solutions to research problems in nigeria

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10 Problems of Research in Nigeria and Possible Solutions

The importance of research can never be underestimated in our everyday life because research involves everything you do. Research is simply the accumulation of knowledge; research is the careful, detailed and systematic collection of data in other to increase stock of knowledge or information.

In a country as wealthy and blessed in resources with a population of over 180 million citizens like Nigeria, what could be the problem of research in Nigeria and what is the possible solution?

Here will cover the following topics:

• challenges of effective research in nigeria
• solutions to research problems in nigeria
• studymode five problems facing research in nigeria
• what are the problems of research
• what are the problems of educational research
• problems of research in developing countries
• solutions to the problems of educational research
• limitations of educational research in nigeria

Do not assume that this topic does not concern you because research affects human culture and the society; in fact it concern everything you do. If you ever surfed any ecommerce store on the internet in search of the price of a goods or service, you have subconsciously carried out a form of research called Exploratory Research .

Even in business, when you are about to introduce a new product into the market your product must undergo a form of research called Market Research or otherwise called Market Survey .

Researching a study, a theorem or generally researching in other to accrue more facts sure has its numerous purposes and usefulness to you as a Nigerian but here are 10 Problems of Research in Nigeria and their Possible Solutions.

1. LACK OF PROPER RESEARCH ETHICS

Because of the importance of Research in academics, modern inventions, general human life and culture, there are ethical applications and principles which must be judiciously followed when conducting any form of research.

Research Ethics involves the application of fundamental ethical principles to a diversity of topics involving research like a Scientific Research.

Nigeria researchers and researches done in Nigeria needs to follow the proper ethical applications, approach and principles in conducting research to ensure credibility. Meaning that in other to properly tackle the problems of research in Nigeria, researchers in Nigeria must be well trained.

2. INEFFECTIVE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Some academic professionals believe that Research Methodology is a systematic plan for conducting research but a Research Methodology is the general research strategy that outlines the various methods in which a Researcher should go about his research.

Research Methodology helps the researcher to identify which method or set of methods or best practices can be applied to a specific study. Wrongly adopted methodology is one of the major problem upsetting Nigerian researchers and largely influencing research results in Nigeria.

Although Nigerian sorely strive to become the best in whatever field they venture into but some Nigerian researchers do not necessarily follow the acceptable, accurate and normal methods of conducting research.

To tackle this problem of research in Nigeria, Nigerian researchers should study and follow the appropriate Research Methodology because even though you possess the other nine qualities in this article without following the acceptable and proper Research Methodology your research result, conclusion or theorem will never be accepted.

3. INEFFECTIVE EDUCATION SYSTEM

In other to tackle the problems of research in Nigeria and find possible solutions, researchers must be well trained. How do you train your people to be professional without a functional education system? “Import Knowledge” .

Nigeria needs a total makeover in her education sector from basic up to tertiary level. The truth is that our education system is badly broken and barely functional; and it is not necessarily about the education structure, the education systems or the philosophies but our education system is completely ineffective because of the way we teach our future researchers.

For example, some Nigerian schools mostly teach only about the theoretical aspect of research rather than the practical aspect of conducting a credible and acceptable research.

Read More: 15 Problems of Education in Nigeria and Possible Solutions

4. INEFFECTIVE LIBRARY SYSTEM

A system with a badly broken education system is likely to also have a badly broken library system. School-owned libraries in Nigeria usually offer limited research materials and membership restrictions; public libraries are usually scanty; the best libraries in Nigeria are usually private-owned libraries and also the most valuable libraries.

The understocked libraries in Nigeria is another major problem of research in Nigeria. Libraries around Nigeria should be stocked with copies of old and new acts, rules, reports, and other academic, economic and government publications.

The very few operational libraries around the country are also poorly managed most times researcher spend most of their time locating the books, journals or reports needed to conduct an acceptable and credible research than actually uncovering relevant evidence, data or information from the materials.

Read More: Problems and Prospects of Library Automation in Nigeria

5. POOR INFRASTRUCTURAL MANAGEMENT

Another major problem of research in Nigeria is the poor state of infrastructure. The laboratories in some Nigerian schools are ill kept, mismanaged and under-maintained hence, discouraging and toting more heaviness on the workload of researchers in Nigeria.

The best way to go about finding a possible solution to this problem is to encourage public-private infrastructural development to aid science and research; not just developing the infrastructures but also managing and maintaining what have been developed.

6. LOW ACCESSIBILITY OF DATA AND INFORMATION

information these days is not cheap. With the ineffective educational and library system getting access to data and information will pose somewhat of a barrier to researchers in Nigeria when conducting a research.

Nigeria also barely has a data base that is built to take stock of data and information which can easily be retrieved by authorised researchers like in the western countries.

The access to journals, reports and statistics needed by researchers in conducting research whether on the internet or in print is outrageously expensive hence encouraging the researcher in Nigeria to abandon the research before actually starting.

The Government in collaboration with other corporate organisations operating in Nigeria can provide a helping hand by aiding scientist and researchers to gain subsidized access to any information needed for conducting their research in Nigeria.

7. INSECURITY

Security generally is a problem in Nigeria. The improvised availability of published data from academic institutes, government agencies and other corporate agencies operating in Nigeria is a huge problem of research in Nigeria.

8. LACK OF FUNDS FOR RESEARCH

Time and Money are the two most valuable factors in life and the only two factors you can invest. Another problem of research in Nigeria is the lack of money and time.

Research facilities are not cheap to set up these days; neither is the cost of research equipment needed to conduct these research and then the need to properly manage these research facilities and apparatus effectively.

Time also is a limiting factor of research in Nigeria because most professionals in Nigeria are either joggling two jobs or too occupied in one job to give time to research. For instance a university lecturer who is also a clinical psychologist.

9. POOR TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCEMENT

Most of Nigeria researchers are generally old school (pen and paper) and this is a major problem of research in Nigeria because most of these journals, reports and data needed to conduct research are stored in a retrievable technological data base like a secured server by government agencies or corporate organisations operating in Nigeria.

A researcher with a limited technological skill would probably spend all his time surfing through useful data on a technological data base without fully knowing the usefulness of such data because of a restricted technological skills or knowledge.

In other to effective tackle this problem of research in Nigeria, technological skill should be imbibed school curricula to efficiently prepare the researcher.

Read Also: 10 Problems Of ICT in Nigeria and Possible Solutions

10. POLITICAL UNCERTAINTY

Any country with political uncertainty always find its developmental process really hard and unbearably slow. Political Uncertainty is arguably the catalyst for most of the problems of research in Nigeria like the ineffective education system in Nigeria, the ineffective library system in Nigeria, poor infrastructural management in Nigeria and the poor technological advancement in Nigeria.

Most of the lecturers, scientists are researcher who should be conducting acceptable and credible research in the laboratories are busy trying to help patch up the suffering democracy, the political uncertainties or aiding to tear everything apart.

In conclusion, some of the problems of research in Nigeria including creating an increased pool of well trained professionals, providing the resources needed, improving the relative status of researchers, making the availability of research material easier and strengthening the nation’s infrastructure can only be solved through time.

Apart from direct financial and technical support from the government and other cooperate organisations, there is a continuous need for international assistance through the provision of fellowships, field trips, visiting researchers and establishing facilities for research studies.

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Problems of Research in Nigeria

Research is the tool that drives development in nation. It is through research that new ways of solving problems are found. Albert Einstein once said, you can’t solve problem with the same level of thinking you used to create them. This clearly explains the significance of research because it a process that brings in a new way of thinking by providing fresh ideas and information.

In a country like Nigeria, research is ongoing process taking place in the scores of tertiary institutions, government agencies and private organization spread across the country. But these efforts aren’t exactly creating the much-needed solution due to specific problems affecting research in the country.

This is what this post is all about. In this post, you will discover the problems that have plagued research in the country over the years. And if you’re looking to carry out some research, you will know what to expect and how to avoid or solve these problems.

But first, let’s define research.

Research can be defined as the systematic investigation into and study of materials and sources in order to establish facts and reach new conclusions.

If you attended a tertiary institution in the country, you must have been involved in some form of research in the course of your study. In fact, you couldn’t have graduated if you didn’t go through the process of undertaking some months of undertake extensive research relevant to your area of study as this is a fundamental requirement for graduation

Overall, research is very important part of the training provided in tertiary institutions in Nigeria and beyond the problems of research, there are extensive benefits, some of which are highlighted below.

Update and improve knowledge

Extensive study of materials leads to the discovery of new knowledge. This is why the university is one of the major centres of research as it provides information not just to students but to the general populace as well.

However, the process of discovering new ideas or information requires time, energy and resources which some times isn’t available.

Boost creativity

Increasing knowledge base through research can help to create new ways of doing things and this is basically what creativity is all about.

Solve problems

Research also creates a repository of knowledge which problem solvers can tap into when tackling the problems they face. Also, information is fundamental to the operation of any endeavour and it is research that provides the necessary information.

Now that we know the prospects of research, let’s take a look at the problems facing research in the country.

Paucity of funds

One of the problems with research is that research facilities are not cheap or easy to set up. This is worsened by the fact that there’s very minimal funding allocated to research in Nigeria. In fact, many Nigerian researchers have to look for international opportunities to provide the grants and resources need to do research.

This inadequacy has also led to the lack of motivation to do research in the country.

Brain drain

This problem is directly linked to the paucity of funds as many bright minds and scholars have left the shores of the country to more favourable climes where there’s sufficient access to funds and resources needed to do research.

Lack of research infrastructure

Many of the instituitions where research ought to be carried out are lacking in terms of equipments. In fact, researchers sometimes have to travel across the country to use basic laboratory equipments. Sometimes, they have to pay exorbitant fees in private facilities in order to carry out their research.

This is one of the major problem facing research in the countryas many government departments and business executives are yet to grasp the importance of research and this has led to their apathy towards supporting such endeavours.

Inadequate information

Finding information is the essential template for successful research. Unfortunately, the database and information system in Nigeria is terribly broken and this has made it quite difficult to do research in the country.

In fact, the collation of statistics is almost absent in the country as a result, researchers can only extrapolate based on the information they have received from developed countries.

Also, there are few libraries in Nigeria and many of these are under-stocked when it comes to providing relevant research materials.

Poor research methodologies

Due to the apathy towards research in the country, researchers undertaking research in the country often employ the wrong methodology and sometimes don’t follow the necessary research ethical guidelines.

Generally, this boils down to inadequate training meted out to these researchers and this wrong methodologies often lead to the wrong results.

Sub-standard educational system

It is no longer news that the education system in the country is broken and needs to be fixed. This broken system has permeated into every facet of education including research leading to the inability of the country to create new set of vibrants researchers

Solutions to the Research Problems in Nigeria

However, every problem has a solution; here are some solutions to the research problems in Nigeria.

The government needs to implement policies that will ensure that research is given utmost priority in both the public and private sector. This will go a long way in solving some of the major research problems in the country.

Apart from formulating policies, it is also important for the government to allocate a substantial portion of its budget to research

Public-private partnership

It is usually difficult for the government alone to fund research, this is why there’s the need to facilitate partnership with private organization to enhance the process.

Also, there’s a lot of data locked in the database of private firms which can be very useful for research, these partnership can ensure that this is possible.

International partnership

Apart from direct financial and technical support from the government and other corporate organisations, there is a continuous need for international assistance through the provision of fellowships, field trips, visiting researchers and establishing facilities for research studies.

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Molecular research could help Nigeria solve a host of health problems

Senior lecturer in Molecular Pathology and Microbial Genetics, University of Nigeria

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Chinwe Uzoma Chukwudi receives funding from National Institutes of Health, Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation and African Academy of Sciences.

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Our world and everything in it is made up of innumerable tiny molecules. These molecules are the smallest units of chemical compounds or living things. Viruses, bacteria, parasites, plants, animals, humans: each organism is underpinned by molecules. Studying them allows scientists to understand the basic principles and interactions that govern all forms of life.

Shifts at such basic levels change the way an organism looks or functions. That’s critical in understanding diseases, for one thing. During the COVID-19 pandemic, molecular research enabled scientists to quickly understand how the new coronavirus behaved and how to prevent infection. That, in turn, drove vaccine development .

Molecular research could also, in future, make it possible to personalise medicine – basing treatment on a patient’s DNA. And it may be key to progress in the treatment of diseases such as sickle cell anaemia, diabetes and cancer.

There’s a problem, though: molecular research is expensive. It requires specialised equipment and chemicals, which is costly.

In Nigeria, where I conduct molecular research – and in many other African countries – there is very little state funding for research and development. Nigeria’s TETFund , the government agency responsible for all higher education funding, has very limited resources . Molecular research is often neglected in funding decisions in favour of other forms of research that could provide immediate solutions to pressing societal needs, such as immediate control measures for disease outbreaks.

As I argued in a recent journal article , though, molecular research can help address some of Nigeria’s health needs. Nigeria has a rich biodiversity of humans, animals and plants whose molecular compositions may hold clues to future advancements in medical science. The country also bears a huge burden of infectious disease. Microorganisms that cause diseases abound in the tropical climate of Nigeria.

Investment in research into the molecular characteristics of these microorganisms would go a long way in disease control and management both locally and globally.

Untapped contributions

It’s worth noting what Nigeria’s molecular research scientists have already been able to achieve without good resources.

They were at the forefront of sequencing the SARS-CoV-2 genome within days of the first infection being recorded on Nigerian soil. This work allowed them to publish the first SARS-CoV-2 sequence data on the African continent. This was made possible by many years of international and local funding to build capacity at the African Centre of Excellence for the Genomics of Infectious Disease and the Nigerian Institute of Medical Research.

Read more: Nigerian scientists have identified seven lineages of SARS-CoV-2: why it matters

Imagine how much more could be done and how Nigeria could contribute to global health solutions if its numerous excellent scientists were properly equipped with adequate facilities.

South Africa has demonstrated this dedicated research support via its National Research Foundation . Huge funds have been invested in research for the control of HIV and AIDS and, more recently, COVID-19.

At present, most Nigerian molecular research scientists do not have the specialised research equipment they need. This is because of cost and limited availability. Most of this equipment, and the chemical reagents needed for this work, is imported. There are a few specialised reference molecular laboratories in the country, but not nearly enough to serve the needs of this nation of more than 200 million people .

Universities, which are the ideal spaces for such research facilities, don’t offer adequate institutional support for procuring molecular research equipment and reagents.

Yet there are many diseases peculiar to the country and region, for which new treatments could be easily developed with the aid of molecular research. They include genetic diseases like sickle cell , noncommunicable diseases like diabetes , and infectious diseases like malaria and neglected tropical diseases (among them river blindness and sleeping sickness or African trypanosomiasis).

Read more: New finding offers breakthrough in beating African sleeping sickness

Nigeria – and the African continent – cannot continue to wait for western researchers to find solutions to these peculiar health challenges.

Concerted effort

Nigeria has the opportunity to contribute an enormous amount of knowledge to molecular research. For this to happen, a concerted effort is required by the government, institutions, local and international funding bodies, and molecular researchers themselves.

COVID-19 has taught us that a health problem in one place could threaten global health. Therefore all hands should be on deck to tackle health challenges wherever they occur.

There is a strong need for national and international funding bodies to increase funding allocations to improve molecular research capacity in Africa. Also, universities and research institutions should provide an enabling environment by providing easy access to the equipment and facilities that researchers need. Researchers will thus be encouraged to find solutions to health challenges and train more scientists.

• Public health
• Research funding
• Infectious diseases
• Neglected Tropical Diseases
• Sickle cell disease
• Laboratories
• Science and innovation for development

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Current trends in scientific research in nigeria.

Last Updated on January 26, 2024

Introduction

A. defining scientific research.

Scientific research is the systematic investigation of phenomena to discover new knowledge, improve existing theories, and solve practical problems.

B. Significance in Nigeria

Scientific research is vital for Nigeria’s development. It drives innovation, enhances healthcare, boosts agriculture, and fosters economic growth.

C. Purpose of the Blog Post

This post sheds light on the current trends in scientific research within Nigeria.

Explore the cutting-edge topics, methodologies, and their impact on the nation’s progress.

Overview of Scientific Research in Nigeria

A. history and development of scientific research in nigeria.

In Nigeria, scientific research has evolved significantly over the years, reflecting the country’s commitment to advancing knowledge and innovation. During the pre-independence era, research activities were primarily carried out by foreign institutions and individuals who were interested in exploring Nigeria’s rich biodiversity and resources.

With the attainment of independence in 1960, Nigeria placed a greater emphasis on scientific research as a means of national development and self-reliance. The establishment of academic research institutions such as universities and research centers marked the beginning of a more structured approach to scientific inquiry.

Over the years, Nigeria has made significant strides in various scientific disciplines, including agriculture, medicine, engineering, and technology. The country has produced talented scientists and researchers who have contributed to global knowledge and have made remarkable discoveries.

B. Key institutions and organizations involved

Several key institutions and organizations play a vital role in promoting and conducting scientific research in Nigeria:

• The Nigerian Institute of Medical Research (NIMR): NIMR focuses on medical research and has contributed to the development of vaccines and treatment methods for diseases prevalent in Nigeria.
• The National Agency for Science and Engineering Infrastructure (NASENI): NASENI is responsible for promoting and coordinating research and development efforts in relevant scientific and engineering disciplines.
• The Nigerian Institute for Oil Palm Research (NIFOR): NIFOR conducts research to improve oil palm cultivation techniques, enhance oil palm products, and provide scientific guidance to farmers and stakeholders in the sector.
• The Nigerian Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development (NIPRD): NIPRD is involved in the development and promotion of pharmaceutical products through research and collaboration with pharmaceutical companies.
• The Nigerian Institute of Food Science and Technology (NIFST): NIFST conducts research on food processing, preservation, and quality control, contributing to Nigeria’s agrifood industry.
• The Nigerian Academy of Science (NAS): NAS acts as a national advisory body on scientific matters, providing expert opinions and recommendations to the government and other stakeholders.

