essay on earthquake disaster management

Earthquake Essay for Students and Children

500+ Words Essay on Earthquake

Simply speaking, Earthquake means the shaking of the Earth’s surface. It is a sudden trembling of the surface of the Earth. Earthquakes certainly are a terrible natural disaster. Furthermore, Earthquakes can cause huge damage to life and property. Some Earthquakes are weak in nature and probably go unnoticed. In contrast, some Earthquakes are major and violent. The major Earthquakes are almost always devastating in nature. Most noteworthy, the occurrence of an Earthquake is quite unpredictable. This is what makes them so dangerous.

Types of Earthquake

Tectonic Earthquake: The Earth’s crust comprises of the slab of rocks of uneven shapes. These slab of rocks are tectonic plates. Furthermore, there is energy stored here. This energy causes tectonic plates to push away from each other or towards each other. As time passes, the energy and movement build up pressure between two plates.

Therefore, this enormous pressure causes the fault line to form. Also, the center point of this disturbance is the focus of the Earthquake. Consequently, waves of energy travel from focus to the surface. This results in shaking of the surface.

Volcanic Earthquake: This Earthquake is related to volcanic activity. Above all, the magnitude of such Earthquakes is weak. These Earthquakes are of two types. The first type is Volcano-tectonic earthquake. Here tremors occur due to injection or withdrawal of Magma. In contrast, the second type is Long-period earthquake. Here Earthquake occurs due to the pressure changes among the Earth’s layers.

Collapse Earthquake: These Earthquakes occur in the caverns and mines. Furthermore, these Earthquakes are of weak magnitude. Undergrounds blasts are probably the cause of collapsing of mines. Above all, this collapsing of mines causes seismic waves. Consequently, these seismic waves cause an Earthquake.

Explosive Earthquake: These Earthquakes almost always occur due to the testing of nuclear weapons. When a nuclear weapon detonates, a big blast occurs. This results in the release of a huge amount of energy. This probably results in Earthquakes.

Get the huge list of more than 500 Essay Topics and Ideas

Effects of Earthquakes

First of all, the shaking of the ground is the most notable effect of the Earthquake. Furthermore, ground rupture also occurs along with shaking. This results in severe damage to infrastructure facilities. The severity of the Earthquake depends upon the magnitude and distance from the epicenter. Also, the local geographical conditions play a role in determining the severity. Ground rupture refers to the visible breaking of the Earth’s surface.

Another significant effect of Earthquake is landslides. Landslides occur due to slope instability. This slope instability happens because of Earthquake.

Earthquakes can cause soil liquefaction. This happens when water-saturated granular material loses its strength. Therefore, it transforms from solid to a liquid. Consequently, rigid structures sink into the liquefied deposits.

Earthquakes can result in fires. This happens because Earthquake damages the electric power and gas lines. Above all, it becomes extremely difficult to stop a fire once it begins.

Earthquakes can also create the infamous Tsunamis. Tsunamis are long-wavelength sea waves. These sea waves are caused by the sudden or abrupt movement of large volumes of water. This is because of an Earthquake in the ocean. Above all, Tsunamis can travel at a speed of 600-800 kilometers per hour. These tsunamis can cause massive destruction when they hit the sea coast.

In conclusion, an Earthquake is a great and terrifying phenomenon of Earth. It shows the frailty of humans against nature. It is a tremendous occurrence that certainly shocks everyone. Above all, Earthquake lasts only for a few seconds but can cause unimaginable damage.

FAQs on Earthquake

Q1 Why does an explosive Earthquake occurs?

A1 An explosive Earthquake occurs due to the testing of nuclear weapons.

Q2 Why do landslides occur because of Earthquake?

A2 Landslides happen due to slope instability. Most noteworthy, this slope instability is caused by an Earthquake.

Customize your course in 30 seconds

Which class are you in.

• Travelling Essay
• Picnic Essay
• Our Country Essay
• My Parents Essay
• Essay on Favourite Personality
• Essay on Memorable Day of My Life
• Essay on Knowledge is Power
• Essay on Gurpurab
• Essay on My Favourite Season
• Essay on Types of Sports

Leave a Reply Cancel reply

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *

Download the App

25,000+ students realised their study abroad dream with us. Take the first step today

Here’s your new year gift, one app for all your, study abroad needs, start your journey, track your progress, grow with the community and so much more.

Verification Code

An OTP has been sent to your registered mobile no. Please verify

Thanks for your comment !

Our team will review it before it's shown to our readers.

Essay on Disaster Management

• Updated on  
• May 10, 2023

Disaster Management has been essentially included in the study curriculums of secondary education. Whether it is natural or man-made, disasters can wreak havoc on our surroundings and cost human lives as well. To familiarise students with efficiently preventing and ensuring the safety of living beings and our environment from unprecedented events, the study of Disaster Management has been included as an important part of the Geography class 10 syllabus. This blog aims to focus on imparting how you can draft a well-written essay on Disaster Management.

