgi . "552 Gender Essay Topics & Research Topics on Gender." September 9, 2021. https://studycorgi.com/ideas/gender-essay-topics/.

StudyCorgi . 2021. "552 Gender Essay Topics & Research Topics on Gender." September 9, 2021. https://studycorgi.com/ideas/gender-essay-topics/.

These essay examples and topics on Gender were carefully selected by the StudyCorgi editorial team. They meet our highest standards in terms of grammar, punctuation, style, and fact accuracy. Please ensure you properly reference the materials if you’re using them to write your assignment.

This essay topic collection was updated on January 8, 2024 .

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Detransition and gender fluidity: Deeper understanding can improve care and acceptance

by Kinnon R. MacKinnon, Annie Pullen Sansfaçon and Pablo Expósito-Campos, The Conversation

If you have been following recent coverage about gender-affirming health care, detransition will not be an unfamiliar topic . From mainstream journalists to transgender authors , many have taken an interest in people who underwent a medical gender transition and chose to return to their former identity.

The increasing visibility of gender transitioning and detransitioning has also come with a helping of sensationalization and polarization. But a divided media landscape that presents detransitioners as either " misinformation " or victims of " gender ideology " hurts all gender-diverse people, including those who are detransitioning.

We are transgender and cisgender researchers who study gender-affirming health care, and we are among a few in the world who are currently investigating detransition (detrans, for short—a label adopted by some with this lived experience). We also know many people who have detransitioned personally, whose first-hand perspectives have helped us to improve how we approach this topic.

Detransition is not new, but we are seeing new gender-diverse experiences

Detransition is not new. Providers of gender-affirming medicine have long been aware of adults who medically transitioned and later returned to live in their former "gender role" or showed signs of regret.

Dr. Harry Benjamin, the endocrinologist who was among the first to offer gender-affirming medical interventions in the United States, wrote about one such case in his 1966 book, The Transsexual Phenomenon .

In 1992, German clinicians Friedemann Pfäfflin and Astrid Junge published a comprehensive review of followup studies published over the previous 30 years, reporting 25 cases of "role reversal" or regret among adults who had undergone surgery. Later, in 1998, Dutch clinicians Abraham Kuiper and Peggy Cohen-Kettenis published a qualitative study of 10 adults who returned to their original "gender role" or expressed feelings of regret after surgery.

Pioneers of gender medicine were interested in understanding these stories because regret, along with suicide, was considered an outcome that should be prevented at all costs.

The logic of preventing regret was part of what inspired doctors' strict gatekeeping practices and the requirement that gender transitions be binary : male-to-female or female-to-male. Using strict measurement criteria, they estimated that detransition was rare: around one to two percent .

But today, gender is no longer thought of as binary. And while there is evidence that detransition has increased in recent years , debates about numbers can distract from a more delicate conversation about the real need for LGBTQ+ communities, organizations and gender-affirming care providers to develop a nuanced understanding of gender fluidity and detransition .

Although detransition may not be new, what is new is a small but emerging gender-diverse population in our society who transitioned socially and/or medically as children, youth or young adults who are now re-identifying with their birth-assigned sex/gender , or moving from a binary trans identity (trans man or woman) to non-binary .

Understanding detransition can help us to enrich gender care

We have long known that sexuality can be fluid for some LGBTQ+ people. New research shows that it is not uncommon for trans and gender-diverse young people to report shifts in gender identity over time—dynamically moving between binary trans girls or trans boys, to non-binary, or to cisgender . In some cases, these identity-shift patterns can influence changes in desires for gender-affirming interventions .

However, when a person's gender identity or their desire for how they want to express their gender changes after already completing medical or surgical interventions, this may contribute to feelings of decisional regret. This poses important dilemmas for providers of gender-affirming medical interventions.

Many people who detransition are LGBTQ+ . But because detransition and regret are being instrumentalized in debates about trans people and gender-affirming health care, organizations and care providers serving sexual minorities and gender-diverse communities may feel that offering outward support for detransitioners is politically risky.

But if organizations and care systems fail to offer formal recognition and support, where can detransitioners turn to for help?