C. Funding sources and support available for scientific research in Nigeria

Scientific research in Nigeria is supported by various funding sources and initiatives:

• Government Funding: The Nigerian government allocates a significant portion of its budget to research and development projects, with a focus on priority areas such as health, agriculture, energy, and technology.
• Research Grants: Both national and international organizations offer research grants to scientists and researchers in Nigeria, enabling them to pursue innovative projects and contribute to scientific knowledge.
• Private Sector Support: Private companies and corporations provide funding and collaborate with research institutions to address industry-specific challenges and enhance technological advancements.
• International Partnerships: Nigeria collaborates with international organizations and foreign institutions to access funding and expertise, enabling researchers to participate in global research projects and exchange knowledge.
• Academic Institutions: Universities and research centers often have their funding sources, which may include donations, endowments, and revenue generated from intellectual property rights or consultancy services.

In fact, Nigeria has made significant progress in scientific research, with a rich history and development spanning several decades. The country’s key institutions and organizations, along with various funding sources, play a crucial role in advancing scientific knowledge, promoting innovation, and addressing Nigeria’s specific challenges and needs.

Read: Leading Companies in Photonics in Nigeria

Technology Adoption and Innovation in Scientific Research

In the ever-evolving landscape of scientific research in Nigeria, technology has become an indispensable force propelling advancements and reshaping methodologies. Let’s delve into the role of technology, recent trends in its adoption, and the profound impact it has on research outcomes.

A. The Pivotal Role of Technology

• Enhanced Data Collection: Technology has revolutionized data acquisition, enabling researchers to gather vast datasets quickly and accurately.
• Innovative Analytical Tools: Cutting-edge software and algorithms facilitate complex data analysis, unveiling hidden patterns and insights.
• Collaborative Platforms: Virtual collaboration tools bridge geographical gaps, fostering interdisciplinary research and knowledge exchange.

B. Recent Trends in Technology Adoption

• High-Performance Computing: Researchers are harnessing the power of supercomputers for simulations and data-intensive computations.
• Machine Learning and AI: Machine learning algorithms assist in data interpretation, prediction, and decision-making across diverse scientific fields.
• Blockchain in Research: Blockchain technology ensures data integrity and transparency, crucial in maintaining research credibility.
• IoT and Sensor Networks: Real-time data collection through IoT devices aids environmental monitoring, agriculture, and healthcare research.

C. Impact on Research Outcomes

• Accelerated Discoveries: Technology expedites research timelines, leading to faster scientific breakthroughs.
• Precision Medicine: Genomic technologies enable tailored healthcare solutions, improving treatment efficacy.
• Environmental Conservation: Remote sensing technologies track deforestation and climate changes, aiding conservation efforts.
• Enhanced Communication: The integration of technology facilitates the dissemination of research findings to a wider audience.

In short, the symbiotic relationship between technology and scientific research in Nigeria continues to evolve. As researchers embrace innovation, the nation’s scientific community stands poised to make increasingly impactful contributions to global knowledge and progress.

Read: Photonics Applications Specialist: Job Outlook

Interdisciplinary Research Collaborations

A. importance of interdisciplinary research in nigeria.

• Interdisciplinary research promotes collaboration between different scientific fields in Nigeria.
• It allows researchers to combine their expertise to tackle complex problems.
• Nigeria can benefit from interdisciplinary research by finding innovative solutions to societal challenges.
• It encourages the sharing of knowledge and resources among researchers from diverse backgrounds.
• Interdisciplinary research in Nigeria can lead to transformative discoveries and advancements.

B. Successful interdisciplinary research projects in Nigeria

• The Nigerian Institute of Medical Research collaborated with the Nigerian Institute of Oceanography and Marine Research to investigate the health impacts of oil pollution on coastal communities.
• The National Agency for Food and Drug Administration and Control partnered with the Institute of Agricultural Research and Training to assess the safety of genetically modified crops in Nigeria.
• The Nigerian Conservation Foundation worked with the University of Lagos to study the effects of deforestation on biodiversity in Nigeria.
• The Nigerian Institute of Social and Economic Research collaborated with the Center for Renewable Energy and Action on Climate Change to explore the economic benefits of renewable energy adoption.
• The Nigeria Centre for Disease Control collaborated with the African Centre of Excellence for Genomics of Infectious Diseases to enhance the country’s capacity for genomic surveillance of infectious diseases.

C. Benefits and challenges of interdisciplinary collaboration in scientific research

1. benefits:.

• Interdisciplinary collaboration brings together diverse perspectives and expertise, leading to more comprehensive research outcomes.
• It encourages creativity and innovation by combining ideas and methodologies from different fields.
• Interdisciplinary research promotes the application of scientific findings in various sectors, contributing to societal development.
• It helps researchers address complex problems that cannot be solved by a single discipline alone.
• Interdisciplinary collaboration fosters networking and cooperation among researchers, enhancing future research opportunities.

2. Challenges:

• Interdisciplinary research requires effective communication and understanding between researchers from different disciplines.
• It can involve conflicts in integrating different methodologies and approaches.
• Funding for interdisciplinary research projects may be limited due to the traditional focus on single-discipline funding.
• Interdisciplinary collaborations may face resistance from established academic structures that prioritize disciplinary boundaries.
• Achieving a balance between depth of knowledge and breadth of interdisciplinary understanding can be challenging.

In essence, interdisciplinary research collaborations play a crucial role in advancing scientific research in Nigeria. The importance of interdisciplinary research lies in its ability to foster collaboration, promote knowledge sharing, and drive innovation. Successful interdisciplinary projects in Nigeria have addressed diverse issues ranging from health impacts to environmental conservation. Although interdisciplinary collaboration brings numerous benefits, it also faces challenges such as communication barriers and funding limitations. To overcome these challenges, Nigerian researchers and institutions should promote a culture of interdisciplinary collaboration and advocate for increased support and recognition for such research endeavors.

Read: Becoming a Physicist in Nigeria: A Comprehensive Guide

Priority Research Areas in Nigeria

A. key scientific research areas currently prioritized in nigeria.

• Energy and Environment
• Agriculture and Food Security
• Health and Medicine
• Information and Communication Technology
• Mining and Solid Minerals Development
• Climate Change and Sustainable Development

In recent years, Nigeria has prioritized several key scientific research areas to accelerate development and address significant challenges. These areas encompass various sectors, including energy and environment, agriculture and food security, health and medicine, information and communication technology, mining and solid minerals development, and climate change and sustainable development.

B. The Importance and Relevance of These Research Areas to the Nigerian Context

• Energy and Environment:  Nigeria, as a major oil-producing country, recognizes the importance of diversifying its energy resources and mitigating the environmental impact of fossil fuel extraction. Research in renewable energy sources and environmental conservation strategies is vital to ensure sustainable development.
• Agriculture and Food Security:  Agriculture is a significant contributor to Nigeria’s economy, employing millions of people. Prioritizing research in this area aims to improve crop yield, enhance irrigation techniques, and develop new agricultural practices to ensure food security for the growing population.
• Health and Medicine:  Promoting research in health and medicine is crucial to tackle prevalent diseases, including malaria, HIV/AIDS, and tuberculosis, and improve healthcare infrastructure across the country. It also facilitates the development of indigenous pharmaceuticals and advancements in medical technology.
• Information and Communication Technology:  Given Nigeria’s emerging technology sector, prioritizing research in ICT is essential. This area promotes digital innovation, e-governance, and enhances connectivity, enabling socio-economic growth and bridging the digital divide.
• Mining and Solid Minerals Development:  Nigeria possesses vast mineral resources, and investing in research in this field allows for sustainable exploration, exploitation, and value addition to minerals. It contributes to economic diversification, job creation, and improved mining practices.
• Climate Change and Sustainable Development:  With increasing concerns over climate change, Nigeria recognizes the need to address environmental challenges and achieve sustainable development. Research in this area focuses on climate change adaptation, mitigation strategies, and sustainable natural resource management.

C. Notable Research Advancements in These Priority Areas

Nigeria has actively advanced research in key areas:

• Energy and Environment: Researchers developed solar and wind power, reducing fossil fuel dependence. Sustainable waste management and biodiversity conservation efforts were implemented.
• Agriculture and Food Security: Research yielded drought-resistant crops, innovative irrigation, and modern farming techniques. Training programs boosted agricultural productivity.
• Health and Medicine: Nigerian scientists and healthcare professionals researched vaccines, diagnostics, and treatments for diseases. They enhanced primary healthcare, established medical research institutions, and trained personnel.
• Information and Communication Technology: Nigeria excelled in mobile tech, software development, and cybersecurity. Innovative mobile apps improved education, healthcare, and financial services access.
• Mining and Solid Minerals: Researchers mapped mineral resources, promoted sustainable mining, and attracted foreign investments for technology transfer.
• Climate Change and Sustainable Development: Nigeria researched climate change impacts, developed adaptation strategies, and integrated resilience into policies. Renewable energy deployment and public awareness initiatives were undertaken.

In general, Nigeria’s prioritized research areas foster economic growth, food security, healthcare, and environmental conservation. These active endeavors demonstrate Nigeria’s commitment to scientific research and innovation.

Read: The State of Physics Careers in Nigeria: An Overview

Promoting Open Access and Data Sharing

A. the concept of open access in scientific research.

Open access refers to the principle of making scientific research freely available to the public.

B. Efforts Made to Promote Open Access and Data Sharing in Nigeria

• The Nigerian government has prioritized open access, establishing policies to support it.
• Research institutions and universities have embraced open access by establishing open repositories.
• Collaboration with international organizations has facilitated open access initiatives in Nigeria.
• Funding agencies are encouraging researchers to publish their work in open access journals

C. Addressing the Benefits and Challenges of Implementing Open Access Policies

• Increased visibility and accessibility of research for Nigeria and the global scientific community.
• Facilitation of interdisciplinary research by providing open platforms for sharing data.
• Greater potential for collaboration and networking among researchers worldwide.
• Acceleration of scientific progress and innovation through the ease of accessing research findings.
• Enhanced reputation of Nigerian researchers and institutions due to increased dissemination of their work.

Challenges:

• Limited awareness and understanding of the concept of open access among researchers.
• Insufficient technical infrastructure and resources to support open access initiatives.
• Resistance from publishers and commercial journals due to financial implications.
• The need for capacity building to facilitate the implementation of open access policies.

Emerging Trends and Future Prospects

A. emerging trends and advancements in scientific research in nigeria.

• Increase in interdisciplinary research collaborations among different scientific fields.
• Rapid growth in the use of advanced technologies and innovative methodologies.
• Focus on addressing local challenges and finding practical solutions to improve livelihoods.
• Emphasis on sustainable development and environmentally-friendly research practices.
• Integration of indigenous knowledge and traditional practices into scientific research.

B. Potential future directions and prospects for scientific research in Nigeria

• Continued growth in research funding to support cutting-edge scientific studies.
• Expansion of research infrastructure and establishment of state-of-the-art scientific facilities.
• Promotion of international collaborations and partnerships for knowledge sharing.
• Enhancement of science education and training programs to develop a skilled workforce.
• Increased focus on commercialization and entrepreneurship in scientific research.

C. Initiatives and strategies for further driving scientific research in the country

Scientific research in Nigeria undergoes a transformative phase, marked by:

• Growing interdisciplinary collaboration.
• Advancements in technology and research methodologies.
• A shift toward addressing local challenges, especially in healthcare, agriculture, and energy sectors.
• Commitment to sustainable practices, including waste reduction and renewable resource usage.
• Integration of indigenous knowledge.
• Focus on future prospects: Increased research funding, expanded infrastructure, and global collaborations.
• Enhanced science education and workforce development.
• Strategic initiatives: Research grants, specialized centers, scientific culture promotion, intellectual property protection, and mentorship programs.

In summary, Nigeria’s scientific research evolves with interdisciplinary cooperation, local problem-solving, sustainability, and indigenous knowledge integration. The nation looks forward to increased funding, global partnerships, and talent development to further its scientific contributions.

Learn More: International Collaborations: Nigeria’s Science Community

This blog post discussed the current trends in scientific research in Nigeria.

It highlighted the importance of these trends and their impact on the scientific community in Nigeria.

To all the researchers and the scientific community in Nigeria, keep pushing boundaries and making discoveries. Your work is invaluable, and it contributes to the growth and development of the nation. Stay determined and continue to make Nigeria proud.

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• v.7(3); 2021 Mar

Environmental health situation in Nigeria: current status and future needs

Hyellai titus pona.

a School of Energy and Environmental Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing, 30 Xueyuan Road, Haidian District, Beijing, 100083, China

Duan Xiaoli

b School of Energy and Environmental Engineering, University of Science and Technology & Head of Center for Environmental Health Research, China

Olusola O. Ayantobo

c State Key Laboratory of Hydroscience and Engineering, Department of Hydraulic Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China

d Department of Water Resources Management and Agricultural-Meteorology, Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, Nigeria

Narh Daniel Tetteh

e School of Communication and Information, Beihang University, China

Associated Data

The authors do not have permission to share data.

Environmental health-related risks are becoming a primary concern in Nigeria, with diverse environmental problems such as air pollution, water pollution, oil spillage, deforestation, desertification, erosion, and flooding (due to inadequate drainage systems) caused mostly by anthropogenic activities. This paper reviews the pre-existing and current environmental health problems, proffer future research and needs, policy needs, and recommendations necessary to mitigate Nigeria's environmental health situation. Data from the Institute of Health Metric and Evaluation on Global Burden of Disease (GBD) was used to ascertain the causes of Death and Disability-adjusted Life Years (DALYs) in Nigeria from 2007-2017 and published literatures where reviewed. According to the world health data report, most of the highest-ranked causes of DALYs in Nigeria are related to environmental risk factors. The lower respiratory infection associated with air pollution has advanced from the 4 th in 2007 to the highest ranked cause of death in 2017. Other predominant causes of death associated with environmental risk factors include chronic respiratory diseases, cardiovascular diseases, enteric infections, diarrheal diseases, communicable, maternal, neonatal, and nutritional disease, which has resulted in approximately 800 thousand deaths and 26 million people living with DALYs per annum in Nigeria. Major environmental risk factors include household air pollution, ambient air pollution, water, sanitation, and hygiene (WaSH), which shows a prolonged but progressive decline. In contrast, ambient particulate matter pollution, ambient ozone pollution, and lead exposure show a steady rise associated with death and DALYs in Nigeria, indicating a significant concern in an environmental health-related risk situation. Sustaining a healthy environment is critical in improving the quality of life and the span of a healthy life. Therefore, environmentally sustainable development policies and practices should be essential to the population and policymakers for a healthy life.

Environment, Environmental Health, Risk Factors, Diseases, Pollution, Disability-adjusted Life Years

1. Introduction

The environment is the total living and non-living surroundings of any organism needed for life and sustainability [ 1 ]. The state of the environment per time has a significant impact on the biotic and abiotic components of the environment, thus essential for health and human living. If the environment is not healthy, then everything in the environment is posed at risk [ 1 ]. Environmental health is the interconnection between people and their environment by which human health and a balanced, nonpolluted environment are sustained or degraded [ 2 ]. Individual, societal, national, and global activities relating to the environment have a complex and dynamic relationship operating simultaneously. Environmental health reciprocates in two ways, which include environmental factors affecting human health and human activities affecting environmental quality.

The environmental, physical, chemical, and biological factors and their related behaviors impact health in one way or another [ 3 ]. These could be a two-way interaction of environmental health as a human activity affecting the environment, likewise the conditions of the environment affecting human health [ 2 ]. Sustaining a healthy environment is critical in improving the quality of life and a healthy life span.

The World health report indicated that globally, 23 percent of death occurrences and 26 percent of children deaths ranging up to 4 million children under five every year are due to environmental factors [ 4 , 5 ]. Also, 85 out of 102 categories of diseases and injuries are influenced by environmental factors [ 6 ]. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), the interactions between humans and the environment affect the quality of life, health disparities, and a healthy life span. Making the environment healthier can prevent about 13 million death yearly and avoid 13%–37% of the world's disease burden, such as 40% of deaths from malaria, 41% of deaths from lower respiratory infections, and 94% of deaths from diarrheal disease [ 2 , 6 ]. Therefore, environmental health involves preventing or controlling disease, disability, and injury associated with interactions between the environment and humans [ 7 ] (see Figure 1 ).

Flow chart showing the Environmental Heath situation in Nigeria.

The state of Nigeria's environment recently has been undergoing drastic changes. Nigeria rapidly turning to oil exploration and industrialization has many manufacturing industries, oil refineries, and factories. Also, Nigeria's fast population growth has caused environmental-related problems [ 8 ]. Due to a lack of development in rural areas, there is high population migration to urban areas leading to more environmental-related problems [ 9 ]. Problems such as air pollution, water pollution, solid waste management, urban poverty, deforestation, desertification, wind erosion, and flooding increase, cause more risk to the environment and the population in highly industrialized cities in Nigeria. Climate change has been evident in almost all parts of Nigeria [ 10 ], such as excess flooding in the south-east and north-central region, a decline in rainfall in the Northeastern and southern region, and temperature increase in all regions of the country ( Figure 2 ).

Map of Nigeria showing different locations and environmental problems.