This Blog Includes:

What is disaster management, essay on disaster management: tips & tricks, sample format for essay on disaster management in 150 words, sample essay of disaster management (150 words), sample essay on disaster management (300 words) , sample essay on disaster management (500 words), essay on disaster management for class 9 onwards, essay on disaster management in india.

To begin with your essay on Disaster Management, the most important thing is to comprehend this concept as well as what it aims to facilitate. In simple terms, Disaster Management is termed as the management and utilisation of resources as well as responsibilities to tackle different emergencies, be it man-made disasters or natural ones. It concentrates on preparing human beings for a varied range of calamities and helping them respond in a better way as well as ensure recovery thus lessening their overall impact. 

Preparing for the Writing Section for Your English Exam? Then Check Out Message Writing and Letter Writing !

Before drafting your essay on Disaster Management, another thing you need to ensure is familiarising yourself with the structure of essay writing. To help you understand the do’s and don’ts, we have listed down some of the major things you need to keep in mind.

• Research thoroughly about your topic. For example, while writing an essay on Disaster Management, explore the recent happenings and mention them to provide the reader with a view into your understanding of this concept.
• Create important pointers while researching that you can further incorporate into your essay.
• Don’t mug up the definitions but comprehend them through examples.
• Use transitions between paragraphs to keep a coherent flow for the reader as a long paragraph might seem too lengthy and segregating your introduction and conclusion can provide a better structure.
• Quote important examples not only in your introduction but also in the following paragraphs where you detail the given topic.
• Revise and add finishing touches once you have completed the essay to locate any grammatical errors as well as other mistakes.

Now that you are aware of the key elements of writing an essay on Disaster Management, take a look at the format of essay writing first:

Introduction (30-40 words)

Begin with defining your topic explained in simple terms. For Disaster Management, You can make it more interesting by adding a question or a recent instance. The introduction should be understandable aiming to become more specific in the subsequent paragraphs.

Related Article: Geography for UPSC Preparation

Body of Content (80 words)

Also termed as the thesis statement , the content after the introduction should explain your given topic in detail. It should contain the maximum content out of the whole format because it needs to be detailed. For Disaster Management, you can delve deeper into its process, how it is carried out for different situations as well as prevention and protection.

Conclusion (30-40 words)

This section should mainly wrap up what you have described in the above paragraphs. For an essay on Disaster Management, you can focus on summing it up by writing its aim, types and purposes briefly.

Disaster can be simply termed as a sudden incident or happening which can be either natural or man-made and can potentially cause damage to the surroundings or loss of human life. To facilitate preparedness and better responsiveness to unforeseen events which can harm human beings and the environment, Disaster Management came into the picture.

Disaster Management aims to lessen the impact of natural and man-made calamities by designing and planning efficient ways to tackle them. It centrally comprises ensuring better control of the situation, its immediate evaluation, calling up required medical aids and transports, supplying drinking and food sources, among others and during this whole process, protecting the surroundings from more harm and keeping the lawfulness. The importance of Disaster Management has further increased in the contemporary scenario with the prevalent climate change and some of its latest examples include the unprecedented Australian wildfires.

Thus, the planet is getting bogged down by infinite technological devices, and their possible effects on the climate and the environment are inescapable. This has led to Disaster Management becoming the need of the hour as every country is aiming to become efficient and prepared to face both natural and man-made calamities.

Since the dawn of time, disasters, whether natural or man-made, have been a part of man’s evolution. Tsunamis, cyclones, earthquakes, floods, accidents, plane crashes, forest fires, chemical disasters, and other natural disasters frequently strike without notice, leading to massive loss of life and property. Disaster management refers to the strategies and actions put in place to lessen and prevent the effects of a disaster.

The word “disaster management” refers to all aspects of catastrophe mitigation, including preventive and protective measures, preparedness, and relief activities. The disaster management process can be separated into two phases: pre-disaster planning and post-disaster recovery. This encompasses measures such as prevention, mitigation, and preparedness aimed at minimising human and property losses as a result of a possible danger.

The second category is activity post-disaster recovery in which response, rehabilitation, and reconstruction are all included. Search and rescue evacuation, meeting the victims’ basic needs, and rapid medical support from regional, national, and international authorities were all part of the response phase. The immediate purpose of the recovery phase is to restore some degree of normalcy to the afflicted areas. In resource-scarce countries, ex-ante risk mitigation investment in development planning is critical for decreasing disaster damage. It would be prudent to go from a risk-blind to a risk-informed investment decision.

We cannot prevent disasters, but we can reduce their severity and arm ourselves with knowledge so that too many lives are spared.

Introduction: 

The globe is plagued with disasters, some of which are terrible and others that are controllable. Natural calamities, for example, are sudden occurrences that wreak significant devastation to lives and property. Disasters can occur either naturally or are man-made. To repair the damage caused by these disasters, emergency management is required. Through a disaster management procedure, the damage is contained and the hazards of the event are controlled. The procedure is aimed at averting disasters and reducing the effects of those that are unavoidable. Floods, droughts, landslides, and earthquakes are all threats to India. The Indian government’s disaster management measures have vastly improved over time.