Discussion of anything but positive outcomes from gender-affirming hormonal or surgical treatments was long considered unspeakable in mainstream culture and in the trans community. As a result, regret went underground, to online social media networks and detrans peer support networks . Apart from a small number of therapists working privately with this population, there are few support services.

Detransitioners' voices

Some detrans people have decided to go public and tell their stories in the media , to testify in state legislatures and to take legal action . As social scientists who study gender-affirming health care, we understand what motivates these pursuits: a desire to be understood, and to seek validation and justice.

Detransitioners' voices, though, may be strategically positioned toward gender-affirming care restrictions , rather than to improve research or to develop comprehensive detransition-related care services. This positioning may further contribute to stigma and division between trans and detrans people.

It is our view that detransition should be rigorously studied to build a more robust understanding of gender identity development, and to improve gender care—so that nobody's needs or lived experiences are neglected.

We wrote about some of these ideas and recommendations in the medical journal BMJ , including what we know about detransition so far. We also developed an online support resource to communicate the most up-to-date research and care guidance.

Identity evolution and detransition are LGBTQ+ experiences

In our own emerging research with detransitioning people, we have observed that these experiences can often overlap with trans people's and the broader LGBTQ+ community. Indeed, some who understand themselves as detrans may also identify as non-binary, gender-fluid , bisexual, queer, butch, gay, lesbian and/or gender nonconforming ; and many continue to experience gender minority stress and homophobia .

Some might only detransition temporarily due to lack of support , external pressures and transphobia, and re-affirm a trans identity in the future.

Regardless, detransition can bring about loss of community supports, stigma , shame and health care avoidance . Many — but not all —detransitioners experience regret over past medical interventions . Other feelings may be present as well, including satisfaction, ambivalence, grief and self-discovery .

Identity shifts can be hard to predict. However, in hindsight, some detransitioners do feel that they were influenced by their cultural environment to interpret their feelings and behaviors through the lens of gender dysphoria or to adopt a trans identity without considering alternatives. At the same time, some detrans people recount that environments that suppressed or doubted their initial trans identity only meant that later on, in detransition, it was hard to disclose to loved ones and care providers that their identity had changed.

In any case, gender fluidity does not negate the reality of detrans people's authenticity in their own gender-diversity. While we understand that some of this information is new and may be uncomfortable to embrace, a gender-affirmative stance must hold space for the full breadth of gender diversity being reflected in our society today.

Rigorous, on-going research that is inclusive of these experiences is fundamental to being gender-affirming. Gender fluidity and detransition deserve further understanding and formal care services, not controversy.

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Children to no longer be prescribed puberty blockers, NHS England confirms

The decision comes after an independent review of services for children under 18 and a sharp rise in referrals to the Gender Identity Development Service run by the Tavistock and Portman NHS Foundation Trust, which is closing at the end of March.

Thursday 14 March 2024 17:47, UK

Children will no longer be prescribed puberty blockers at gender identity clinics, NHS England has confirmed.

Puberty blockers, which pause the physical changes of puberty such as breast development or facial hair, will now only be available to children as part of clinical research trials.

The government said it welcomed the "landmark decision", adding it would help ensure care is based on evidence and is in the "best interests of the child".

It follows a public consultation on the issue and an interim policy, and comes after NHS England commissioned an independent review of gender identity services for children under 18 in 2020.

The review followed a sharp rise in referrals to the Gender Identity Development Service (GIDS) - a specialised service for young people who experience difficulties in the development of their gender identity, which is closing at the end of March following repeated scrutiny.

Run by the Tavistock and Portman NHS Foundation Trust, GIDS had 5,000 more referrals in 2021/22, compared to just under 250 a decade earlier.

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Dr Hilary Cass, who led the review, published an interim report in February 2022 saying there was a need to move away from one unit and recommended regional options be available to better support children.

She also said there was a lack of long-term evidence on what happens to young people prescribed blockers - adding that GIDS had not gathered routine and consistent data, meaning it was "not possible to accurately track the outcomes and pathways that children and young people take through the service".