Globally there has been a significant change in the state of the environment. Climate change and the greenhouse effect have been on the rise leading to so many natural disasters such as ice-melting, floods, tsunami, air pollution, the emergence of infectious and non-communicable diseases leading to various health risks humans [ 11 , 12 ]. There are several health issues in Nigeria as a country, such as control of some disease vectors, maternal mortality, infectious diseases, poor hygiene and sanitation, disease surveillance, and road traffic injuries. Additionally, like many other countries, Nigeria faces environmental health-related problems, including environmental hazards and the insufficiency of basic human necessities. However, the designed programs for addressing health issues in the country have proven inadequate and resulted in a small health status improvement [ 13 ].

Therefore, in line with the above background, our main objective is to identify environmental health-related risks by discussing the current status and the future needs within Nigeria between 2007 and 2017. Specifically, we (i) assessed and relayed Nigeria's current environmental health situation. (ii) presented the causes of death and years lost to disability (DALYs), showing levels of contributions from environmental risks (iii) explained how environmental factors affect health, identifying specific diseases associated with environmental risks. (iv) reviewed literatures and discussed extensively environmental problems, their sources, and associated ill-health (v) propose future research and policy needs to mitigate the situation.

2. Study area, datasets, and methods

2.1. study area.

Nigeria is one of the West African countries that borders the Republic of Benin to the West, Cameroon and Chad to the East, and Niger to the North [ 14 ]. The coast of Nigeria lies on the Gulf of Guinea to the South, while it borders Lake Chad to the Northeast. The country covers a total of 923,768 km 2 (356, 669 sq mi) [ 15 ]. The valleys of river Niger and Benue are the most extensive topographical area, with rugged highland to the southwest [ 16 , 17 ]. It is also found in the tropics, where the climate is very humid and seasonally damp. The country is affected by four types of climates such as tropical monsoon, Sahel, tropical savanna, and Alpine climate. The temperatures can rise to 44 °C (111.2 °F) in some parts, especially at the coast, during dry seasons and ranges 16 °C–25 °C in highland areas with temperate conditions along the Cameroon border [ 18 , 19 ]. The rainfall ranges between 4000 mm (157.5 in) to 2000 mm (118.1 in) per year in Southern parts and totals 1100 mm (43.3 in) in central Nigeria.

Nigeria's population is about 202 million, and the population density is 221 per km 2 (571 people per m 2 ), with about 51.2 percent of the population urbanized, while the median age is 17.9 years [ 15 , 20 ]. The population growth rate of Nigeria is about 2.62 percent, growing faster compared to other similar-sized countries. However, this growth rate is projected to decrease up to 2.04 percent by the year 2050. Nigeria's Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in 2018 was about $444,92 million, which presents a growth of about 1.9 percent compared to the one of 2017(International Monetary Fund, 2018) [ 21 ]. Nigeria agriculture has four components, including crop, livestock, fishing, and forestry [ 15 ]. Estimates from reports show that 22.86% of Nigeria's GDP was contributed by agriculture in 2018. The report also estimated that industries contributed 23.18% of the Nigeria GDP, while services contributed to 53.97% in 2018 [ 18 ], [ 22 ]. However, the Nigerian economy is currently shifting from agriculture to industries such as gas and oil. The primary manufacturing industries include wood, rubber, cement, and textiles among others [ 23 , 24 ].

2.2. Datasets

The data used was acquired from Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation (IHME). This study's data range is from 2007 to 2017 of the Global burden of diseases, injuries, and risk factor studies (GBD, 2017); the data contains variables of interest, causes of death, and DALYs. Data sources are available online and can be explored in detail at GBD 2017 from the IHME http://ghdx.healthdata.org/gbd-results-tool . Data were extracted for Nigeria on all age groups, both sex, environmental risks, and health-related-risk clusters of environmental-risk factors. This study concentrated mainly on related risk clusters diseases and injuries categorized under environmental risk factors such as cardiovascular diseases, diarrheal diseases, mental disorder, enteric infections, respiratory infections, tuberculosis, lower respiratory infections, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), chronic respiratory diseases ischemic heart disease, stroke, communicable, maternal, neonatal, and nutritional diseases.

2.3. Methods

IHME uses three major risk categories to attribute DALYs, Years living with disability (YLDs), and causes of deaths, which are; (i) environmental and occupational risks, (ii) behavioral risks, and (iii) metabolic risks. The different related risks are clustered into these three significant categories. Details of criteria used in assessing risk factors and how it is calculated are explained in details elsewhere [ 25 , 26 , 27 , 28 , 29 ]. DALYs are calculated as the sum of Years of Life Lost (YLLs) and Years Lived with Disability (YLDs) [ 30 ]. GBD calculates these impacts for a country using epidemiological studies, mathematical functions, country's exposure estimates, and data of underlying rates of diseases and deaths that are adjusted to the database of Gridded population of the world (GPW); more details of the methodology can be found in https://www.stateofglobalair.org/resources .

After the acquisition of the data, we performed statistical analysis using excel and python statistical tools similar to previous studies [ 26 , 30 , 31 ] because of python's ability to analyze a large volume of data and create interactive plots, charts, and graphics at a rapid pace [ 32 ]. With these tools, we represented environmental risk factors graphically; air pollution, household air pollution from solid fuels, ambient particulate matter pollution, ambient ozone pollution, lead exposure and unsafe water, sanitation, and handwashing versus all causes of death and DALYs. Lastly, we justified our results by reviewing published papers to ascertain the environmental problems, their sources, and the status of environmental health situations in Nigeria.

3. Health patterns in Nigeria

In this section, Nigeria's health pattern will be discussed while presenting the causes of death and DALYs and showing the contribution levels from environmental risk. Environmental health has proven to be a dynamic and continually evolving situation globally. Nigeria, the same as other countries in the world, is experiencing emerging challenges in environmental health. Some of the common emerging environmental health issues in Nigeria include climate change, which influences infectious disease patterns, air quality, and the severity of natural hazards such as droughts, storms, and floods (WHO). Hazardous wastes and toxic substances are yet to be fully recognized, and research to appreciate how these risk factors impact health is underway [ 33 ]; however, reducing such risk factors continues in Nigeria and other parts of the world [ 13 ]. The majority of Nigeria's populations spend the most time at work, school, or home environments. Some of these environments expose them to indoor pollution, structural issues, electric and fire hazards, lead-based paint hazards, and inadequate sanitation and heating [ 21 ]. These environmental hazards have impacted the health and safety of the population. Therefore, there is a need for maintaining excellent healthy homes and societies to achieve a sustainable environmental health system [ 34 ].

In the scope of Nigeria's demography, this study seeks to analyze and take an overarching analysis of the factors affecting the quality of health; the quality health as mention anchors on environmental activities that causes death and DALYs. Graphical representation of the top 10 risk factors contributing to most death and disability combined in Nigeria is shown in Figure 3 , and Table 1 shows the top 10 causes of death. Figure 4 shows the cause of deaths due to different air pollution, and Figure 5 shows the cause of DALYs due to various air pollution. Causes of death and DALYs due to WaSH and lead exposure is shown in Figure 6 , and Figure 7 shows the number of death due to other environmental risks from 2007-2017.

Top 10 risk factors contributing to most death and disability combined in Nigeria 2007–2017(IHME, 2018) (Note: Red box indicating environmental risk factors).

Top 10 causes of most deaths in Nigeria from 2007-2017 (IHME, 2020) (Note: Arrow shows lower respiratory infection moving from the 4 th rank to 1 st rank).

(a) Causes of deaths due to household air pollution from solid fuels in Nigeria from 2007-2017, (b) Causes of deaths due to air pollution in Nigeria 2007–2017, (c) Causes of deaths due to ambient particulate matter pollution in Nigeria 2007–2017, (d) Causes of death due to ambient ozone pollution in Nigeria 2007–2017 (Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation, 2017).

(a) Causes of DALYs due to air pollution in Nigeria from 2007-2017, (b) Causes of DALYs due to air ambient particulate matter pollution in Nigeria 2007–2017, (c) Causes of DALYs due to ambient ozone pollution in Nigeria 2007–2017, (d) Causes of DALYs due household air pollution from solid fuels in Nigeria 2007–2017 (Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation, 2017).

(a) Causes of Disability Adjusted life years (DALYs) due to Unsafe Water, Sanitation, and Handwashing in Nigeria 2007–2017, (b) Causes of death due to Unsafe Water, Sanitation, and Handwashing in Nigeria 2007–2017, (c) Causes of Disability Adjusted life years (DALYs) due to Lead Exposure in Nigeria 2007–2017, (d) Causes of death due to Lead Exposure in Nigeria 2007–2017 (Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation, 2017).

Number of Deaths and DALYS due to other Environmental Risks from 2007-2017 in Nigeria (Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation, 2017).

The analysis shows that ambient ozone pollution and lead exposure negatively affect health quality, especially heart conditions; a further look at the pattern shows a gradual and upward trend. Our analytical representation shows that household air pollution from solid fuels, air pollution, ambient particulate matter pollution, ambient ozone pollution, lead exposure, and WaSH affects health quality more. The proportion of deaths for a particular cause relative to deaths from all environmental-related risks is similar to DALYs' ratio for a particular cause relative to DALYs for all environmental-related risks. Most of the high-ranked causes of death and DALYs in Nigeria are associated with environmental risked factors [ 35 , 36 ]. Figure 3 shows malnutrition, unsafe sex, alcohol use, and high blood pressure as attributes of death and DALYs combined in Nigeria. These are mostly behavioral or metabolic risks (IHME, 2020). However, the environmental-related risk WaSH and air pollution spread widely and affect virtually the entire population, especially the vulnerable group in which children, elderly, pregnant women, chronic disease, and poor people.

The most common causes of most premature deaths in Nigeria were malaria, diarrheal diseases, HIV/AIDs, and lower respiratory infection by 2007. However, in 2017, the lower respiratory infection took the lead, followed by neonatal disorder, all associated with environmental interactions. The cause of most death in 2017 was attributed first to lower respiratory infection, ranked 4 th in 2007, as shown in Table 1 [ 20 ]. The lower respiratory infections had a change of about -10.7%, followed by neonatal disorders, -1.5%, while malaria had -35.8% between the years 2007–2017, according to Organization health data- Nigeria in Table 1 [ 20 ]. The environmental risk factors that cause DALYs and death in Nigeria are WaSH, followed by air pollution in 2017 with changes between 2007 to 2017 of WaSH -38.5% and air pollution -14.4%; showing low air quality is one of the most causes of death in Nigeria ( Figure 3 ). This indicates a concern in Nigeria's current environmental health situation [ 1 , 37 ], depicting a healthy environment is vital for increasing a healthy life span [ 38 ], which calls for immediate action from the public and policymakers for healthy lives and the environment's sustainability.

4. Health effects of environmental risk factors in Nigeria

In line with section 3, we will explain how environmental factors affect health and identify specific diseases associated with environmental risks. Nigeria's environmental problems and sources will also be reviewed to justify our findings on the status of environmental health situations. The deterioration of the environment has led to vectors' breeding [ 39 ], thereby reducing human health quality. The WHO identified some environmental factors affecting human health, including polluted air, poor sanitation, polluted water, unhealthy housing, and global environmental change. These factors are associated with acute respiratory infections, diarrheal diseases, malaria, and other vector-borne diseases, injuries and poisoning, mental health conditions, cardiovascular diseases, cancer, and other infections [ 40 , 41 , 42 ]. This made it abundantly clear that improving environmental conditions is very imperative [ 43 ]. The paramount environmental risk factors associated with Nigeria's health patterns from our results are discussed as follows:

4.1. Air pollution

Air pollution is the discharge of any harmful substance into the air, which can cause minor health problems, including burning eyes and nose, itchy irritated throat, and breathing problems to significant health problems including chronic respiratory diseases or mortality [ 44 ]. Air pollution includes household air pollution, particulate matter pollution, ozone pollution, etc. It is mainly categorized into two based on exposure: ambient pollution in outdoor exposure and indoor pollution in an enclosed air pollution exposure [ 45 ].

In Nigeria, air pollution is associated with different health risks such as cardiovascular diseases, respiratory infections, tuberculosis, lower respiratory infections, COPD, chronic respiratory diseases, ischemic heart disease, stroke, communicable, maternal, neonatal, and nutritional diseases [ 20 ]. Nigeria is ranked amongst the world's first five and the largest country in Africa, with the top-most level of premature death associated with air pollution [ 20 , 46 , 47 ]. Globally, air pollution is estimated to cause about 29% of lung cancer deaths, 43% of COPD deaths, 25% of ischemic heart disease deaths, and 24% of stroke deaths [ 48 ].

4.1.1. Ambient air pollution

Ambient air pollutants, including particulate matter, ozone, SO 2 , and NO 2 , are related to several respiratory problems, such as bronchitis, emphysema asthma [ 49 ], heart failure hospitalizations, and mortality [ 13 , 50 ]. Figure 4 (a, b, c, and d) show different classifications of air pollution and health risk leading to most causes of death in Nigeria. Respiratory infections, tuberculosis, lower respiratory infections, and communicable diseases are estimated to have caused over 350 thousand deaths and 10 million people living with DALYs yearly, related to air pollution (Figures  4 b, ​ b,5a), 5 a), and ambient particulate matter air pollution (Figures 4c, 5 b) compared to other health risk associated to air pollution from 2007-2017. Ambient ozone air pollution at ground level is associated with almost two thousand deaths and over 35 thousand DALYs per annum caused by COPD and chronic respiratory disease, which has been steadily increasing since 2007–2017 in Nigeria (Figures 4d, 5 c). This result indicates a significant concern [ 51 , 52 ] observing ambient particulate matter pollution had a sharp shoot of associated deaths in 2012 ( Figure 4 d) and DALYs in 2015 ( Figure 5 c), both with minimal changes till 2017. Ambient air pollution is a top risk factor responsible for reducing longevity in global GBD ranking [ 20 , 53 ], likewise in Nigeria. Studies showed an increase in the outdoor air pollution level in Nigeria, mainly from anthropogenic sources in the urban cities, summing up to more exposure to the population in such urban areas [ 53 , 54 ]. Global average life expectancy is between 60-70years; however, in Nigeria, it is reported to be 54.4yers according to WHO [ 55 ].

The primary sources of outdoor gaseous emissions in Nigeria are from industries, automobile exhaust, electrical generating plant exhaust at homes and business centers due to an irregular power supply, emissions from the incineration of wastes, and gaseous emissions from dumpsites [ 33 , 56 , 57 ]. Nigerian industries' high emissions include exhausts from internal combustion engines and particulates from milling activities, cement production, and quarrying sites. Peculiar to Nigeria is the mass importation of second-hand motor vehicles, which can be used for a prolonged period, usually exceeding 30 years. Some old vehicles are still found on the road presently, usually tagged 'smoking' vehicles due to the thick exhaust emissions visible. Second-hand used cars usually have high gaseous emissions due to incomplete combustion of oil and fuel impurities that could be hazardous to public health. Motorcycles and tricycles are classified into these categories [ 56 , 58 , 59 , 60 ]. Illegal importation of e-waste to dumpsites in the south-western part of Nigeria has been a significant problem to air pollution because scavengers go to the dumpsites and burn down the e-waste to get some vital part of it to sell. The incomplete burning of this e-waste leads to air pollution and soothes in the atmosphere [ 1 ].

Exploring crude oil, refining, and gas flaring are predominant in the southern part of Nigeria ( Figure 2 ) [ 61 ].Residents in most states across the country burn most household wastes due to a lack of central dumpsites. The use of petrol or diesel generator as a source of electricity for both residents and industries due to lack of stable electric power is high. This has led to emissions of carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulphur dioxide (SO 2 ), and particulate matter in the atmosphere thereby increasing air pollution and lower air quality [ 62 ]. Many of Nigeria's population suffer from cardiovascular diseases, physiological and mental health problems, respiratory system-related issues, acid rain, and destruction of vegetation resulting from air pollution.

These anthropogenic activities and occupational exposures have led to air pollution-related risk health problems [ 1 , 63 ]. There is also a high potential exposure to unknown hazards due to increasing industrialization in the country. For example, the increasing number of industries, especially in Nigeria's urban areas, has introduced new chemicals into the atmosphere [ 64 , 65 ]. The presumption is that some of such chemicals have or will present unexpected problems to public health and need to be treated before their release [ 66 , 67 ].

4.1.2. Household air pollution

More than 50% of domestic energy used in developing countries is generated through biomass burning [ 68 ]. Studies have shown that 76% of the global particulate matter air pollution emissions in the developing world are indoor with a peak concentration often exceeding 2000 μg/m 3 [ 69 ]. For instance, in Nigeria, over 70% of the population are still using biomass for fuel woods with a poorly ventilated kitchen [ 70 , 71 ]. Examples of sources in small settlements and villages are fuelwood, charcoal, and agro-waste (e.g., palm fruit fiber, palm kernel shell); in bigger towns; fuelwood, charcoal, and kerosene in some instances, plastic wastes; in cities; sources are fuelwood (usually at restaurants), charcoal, and gas [ 57 , 72 ]. These fuel sources usually undergo incomplete combustion, leading to hazardous gases and particulate matter, which causes harm to human health.

Indoor air pollution from household fuel use has been ranked the second high-risk factor responsible for adverse human health, with the potential of resulting in respiratory and cardiovascular mortality [ 73 ]. It may also lead to low birthweights and neurodevelopmental impairment [ 74 ]. Household air pollution from the use of solid fuels in Nigeria causes lower respiratory infections, respiratory infections, and communicable diseases resulting in over 180 thousand deaths ( Fig 4 a) and 12 million people with DALYs ( Figure 5 d) per annum in Nigeria from 2007-2017 showing a steady decline with yearly progression This studies in line with previous studies have shown that increasing air pollution levels are associated with adverse health effects, hospitalization, and early death among the exposed groups.