The Process of Disaster Management: 

The disaster management process is split into four stages. The first phase is mitigation, which involves reducing the likelihood of a disaster or its negative consequences. Public education on the nature of the calamity and how people may prepare to protect themselves, as well as structural construction projects, are among the actions. These projects are intended at reducing the number of people killed and property destroyed in the event of a disaster.

Preparedness is the second phase of disaster management, and it aims to improve government-led preparedness to deal with emergencies. The majority of the preparations are aimed toward life-saving activities. Plan writing, communication system development, public education, and drills are all part of the preparation process. The disaster management team implements measures to keep people alive and limit the number of people affected in the third phase, reaction. Transport, shelter, and food are provided to the afflicted population as part of the response. Repairs are being made, and temporary solutions, such as temporary housing for the impacted population, are being sought.

Recovery is the ultimate stage of disaster management. This normally happens after the tragedy has subsided and the harm has been done. During the recovery process, the team works to restore people’s livelihoods and infrastructure. Short-term or long-term recovery is possible. The goal is to return the affected population to a normal or better way of life. During public education, the importance of health safety is highlighted. The recovery phase allows catastrophe management to move forward with long-term solutions.

Disaster Management Challenges:

The management of disasters is a difficult task, and there are certain flaws to be found. Since the individual dangers and disasters in some countries are not well understood, the government is unable to deploy disaster management in the event of an unforeseen disaster. There’s also the issue of a country’s technical and framework capabilities being insufficient. Government support is required for disaster management frameworks. Due to the generally large population, the disaster management approach includes public education, but there is no psychological counselling for individuals. People are more likely to develop post-traumatic stress disorder and psychiatric illnesses.

Conclusion:

Disaster management is a very important activity that countries should embrace to prevent disasters and lessen the negative consequences of disasters. However, disaster management has limitations that restrict the techniques’ ability to be implemented successfully.

Disasters can cause chaos, mass death of humans and animals, and a rise in crime rates. Disasters are unfavourable events that cause widespread anxiety and terror. They also make it difficult for society to respond to its causes.

Natural or man-made disasters can emerge. In both circumstances, they have the potential to cause significant loss of life and property. A combination of man-made and natural disasters can occur in severe circumstances. For example, violent conflicts and food scarcity. As a result, disaster management is required to limit or prevent massive loss and damage.

Disaster management includes disaster avoidance, disaster awareness, and disaster planning. These ideas will be discussed further down.

Prevention of Disaster: 

Countries all across the world have taken precautions to prevent diseases or viruses from spreading. These initiatives include the funding of research into natural disaster aversion. Other sources of revenue include food distribution, healthcare services, and so on. In Africa and the Middle East, the latter is commonly used in economically challenged areas.

Improved scientific research has also made it feasible to predict potential natural disasters. For example, equipment to detect earthquakes and tsunamis has been developed. As a result, more people are concerned about the environment. In this sense, consciousness translates to a reduction in all forms of pollution in the environment.

Disaster Awareness :

Another strategy to minimise the excesses of widespread epidemics is to raise disaster awareness. Members of the public must be made aware of the importance of maintaining peace, de-escalating dangerous circumstances, and prioritising safety in the face of any possible tragedy.

The goal of disaster management is to reduce human death and suffering. The impact of disasters can be reduced if all of these factors are successfully managed. As a result, the necessity of disaster management cannot be emphasised.

The National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) is the main agency charged with establishing rules and guidelines for disaster management in order to ensure prompt and effective disaster response. There is also a separate fund for mitigation called the “national disaster management fund” (NDMF). Functions performed by this agency are:

• Administration
• Formation of policies for disaster management
• Approval of the strategies made up for disaster mitigation
• Formation of revenue or funds for disaster mitigation
• Managing multiple programmes and disseminating instructions.

The disaster has had both direct and indirect repercussions on human life, both of which have been deadly devastating and detrimental. There have been fatalities as well as stock losses. Natural disasters are unavoidable; even if we have mechanisms in place to predict or forecast them, we cannot prevent them from occurring. While preparing plans for our disaster management, the best that can be done is to prevent behaviours that are detrimental to the environment and lead to environmental deterioration. When a disaster strikes, it causes widespread devastation and loss of life. In the event of a disaster such as earthquakes, floods, or other natural disasters, a large number of people are displaced, and a large number of people die as a result of the disaster. This is when the true emergency begins by providing first aid to the injured, as well as rescue and relief efforts for the victims. To limit the risk of human life, everyone must participate actively in disaster management. When a crisis happens, the appropriate disaster management team can seize over as soon as possible.

Also Read: Career in Ecology and Environment

The 4 phases of disaster management are Mitigation, Preparedness, Response, and Recovery. 

The 3 types of disasters are natural, man-made, and hybrid disasters.