After the Gender Identity Development Service (GIDS) closes, two new NHS services will open in early April, situated in Great Ormond Street Hospital, London , and Alder Hey Children's Hospital in Liverpool .

The NHS said children attending these clinics will be supported by experts in neurodiversity, paediatrics and mental health, "resulting in a holistic approach to care".

Around 5,000 children and young people are currently on the waiting list for referral into the new clinics, with 250 patients expected to be transferred to them when they are open.

Currently there are fewer than 100 children on puberty blockers, who will continue their treatment at Leeds and University College London Hospital.

Puberty blockers can be used to delay the development of physical characteristics which can make someone look male or female, allowing transgender young people to explore their gender identity and weigh up medically transitioning.

Taking them early in puberty may mean less treatment or surgery in the future. However, critics have raised concerns over issues including consent, mental health risks and bone density development.

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Health Minister Maria Caulfield said: "We have always been clear that children's safety and wellbeing is paramount, so we welcome this landmark decision by the NHS.

"Ending the routine prescription of puberty blockers will help ensure that care is based on evidence, expert clinical opinion and is in the best interests of the child."

The consultation on the future of such services received more than 4,000 responses. Around a quarter were from members of the public, while 22% were from patients, 21% from parents, 10% from trans adults and 5% from clinicians.

John Stewart, NHS England's national director of specialised commissioning, said the responses were "polarised" in line with the debate around puberty blockers.

Mr Stewart said: "Many people said the policy didn't go far enough in terms of still allowing potential access [to puberty blockers] through research, and others saying clearly they disagreed fundamentally and that these should be routinely available to everyone who believes they need it."

Transgender youth charity Mermaids described the announcement as "deeply disappointing" and accused the NHS of "failing trans youth".

A spokesperson added: "Those currently prescribed puberty blockers won't see any changes to their treatment, and this is a pause on prescribing - not a ban.

"It's also important to note that puberty blockers can be just one possible part of a young person's gender journey. However, this news still comes as a blow and will deeply affect our communities."

Former prime minister Liz Truss "welcomed" NHS England's decision ahead of her Health and Equality Acts (Amendment) Bill, which is up for its second reading on Friday.

The bill includes a ban on the prescription of body-altering hormones to children questioning their sex, both privately and on the NHS.

The most commonly used puberty blockers suppress the production of hormones, including testosterone and oestrogen.

NHS England hopes to have a study into their use in place by December - with the eligibility criteria yet to be decided.

Related Topics

• Transgender

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Regions & Countries

Methodology, focus groups.

Pew Research Center worked with PSB Insights to conduct six focus groups with a total of 27 transgender and nonbinary U.S. adults. The focus groups were conducted online from March 8 to March 10, 2022.  

The focus groups included one group of transgender men, one group of transgender women, one group of nonbinary adults, and three groups with a mix of transgender and nonbinary adults. Each group included four or five participants, lasted for 90 minutes, and was led by an experienced moderator using a discussion guide developed by Pew Research Center. The discussion guide underwent Institutional Review Board review. 

The transgender men group was moderated by a trans man; the transgender women group was moderated by a trans woman; the nonbinary group was moderated by a nonbinary moderator; two mixed groups were moderated by a trans man and one mixed group was moderated by a nonbinary moderator. The focus groups were conducted over a secure, online research platform with video and audio capabilities. 

Recruitment efforts included targeted email outreach among a panel of qualified candidates, followed by a screening phone call with those who expressed interest over email to ensure they were eligible for the study. Additionally, some potential participants were found through professional networks and outreach to LGBTQ+ organizations. All participants were given financial remuneration for their time.

Participants had to meet four criteria to be eligible. First, potential participants had to be living in the United States and be at least 18 years old or the age of majority in their state. Second, they were screened to confirm that their gender was one of the following: transgender man, transgender woman, nonbinary, or some other gender that was not cisgender. Third, they had to have access to the internet and a device with a working webcam. And finally, participants had to be willing to attend the online focus group on a particular date and time. In order to ensure a diverse mix of participants among all who qualified, the research team also collected demographic information such as household income, education level, rurality, ethnicity, and race. See below for a demographic breakdown of the participants:

The findings are not statistically representative and cannot be extrapolated to wider populations.