4.2. Water, sanitation and hygiene (WaSH)

Unsafe water, poor sanitation, and hygiene have led to an annual death of about 1.7 million people [ 6 ], including over 70 thousand children under the age of 5 [ 75 ], [ 76 ] due to high vulnerability to water-borne diseases. Unsafe water, sanitation, and handwashing have been associated with enteric infections, diarrheal diseases, respiratory infections, tuberculosis, lower respiratory infections, communicable, neonatal, and nutritional diseases in humans [ 20 ]. Figure 6 (a,b) shows a high number of deaths greater than 300 thousand and more than 3 million DALYs lost in Nigeria yearly associated with unsafe water and sanitation with enteric infections, diarrheal diseases, communicable, maternal, neonatal, and nutritional disease as the leading causes from 2007-2017 with yearly progressive steady decline.

Population growth has led to an increase in demand for high-quality water and sanitation facilities. As domestic and economic activities increase, the value of water increases, making water pollution more detrimental to human health. Domestic water pollution, industrial water pollution, agriculturally based water pollution, and oil spill water pollution are the primary sources of water contamination in Nigeria. The World Bank report on Nigeria also indicates a deficit of 43 healthy years of life per 1000 due to diarrhea [ 77 , 78 ]. Studies also reported that Nigeria had progressed in access to water and improved sanitation from 1990. However, the pace of progress slowed down, resulting in 56 million without water access and another 130 million without access to improved sanitation as of 2015 [ 79 ], with over 45 million people in Nigeria practicing open defecation [ 77 ].

Unhygienic disposal of waste in waterways blocks the waterways resulting in flooding during the rainy season, increasing water contamination, breeding of mosquitoes, emergence, and fast spread of water-borne disease; accumulated waste is usually a breeding ground for various diseases and disease vectors [ 1 ]. Many states in Nigeria do not have a central sewage collection center or central dumpsites and have poor sanitary infrastructural management [ 80 ]. Studies show that untreated sewage at Lagos' and Abuja's open solid-waste dumpsites [ 81 , 82 ] have contaminated water systems, leading to health risks caused by poor hygiene such as diarrhea-related disorders, bilharzia among others [ 71 ]. People living close to these waste sites, especially in urban areas, end up eating food or drinking water with high nitrate and other harmful chemicals. During the rainy season in Nigeria, rain mixed with waste can contaminate clean surface water and percolate through the soil into underground water.

Health issues have been increasing due to oil spills and illegal industrial waste in the Niger Delta regions because many industries in oil exploration, transportation, import, and export have little consideration of environmental issues. Within 1976–2009 there has been a report of about 9583 accidents and disasters resulting from oil exploration activities, including oil spills on either rivers and or coastal waters posing the communities' health at risk [ 83 , 84 ]. UN study in 2011 on the effect of oil spillage in the Niger Delta reported that the majority of the people living in oil-producing areas suffer from chronic diseases all their lives due to drinking water contaminated with high levels of hydrocarbon [ 37 ]. Also, the benzene level in the Niger Delta is 900 times higher than the WHO standard, and at a depth of 5 m, oil was found [ 37 ]. Industrial waste, which contains chemicals and heavy metals usually deposited in water, has resulted in most aquatic animals' death due to oxygen depletion and ingestion of heavy metals [ 85 ]; thus, affecting the health of people who consume aquatic animals.

Arsenic and heavy metals deposited in water from industrial waste usually infiltrate into underground water and wells, resulting in physical, muscular, neurological degenerative processes that cause brain disorder and nervous system diseases [ 86 ] to people. Polluted water from the mining site can affect the population's health who use it as a drinking water source. Waste from textile industries, sugar industries, pulp and paper industries, petroleum, and many other industries in Nigeria are usually improperly disposed of on land or waterways, becoming an urban environmental problem. Improper disposition of toxic and non-toxic waste degrades land also makes surface and underground water unhygienic and unsafe for humans or agricultural use [ 9 ].

4.3. Lead exposure

Blood lead levels are another concern of the currently rapid industrializing countries [ 87 ]. This blood lead exposure affects children's cognitive function. Since there is no safe blood lead level identified for a child, any exposure must be handled remarkably [ 35 ]. Besides, lead exposure generally occurs without common symptoms or signs; hence it is rarely recognized [ 4 , 87 , 88 ]. GBD health data has associated lead exposure with having a causative effect on various diseases such as cardiovascular disease, ischemic heart disease, mental disorder, and stroke [ 20 ]. Figure 6 (c and d) shows the cause of over 2,500 deaths and about 600 thousand DALYs lost yearly due to lead exposure in Nigeria between 2007-2017, with cardiovascular disease and ischemic heart disease on a steady rise. There is a need for concerned organizations and institutions to eliminate childhood exposures to lead to reduce the risk of lead exposure and promote public health in general.

The lead dust is usually dispersed into the environment during the extraction of gold, thus exposing the public to health defects when the lead is inhaled through the air or ingested in unsafe water [ 4 , 88 ]. Studies reported that most lead in Nigeria had been exposed to the environment through unsafe mining practices by the community [ 34 , 89 , 90 ]. Most miners do not wear protective equipment while mining, hence returning home with lead dust on their clothes and rocks containing gold with high lead levels [ 88 , 91 ]. Investigations in Zamfara reveal widespread lead-poison, with thousands of children living with dangerous levels of blood lead and hundreds of death and animals due to this lead risk [ 92 ]. Some environmental health reports for surveys and research conducted in Nigeria over the previous years show lead metal at unsafe levels has gotten in homes, especially in Northern Nigeria [ 13 , 93 ]. The water from the village's wells in Zamfara shows high levels of this heavy metal, and children in this community have blood lead in dangerous levels [ 4 , 64 , 82 ].

4.4. Other environmental risks

Nigeria faces a wide array of other environmental problems, including deforestation, desertification, wind erosion, flooding, and climate change. Some have seemingly minor risks at an individual level, while in synergy, they contribute significantly to more deaths and DALYs combined. Figure 7 shows the number of deaths and DALYs due to other environmental risks from 2007-2017 in Nigeria; the number of DALYs caused by the cardiovascular disease has been steadily rising as the year progresses, with an estimate of 60 thousand population affected each year. This can contribute to the rise of respiratory disease from 4 th rank to 1 st rank ( Table 1 ) between 2007-2017. Stroke, ischemic heart disease, and mental disorder show little changes maintaining a range between 22,000 to 26,000 DALYs yearly from 2007-2017 in Nigeria. Approximately 1000 deaths are attributed to ischemic heart disease and stroke respectively per annum, while an estimated 2000 deaths are attributed to cardiovascular diseases per annum. An estimate of 140 thousand deaths is attributed to other environmental risks yearly.

More than 70% of Nigeria's forest land has been cut down due to settlements, increase in urbanization [ 94 ], construction of roads, use of biomass as a significant source of cooking fuel, and wood as raw material for different constructions and much industrial use [ 60 , 95 ]. All these results in deforestation, loss of wildlife, and change in the micro-climate. Deforestation in the Northern part of Nigeria ( Figure 2 ), especially the Sahel-savannah region, has led to more desert encroachment and sand storm, another source of air pollution and respiratory health problem.

Climate change, desert encroachment, and deforestation have led to the blowing away of the land surface in Nigeria's Northern part [ 9 ], while heavy rainfalls often flood and wash away a large portion of plain lands. This is usually due to low topography, lack of proper drainage, and disposition of waste in waterways by people [ 96 , 97 ]. This has resulted in the loss of cultivations, fertile soils, homes are washed away by floods, and disease outbreaks carried by dirty water. Diarrhea and breading of disease vectors are paramount in flooded areas causing various health effects [ 98 ].

5. Summary, research needs, and recommendation

Environmental health has become a significant concern in Nigeria. This paper reviews the current status and existing environmental health situations in Nigeria. Leading studies have been reviewed in this paper, and the key findings are as follows:

• • Nigeria is faced with environmental problems such as air pollution, water pollution, lead exposures, poor waste management, deforestation, desertification, wind erosion, and flooding, which has harmed the population.
• • In Nigeria, lower respiratory infection associated with the environmental risk factor is the highest-ranked cause of death in 2017.
• • Environmental factors such as ambient air pollution, household air pollution, unsafe water, sanitation, hand washing, and lead poisoning are associated with most health-related causes of death in Nigeria from 2007-2017
• • Air pollution, household air pollution, and WaSH showed a prolonged but progressive decline while ambient particulate matter pollution, ambient ozone pollution. Lead exposure shows a steady rise in association to death and DALYs in Nigeria, proving a significant concern in an environmental health-related risk situation.
• • Other high causes of death associated with environmental risk factors include COPD, chronic respiratory diseases, cardiovascular diseases, enteric infections, diarrheal diseases, communicable, maternal, neonatal, and nutritional disease, which has led to approximately over 800 thousand deaths and 26 million people living with DALYs yearly in Nigeria

In Nigeria, there is a need to appropriately implement environmental health policies and enact other pertinent policies to mitigate the environmental health situation. Also, there is a need to have a directorate of environmental health to ensure all concerned activities are well-coordinated [ 93 , 99 ].

5.1. Research needs

There is a need to create a framework for coordinating research activities with considerable inputs from the Health, Policy, Systems, Research, and Analysis (HPSR + A). Need for incorporating HPSR + A training and research at students' early training stage [ 100 , 101 ]. Capacity building of all departments offers environmental health research in terms of human resources to identify unknown environmental hazards from chemicals in the environment. Policymakers need to take advantage of pre-existing financial and administrative governance approaches [ 102 ] to establish organizational, staff, and course advancement in environmental health research and training. The future environmental health practitioners and policymaker's engagement should consider building capacity researchers in HPSR + A, especially in advocacy skills to determine the community's needs effectively.

There is also a need for prior determined, pre-existing communication channels of research findings on dissemination workshops, briefing notes, and technical meetings, harnessed with advocacy as an approach to strengthening engagements and linkages between practitioners and policymakers. There is an urgent need to establish further and develop frameworks to facilitate networking and research activities in academic institutions and significantly in policy institutions, emphasizing socio-cultural similarities such as information management and bureaucracy. Most importantly, forming systems to coordinate government, research organizations, and donors in environmental health policy research structures.

5.2. Recommendations

The state of Nigeria's environment is at a critical stage, which can have more health risks that can affect an extended period beyond the present condition if not mitigated. Thus, the need to implement immediate actions for a healthy environment and increase life expectancy in Nigeria. Below are some recommendations;

• • Second-hand vehicle exhaust is a significant source of air pollution [ 103 ]; likewise demonstrates the improper disposition and burning of e-waste [ 104 ]. The incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons produces soot into the atmosphere. The Nigerian customs service should put more crackdowns and severe punishment for the illegal importation of second-hand vehicles and e-waste. There should be more vehicle inspections to ensure vehicle owners service their cars regularly and old vehicles are flagged off the roads to reduce air pollutants' emissions. Through such, only good condition vehicles can move on the road.
• • Inadequate infrastructure such as uninterrupted electric power supply had been a significant challenge in Nigeria for a while [ 33 ]. The population keeps using generators associated with air pollution and respiratory-related health risk [ 59 ]. Constant electric power supply will reduce the use of diesel generators by residents, offices, and organizations, which will lead to cleaner air.
• • The percentage of families using biomass fuelwood is high. This has led to respiratory health effects on vulnerable groups, mostly women and children [ 70 , 105 , 106 ]. Clean energy improved stoves at an affordable price can reduce over 70% of Nigerian homes' dependence on biomass as cooking fuel. Biogas and other renewable energies such as solar power and wind energy can be used as alternative energy sources to reduce petroleum products' dependency.
• • Increased industrialization has led to high potential exposure to air pollution, and most industries do not adhere to the federal government's air quality emission standard. The gas flaring policy for the complete halting of gas flaring in Nigeria has not been adhered to by industries [ 83 ]. This has led to thick soothe covering over cities, respiratory problems to the population, and acid rain. Policymakers and inspectors should make industries adhere strictly to the sets standard of treatments and proper discharge of industrial waste, either liquid, solid, or gaseous.
• • The rate of illegal mining has been on the rise in the north-central region [ 107 ]. Improper mining carried out, such as non-use of protective equipment and abandonment of mining sites without proper closure after mining, has led to water contamination during the rainy season [ 89 , 107 ]. Poor drainage aids the flooding of contaminated water to water bodies used by the nearby communities. This has resulted in increasing lead poisoning and many heavy metal-related diseases. There is a need for a crackdown on illegal mining and constant surveillance of mining or potential mining sites by the environmental protection agencies and law enforcement agencies. This will ensure legal mining sites adhere strictly to mining regulations on proper disposal of mining waste, landfilling, and appropriate closure of mined areas when mining is over. This will reduce hazards caused by flooding and contamination of land and water to communities around mining sites.
• • Most houses in Nigeria were built without proper town planning or allocation for sewage and other waste disposal capacity [ 104 ], thus; becoming a peril to adequate waste management. A central sewage system, government-built dumpsites, and garbage sorting as part of proper waste management will help keep a sanitary environment, reduce water contamination, recycle and reuse some recyclable waste. Waste management legislation, adequate policy, and a planning framework for waste management are needed.
• • Basic sanitation infrastructural amenities such as public toilets are inadequate or completely lacking in various regions of Nigeria [ 108 ], resulting in open defecation practices by the population. Nigeria's adopted Community-Led Total Sanitation (CLTS) in 2008 had made progress in portable water availability [ 77 ]. However, there is a need to build more public toilets in communities, major cities, and market places. This will reduce open defecation, which has resulted in the emergence and transfer of infectious diseases such as cholera.

6. Conclusion

The situation of the state of the environment in Nigeria is rapidly degenerating. The environment affected by humans' activities shows the negative environmental health issues being on the rise. The environmental health situation is usually an interconnection between human activities and the environment. Nigeria faces emerging challenges in environmental health, such as climate change, low air quality, water contamination, and natural hazards like floods, storms, and drought. All of these negatively affect human health. Nigeria being a significant oil producer, has problems associated with exploration, such as oil spillage on water and land and gas flaring leading to air pollution. Most of the highest-ranked risk factors causing the most death and disability combine in Nigeria are environmental-related.

Environmental health policy is necessary to contain the surging rise of environmental problems. The need for environmental health legislation and inspection to ensure the public and industries adhere to regulations set is vital. This will reduce environmental health risks and more gain in healthy life span in Nigeria. A healthy environment will lead to a healthy life.

Declarations

Author contribution statement.

All authors listed have significantly contributed to the investigation, development and writing of this article.

Funding statement

This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

Data availability statement

Declaration of interests statement.

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Additional information

No additional information is available for this paper.

United States Institute of Peace

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The Current Situation in Nigeria

A USIP Fact Sheet

Wednesday, August 11, 2021

Publication Type: Fact Sheet

As Africa’s most populous country, largest economy and most notable democracy, Nigeria is a bellwether for the continent. A weakening economy, rising insecurity and violent conflicts threaten progress made in its democratic development. Amid deepening distrust in government and institutions, Nigeria has significant work to do in improving national, state and local security and governance ahead of national and state elections in 2023.

Nigeria’s federal system gives governors great responsibilities in addressing the issues driving the country’s multiple conflicts, including farmer-herder violence, deepening regional divides, armed banditry and the Boko Haram insurgency. USIP brings together state governors, national policymakers and civic leaders to design and implement inclusive policies that mitigate violence and strengthen community-oriented security. The Institute engages a variety of influential figures, empowers citizens and uses its expertise and convening power to inform Nigeria policy in the United States, the region and around the world. Recent work includes:

Nigeria Working Group on Peacebuilding and Governance

Since 2016, this working group has fostered relationships between citizens, policymakers and national and international figures to ensure that a diverse array of voices impact decision-making processes. These relationships allow the working group to turn expert analysis into tangible, actionable policy advice. For instance, recommendations for addressing the country’s current security and political challenges — informed by a 2021 convening with religious and civic leaders from the National Peace Committee and the Inter-Faith Initiative for Peace — were published in leading Nigerian newspapers . In 2021, amid deepening public mistrust, the working group harnessed its collective experience and relationships to advance high-level dialogue between major civic groups working for peace across the country and the Nigerian government. The working group is regularly invited by state and national policymakers to provide recommendations on a range of issues, from inclusive governance and electoral violence to communal conflicts between pastoralists and farming communities. 

Network of Nigerian Facilitators (NNF)

The NNF is a group of professional peace mediators trained by USIP to resolve local conflicts through nonviolent means across several states throughout the country. NNF dialogues focus on strengthening community-security sector relationships and mitigating intercommunal, pastoralist-farmer and election-related violence. Since 2019, the NNF has collaborated with state peacebuilding institutions to address conflicts and support local peace processes. In 2021, the NNF helped conduct USIP research to better understand the drivers and dynamics of communal conflicts across Nigeria.

Working with State Governments and Peacebuilding Institutions

USIP helps governors and state peacebuilding institutions to establish inclusive, cooperative strategies that prevent and resolve violent conflicts; ensure that policies focus on citizens’ needs; stem the potential for all forms of violence; and allow communities to play meaningful roles in the transition process.

Strengthening Local Security

Through USIP’s ongoing Justice and Security Dialogue project, citizens at the local level collectively identify security challenges and organize dialogues that bring together internally displaced communities and police in Northeast Nigeria to develop practical and concrete solutions to address security concerns, build trust and foster accountability.

Informing Policy through Research

USIP conducts research on governance and security to better advise Nigerian policymakers in their response to these challenges. A 2020 public opinion survey found new linkages between COVID-19, instability and conflict . These survey findings informed policy discussions with senior U.S. and Nigerian policymakers, including Nigerian President Buhari and state governors. USIP also published research mapping state peacebuilding institutions ; assessing election-related violence risks ; and outlining pathways to civilian-led governance amid the Boko Haram insurgency in Northeast Nigeria. 