On 23 December 2005, the Government of India enacted the Disaster Management Act

Hence, we hope that this blog has helped you understand the key steps to writing a scoring essay on Disaster Management. If you are at the conclusion of the 10th grade and confused about which stream to take in the next standard, reach out to our Leverage Edu expert and we’ll guide you in choosing the right stream of study as well as gain clarity about your interests and aspirations so that you take an informed step towards a rewarding career.

Sonal is a creative, enthusiastic writer and editor who has worked extensively for the Study Abroad domain. She splits her time between shooting fun insta reels and learning new tools for content marketing. If she is missing from her desk, you can find her with a group of people cracking silly jokes or petting neighbourhood dogs.

Leave a Reply Cancel reply

Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment.

Contact no. *

Leaving already?

8 Universities with higher ROI than IITs and IIMs

Grab this one-time opportunity to download this ebook

Connect With Us

25,000+ students realised their study abroad dream with us. take the first step today..

Resend OTP in

Need help with?

Study abroad.

UK, Canada, US & More

IELTS, GRE, GMAT & More

Scholarship, Loans & Forex

Country Preference

New Zealand

Which English test are you planning to take?

Which academic test are you planning to take.

Not Sure yet

When are you planning to take the exam?

Already booked my exam slot

Within 2 Months

Want to learn about the test

Which Degree do you wish to pursue?

When do you want to start studying abroad.

September 2024

January 2025

What is your budget to study abroad?

How would you describe this article ?

Please rate this article

We would like to hear more.

• Increase Font Size

16 Disaster Management for Earthquakes

Dr. Lubna Siddiqui

• To understand the basic concept of earthquakes and associated ha
• To explore the possibilities of managing earthquake hazard – miti redness, response and recovery to earthquake hazard and associate dary impacts

   Rationale

Earthquakes are among the most devastating disasters. They not only cause deaths and injuries but also bring about massive damage to infrastructure and economy. Management of Earthquake must be robust and should mainly focus on mitigation strategiesthrough proper identification and taking necessary precautions. This module is mainly focusing on to learn that loss of lives and property due to Earthquakes could be reduced and explore the way to ensure the same.

Earthquake is a geo-physical phenomenon whichis considered as the interplay of geological and geo-morphological dynamism of Earth. The earth as a whole is composed of three main layers (figure-1) the Crust, the Mantle and the Core.

According to the Plate Tectonic Theory, the crust, which is the outermost layer of the earth, is made up of lithospheric plates (figure-2) that float over the viscous mantle layer and remains in ‘isostasy’ The plates forming the crust move away, towards or past each other (figure- 3) very slowly over the mantle. Whenfriction/interaction between two plates occur, itresults in the sudden release of energy in the form of waves that move along the earth crust and is termed as seismic activity or earthquakes. The boundary between two plates is generally encountered with faults or other structural deformities. Faults are not continuous but usually consist of a fault zone or discontinuity that is present due to the rock-mass movement.

Figure 1 Layers of Earth

Figure 2 Plates according to Plate Tectonic Theory

Figure 3 Types of Faults

   During an earthquake, the movement of rock blocks along the fault or line of weakness gives rise to seismic waves spreading outwards along the surface of the earth, in all directions simultaneously. These waves are grouped into two main types:

(a) Body waves consisting of P-Waveand S-Wave. The former moves in solid and liquid medium and are having greatest velocity, similar to sound waves,S-Wavetravel slower than P-wave and are more destructive than P-Wave. Though it cannot travel through water.

(b) Surface Waves consisting of Rayleighand Love Waves. In Rayleighor Ground Roll the surface moves vertically and horizontally leading to vehicles and stationary objects moving up and down. They are slower than S-waves. Love Waves move ground from side to side resulting in horizontal ground motion.

Figure 4 Ground Motion during Earthquakes

Measuring Earthquake

Based on the differences in velocity and motion of the waves, instruments like Seismograph and Accelerometer could be used to measure Earthquakes. These instruments measure the resultant displacement, velocity and acceleration of the ground movement, arising out of the seismic waves. By measuring these waves, the center of release of energy and its distance from the location of the instruments can be found. This center of release of the energy in the interior of earth is the Focus or Hypocenter, and the corresponding point on the Earth’s surface lying perpendicular to the Focus is the Epicenter.

Figure 5 Focus (Hypocenter), Epicentre

The Magnitude of the earthquake is the relative size of the earthquake and is arrived based on the maximum motion recorded by the seismograph. The size of earthquake is measured using the Moment Magnitude (MW) scale (Figure-6). The scale is derived by modeling earthquake recordings from different recording stations.

Magnitudes are represented on logarithmic scale with base 10 thereby a difference between a magnitude 4 and a magnitude 5 is about 10 times more ground shaking and about 32 times the energy released.