Some quotes have been lightly edited for clarity or to remove identifying details. In this essay, participants are identified as trans men, trans women, or nonbinary adults based on their answers to the screening questionnaire. These words don’t necessarily encompass all of the ways in which participants described their gender. Participants’ ages are grouped into the following categories: late teens; early/mid/late 20s, 30s and 40s; and 50s and 60s (those ages 50+ were grouped into bigger buckets to better preserve their anonymity).

The following questions were used to determine whether respondents qualified to participate in the focus groups:

TECHACCESS    Do you have access to a laptop, desktop computer or tablet to participate in the focus group?

1          Yes

2          No  [THANK AND TERMINATE]

9          Don’t know/Refused  (VOL.) [THANK AND TERMINATE]

CAMERATECH   Does your laptop, desktop computer or tablet have a functioning webcam that is either built in or connected via USB?

INTERNET         Do you have access to high-speed internet that can support streaming video?

 1          Yes

BRWSERTECH   Does your computer have one or more of the following internet browsers? Internet Explorer 11 or higher, Google Chrome, Mozilla Firefox, or Safari?

ENVIRONMENT During the focus group, we ask that you are in a quiet area so that we can have a discussion without any distractions, such as loud background noises or kids. Are you able to be in a quiet, non-distracting area during the duration of your focus group?

GENDERNEW    Which of the following terms best describes your gender? Are you a man, a woman, nonbinary, or do you use another term that I haven’t mentioned?  [IF R SAYS ANOTHER IDENTITY:  What term do you use?  ENSURE THEY ARE NOT GIVING A NON-SENSICAL OR MALICIOUS RESPONSE]

1          Man 

2          Woman

3          Nonbinary

4          Another identity  (Specify: ____)

9         Don’t know/Refused  (VOL.)

TRANSNEW       Do you consider yourself to be transgender?

 2          No

If eligible so far, read:

Thank you for your responses thus far. The focus of the group discussion will be on gender identity. If you are eligible, you would be participating in a group with other individuals who are transgender or nonbinary.

GRPCOMFORT   Would you be willing to participate in a group discussion on gender identity and share your experiences? 

9           [VOL. DO NOT READ]  Don’t know/Refused

The American Trends Panel survey methodology

The estimate of the share of the U.S. adult population that is transgender or nonbinary, and the shares of the population that say they know someone who is transgender or nonbinary, come from a survey of the general public.

The American Trends Panel (ATP), created by Pew Research Center, is a nationally representative panel of randomly selected U.S. adults. Panelists participate via self-administered web surveys. Panelists who do not have internet access at home are provided with a tablet and wireless internet connection. Interviews are conducted in both English and Spanish. The panel is being managed by Ipsos.

Data in this report is drawn from the panel wave conducted from May 16 to May 22, 2022. A total of 10,188 panelists responded out of 11,668 who were sampled, for a response rate of 87%. The cumulative response rate accounting for nonresponse to the recruitment surveys and attrition is 3%. The break-off rate among panelists who logged on to the survey and completed at least one item is 1%. The margin of sampling error for the full sample of 10,188 respondents is plus or minus 1.6 percentage points. 

Panel recruitment

The ATP was created in 2014, with the first cohort of panelists invited to join the panel at the end of a large, national, landline and cellphone random-digit-dial survey that was conducted in both English and Spanish. Two additional recruitments were conducted using the same method in 2015 and 2017, respectively. Across these three surveys, a total of 19,718 adults were invited to join the ATP, of whom 9,942 (50%) agreed to participate.

In August 2018, the ATP switched from telephone to address-based recruitment. Invitations were sent to a stratified, random sample of households selected from the U.S. Postal Service’s Delivery Sequence File. Sampled households receive mailings asking a randomly selected adult to complete a survey online. A question at the end of the survey asks if the respondent is willing to join the ATP. Starting in 2020, another stage was added to the recruitment. Households that do not respond to the online survey are sent a paper version of the questionnaire, $5, and a postage-paid return envelope. A subset of the adults returning the paper version of the survey are invited to join the ATP. This subset of adults receive a follow-up mailing with a $10 pre-incentive and invitation to join the ATP.