Convening Stakeholders

USIP convenes government officials, partners and civic leaders at its U.S. headquarters and Nigeria country office for candid conversations that foster collaboration and inform policy and program priorities. USIP hosted discussions in 2020 with the Nigerian ministers of foreign affairs and humanitarian affairs and senior U.S. policymakers. Throughout the pandemic, USIP convened a series of virtual roundtables with Nigerian federal and state policymakers and key stakeholders to examine COVID-19’s impact on security and governance. In 2019, USIP hosted eminent U.S. and Nigerian civic leaders and government officials for a roundtable to explore the state of Nigerian governance 20 years into its democratic transition.

Expanding the Institute’s Field Work

In 2020, USIP officially established a country office in Abuja. This accomplishment allows the Institute to continue its impactful operations, broaden its regional scope and sustain its direct action for peace in Nigeria.

In 2019, the Network of Nigerian Facilitators (NNF) helped Kaduna and Plateau state peacebuilding institutions orchestrate a peace agreement to resolve a long-standing, cross-border violent conflict between Aten, Fulani and Takad communities in both states. The resulting peace agreement, signed in December 2020, signified their commitment to begin a peace process guided by the state peacebuilding institutions with support from the NNF and USIP.

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Nigeria’s disputed election 12 days ago is raising protest at home and concern abroad over its implications for the strength of democracy in that country and across Africa. Yesterday’s new wrinkle was the postponement of this week’s planned election for Nigerian state governors. Nigeria’s electoral commission is working to fix problems in a vote management system that failed to transparently process and report a result on February 25. An erosion of democracy’s credibility in Africa’s most populous nation would be catastrophic.

Democracy & Governance ;  Global Elections & Conflict

Land, soil and climate change: How Nigeria is enhancing climate resilience to save the future of its people

A restored gully site in Auchi, Edo State.

Oladipo Airenakho, NEWMAP FPMU, Nigeria

STORY HIGHLIGHTS

• More than 12 million people benefited from the $900 million Nigeria Erosion and Watershed Project (NEWMAP) that reinforced the country’s ability to fight climate induced erosion, natural hazards, and disasters.
• 52,000 jobs in the sectors promoting climate adaptation - direct and indirect - were created through the first Sovereign Green Bonds.
• 23 states adopted innovative integrated approaches for adaptive development based on community participation.

Increasing climate variability in Nigeria is causing more intense and untimely rainfall. Adding to land degradation, flash floods, landslides, and gully erosion have worsened across one of the ten most vulnerable countries to climate change impacts. By 2009, an estimated 6,000 gullies were destroying roads, highways, pipelines, and houses across rural and urban Nigeria. Many Nigerians lived in fear and despair due to these extreme weather events.

Tackling Soil Erosion

In Calabar, in Southern Nigeria, Nkese Oyo-Ita, a 75-year-old grandmother, recalls, “Whenever it rained, all the boys would come out with shovels and cutlass to clear the street and create gutters. But that was not enough to solve the problem... We lived in extreme fear of being drowned or washed away with our belongings.”

Sudden, unpredictable, and uncontrollable floods erode the soil, and the loss of life and property is a nightmare for many Nigerians. “It destroys crops, farms, lands and houses. We used to have a cocoa plantation, but the erosion swept it away,” said Michael Igboria, of Edo State in Southern Nigeria.

Before picture of a restored gully site in Auchi, Edo State.

After picture of a restored gully site in Auchi, Edo State.

Strengthening Nigeria’s Defences against Climate Change

In response to the situation, the Nigeria Erosion and Water Shed Management Project (NEWMAP), launched in 2012, adopted innovative integrated approaches based on community participation. The project, completed in 2022, linked poverty alleviation with sustainable ecosystems and better disaster-risk prevention. This holistic approach has improved the lives and safety of more than 12 million people in 23 states in Nigeria.

"When the road and gully had not been done, my husband used to put sands on parts of the road damaged by flood erosion. Now he no longer has to do this. The work done by the project in our community is very good, and residents are very happy because they no longer fear flood and gully erosion," says Roseline Okhale, of the Ibore Community in Edo State.

NEWMAP initiated mechanisms to protect Nigerians from future climate change impacts. The project focused on the restoration of 90 gully sites and the construction of close to 60 catchments to control erosion. Warning systems were implemented, and 103 automated weather and flood early-warning systems provide data for catchment planning, rainfall prediction, and flood monitoring for five River Basin Development Authorities. Stormwater diversion plans were developed to stop gully formation, manage flood risks in urban areas, and adapt to higher rainfall. Solid waste management was improved to decrease flooding during heavy rains.

“For us, NEWMAP means ‘gully must go’. Many years ago, you could not stand here. This place was a deadly jungle. But as you can see, we are here, and cars are passing through this place,” says evangelist Jeremiah Asuka, of Njang Asang in Cross River State.

To help farmers cope with droughts, climate-smart agricultural innovations to conserve water such as solar-powered drip irrigation and rainwater harvesting have been rolled out.

Enhancing climate finance with green bonds for adaptation and mitigation

To help the Government of Nigeria finance ‘green investments’ in agriculture, energy, water, and transport, green Bonds were issued - a premiere in Africa. The bonds raised $30 million in 2017 and $41 million in 2019.

The NEWMAP supported initiatives helped decrease greenhouse gas emissions. Afforestation and innovative technologies, such as fuel-efficient cookstoves, solar-powered Primary Health Centres, borehole pumps, meat-dryers, and agro-processing plants, were introduced to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, deforestation, and dependence on fossil fuels and fuel wood.

Climate-focused policy research and initiatives include an LPG Framework to reduce dependence on wood and kerosene, feasibility studies of grid-connected solar power plants, and a transportation system running on natural gas, as well as digital Environment Impact Assessments.

In addition, 185,000 local government officials and community members were trained in environmental management to boost their knowledge of land degradation, soil and water conservation, catchment management planning, sustainable farming, and waste management.

NEWMAP’s successful demonstrations are bound to inspire others seeking comprehensive, people-centered strategies to tackle soil erosion while preparing for climate change adaptation and GHG mitigation.

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Nigeria in 2023: Bridging the productivity gap and building economic resilience

Subscribe to africa in focus, wilson erumebor we wilson erumebor senior economist - nigerian economic summit group, doctoral researcher - soas university of london @wilsonrume.

February 6, 2023

Below is a viewpoint from the  Foresight Africa 2023  report, which explores top priorities for the region in the coming year. Read the full chapter on  economic recovery and growth .

Another key feature of Nigeria’s economy in the last seven years has been the shift of economic activity towards agriculture and a slowdown of the manufacturing sector. As a share of GDP, agriculture expanded from 23 percent in 2015 to 26 percent in 2021, while manufacturing declined from 9.5 percent to 9 percent respectively. During this period , non-oil exports as a share of non-oil GDP averaged 1.3 percent while manufactured goods as a share of total exports remained low at 5.2 percent in 2021. Part of the problem facing the economy is the neglect of the manufacturing sector. Essentially, Nigeria is not producing enough, for both local consumption and export. The consequences of having a weak manufacturing base for a country with such a large population are evident in its foreign exchange shortages, limited number of jobs created to accommodate workforce entrants, and an import bill that can hardly be met (nor sustained) by current export earnings.

Worse still, 80 percent of workers are employed in sectors with low levels of productivity —agriculture and non-tradable services. This means that the kind of jobs needed to generate income growth and lift many Nigerians out of poverty are not available in large numbers. As Nigeria approaches the general elections in 2023, there is immense pressure on political leaders to tackle these economic challenges and implement policies that will deliver an inclusive and competitive economy.

As Nigeria approaches the general elections in 2023, there is immense pressure on political leaders to tackle these economic challenges and implement policies that will deliver an inclusive and competitive economy.

The new administration, working with stakeholders, needs to develop an agenda for economic and social inclusion. At the heart of such agenda must be improving the lives of the average Nigerian. This agenda must also include a practical strategy on how to structurally transform the economy, moving labor and economic resources from low productivity sectors to high productivity sectors.

At the top of the productivity ladder is the tradable services sector, which has the potential to improve incomes and raise overall productivity. The challenge with this sector, however, is its inability to accommodate labor in large numbers. Nevertheless, the sector is important, given Nigeria’s young population who are increasingly driving technological revolution across various sectors on the African continent. To leverage the full potential of this sector, the government will need to design and implement national skills programs aimed at upskilling young Nigerians , to ensure many more embrace digital skills and capabilities.

At the middle of the productivity ladder sits manufacturing. The sector has a much higher productivity level than agriculture and can accommodate, in large numbers, the kind of labor that is abundant in the country. Nigeria’s rising population (which is projected to reach 428 million by 2050), the existence of mineral resources, and the adoption of a single market in Africa—the African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA)—present a case for why manufacturing would thrive in Nigeria. The priority, therefore, for the incoming government must be to address the burgeoning infrastructure deficit and inadequate power supply, which limit the competitiveness of the manufacturing sector. In addition, the government will need to develop an industrial policy that seeks to support the scale, efficiency, and competitiveness of local firms within the manufacturing sector; bearing in mind that developing the sector is key to building economic resilience against vulnerability and future shocks. Such policies must be integrated with Nigeria’s AfCFTA strategy and support transition of small-scale firms that are often the drivers of job creation in the country.

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Methodology, implications and recommendations for policy, practice, and future research, limitations, acknowledgment, protocol registration, data availability statement, conflict of interest, water infrastructure sustainability in nigeria: a systematic review of challenges and sustainable solutions.

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Oluwagbemi Samuel Adeoti , Jaya Kandasamy , Saravanamuthu Vigneswaran; Water infrastructure sustainability in Nigeria: a systematic review of challenges and sustainable solutions. Water Policy 1 November 2023; 25 (11): 1094–1111. doi: https://doi.org/10.2166/wp.2023.173

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Using the PRISMA method, this systematic literature review synthesized findings from 15 studies to elucidate the key factors contributing to water infrastructure failure in Nigeria and propose evidence-based sustainable solutions. The study identified technical, financial, environmental, social, political, and institutional factors as predominant challenges in achieving water infrastructure sustainability. In response to these challenges, the researcher proposes a comprehensive ‘Sustainability Framework for Water Infrastructure’. This framework is designed to guide every stage of water infrastructure development, starting from pre-construction with an emphasis on inclusive project planning, followed by the construction phase where suitable techniques are utilized, and extending to the post-construction stage, focusing on efficient monitoring and management mechanisms. The study highlights the complexity of water infrastructure sustainability in Nigeria and underscores the urgent need for a structured and comprehensive approach to address this pressing issue.

Analysis of causes of Nigeria's water infrastructure failure.

Reviews existing research on Nigeria's water sector and identifies sustainable solutions.

Novel Sustainability Framework for Water Infrastructure to guide future water infrastructure development.

Evidence-based recommendations for policy, practice, and future research.

Review of clean water access for UN SDG 6.1 in Nigeria.

Access to safe and affordable drinking water is a fundamental human right and a cornerstone of sustainable development ( Bain et al ., 2014 ). The United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 6.1 (SDG 6.1) specifically aims to ‘achieve universal and equitable access to safe and affordable drinking water for all by 2030’ ( United Nations, 2015 ). This target is critical, as it improves public health and well-being and has significant implications for other Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), such as poverty alleviation, gender equality, and economic growth ( UN-Water, 2016 ; Satterthwaite et al ., 2020 , Aly et al ., 2022 ).

Achieving SDG 6.1 is crucial due to its far-reaching impact on the SDGs. Access to clean water reduces waterborne diseases, supports food production, energy generation, and industrial development, and alleviates the burden on women and girls who are disproportionately responsible for fetching water in developing countries ( Ray, 2007 ; Sorenson et al ., 2011 ; WHO, 2017 ; Prüss-Ustün et al ., 2019 ). Despite progress made in recent decades, significant disparities in access to safe drinking water persist between and within countries, particularly in rural and disadvantaged areas ( WHO, 2017 , 2019 ). Tackling these challenges and filling the knowledge gaps in water infrastructure research calls for a joint effort from governments, communities, and international organizations. Moreover, it requires a systematic literature review of this kind to synthesize the existing literature on the subject to better understand the issues and identify effective solutions ( Adeniran et al ., 2021 ; Adeniran, 2022 ).

Globally, significant progress has been made in expanding access to clean water, with over 90% of the world's population now enjoying improved water sources ( WHO, 2019 ). However, approximately 785 million people still lack basic water services, and disparities persist between urban and rural areas and among different socioeconomic groups ( Bain et al ., 2014 ; WHO, 2019 ). Additionally, the high rate of failed water infrastructure in developing countries remains a pressing challenge, with many projects failing due to inadequate planning, financing, and maintenance ( Bonsor et al ., 2015 ; Whaley & Cleaver, 2017 ).

In developing countries, especially in sub-Saharan Africa, access to safe drinking water is hindered by numerous challenges, including rapid urbanization, population growth, climate change, and weak governance ( Onda et al ., 2012 ; Dos Santos et al ., 2017 ). High rates of failed water infrastructure further exacerbate these issues, with estimates suggesting that as many as 40% of water points in the region have failed ( Network, 2010 ; Foster & Hope, 2017 ). The failure of water projects can have severe consequences for local communities, contributing to water scarcity, poor health outcomes, and persistent poverty ( Whaley & Cleaver, 2017 ; Prüss-Ustün et al ., 2019 ).

Nigeria, the most populous country in Africa, faces significant challenges in achieving the targets set by SDG 6.1. A thorough comprehension of the country's water infrastructure necessitates an in-depth analysis of its water demands, available water resources, and existing infrastructure. Geographically, Nigeria exhibits substantial variations, impacting both its economic conditions and water management. Borehole water and other groundwater sources play a crucial role in meeting the water needs of Nigerian communities. However, a concerning trend of borehole failures and non-operational water supply infrastructure persists ( Andres et al ., 2018b ), impeding Nigeria's progress towards SDG 6.1 and hindering the achievement of interconnected SDGs.

Despite significant investments in water infrastructure, only 67% of the Nigerian population has access to basic water services, leaving a stark 33% underserved and emphasizing the significant unmet demand for sustainable access to clean drinking water. Additionally, about 47% of water points are non-operational ( Andres et al ., 2018b ; NPC & ICF, 2019 ; UNICEF Nigeria, 2020 ). This crisis arises from a combination of technical, financial, environmental, social, political, and institutional challenges that exacerbate water infrastructure failures ( Andres et al ., 2018a ; Adeniran et al ., 2021 ). For a detailed understanding of the spatial distribution of these infrastructure failures, refer to Figures S1, S2, and S3 (see SI), illustrating water infrastructure failures across 1,696 communities in three distinct Nigerian states and visually presenting the challenges ( Adeoti et al ., 2023 ). Addressing this complex scenario is crucial for improving Nigeria's water supply and advancing towards the goals outlined in the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.

Systematically identify and analyze the key technical, financial, environmental, social, political, and institutional factors contributing to water infrastructure failure in Nigeria.

Critically review and synthesize the existing literature on water infrastructure challenges and sustainability in Nigeria, examining the employed theoretical frameworks, methodologies, and empirical findings, and understanding how the current research addresses the factors contributing to failure.

Identify evidence-based sustainable solutions that have been proposed or implemented to address the challenges contributing to water infrastructure failure and promote sustainable development in Nigeria's water sector.

Discuss the implications of the findings for policy, practice, and future research, highlighting the areas where further research is needed to advance the understanding of water infrastructure sustainability in Nigeria.

Propose actionable recommendations for policymakers, practitioners, and researchers to address the identified challenges and contribute to achieving SDG 6.1 in Nigeria and other developing countries.

In addressing these objectives, this review focuses on studies conducted within the Nigerian context and published in English. The review primarily covers the period from 2000 to 2023. The year 2000 was chosen as the starting point because it marks the establishment of the Millennium Development Goals, which have now been replaced by the SDGs. By including articles from 2000 onwards, the review ensures that research articles on water supply infrastructure sustainability as a global goal are considered for potential inclusion. While this review aims to provide a comprehensive synthesis of the literature on water infrastructure sustainability in Nigeria, it is important to acknowledge that the findings may be limited by the availability and quality of the included studies, as well as the specific focus on Nigeria as a case study.

This systematic literature review represents the first comprehensive effort to address the research objectives and questions related to the sustainability of water infrastructure in Nigeria. By offering valuable insights, it holds significant value for stakeholders engaged in water infrastructure and sustainability, including policymakers, practitioners, and researchers. Through a systematic examination and synthesis of existing literature on the factors contributing to water infrastructure failure in Nigeria, this review serves as a crucial resource for evidence-based decision-making and interventions. By identifying sustainable solutions and proposing actionable recommendations, the study actively contributes to the global efforts aimed at achieving SDG 6.1 and ensuring universal access to safe and affordable drinking water, with a specific emphasis on Nigeria and other developing countries.

The findings and recommendations provided in this review have the potential to guide future research, shape policy development, and facilitate the implementation of sustainable solutions to address water infrastructure challenges in Nigeria. As such, this study makes a substantial contribution to the ongoing discourse surrounding water infrastructure sustainability and the pursuit of global SDGs.

The methodology adopted for this systematic literature review is summarized below, with full details provided in the Supplementary Information (SI) section.