Figure 6 Earthquake magnitude scale and estimated occurrences per year

The impact or effects (degree of destruction) of the earthquake of a particular magnitude on the earth’s surface is the Intensityof the Earthquake. It is measured using scales consisting of increasing levels of intensity from “not felt” to “damaging buildings and structures” (figure-7). Modified Mercalli Intensity is the predominantly used scale. The relation between the Magnitude and the Intensity varies. A 7.0

Mw earthquake in a desert region would have limited intensity, whereas even a 6.5 Mw shallow earthquake near an urban center would have higher intensity due to the absence of settlements in the desert.

Iso- Seismal lines are imaginary lines joining places that experience same earthquake intensity. Co-Seismal are imaginary lines joining places that experienced the earthquake at the same time. They are plotted for each earthquake.On the basis of such lines and data collected over the years, statistically backed deterministic models are developed estimating future earthquakes to help in better preparedness and risk reduction measures(Vere-Jones, 1995). Due to the unavailability of decade or century old data as required, deterministic models are difficult to arrive at. Thus, a more realistic approach is the prediction of earthquake with a probability associated with it. It is known as E arthquake Forecasting . This forecasting is done by S eismic Hazard analysis by estimating the probability of ground motion exceeding a certain value at a certain location (Snieder & Eck, 1997). These hazard analyses help in estimating future earthquakes and thereby in the generation of Seismic Hazard Mapsand other predictive models.

Figure 7 Intensity of Earthquake- Modified Mercalli Intensity

Source: (The Geographer Online)

Cascading Hazards

   The complexities with seismic risk do not only stop with Earthquakes. The different cascading hazards arising from earthquake are as follows-

The observed unhygienic conditions prevalent in the urban poor areas due to lack of basic facilities like sanitation and sewerages and unplanned construction lead tosecondary health issues post earthquakes disaster .

Fire is another associated secondary hazard. Unplanned and dense construction impedes fire fighting also especially when most of the local capacities for response focus on urban search and rescue, and when enough space is not available between buildings for the fire fighting equipment to reach the fire affected areas.

Earthquakes also pose significant threat to lifeline or critical infrastructure like Roads, Power Supply Lines and Power stations, water supply, Sewage lines, Bridges, Schools, Hospitals etc. Strengthening of critical infrastructures and immediate revival of supply to ensure relief to chronic patients, disaster affected injuries and casualties.

Earthquakes in ocean/ seas could also bring trigger tsunamis or giant waves. The Indian Ocean Tsunami on Dec 26th, 2004 occurred due to an earthquake of magnitude 9.1 Mw near Sumatra Islands. It brought about giant waves in the Indian Ocean that affected fourteen countries, killed more than 2 lakh people and displaced thousands more.

Earthquakes in mountainous areas bring about landslides/ rock fall. Earthquake generates a large number of induced landslides in close proximities to the epicentre region.

Figure 8 – Planet Team (2017) image of the epicentre region of the Jiuzhaigou earthquake, dated 8th August 2017       Source: (Petley, 2017)

Figure 9- Planet Team (2017) image of the epicentre region of the Jiuzhaigou earthquake, dated 9th August 2017 showing the  landslides induced due to Earthquake

Source: (Petley, 2017)

Earthquake preparedness and mitigation measures must, therefore , not only consider the ground shaking but must also incorporate mitigation measures and response to multiple cascading hazards associated with it.

    Unit 2 – Earthquake Risk Management

Earthquakes bring about great distress to individual and communities. An analysis of the CRED Data from 2000 to 2016 reveals India as the fourth highest number of deaths (due to ground motion) at 2393 per earthquake. For representative purposes, Haiti with 2,22,570 deaths due to a single earthquake is not shown in the graph below.

Figure 10 Average death per earthquake (due to ground shaking)- analysis of CRED data

Considering the devastating impacts of earthquakes not only due to the high number of casualties, but also due to associated destruction to property. Several measures have been undertaken to minimize the impacts of earthquakes and develop earthquake resilient structures. It is significant to note that the event of earthquakes as a ground motion doesn’t create destruction. It’s their effects on buildings (residential, commercial) that causes the collapse of buildings or building components that impact the occupants of the buildings. This section is an introduction to the efforts to recognize and minimize Earthquake risks.

Earthquake Zonation

Seismic Hazard Maps help in classification of areas according to observed and predictive past seismicity. India is divided into four zones- Zone-II to Zone V with respect to the observed and probable seismicity according to IS:1893:2002. No locations in India exists in zone-1 as no location in the country is considered completely free from Seismic hazard.

Figure 11 Seismic Zonation and Intensity Map {Source: (NIDM)}

IS:10 893, 2002 is the Indian standard pertaining to macro zonation for seismic hazard. It has been modified on at least five occasions- with the major ones post Latur (1993) and Bhuj (2001) earthquakes. Macro zonation, thus, at a national level is not sufficient to assess and prepare for Seismic hazard. Tremors were felt in Delhi in correspondence with Earthquakes as far away as Nepal or Afghanistan. Thus, the changes observed in Intensity of earthquakes due to the changes in geological and geo-morphological configuration within the macro zones led to the requirement for Micro zonation for seismic hazard. Micro zonation involves the incorporation of seismological, geotechnical and geologic considerations along with the Land Use planning for estimating earthquake effects on the area under consideration(Dr.P.Anbazhagan). It thereby aids in site/ design considerations in order to be less susceptible to earthquake damages. Better equipment, motion stations, and advent in interpretive sciences and probabilistic and deterministic assessments led to a better understanding of seismic hazard in maps of smaller scale (even up to 1:5000).