Across the four address-based recruitments, a total of 19,822 adults were invited to join the ATP, of whom 17,472 agreed to join the panel and completed an initial profile survey. In each household, the adult with the next birthday was asked to go online to complete a survey, at the end of which they were invited to join the panel. Of the 27,414 individuals who have ever joined the ATP, 11,668 remained active panelists and continued to receive survey invitations at the time this survey was conducted.

The U.S. Postal Service’s Delivery Sequence File has been estimated to cover as much as 98% of the population, although some studies suggest that the coverage could be in the low 90% range. 1

Sample design

The overall target population for this survey was non-institutionalized persons ages 18 and older, living in the U.S., including Alaska and Hawaii. All active panel members were invited to participate in this wave. The American Trends Panel never uses breakout routers or chains that direct respondents to additional surveys.”

Questionnaire development and testing

The questionnaire was developed by Pew Research Center in consultation with Ipsos. The web program was rigorously tested on both PC and mobile devices by the Ipsos project management team and Pew Research Center researchers. The Ipsos project management team also populated test data that was analyzed in SPSS to ensure the logic and randomizations were working as intended before launching the survey. 

All respondents were offered a post-paid incentive for their participation. Respondents could choose to receive the post-paid incentive in the form of a check or a gift code to Amazon.com or could choose to decline the incentive. Incentive amounts ranged from $5 to $20 depending on whether the respondent belongs to a part of the population that is harder or easier to reach. Differential incentive amounts were designed to increase panel survey participation among groups that traditionally have low survey response propensities.

Data collection protocol

The data collection field period for this survey was May 16 to May 22, 2022. Postcard notifications were mailed to all ATP panelists with a known residential address on May 16, 2022.  

Invitations were sent out in two separate launches: Soft Launch and Full Launch. Sixty panelists were included in the soft launch, which began with an initial invitation sent on May 16, 2022. The ATP panelists chosen for the initial soft launch were known responders who had completed previous ATP surveys within one day of receiving their invitation. All remaining English- and Spanish-speaking panelists were included in the full launch and were sent an invitation on May 17, 2022.

All panelists with an email address received an email invitation and up to two email reminders if they did not respond to the survey. All ATP panelists that consented to SMS messages received an SMS invitation and up to two SMS reminders. 

Data quality checks

To ensure high-quality data, the Center’s researchers performed data quality checks to identify any respondents showing clear patterns of satisficing. This includes checking for very high rates of leaving questions blank, as well as always selecting the first or last answer presented. As a result of this checking, three ATP respondents were removed from the survey dataset prior to weighting and analysis. 

The ATP data is weighted in a multistep process that accounts for multiple stages of sampling and nonresponse that occur at different points in the survey process. First, each panelist begins with a base weight that reflects their probability of selection for their initial recruitment survey. The base weights for panelists recruited in different years are scaled to be proportionate to the effective sample size for all active panelists in their cohort and then calibrated to align with the population benchmarks in the accompanying table to correct for nonresponse to recruitment surveys and panel attrition. If only a subsample of panelists was invited to participate in the wave, this weight is adjusted to account for any differential probabilities of selection.

Among the panelists who completed the survey, this weight is then calibrated again to align with the population benchmarks identified in the accompanying table and trimmed at the 1st and 99th percentiles to reduce the loss in precision stemming from variance in the weights. Sampling errors and tests of statistical significance take into account the effect of weighting.

Some of the population benchmarks used for weighting come from surveys conducted prior to the coronavirus outbreak that began in February 2020. However, the weighting variables for panelists recruited in 2021 were measured at the time they were recruited to the panel. Likewise, the profile variables for existing panelists were updated from panel surveys conducted in July or August 2021.