Search strategy

The study adheres to the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) guidelines, ensuring a transparent, rigorous, and replicable review process ( Moher et al ., 2009 ; Page et al ., 2021 ). The primary electronic database used for the search was Scopus, selected for its extensive collection of publications, large peer-reviewed library ( Burnham, 2006 ; Falagas et al ., 2008 ), and ability to capture publications from various developing countries, including Nigeria ( Mongeon & Paul-Hus, 2016 ; Zhu & Liu, 2020 ). Details of the search strategy are available in SI. Table S1 provides details of the search strings used across the search databases. Full-text review for eligibility was conducted on the selected articles. In addition to the electronic database search, hand-searching of relevant article references and grey literature was also performed. This comprehensive search strategy ensured the inclusion of a diverse range of literature and minimized bias in the review.

Inclusion and exclusion criteria

To ensure relevance and consistency, a set of predefined inclusion and exclusion criteria was established for the selection of studies. These criteria were designed to determine which studies should be included and which ones should be excluded from the systematic review. The incorporation of mandatory and additional criteria provided a robust and adaptable framework for article selection. Detailed information on the inclusion and exclusion criteria can be found in Table S2 (see SI). Additional details regarding the criteria are also available in SI.

Data extraction and synthesis

Systematic data extraction was carried out using a custom-made Microsoft Excel form, focusing on significant details from each study related to the factors contributing to water infrastructure failure in Nigeria. An integrated approach combining thematic analysis, narrative synthesis, and content analysis was employed to synthesize the extracted data. This approach facilitated the identification of common themes, exploration of relationships and findings across studies, and quantification of the frequency of certain responses or factors. Further details on data extraction and synthesis are available in SI.

Quality assessment

The quality of each selected study was assessed using a customized checklist based on key criteria essential for evaluating the validity and reliability of research findings. This quality assessment tool was developed with reference to sources such as the Critical Appraisal Skills Programme (CASP) tools and literature on research methodology (e.g., Long et al ., 2020 ; Mengist et al ., 2020 ). More details about the quality assessment are provided in SI. However, it is important to note that this quality assessment method, while robust, has some limitations. It may not capture all aspects of a study's quality, and the binary ‘yes/no’ responses may oversimplify complex issues. Therefore, the quality assessment should be interpreted in conjunction with other considerations, such as the relevance of the study to the research questions and its overall contribution to the knowledge of water infrastructure sustainability in Nigeria.

Overview of the selected studies

The procedure used to select studies for inclusion in the review is comprehensively outlined in the flow chart Figure S4 (see SI). Based on this process, a total of 15 studies were chosen for data extraction and synthesis. Specific details of these studies can be found in Table S3.

The search period for this systematic literature review encompassed the years 2000–2023, providing a comprehensive understanding of the topic's evolution over two decades. The earliest article included in this review was published in 2008 by Adeoti, Adetola I., while the most recent publication was in 2022 by Ugwu, Paschaline Nkeiruka, and colleagues. Notably, a significant portion of the articles (7 of 15, 47%) were published in the last five years, between 2018 and 2023, indicating a growing interest and increased research activity on the subject during this period. A detailed year-wise distribution of the included articles is presented in Figure S5.

Overview of analyzed water infrastructures from selected studies

The diverse landscape of Nigeria's water infrastructure is thoroughly examined in the 15 studies included in this review. Boreholes are a dominant focus consistently discussed across all 15 studies, underscoring their paramount significance in Nigeria's water supply framework. Wells, a primary water source for many households, are featured in over half of the studies, specifically 8 out of the 15. Pipe distribution systems, crucial for a seamless water supply across urban and rural areas, were highlighted in six studies. Dams, playing a pivotal role in bulk water supply and reservoir creation, were mentioned in three studies. Other sources such as standpipes and rainwater collection were discussed in two studies. Streams and protected springs, though less common, were touched upon in individual studies.

Adeniran et al . (2021) conducted a comprehensive analysis encompassing various dams and reservoirs, providing valuable insights based on data spanning from 1923 to 2007. On a more micro-level, Andres et al . (2018b) focused on 43,443 water points, primarily wells and boreholes, to comprehend their crucial role in community water supply. The significance of groundwater, especially in areas adjacent to landfill sites, was emphasized by Shiru et al . (2020) , indicating potential environmental and health concerns.

Active stakeholder participation is fundamental to water projects. An integral component of the selected literature was the extensive use of questionnaires to understand the perspectives of local communities, a strategy predominantly employed by Popoola et al . (2021) and Olajuyigbe (2016) . These grassroots insights, gathered from a wide spectrum of respondents, provide a detailed understanding of localized water challenges and underscore the pivotal role community engagement plays in the success of water projects. On a broader scale, Andres et al . (2018a) utilized the 2015 Nigeria National Water and Sanitation Survey to identify patterns in the failure of water initiatives across Nigeria.

Following this overview, we delve deeper into the myriad factors influencing the functionality and sustainability of these diverse water infrastructures.

Factors contributing to water infrastructure failure in Nigeria

This systematic literature review provides a comprehensive understanding of the multitude of factors contributing to water infrastructure failure in Nigeria. Based on the analysis of the 15 selected studies, these influential factors are methodically divided into technical, financial, environmental, social, political, institutional factors, and ‘other’. The factors are further categorized into 52 distinct themes.

As highlighted in Figure S6, we identified 265 issues influencing the sustainability of water infrastructure in Nigeria. Among the identified issues, the technical factor holds the highest proportion with 59 issues (22.3%) spread across 11 themes. Institutional factors account for 56 issues (21.1%) categorized under nine themes. Social factors contain 48 issues (18.1%) falling under nine themes, while financial factors contribute 37 issues (14%) distributed among six themes (Figure S6).

Political factors, representing five themes, account for 32 issues (12.1%). Environmental factors, allocated into seven themes, encompass 22 issues (8.3%). Lastly, the category labeled ‘Other’ captures 11 issues (4.2%) that could not be neatly placed within the six principal categories and is separated into five unique themes (Figure S6).

In the subsequent sections, each factor will be explored in detail, providing a comprehensive understanding of the complex challenges confronting water infrastructure functionality and sustainability in Nigeria.

Technical factors

The review identifies a total of 59 issues under the technical factors contributing to water infrastructure functionality in Nigeria. These factors are grouped into 11 categories. The categorization and count of the technical issues are shown in Figure S7.

The most frequently occurring category, with 10 instances (17%), is related to the ‘ Deterioration of Infrastructure ’. It encompasses aspects like systemic malfunctioning ( Adeniran et al ., 2021 ), aging water schemes, and poor infrastructure development and management ( Otun et al ., 2011 ; Adeniran et al ., 2021 ), among others.

‘ Poor Material and Construction Practices ’, occurring four times (7%), involve instances of poor workmanship ( Oyekale & Ogunsanya, 2012 ), poor construction materials ( Popoola et al ., 2021 ), and design failures ( Oloruntade et al ., 2014 ).

Nine instances (15%) pertain to ‘ Poor Operation and Maintenance ’. This category includes issues such as lack of preventive maintenance knowledge ( Khan et al ., 2018 ), poor maintenance of water sources ( Popoola et al ., 2021 ), and technical issues related to management ( Andres et al ., 2018a ).

Six instances (10%) were identified related to the ‘ Choice of Technology and Equipment ’, emphasizing the importance of the technological dimension ( Adeoti, 2008 ; Andres et al ., 2018b ), equipment failure ( Andres et al ., 2018a ), and the wrong choice of pump types ( Khan et al ., 2018 ).

‘ Water Supply Issues ’ were identified five times (8%), covering topics like groundwater overdraft ( Shiru et al ., 2020 ), uneven water distribution ( Shiru et al ., 2020 ), and shallow wells that cannot provide an all-year-round water supply ( Oloruntade et al ., 2014 ).

‘ Spare Parts Availability and Quality ’ were raised seven times (12%), focusing on the availability and quality of spare parts and supplies ( Otun et al ., 2011 ; Andres et al ., 2018a ; Khan et al ., 2018 ).

The ‘ Impact of External Factors ’, like vandalism impacting water infrastructure, leading to technical challenges, contamination, and lack of electricity, was reported five times (8%) ( Andres et al ., 2018a ; Khan et al ., 2018 ; Shiru et al ., 2020 ).

Three instances (5%) related to ‘ Overuse and Lack of Proper Planning ’ were identified, including exceeding the intended use of the infrastructure ( Andres et al ., 2018a ) and wear and tear due to aging ( Oloruntade et al ., 2014 ).

‘ Inadequate Knowledge and Resources ’, such as poor knowledge of the Nigerian geological terrain and non-existent literature on water infrastructure functionality ( Andres et al ., 2018a ), and large maintenance backlogs ( Otun et al ., 2011 ), were highlighted six times (10%).

‘ Specific Technology Issues ’, like the functionality of manual pumps versus hand pumps and pump failures ( Oloruntade et al ., 2014 ), were reported three times (5%).

Lastly, there was one instance (2%) of ‘ Infrastructure Collapse ’ due to poor drilling ( Popoola et al ., 2021 ).

Technical factors constitute a substantial proportion of the identified challenges, highlighting the need for technical capacity building, improved practices, and better management of water infrastructure in Nigeria.

Financial factors

The analysis identifies 37 issues pertaining to the financial factors affecting water infrastructure functionality in Nigeria, classified into 6 main groups (Figure S8).

The most frequently mentioned category, with eight instances (22%), accounts for issues related to the ‘ Cost of Infrastructure and Maintenance ’. This category captures increased costs of water production and distribution due to power supply issues ( Shiru et al ., 2020 ), the high cost of laying pipes to rural communities ( Adeoti, 2008 ), the cost of maintenance ( Andres et al ., 2018a ), and the substantial cost of solar panels, making it difficult for communities to afford repairs ( Oloruntade et al ., 2014 ).

The second category, ‘ Insufficient Funding/Budget Allocation ’, identified in seven instances (19%), discusses challenges around infrastructure financing, dwindling finances, and deprioritizing Water Supply ( Adeniran et al ., 2021 ), as well as insufficient funding ( Oyegoke et al ., 2012 ) and decrease in the total budgetary allocation for water supply ( Adeoti, 2008 ).

‘ User Fees and Willingness to Pay ’ is the third category with seven instances (19%), addressing issues such as the absence of user fee collection ( Andres et al ., 2018b ), inability to pay for water ( Popoola et al ., 2021 ), and users' unwillingness to pay charges ( Khan et al ., 2018 ).

The fourth category is ‘ Government Funding and Allocation ’, highlighted in five instances (14%). This category includes issues such as the type of funding organization, the absence of fund allocations from the state or local government ( Khan et al ., 2018 ), and unsustainable public sector spending ( Ugwu et al ., 2022 ).

‘ Household Income and Poverty ’ has been listed six times (16%), focusing on issues such as increased household expenses in purchasing potable water ( Popoola et al ., 2021 ), community members' inability to meet full financial responsibility ( Olajuyigbe, 2016 ), and the lack of financial means to connect to government water services ( Oyekale & Ogunsanya, 2012 ).

Finally, ‘ External Funding ’ was discussed in four instances (11%), including points such as lack of infrastructure facilities due to funding ( Andres et al ., 2018b ), dependence on communities for financial responsibility ( Emmanuel & Bamidele, 2013 ), and inefficient use of over 3 billion dollars in funds ( Otun et al ., 2011 ).

The financial aspects of maintaining functional water infrastructure are multifaceted, involving a complex mix of user fees, government spending, external funding, and the socioeconomic status of the households that ultimately depend on these services.

Environmental factor

This review identifies 21 environmental issues that influence the functionality of water infrastructure in Nigeria, which are organized into seven key categories (Figure S9).

The most frequently discussed issue, featured in five instances (23%), pertains to ‘ Hydrogeology ’ . It includes factors like sparse geographical locations of villages, morphological issues such as clay soil or rocky terrain ( Popoola et al ., 2021 ), and the importance of hydrogeology to the functionality of water points ( Andres et al ., 2018b ).

‘ Water Scarcity ’ and ‘ Climate Change Impacts ’ were the next two prominent categories, each raised in four instances (18%) and addressing global water scarcity due to poor water management, increasing urbanization ( Popoola et al ., 2021 ), climate change impacts on water resources ( Shiru et al ., 2020 ), and variability by climate zone ( Cronk & Bartram, 2017 ).

Three issues (14%) fell under the ‘ Pollution ’ category, exploring problems like environmental pollution and deforestation ( Adeniran et al ., 2021 ).

‘ Population Growth ’ was raised in two instances (9%), addressing the strain on water infrastructure due to population growth and internal migration ( Oyegoke et al ., 2012 ; Ugwu et al ., 2022 ).

‘ Insufficient Ground Water ’ featured in two instances (9%), pertaining to decline in groundwater storage ( Shiru et al ., 2020 ) and insufficiency of the groundwater in the aquifer serving specific boreholes ( Oloruntade et al ., 2014 ).

Lastly, the category ‘ Drought ’ was highlighted by two (9%) authors, emphasizing issues related to drought's impact on water infrastructure ( Oyekale & Ogunsanya, 2012 ; Adeniran et al ., 2021 ).

Environmental factors affecting water infrastructure in Nigeria are complicated, underscoring the need for comprehensive environmental management and protection measures in the planning and operation of water supply systems.

Social factor

The social factors influencing the functionality and sustainability of water infrastructure in Nigeria, as identified by the selected articles, are diverse and interconnected. Forty-eight issues were identified in the studies, grouped into eight categories (Figure S10).

The most frequently cited category is ‘ Community Involvement ’, with 13 instances (27%). This category includes issues like the neglect of rural water supply ( Adeniran et al ., 2021 ), low functionality with local management ( Andres et al ., 2018b ), poor community cooperation ( Popoola et al ., 2021 ), and lack of public participation in water infrastructure management ( Adeoti, 2008 ). It is apparent from these data that the level and quality of community involvement significantly impact the performance and sustainability of water infrastructures.

Another prevalent category is ‘ Population and Migration ’, with eight mentions (17%). This category concerns the strain on water infrastructure due to population growth and internal migration, with a particular emphasis on issues in Lagos where the population continues to grow rapidly, causing an insurmountable water and environmental crisis ( Andres et al ., 2018a ; Shiru et al ., 2020 ; Adeniran et al ., 2021 ).

‘ Socio-Economic Factors ’ also emerged as a significant category with 10 instances (21%), encapsulating issues such as the influence of the household head's sex, education, and age on water access ( Oyekale & Ogunsanya, 2012 ), as well as how socio-economic characteristics can affect the maintenance and sustainability of water schemes ( Emmanuel & Bamidele, 2013 ).

The ‘ Ownership and Management’ category, highlighted in nine instances (19%), includes issues like the advantages of private sector management, the benefits of women in water committees ( Andres et al ., 2018b ), and the importance of community organization for system improvements ( Cronk & Bartram, 2017 ).

Other categories with fewer instances include ‘ Rural-Urban Inequality ’, ‘ Water Conflict ’, ‘ Access to Water Sources ’, ‘ Attitude and Corruption ’, and ‘ Environmental Considerations ’ . Despite their lower frequency, these factors still play a critical role in the overall picture of social determinants affecting water infrastructure functionality and sustainability. Rural-Urban Inequality describes the unequal water access in rural and urban areas. Water Conflict refers to disputes over water use and management. Access to Water Sources highlights the idea that social factors like community needs, usage patterns, and logistical constraints (like distance to the source and availability of water systems) can significantly influence water system functionality ( Oyekale & Ogunsanya, 2012 ; Cronk & Bartram, 2017 ). The Attitude and Corruption category refers to behavioral and socio-political issues like corruptive attitudes and tendencies ( Otun et al ., 2011 ) and theft of infrastructure parts. These issues highlight the importance of social engagement and attitudes in maintaining water infrastructure sustainability. Environmental Considerations involve the influence of environmental factors on social dynamics around water infrastructure.

Taken together, these results demonstrate the importance of considering a wide range of social factors in the planning, implementation, and management of water infrastructure projects in Nigeria.

Political factors

The political factors contributing to the failure of water infrastructure in Nigeria are complex and multifaceted, ranging from the politicization of infrastructure projects to the lack of effective regulation and corruption. This review has identified a total of 32 issues related to the political factors, categorized into five broad themes (Figure S11).

The ‘ Government Commitment ’ category emerged as the most frequent, with eight instances, contributing 25% to the overall political factors. Key issues in this category include the lack of government commitment to water infrastructure ( Popoola et al ., 2021 ), poor government attitude towards project continuity ( Olajuyigbe, 2016 ), and the lack of political will to fix prevalent issues ( Oyegoke et al ., 2012 ).

‘ Geographical Politics ’, with eight mentions (25%), ties in frequency with the ‘ Government Commitment ’ category. Issues under this category entail how geographical location, whether strategic or based on local government policies, impacts the access, availability, and functionality of water infrastructure ( Cronk & Bartram, 2017 ; Andres et al ., 2018a ; Popoola et al ., 2021 ).

‘ Policy Misalignment ’ and ‘ Political Instability ’ were observed with six (19%) and five (16%) instances, respectively, indicating their notable influence. They cover issues like functional misfits at policy implementation levels and the instability arising from complex political structures ( Adeniran et al ., 2021 ).

Lastly, the ‘ Corruption and Noncompliance ’ category, with five instances (16%), covers issues such as substantial increases in executive corruption and lack of accountability ( Oyekale & Ogunsanya, 2012 ), and policy non-compliance ( Ugwu et al ., 2022 ). Despite its fewer instances, its role in shaping water infrastructure functionality should not be underestimated.

Institutional factors

The review identified a total of 56 issues falling under the umbrella of institutional factors contributing to the functionality of water infrastructure in Nigeria, which are categorized into seven categories (Figure S12).

The most prevalent category, with 10 instances (18%), pertains to ‘ Infrastructure Planning and Management ’. This category covers various concerns such as decentralization of infrastructure types ( Adeniran et al ., 2021 ), lack of thorough planning ( Oyekale & Ogunsanya, 2012 ), infrastructural challenges due to ad hoc and unsustainable initiatives ( Oyegoke et al ., 2012 ), and poor service delivery coverage and performance ( Otun et al ., 2011 ).