While macro zonation gives an indication about the most credible earthquake in a particular area and the probability of its occurrence, micro zonation helps in identifying areas within a district or a metropolitan city that could be more susceptible to damages (for example due to the liquefaction potential of the soil, or the construction practice in place in the areas being unsuitable to the most credible earthquake probability ).

Construction Codes

Any building must consider the following forces:

(ii)  Dead Load (the weight of the building components)

(iii) Live Load (the variable weight due to the occupancy- people, furniture, machinery etc.)

(iv)  Earthquake Load

The building must stand stiff under normal conditions by taking into consideration, the first three loads, while during ground shaking associated with earthquakes, the building must be ‘ductile’ enough to dissipate input energy and not collapse completely. The extent to which the building must be ductile would depend on  the location of the building and the geological constituents of the ground in these locations. Wind and Earthquake load is only during the occurrence of extreme wind conditions or during ground motion, whereas the design of the building taking into consideration the Dead Load and Live load is completely under the control of the building designers and construction workers. The fact that a building is not tested for its durability or for its capacity to withstand wind or earthquake loads unlike automobiles or other products sold in market post obtaining fitness certificates from concerned authorities. For buildings the Occupation Certificate (OC) issued by the local administration certifies the compliance of the buildings to the local health and safety requirements. OC is issued on the basis of the construction codes in place. These are developed to identify suitable building construction materials and methods for earthquake resilience of buildings based on the seismic hazard maps and the macro and micro zonation.

There are instances of traditional ways of building houses and commercial structures that have an understanding of the local geological and geomorphological consideration and thereby developing an understanding about the geotechnical concepts to utilize appropriate construction materials in an appropriate manner so that the buildings built do not collapse and cause damage to property/ lives during earthquakes. The Koti Banal architecture of Uttarakhand is one such example(Saraswat & Mayuresh, 2017).

In India, the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) develops construction codes that act as mandates for safe ‘seismic resistant’ construction ensuring the buildings maystand firmly despite seismic activity. The Iso-seismal and corresponding Peak Ground Velocity (greatest speed reached by the ground during the earthquake) and Peak Ground Acceleration (rate of change of speed of movements- both horizontally and vertically)are considered in Building Codes. Thus it serves as a bridge between the earth system and the built environment consisting of the buildings and habitat built by humans.

National Building Code

The National Building Code of India (NBC) is a comprehensive building code that provides guidance for regulating construction activities across the country. It serves as a model code by all agencies involved in building and construction activities including the Public Works Department, Local bodies or private construction agencies. The codes contain regulations, development control rules, building requirements, stipulations regarding materials, fire safety requirements, structural design and construction (including safety), building and plumbing services, approaches to sustainability and facility management (BIS, 2016) etc.

The list of standards pertaining to Earthquake as per the BIS are tabulated in Table below:

Table 1 Standards pertaining to Earthquake

Source: (Minister of State, 2014)

   Role of Reconnaissance Missions in updating Building codes

Post-Earthquake, Reconnaissance Missions have been undertaken by formal institutions to gather the extent and reasons of losses post devastating earthquakes. The recce missions played a very important role in learning from past failures. The impact studies undertaken post the Great Kanto Earthquake in Japan (1923) and Great Nobi Earthquake (1891) were among the first recorded post disaster missions that led to introduction of the mandatory requirement for all buildings to incorporate a seismic coefficient of 0.1 as per the Urban Building Law(Whittaker, Moehle, & Higashino, 1998). Nicholas Ambraseys summarizes the scope of reconnaissance missions post earthquake: “It is increasingly apparent that the site of a damaging earthquake is undoubtedly a full-scale laboratory, in which significant discoveries can be made by keen observers- seismologists, geologists, engineers, sociologists and economists.”(Spence, 2015) At present there are six recognized formal scientific institutions across the globe that are primarily dealing with post-earthquake reconnaissance missions-

(i) EERI (Earthquake Engineering Research Institute)

(ii) EEFIT (The Earthquake Engineering Field Team)

(iii) GTF (German Task Force)

(iv) UNESCO Task Force

(v) AFPS (French Association for Earthquake Engineering)

(vi) JSCE  (Japan Society of Civil Engineers)

Building Codes and Informal construction

Establishment of model Building Codes and byelaws is the key step towards seismic risk mitigation. A major part of the success of building codes is in its implementation.Generally housing is segregated into formal and informal categories. An accepted understanding of informality in construction practice is that informal construction does not recognize or regard the local-rules and laws in place, in its design and construction. The informal construction includes slum construction in urban localities that are considered most vulnerable during earthquakes; given that the slum areas are generally situated in the flood plains or in other areas that are repeatedly affected by multiple hazards. Flood plains are usually made of loose soil and the liquefaction potential of loose soil is generally higher than the adjoining soils. Further, the dense concentration of buildings also impede in evacuation or urban search and rescue.