This does not pose a problem for most of the variables used in the weighting, which are quite stable at both the population and individual levels. However, volunteerism may have changed over the intervening period in ways that made their 2021 measurements incompatible with the available (pre-pandemic) benchmarks. To address this, volunteerism is weighted using the profile variables that were measured in 2020. For all other weighting dimensions, the more recent panelist measurements from 2021 are used. 

For panelists recruited in 2021, plausible values were imputed using the 2020 volunteerism values from existing panelists with similar characteristics. This ensures that any patterns of change that were observed in the existing panelists were also reflected in the new recruits when the weighting was performed.

The following table shows the unweighted sample sizes and the error attributable to sampling that would be expected at the 95% level of confidence for different groups in the survey. 

Sample sizes and sampling errors for other subgroups are available upon request. In addition to sampling error, one should bear in mind that question wording and practical difficulties in conducting surveys can introduce error or bias into the findings of opinion polls.

Classification of transgender and nonbinary adults

Respondents were classified as transgender or nonbinary if they answered the sex and gender questions in any of the following ways: 1. If they said they describe themselves as nonbinary  2. If they said their sex assigned at birth was male and they describe themselves as a woman, and then confirmed that that was accurate in the GENDERCONFIRM question 3. If they said their sex assigned at birth was female and they describe themselves as a man, and then confirmed that that was accurate in the GENDERCONFIRM question

Write-in responses to the “in some other way” response option in the GENDERNEW question were backcoded so that write-in responses of “man” or “male” were categorized as “a man”; write-in responses of “woman” or “female” were categorized as “a woman”; and write-in responses of terms that may fall under the nonbinary umbrella, such as gender fluid and agender, were re-categorized as “nonbinary.” These respondents were then classified under the above rules.

The  GENDERCONFIRM  question is used to avoid misclassifying respondents who made an error when answering the sex or gender questions as transgender. This type of error can have an  outsized effect  on estimates of small populations such as the transgender and nonbinary population and make it appear larger than it really is and some federal surveys use this approach.

[DISPLAY SEX AND GENDERNEW ON THE SAME SCREEN]

DISPLAY TO ALL:

Now just a couple of questions for demographic purposes…

SEX                  What sex were you assigned at birth, on your original birth certificate?  [RANDOMIZE RESPONSE OPTIONS]

1          Male

2          Female

GENDERNEW    Do you describe yourself as a man, a woman, nonbinary or in some other way?  [DISPLAY RESPONSE OPTIONS 1 AND 2 IN SAME ORDER AS SEX]

1          A man

2          A woman

4          In some other way:  [text box]

ASK IF SEX AND GENDERNEW DO NOT MATCH ((SEX=1 AND GENDERNEW=2) OR (SEX=2 AND GENDERNEW=1) OR (SEX=1 AND GENDERNEW=3) OR (SEX=2 AND GENDERNEW=3)):

GENDERCONFIRM         Just to confirm, you were assigned  [IF MALE AT BIRTH (SEX=1):  male ; IF FEMALE AT BIRTH (SEX=2):  female ]  at birth and you describe yourself as  [IF GENDER IS MAN (GENDERNEW=1):  a man ; IF GENDER IS WOMAN (GENDERNEW=2):  a woman ; IF GENDER IS NONBINARY (GENDERNEW=3):  nonbinary ] . Is that correct?

2          No 

Dispositions and response rates

© Pew Research Center, 2022

• AAPOR Task Force on Address-based Sampling. 2016. “ AAPOR Report: Address-based Sampling .” ↩

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Rising shares of u.s. adults know someone who is transgender or goes by gender-neutral pronouns, about four-in-ten u.s. adults say forms should offer more than two gender options, about one-in-five u.s. adults know someone who goes by a gender-neutral pronoun, most americans see value in steering children toward toys, activities associated with opposite gender, views of transgender issues divide along religious lines, most popular.

About Pew Research Center Pew Research Center is a nonpartisan fact tank that informs the public about the issues, attitudes and trends shaping the world. It conducts public opinion polling, demographic research, media content analysis and other empirical social science research. Pew Research Center does not take policy positions. It is a subsidiary of The Pew Charitable Trusts .