The ‘ Policy and Regulation ’ category, mentioned in six instances (11%), highlights the incomplete or unsustainable water infrastructure projects ( Popoola et al ., 2021 ) and the lack of clear policies and guidelines on operation and maintenance ( Khan et al ., 2018 ).

The ‘ Institutional Capacity’ category, found in eight instances (14%), emphasizes issues such as disjointed responsibility ( Ugwu et al ., 2022 ), low institutional capacity ( Otun et al ., 2011 ), and the lack of availability of trained mechanics ( Khan et al ., 2018 ).

The ‘ Monitoring and Quality Control ’ category, mentioned seven times (13%), addresses inadequate monitoring of water-related projects, poor quality control ( Oyegoke et al ., 2012 ), and inefficient monitoring systems ( Andres et al ., 2018a ).

‘ Community Engagement and Transparency ’ is another significant category, highlighted in six instances (11%), stressing community participation in water programs ( Olajuyigbe, 2016 ) and poor government motivation ( Oloruntade et al ., 2014 ).

The ‘ Corruption and mismanagement ’ category, with seven instances (13%), includes issues such as substantial increases in executive corruption ( Ugwu et al ., 2022 ) and lack of accountability ( Andres et al ., 2018a ).

The ‘ Resource Allocation ’ and ‘ Definition and Research ’ categories, appearing in six (11%) and two (4%) instances, respectively, encapsulate issues ranging from state spatial inequalities due to investment ( Adeniran et al ., 2021 ) to the lack of a widely agreed-upon definition for water infrastructure and sustainability ( Andres et al ., 2018b ).

Lastly, the ‘ Overarching Problems ’ category, with four instances (7%), underlines broad issues like modernization and urbanization leading to the neglect of rural areas ( Popoola et al ., 2021 ).

These findings underscore the multifaceted nature of institutional factors impacting water infrastructure functionality in Nigeria, necessitating comprehensive institutional reforms to address these challenges.

Other factors

The review categorizes 11 issues as ‘Other Factors’ that affect the functionality of Nigeria's water infrastructure. These factors, which do not fit neatly into the conventional categories of technical, financial, environmental, social, institutional, or political, are grouped into four distinct themes. Geographical factors, accounting for 5 out of 11 instances (45%), concern distance challenges, such as proximity to administrative centers and water sources ( Adeoti, 2008 ; Cronk & Bartram, 2017 ; Andres et al ., 2018b ; Popoola et al ., 2021 ). Vandalism/Theft, making up 3 out of 11 (27%), denotes concerns like damage and theft of infrastructure ( Oloruntade et al ., 2014 ). Demographic and Age Factors, both at 1 out of 11 (9%), touch on the influence of population growth and household head age on financial contributions ( Adeoti, 2008 ). Lastly, methodological factors, at 1 out of 11 (9%), reflect on the approaches used by certain developers and a deficiency in thorough feasibility studies ( Olajuyigbe, 2016 ). Collectively, these highlight the intricate challenges facing Nigeria's water infrastructure, underscoring the need for multifaceted solutions.

Theoretical frameworks, methodology, and empirical findings of selected studies

Theoretical frameworks of selected studies.

In the evaluation of 15 selected articles on water infrastructure sustainability in Nigeria, varied theoretical approaches are evident. Only one article provides a clear theoretical framework, necessitating an inference on the rest based on content and methodology. Adeniran et al . (2021) and others gravitate towards the Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) framework, stressing the interplay of several factors affecting water resources. Andres et al . (2018b) utilize data-driven analyses, though the underpinning theoretical model is not explicitly mentioned. Popoola et al . (2021) and Olajuyigbe (2016) lean towards socio-ecological methods, with the latter specifying the community management model. Oyegoke et al . (2012) adopt a systems theory perspective, understanding the many interconnected issues in water supply. Both Ugwu et al . (2022) and Adeoti (2008) weave economic and socio-economic considerations into their works. Andres et al . (2018a) and Cronk & Bartram (2017) use advanced econometrics, inferred from their methodologies. Perspectives of community participation, decentralized management, and asset management emerge from Emmanuel & Bamidele (2013) , Khan et al . (2018) , and Otun et al . (2011) . In summary, although most articles do not explicitly declare their theoretical approaches, the diverse methods deduced underscore the complexity of understanding water infrastructure sustainability in Nigeria.

Methodology of selected studies

Various methodologies were employed across the analyzed articles, encompassing qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods designs. Quantitative methodologies were used in seven articles (47%), utilizing statistical techniques to analyze data. Four studies adopted mixed methods (27%), combining quantitative and qualitative techniques to offer a comprehensive perspective. Additionally, two articles employed a qualitative approach (13%), providing in-depth insights into the subject matter. However, in two articles (13%), namely Oyegoke et al . (2012) and Khan et al . (2018) , the methodology was not explicitly stated. Nevertheless, Khan et al . (2018) provided a detailed account of their approach implementation. This diverse array of methodologies, often aligned with the article's theoretical framework, enriches our understanding of Nigeria's water infrastructure sustainability.

Empirical findings of selected studies

The empirical findings from the reviewed articles on water infrastructure sustainability in Nigeria are presented, shedding light on the complexities of the issues surrounding water infrastructure. These findings include aspects related to access to safe water, factors influencing infrastructure functionality, and the challenges of maintaining the sustainability of these systems. To facilitate ease of reference, the summarized results are presented in Table S4.

Collectively, these findings highlight the complex challenges of ensuring water infrastructure sustainability in Nigeria. Future research will need to continue to explore these complexities and devise effective interventions.

Evidence-based sustainable solutions for water infrastructure in Nigeria

In this systematic literature review, the reviewed articles propose a wide array of solutions to address the complex issue of water infrastructure sustainability in Nigeria. These solutions encompass improvements in the design, implementation, and maintenance of water points, as well as increased community and government involvement. Additionally, better monitoring, funding, and strategic planning are identified as vital components for enhancing water infrastructure sustainability. Table S5 (see SI) presents a summary of the proposed and implemented solutions discussed in each article.

The proposed solutions from the selected studies were systematically analyzed and categorized under appropriate themes for quantitative assessment. The frequency of proposed solutions varied across the themes, indicating the research intensity within each topic.

‘ Technological Innovations and Infrastructure Optimization ’ (15% of solutions): This theme proposes strategies such as appropriate extraction technology choice and the use of various modeling techniques to optimize water infrastructure utilization ( Otun et al ., 2011 ; Andres et al ., 2018b ; Adeniran et al ., 2021 ).

‘ Financial Mechanisms, Monitoring, Funding, and Partnerships ’ (11% of solutions): This theme advocates for increased private sector involvement, robust financial planning within the Village Level Operation and Maintenance (VLOM) strategy, and proper monitoring of WASH projects ( Oyegoke et al ., 2012 ; Khan et al ., 2018 ).

‘ Environmental Management Strategies, Regulation and Policy Improvement ’ (11% of solutions): This theme underscores the implementation of stricter regulations, integrated water resource management, and infrastructural development ( Oyegoke et al ., 2012 ; Shiru et al ., 2020 ).

‘ Social Inclusiveness Approaches, Community Involvement and Education ’ (22% of solutions): This theme focuses on community involvement in water resource management, awareness programs for rural households, and adult education ( Adeoti, 2008 ; Oyekale & Ogunsanya, 2012 ; Olajuyigbe, 2016 ).

‘ Institutional Reforms, Governance, Political Considerations, and Capacity Building ’ (22% of solutions): This theme suggests governmental intervention, understanding the political dimensions of water infrastructure, and implementing the VLOM strategy ( Khan et al ., 2018 ; Adeniran et al ., 2021 ).

‘ Project Management Strategies ’ (11% of solutions): This theme calls for better project management, prioritizing design, implementation, and operational stages ( Andres et al ., 2018a ; Popoola et al ., 2021 ).

‘ Strategic Planning and Flexibility ’ (7% of solutions): This theme emphasizes flexible infrastructure development and data-driven decision-making ( Cronk & Bartram, 2017 ; Adeniran et al ., 2021 ).

Distribution of proposed solutions for water infrastructure challenges in Nigeria.

This section aims to interpret the research findings in line with the primary objectives and research questions of the study.

Factors influencing water infrastructure sustainability in Nigeria

The complexities of determining water infrastructure sustainability in Nigeria unveil an intricate network of interdependent factors that present both challenges and enlightening prospects.

Technical factors, often regarded as the backbone of any infrastructural project, emphasize the critical importance of sound design, meticulous construction, and regular maintenance. A robust technical foundation is essential for sustainability. However, achieving the full potential of technically proficient projects is often hindered by financial factors. While the availability of funds is one part of the equation, the efficient utilization of these resources is equally vital. The best technical designs might remain unrealized without appropriate financial backing, and improper financial handling can diminish the efficacy of even the most proficient plans.

Environmental vulnerabilities, exacerbated by the looming threat of climate change, exert additional pressure on Nigeria's water infrastructure. Environmental factors underscore the acute need to construct and maintain infrastructure that can withstand climate-induced stressors such as droughts or excessive rainfall. Intertwined with these are the social factors that underscore the role of communities. Societal dynamics, community awareness, and involvement can play pivotal roles in how environmental challenges are perceived, managed, and adapted to. A well-informed and engaged community can be the linchpin for the effective implementation and upkeep of sustainable water projects.

The realm of political factors showcases the overarching influence of governance and policy-making. The political landscape often shapes the direction, prioritization, and allocation of resources for water infrastructure projects. This political will and direction must find resonance in institutional factors. Robust institutions can translate political intentions into actionable strategies, ensuring that projects are not only initiated but seen through their entire lifecycle with efficiency and efficacy.

Beyond the more evident categories, nuanced factors such as geographical considerations, demographic dynamics, or unforeseen challenges like vandalism come into play. These underscore the multifaceted nature of the challenges at hand.

In light of this, the ‘Sustainability Framework for Water Infrastructure’ emerges as a necessity. This framework is poised to serve as an invaluable instrument, adeptly navigating the myriad of challenges across the entire project lifecycle, from pre-construction to post-construction phases. By diligently addressing each factor and strategically interlacing solutions tailored to their unique challenges, this framework underscores the potential for a holistic, integrated trajectory towards reinforcing water infrastructure sustainability in Nigeria. Furthermore, the design of the Sustainability Framework for Water Infrastructure should emphasize flexibility, allowing for adjustments and adaptations based on specific circumstances. This inherent adaptability means it possesses the potential to address similar challenges not only in the context of Nigeria but also in varied situations and regions.

Existing literature on water infrastructure sustainability in Nigeria

The systematic review of literature on water infrastructure sustainability in Nigeria offers insightful patterns. A majority of studies hint at theoretical frameworks like IWRM and community-based approaches, underscoring the multifaceted nature of water challenges, and the need for integrated solutions.

Methodologically, the review reveals a dominance of quantitative methodologies. Despite this trend, the few qualitative studies included illuminated the socio-political intricacies of Nigeria's water challenges. It suggests that employing more qualitative research could offer a deeper understanding of these complexities.

Empirically, findings converge on challenges such as deteriorating infrastructure, influenced by factors ranging from political instability to population growth. These concerns, intertwined with the significance of location, technology, community engagement, and governance, suggest a pressing need for systemic, holistic interventions. Overall, the review underscores the importance of clearer theoretical anchoring, diverse methodological engagements, and comprehensive empirical explorations in shaping Nigeria's water sustainability narrative.

Evidence-based sustainable solutions for water infrastructure sustainability in Nigeria

The analysis in this review illuminates a spectrum of sustainable solutions aimed at bolstering water infrastructure sustainability in Nigeria. These solutions, categorized into seven themes, outline a comprehensive strategy to address the multifaceted challenges faced by Nigeria's water infrastructure.

‘Technological Innovations and Infrastructure Optimization’, accounting for 15% of the proposed solutions, advocates for the pivotal role of modern tools and technology. However, a pertinent question arises: How can these technological solutions be sustainably funded, particularly in regions where ‘Household Income and Poverty’ pose significant challenges?

‘Financial Mechanisms, Monitoring, Funding, and Partnerships’, comprising 11% of the solutions, underscores the critical importance of financial sustainability. Nevertheless, there is a need to ensure that these financial mechanisms effectively address and align with local economic disparities and challenges. What mechanisms can guarantee equitable distribution of these funds?

The emphasis on ‘Environmental Management Strategies, Regulation, and Policy Improvement’ (11%) provides a sustainable approach to environmental challenges but prompts questions regarding its intersection with local political dynamics. How can environmental regulations be effectively implemented amidst political instability or bureaucratic challenges?

The focus on ‘Social Inclusiveness Approaches, Community Involvement, and Education’ (22%) and ‘Institutional Reforms, Governance, Political Considerations, and Capacity Building’ (22%) underscores the symbiotic relationship between communities and institutions. How can community involvement be enhanced to ensure that these institutional reforms are not only top-down but also bottom-up?

‘Project Management Strategies’ (11%) are paramount for effective execution. However, how can these strategies remain flexible and adaptive to the unique challenges encountered in various regions of Nigeria? Similarly, ‘Strategic Planning and Flexibility’ (7%) emphasizes adaptability but raises questions about how these strategies will evolve with Nigeria's rapidly changing socio-political and economic landscape.

In essence, these proposed solutions, though foundational, raise numerous queries warranting further investigation. Real-life pilot projects, coupled with rigorous post-implementation reviews, will be pivotal in assessing the efficacy of these solutions. Merging findings from literature with expert knowledge, in conjunction with transdisciplinary stakeholder engagement, might provide a more holistic understanding and approach. The challenges faced by water infrastructure in Nigeria are complex, requiring not only comprehensive solutions but also a continuous, iterative evaluation process that keeps pace with changing dynamics.

The systematic literature review has uncovered an array of challenges and sustainable solutions pivotal to water infrastructure sustainability in Nigeria. These findings call for a comprehensive approach to inform policy recommendations, guide practical applications, and provide directions for future research.

At the core of our proposition lies the ‘Water Infrastructure Sustainability Framework’ – an integrated roadmap specifically designed for the Nigerian context, guaranteeing the sustainable development, implementation, and management of water infrastructure projects. This encompassing framework, informed by the identified multifaceted challenges, should incorporate a multitude of influential factors, ranging from technical intricacies to political and financial considerations, significantly shaping the success of water projects.

To ensure optimal utility, the framework should be dynamic, covering the entire life cycle of water infrastructure projects. This initiates with a grassroots approach, involving local communities in site selection during the pre-construction phase and extends to the utilization of cutting-edge innovations, such as IoT and AI, for real-time monitoring, predictive maintenance, and adaptive responses in the post-construction phase.

From a policy standpoint, there is an urgent need to prioritize the often-neglected rural areas. Policies should emphasize not only the development but also the robust maintenance of water infrastructure. A shift towards standardized protocols for infrastructure development, encompassing global best practices contextualized to Nigerian realities, is imperative.

On the practical front, the focus should be multi-dimensional: mobilizing and empowering local communities to take ownership, enhancing management efficacy through capacity building, and leveraging technological innovations to strengthen infrastructure robustness.

The additional questions, particularly concerning the integration of sustainable solutions like ‘Financial Mechanisms, Monitoring, Funding, and Partnerships’ and challenges such as ‘Household Income and Poverty’, introduce a new avenue of exploration. Future research can delve into how these solutions, when integrated into the proposed framework, can address the nuanced socio-economic challenges inherent to the Nigerian context.

Thus, future research endeavors are urged to not only validate but also refine the proposed framework, ensuring its adaptability and responsiveness. By accomplishing this, Nigeria can set a formidable benchmark, aligning its efforts with global standards and progressively moving closer to the realization of SDG 6.1 – ensuring access to safe and affordable drinking water for all.

This study is not without limitations. Firstly, the review excluded unpublished reports and theses due to their dissimilar structure and large volume, potentially leading to the omission of pertinent insights. Additionally, the findings presented in this review are limited to the issues, challenges, and solutions outlined in the selected studies, which may not encompass the entire scope of potential concerns related to water infrastructure sustainability in Nigeria. Moreover, the review was limited to sources published in the English language, which could potentially exclude relevant research conducted in neighboring French-speaking countries or those published in other languages. Therefore, these limitations might impact the comprehensiveness of the review's results. Future research could seek to overcome these limitations by incorporating a broader range of sources and languages.

This systematic literature review offers a comprehensive synthesis of the factors contributing to water infrastructure failure in Nigeria based on a rigorous analysis of 15 research articles. The challenges identified across technical, financial, environmental, social, political, and institutional spheres demonstrate the complexity of achieving water infrastructure sustainability. To navigate this complexity, the authors have proposed the ‘Sustainability Framework for Water Infrastructure’, encompassing all stages of water infrastructure development. By providing a structured approach to address the multifaceted challenges, this study significantly contributes to understanding and achieving sustainable water infrastructure in line with SDG 6.1. The study's valuable insights are relevant for policymakers, practitioners, and future research in Nigeria and other developing countries.

The support of Fairaction International Pty Ltd, the University of Technology Sydney, the Australian Government Research Training Program Scholarship, Clean Water for All Pty Ltd, and Essential Need Projects Ltd is gratefully acknowledged.

The protocol for conducting this systematic literature review is available on the Open Science Framework platform and can be accessed via the following DOI link: https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/XZF24 .

All relevant data are available from an online repository or repositories at https://osf.io/g7nsf .

The authors declare there is no conflict.