Institutional Framework for Seismic Risk Management in India

The National Disaster Management Plan, 2016( National Disaster Management Authority, Government of India, 2016)lays down important steps and recommendations for seismic risk assessment and disaster preparedness.

The Plan has entrusted India Meteorological Department (IMD) to monitor earthquakes and form a real time seismic monitoring network and disseminate information to agencies involved in earthquake tracking, research, mitigation and response. Geological Survey of India in coordination with IMD is responsible for hazard zonation and micro seismic zonation of vulnerable areas . The National Disaster Management Authority, National Institute of Disaster Management and other Science and Technology departments and institutions have been entrusted with the task of Earthquake hazard risk and vulnerability assessment. The BMTPC (Building Materials & Technology Promotion Council) in coordination with the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) and other institutions formulate and update the National Building Code and other standards. The state departments are required to act accordingly and ensure measures to understand and mitigate seismic risk.

The Ministry of Home Affairs, Govt of India is identified as the nodal agency for coordinating Earthquake Response and central assistance, while the State Disaster Management Authorities, Revenue Department and Commissioner for Relief along with the Panchayats and Urban Level Bodies are responsible for the organization of immediate response and to seek further assistance if necessary from central agencies. Special Housing Schemes, retro fitment of prioritized lifeline structures and buildings and hazard resistant construction, model codes for town planning, civil and public works, and conduction of safety audits have been given due importance and the Ministry of Rural Development, Ministry of Urban Development along  with other relevant ministries are responsible to devise strategies and plans in this regard. The implementation and compliance activities are the responsibilities of state departments.

Capacity Development for Earthquake related training, curriculum development have been tagged to NIDM,NDMA, Ministry of Earth Sciences, Ministry of Human Resources and Development, University Grants Commission and other institutions. Awareness Generation plays a key role in the earthquake preparedness and NDMP has identified NDMA, NIDM, Central Armed Police Forces and National Disaster Response Force (NDRF) as the central agencies in charge of carrying out mass media campaigns, promoting the culture of earthquake risk prevention, mitigation and management, promoting attitude and behavioral changes in the awareness campaigns, the promotion of risk transfers and insurance, community radio and the strengthening of civil society organizations. All State departments including State disaster Response Forces and Fire and emergency Services, Civil Defense, Police, DDMA and Panchayats/ ULBs are to assist and enhance the awareness campaigns and promotion of culture of earthquake risk consciousness in the public. Mock Drills are also to be conducted by the Central and State Agencies regularly.

Earthquake Preparedness& Response

The first priority in Earthquake response is to minimize loss of lives, by undertaking effective search and rescue operations and the evacuation of affected people. Evacuation is categorized as Preventive (post early warning before materialization of hazard), Protective (as a precaution), Rescue- oriented falls under Search and rescue and Reconstructive- resettlement in safe locations. Search and Rescue (SAR) is a technical activity undertaken by trained personnel who rescue and attend to casualties under adverse conditions(National Disaster Management Authority and Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2011). Specific response during Earthquake hazards include:

(a)     Rescuing victims from rubble

(b)     Special care in case of fire

(c)     Evacuation of at risk people in safe locations

(d)     Rendering first aid

(e)     Positioning of ambulances

Earthquake Recovery

The planning for earthquake recovery ideally begins immediately after the earthquake event. Decisions regarding institutional mechanisms for managing rehabilitation and reconstruction activities, allocation of financial resources, identifying and prioritizing reconstruction activities with a robust monitoring and evaluation and community information and communication program are essential in the post-earthquake recovery framework. The framework should be based on thorough analysis of reliable data pertaining to disaster impact and the post disaster recovery needs(GFDRR, 2011). Alignment of disaster recovery with the national development goals aids in better sustainability and the mainstreaming of Disaster Risk reduction efforts into development agenda. Key components of Post-Earthquake Recovery include:

(a)     Managing post disaster funds

(b)     Monitoring and management of recovery process

(c)     Transitional shelter programs

(d)     Environmental and social assessment

(e)     Decision pertaining to relocation or rebuilding

(f)      Debris management

(g)     Focus on vulnerable segments (Women, Children, Elderly, differently abled etc.)