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Problems Of Nigeria: 15 Major Problems/Challenges Of Nigerian Economy

Problems in Nigeria and Solutions : Nigeria is Africa’s most populated country and the world’s sixth most populous country. The burgeoning population has resulted in a slew of new issues, including environmental deterioration and traffic congestion in major cities. Violence is being perpetrated in northern Nigeria by a group known as Boko Haram, which is fighting for a state-controlled by Sharia Law.

The organization has kidnapped children and murdered Christians across the country. Nigeria is regarded as Africa’s country with the highest unemployment rate. As a means of surviving, many unemployed adolescents have turned to internet frauds. Corruption has been a big issue in Nigeria for quite some time. Political leaders have a history of engaging in corrupt practices.

Diseases like HIV/AIDS have also been a major problem that has cost the government billions of dollars to address. Currently, 3% of the population is between the ages of 15 and 64.

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Table of Contents

Major Problems Facing Nigeria

1. Economic crisis: Nigeria’s economic situation has deteriorated significantly. The country’s purchasing and selling situation are dire and depressing. The country’s annual profits have decreased, significantly impacting the country’s population. Inflation is a significant issue in the country.

Inflation is defined as a rise in the overall level of prices for goods and services, resulting in a decrease in the buying power of the currency. Workers’ incomes are no longer sufficient to purchase physical goods from marketplaces. It poses a serious threat to many people’s lives, which is one of the reasons why many workers are requesting pay raises.

Nigeria’s annual inflation rate rose to 11.23 percent in August 2018, up from 11.14 percent in July, which was higher than the market’s forecast of 11.11 percent. It was the first time the inflation rate has risen since it began to fall in January 2017, when it hit a 12-year high of 18.7%. (Trading Economics 2018).

Nigeria’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) has been growing at a slow pace in recent years. The gross domestic product (GDP) is one of the most important indices of a country’s economic health. In addition, the GDP has decreased during the last few months. In the first quarter of 2016, it fell by -13.98 percent. In addition, the country’s GDP fell by -13.4 percent in the first quarter of 2018.

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2. Ethnicity: Nigeria, Africa’s colossus, is the world’s most populated black country. Nigeria has a population of around 180 million people. The country’s population is diverse, with over 250 ethnic groups represented. Nigeria’s multi-ethnic character has many advantages as well as disadvantages – ethnicity issues in Nigeria.

Naturally, when it comes to ethnicity, Nigerians are extremely sensitive, with tempers frequently flaring and occasionally resorting to violence. Below are some of the difficulties impacting ethnicity in Nigeria, as well as proposed.

3. The problem of Amalgamation: The British colonial authorities constructed Nigeria as a geographical place to make administration easier. Despite being neighbors, the mostly Muslim north and predominantly Christian south were never united until 1914. Some of the current conflicts in the country may be traced back to this forced union.

Even though the country has been together for almost a century, it has failed to fully integrate. Northerners continue to be suspicious of their southern counterparts, and vice versa. There is a lot of debate about the “ Northern agenda ” and the “ Southern agenda ,” but not much about the “ Nigerian agenda .”

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4. Inequality : This is due to the government’s and its agencies’ apparent favoring of people or regions belonging to one tribe over another. There is an unspoken belief that ethnic majority dominate the affairs of the country, which makes minorities feel like second-class citizens in their own country, not for any fault of their own, but just because they are few.

This frequently causes a sense of perceived unfairness by the government and its agents towards these communities.

5. The problem of Internal Land Conflicts: Land ownership disputes have frequently caused conflicts among Nigerians. Border settlement inside the country is still a work in progress. Many lives have been sacrificed as a result of land ownership disputes, and many more are likely to be lost until these concerns are resolved once and for all.

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6. Resource Management: Tensions frequently arise when it comes to the control of the country’s natural resources. Across the country, groups have emerged to compete for control of resources located on their land. The Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta is a good example (MEND).

This organization has filed a lawsuit against the government for control of money derived from the sale of crude oil produced in their territory. They claim that, despite being the golden egg-laying chicken, their territory is severely undeveloped. Members of the Niger-Delta militants have reintroduced the use of weaponry in expressing their grievances.

In their pursuit, they have damaged oil pipelines and abducted oil employees. Even if they have suspended operations for the time being, their actions have drastically reduced crude oil output in the country.

7. Corruption : Many of Nigeria’s issues are caused by corruption. Corruption manifests itself in a variety of ways and infiltrates all political and economic organizations. It is heartbreaking to learn that the government, which was established to strengthen the country and combat corruption, is taking from its citizens.

The government officials tasked with combating corruption are unconcerned about what is expected of them. Non-governing citizens are also judged guilty, even though they are supposed to be free of corruption. Power abuse may be found in practically every branch of the federal government. The present ruling administration is not fulfilling its promises, and officials are more concerned with stuffing their wallets than with properly governing.

Nigeria was ranked 144th out of 177 countries on Transparency International’s Corruption Perception Index in 2013 , making it one of the most corrupt countries in the world. Nigeria was the 33rd most corrupt country in 2013, mathematically.

In Nigeria, election tampering is not uncommon. Nigerians are tired of going to the polls on election day only to discover that their ballots haven’t been counted. In the year preceding up the 2007 elections, a Foreign Affairs study found about 700 election-related violent actions, including two killings.

International monitors witnessed widespread vote box theft in 2007, and while the situation improved in 2011, ballot-rigging remained widespread. Nigerians and foreign watchdog groups describe accounts of candidates using thugs to steal ballot boxes and threaten voters during elections. Many of these assailants are disgruntled and jobless teenagers.

Also see: Why is Nigeria so corrupt? See Reasons

8. Terrorism: Terrorism is a major concern in Nigeria daily. The daily massacres, kidnappings, bombings, and rape carried out by Boko Haram throughout the country are quite concerning. Nigeria was rated fourth in the world with the most international war deaths in 2016, according to the Global Peace Index.

In Nigeria, Boko Haram is known as a destroyer, and the northern section of the nation has been so badly damaged that even students are unable to complete their studies In Nigeria, Boko Haram is a well-known terrorist organization. Even if you don’t live in Nigeria, you’ve probably heard of Boko Haram’s kidnappings of hundreds of children, predominantly girls, from schools and communities in northern Nigeria in 2014.

Boko Haram kidnapped roughly 276 Chibok schoolgirls on the night of the 14th and 15th of April in 2014. According to a source, the females were between the ages of 17 and 18. They were pupils of Government Secondary School in Chibok, Nigeria’s Borno State.

9. Unemployment: In Nigeria, unemployment is spreading like a virus. Due to the economic recession, there has been a high rate of unemployment; no jobs are available for the youths; 24 percent of Nigerians are unemployed; now, let’s move on to the youths; there is no rating I can give you for that because there are so many jobless youths on the street; however, based on some facts, I can estimate that 8% of youths under the age of 24 are unemployed. 500,000 job hopefuls were in a rush to apply for roughly 5,000 openings in Nigeria’s immigration agency in 2014, and 16 people were murdered in a melee. Unemployment is also one of the key causes of social vices in the country; even graduates have difficulty finding work.

Students who attend tertiary education institutes frequently leave with no employment and low morale. Nigerian education has a significant difficulty. Many Nigerian graduates did not acquire useful skills during their education. They were too preoccupied with reading textbooks to understand how to apply what they had learned. They apply for employment but are not recruited due to a lack of qualifications.

Graduates frequently have to stay in their parents’ houses for an extended period, leading to dissatisfaction and pessimism. This negativity is one of the main reasons for crime among Nigerian youth; they turn to illegal activities since they have nothing better to do with their time or money. 200,000 students graduate from colleges each year, yet many struggles to find work and others resort to less-than-honorable ways of subsistence.

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10. Education system: Students who attend tertiary education institutions are usually unemployed and depressed. Education in Nigeria is a major challenge. During their schooling, many Nigerian graduates did not learn practical skills. They were too absorbed with reading textbooks to see how what they had learned might be applied. They apply for jobs, but owing to a lack of credentials, they are not hired.

Graduates are usually required to live with their parents for lengthy periods, which can lead to discontent and pessimism. One of the biggest causes of crime among Nigerian young is negativity; they turn to unlawful activities since they have nothing better to do with their time or money. Every year, 200,000 students graduate from college, but many struggles to find jobs and turn to less-than-honorable means of sustenance.

Another issue in Nigerian schools nowadays is political meddling; politics is the most powerful factor in the Nigerian educational system. Many educational institutions are now founded and administered on political grounds in many states; entrance to universities, colleges, and polytechnics, particularly universities, is sometimes influenced by politicians rather than academic merit.

Today’s parents utilize their political clout or influence to affect their children’s education. Malpractices and a lack of preparation Test malpractices have been identified by education experts, with poor examination preparation by pupils being another setback in the educational system. Due to the escalating costs of education ( school fees, enrolment fees, the cost of books and other materials), students and even their parents will not want to be held behind by any type of deficit or failure in any of the needed topics, and would thus go to any length to avoid being held back.

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11. Infrastructure : Following other issues such as Boko Haram, infrastructure may appear to be a minor concern, but how can a country advance without a steady power supply? The power sector is crooked and mismanaged, and many personnel in the energy industry lack the necessary skills and training. Domestic output suffers as a result of these conditions, but frequent power outages also make it impossible for many international enterprises to do business in Nigeria. Nigeria is a third-world country year after year due to this issue.

Without a reliable road system, business suffers. Roads are in disrepair due to corruption and misappropriation of public monies Only 67 percent of paved roads and 33 percent of unpaved roads were in good or fair condition in 2011, according to the World Bank. Between 2001 and 2006, just $50 million of the $240 million needed for road repairs was paid.

Water resources and railways have similar problems with insufficiency and corruption. Nigeria must address its infrastructure challenges by providing adequate financing and clamping down on the misappropriation of public monies intended for infrastructure. Any engineer or contractor who does not complete his work properly should be held accountable.

Nigeria’s environmental and health standards are deplorable. According to Amnesty International, hundreds of oil leaks occur each year in Nigeria’s Niger Delta, owing to pipe degradation, sabotage, and carelessness on the part of oil firms. Oil spills deplete soil microorganisms and nutrients, which impacts Delta fishing and farming communities as well as the broader economy. In Nigeria, litter is strewn across the highways and streets. The spread of illness is aided by improperly dumped waste.

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12. Lack of skilled personnel’s: Brain drain has become a common phenomenon today, as our highly skilled professionals are now relocating to countries where there are quality infrastructures to work, great standard of living, and a good pay to match.

This issue of lack of highly skilled personnel and sufficient manpower has led to reduced productivity in most sectors of our economy, and as such has limited our economic development and growth.

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13. Inconsistent economic policies: In Nigeria, every Government comes into office in with their own economic policies which often differ from the policies of the previous administration, hence the previous policies suffer fatally from poor implementation because before it is fully implemented to produce maximum result in our economy, the tenure of the initiator will elapse, and the policies will not be implemented further by the proceeding administration, so therefore resulting in a situation of an ever changing and poorly implemented economic policies which does no good to the growth of our economy.

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14. Electoral malpractice: Election malpractice is corruption defined. It has become a disturbing menace in Nigeria that elections are hardly conducted freely and fairly. The 2023 election was an eye-opener for everyone. Regardless of the various measures that were put in place to curtail election malpractice, all were to no avail. The good news, however, is that the recent innovations in the electoral law, policy and practice made the electoral irregularities very obvious.

15. The removal of fuel subsidy: After the current president Tinubu was sworn in, his opening statement included the intention to remove fuel subsidy. Nigerians know exactly what this entails. This led to the abrupt outrageous increase in price of fuel in Nigeria. This is the worse Nigeria has recorded so far from the history. The president later on, made a statement, stating that nothing can be done to remedy the situation. Recall that the announcement for the intended removal of fuel subsidy was made without any single measure being put in place to remedy the impact of the removal of fuel subsidy.

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Solutions to the Problems in Nigeria

a . Nigerians must come to embrace the truth that, despite the fact that the country was founded by the British, we are all one people.

b. Those who advocate for one tribe’s supremacy over others should be warned and potentially sanctioned. This will contribute to the country’s unity and build greater trust among all tribes.

c . All tribes and areas should be treated equally by the government. The Principle of Federal Character, which stipulates that all states are represented in the federal government, was included in the constitution to address this issue.

d . Resource management should be prioritized so that groups like MEND can no longer exist in our country.

e . Land disputes, many of which have been dragging on for years, should be resolved as soon as possible to avoid further loss of life and property.

f. The educational sector should receive enough funding. The Nigerian government requires a rebirth. Especially for all of the promises they made on education. As stated in the Nigerian constitution of 1999, basic and secondary education would be free. Every kid has the right to an education in a safe and healthy setting.

g . Since we are all aware of our economy’s job dilemma, everyone should strive for a “ back up plan .” If there are no jobs in the economy, try to create some. This can be accomplished by learning one or two different trades. Attending school provides you with extra information, allowing you to become an educated tailor, baker, or shoemaker, for example. Being your own boss pays better than anything else.

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h. Finding a remedy to corruption has proven to be a dead end throughout the years. This is because corruption affects practically all Nigerians on a daily basis, not only crooked politicians. It might be by bribery or connections, or by attempting to force someone who lacks quality into a position he does not belong. Corruption must be combated as a team effort. We must all take a stance to expose corruption and tell the truth about issues that affect our environment.

I. The use of violence to combat violence is unlikely to succeed in eliminating terrorism since it will result in the deaths of many innocent people. According to studies, the most effective approach to terrorism is effective security and dialogue with terrorists to tackle issues related to the source of terrorism, and the government must prioritize the benefits of the people. The government is responsible for this discourse, which must be conducted in order to keep the country secure.

j . To begin, the government should put in place policies that have already been developed, such as a gender policy that aspires to achieve gender equality. The administration has also pledged an equitable transfer of wealth to the people, which should be implemented.

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The use of violence to combat violence is unlikely to succeed in eliminating terrorism since it will result in the deaths of many innocent people. According to studies, the most effective approach to terrorism is effective security and dialogue with terrorists to tackle issues related to the source of terrorism, and the government must prioritize the benefits of the people.

The government is responsible for this discourse, which must be conducted in order to keep the country secure. The government should put in place policies that have already been developed, such as a gender policy that aspires to achieve gender equality. The administration has also pledged an equitable transfer of wealth to the people, which should be implemented.

Edeh Samuel Chukwuemeka, ACMC, is a lawyer and a certified mediator/conciliator in Nigeria. He is also a developer with knowledge in various programming languages. Samuel is determined to leverage his skills in technology, SEO, and legal practice to revolutionize the legal profession worldwide by creating web and mobile applications that simplify legal research. Sam is also passionate about educating and providing valuable information to people.

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7 thoughts on “Problems Of Nigeria: 15 Major Problems/Challenges Of Nigerian Economy”

Mr question is that, all this solution you’ve have written down, have once ever secretly or openly impacted at least one of it to solve one part of the problems?

I what to know the genesis of thi s Nigeria problem

These vague and two-line solutions proffered to the mountain of problems are insufficient to shed light on the way forward, they {solutions} seem better said than done!

Hmmmmmm true talk, may the Lord restore our country and guides our leaders to lead us well

Our story is not as bleak as presented here. That this report is coming from a Nigerian saddens my heart. The tone here is so negative! If we scored ourselves so low like this, how can we be rated any better by foreigners? I admit that things are bad but not as bad as we are made to believe here!

Thanks so much, I love the way you broke things down and not just that. You also gave solutions. Nice one!

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How Nigeria’s multiple challenges create opportunities for tech talents – Expert

A tech expert and the Lead Software Engineer at Kuda, Abdulazeez Imran, has said that the current multiple challenges facing Nigeria are creating huge opportunities for tech talents in the country.

Imran, who stated this in an interview with Nairametrics, said many opportunities that are not available for startups in developed countries are in Nigeria, being a developing economy with multiple challenges that can be solved with tech solutions.

While noting that many people are currently solving payment issues in the country, he said there are challenges in several other sectors including power, transportation, agriculture, and education, among others, which offer huge opportunities for tech talents to come up with solutions.

• “As a tech talent in Nigeria, you are only limited by your imagination because there are so many things that you can develop to solve people’s problems and to help people make their lives a lot better.
• “Unlike in developed economies, where before you think about products, you have two or three options for that same thing, in Nigeria, the conversation is different, there are so many things that can be done so many products that can be built so many innovations that can be developed to solve the myriads of challenges in the country,” he said.

Shortage of tech talents

Imran noted that despite the opportunities, Nigeria is currently short of tech talents. For him, it is not just because of the recent emigration of some tech talents because the demands for tech talents in the country have always been higher than the supply.

He said this is one of the reasons the Ministry of Communications, Innovation and Digital Economy is implementing its 3 Million Technical Training (3MTT) program to boost the country’s tech talent pool.

He, however, noted that software developers in Nigeria are facing infrastructure challenges, especially poor power supply and high cost of good quality internet access.

Between ‘japa’ and staying in Nigeria

Speaking on the ‘japa’ trend of tech talents out of Nigeria, the Kuda Engineer, said young talents considering better opportunities outside Nigeria must first ensure they have fully developed their expertise.

• “Before you go through the phase of exploring opportunities outside, you need to first develop your tech expertise. I wouldn’t say moving out of Nigeria is the solution, you need to take your time to master the crafts.
• “Give it a year or two or even three years; understand and build your expertise and see if it makes sense for you to stay or go.
• “I would also advise young developers to pay attention to continuous learning. That is very important. Also, build a strong network. I mean, I’m still building a strong network, not limited to Nigeria alone. By using your network on LinkedIn, and Twitter, you can have a lot of networks around the world without even meeting those people,” he said.

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Samson Akintaro is a tech enthusiast and has over a decade experience covering and writing about the tech industry. He is currently the Tech Analyst at Nairametrics.

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