(h)    Proper seismic assessment

(i)      Decisions pertaining to Land Tenure and regularization of slums

(j)      Income support/ Livelihood recovery programs

Figure 12 Post Earthquake Risk Management

Source: (GFDRR, 2011)

Earthquake is a geo-physical phenomenon. Seismic activity or Earthquake is a sudden release of energy in the form of waves that move along the earth crust. It causes the collapse of improperly designed/constructed buildings or building components that cause impactson the occupants of buildings and bring about great devastation. Establishment of model Building Codes and byelaws is a key step towards seismic risk mitigation. The National Disaster Management Plan, 2016( National Disaster Management Authority, Government of India, 2016)lays the plan for seismic risk assessment and addressal. Earthquake preparedness and mitigation measures must not only consider the ground shaking but must also incorporate mitigation measures and response to multiple cascading hazards associated with earthquakes like Landslides, Fire and damage to critical infrastructure.

• BIS. (2016). Retrieved August 16, 2017, from http://www.bis.org.in/sf/nbc.htm
• Down to Earth. (2015, April 27). CSE points out lapses in building regulations in India. Dr.P.Anbazhagan. (n.d.). Introduction to Seismic zones and codes, Global and National seismic hazard assessment mapping programs.
• GEM. (n.d.). TaxT. Retrieved August 16, 2017, from https://platform.openquake.org/taxtweb/
• GFDRR. (2011). Earthquake Reconstruction. The World Bank.
• Jain, S. K. (2008). Historical Developments in India Toward s Seismic Safety and Lessons for Future. The 14th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering . Beijing, China.
• Michigan Tech. (n.d.). Earthquake Magnitude. Retrieved August 16, 2017, from http://www.geo.mtu.edu/UPSeis/magnitude.html
• Minister of State, M. o. (2014). UNSTARRED QUESTION NO: 3779, ANSWERED ON:05.08.2014, EARTHQUAKE RESISTANT BUILDINGS. Lok Sabha, Government of India. National Disaster Management Authority and Indira Gandhi National Open University.(2011). Training Manual- Booklet III- Responding to Disasters- For the Project on Capacity Building in Disaster Management for Government Officials and Representatives of Panchayati Raj Institutions & Urban Local Bodies at District Level.
• National Disaster Management Authority, Government of India. (2016). National Disaster Management Plan (NDMP). New Delhi.
• NIDM. (n.d.). Retrieved August 16, 2017, from http://nidm.gov.in/images/safety_eq3.jpg Oregon State. (n.d.). Retrieved August 15, 2017, fro
• http://volcano.oregonstate.edu/sites/default/files/picture3.gif
• Penn State Earthquake Seismology. (n.d.). Fault Type. Retrieved August 16, 2017, from http://eqseis.geosc.psu.edu/~cammon/HTML/Classes/IntroQuakes/Notes/Images_specific /fault_types.gif
• Petley, D. (2017, August 11). Retrieved August 18, 2017, from The Landslide blog: http://blogs.agu.org/landslideblog/2017/08/11/jiuzhaigou-earthquake-2/
• Plates on the Earth Crust. (n.d.). Retrieved August 16, 2017, from https://i.infopls.com/images/gmap1.gif
• Saraswat, S., & Mayuresh, G. (2017). Koti Banal Architecture of Uttarakhand: Indigenous Realities and Community Involvement. International Conference on Research into Design ICoRD 2017: Research into Design for Communities (pp. 165-177). Springer.
• Seismic Resilience. (n.d.). Seismic Resilience- Minimizing Building Damage. Retrieved February 15, 2017, from Earthquake Energy: http://www.seismicresilience.org.nz/index.php/topics/seismic-science-and-site-influences/earthquake-energy/
• Shetty, S. R. (2016, March 16). Unstarred Question No.3190. Earthquake Resistant Building .
• Snieder, R., & Eck, T. v. (1997). Earthquake prediction: a political problem? International Journal of Earth Sciences , 86 , 446-463.
• Spence, R. (2015, June). The Full-Scale Laboratory: The Practice of Post-Earthquake Reconnaissance Missions and their contribution to Earthquake Engineering. Bulletin of Earthquake Engineering .
• Sulamanaia, U. (2015, July 21). Retrieved August 17, 2017, from http://sulamauj14.blogspot.in/2015_07_01_archive.html
• The Geographer Online. (n.d.). Retrieved August 16, 2017, from http://www.thegeographeronline.net/uploads/2/6/6/2/26629356/7780390_orig.jpg
• Vere-Jones, D. (1995). Forecasting earthquakes and earthquake risk. International Journal of Forecasting , 11 , 503-538.
• Whittaker, A., Moehle, J., & Higashino, M. (1998). Evolution of seismic building design practice in Japan. The Structural Design of Tall Buildings , 7 (2), 93-111

Urban Disaster Management and Resilience

• First Online: 15 June 2021

Cite this chapter

• Sara Nazif 3 ,
• Mohammad Masoud Mohammadpour Khoie 3 &
• Saeid Eslamian 4  

1502 Accesses

4 Citations

Urban settings are areas in which wide aspects of human life are supported. In other words, they are context for economic, social, political, and other human activities and growth. Therefore, the proportion of people inhabited in cities is increasing over time. The concentration of people in urban areas leads to new problems including water resources depletion and degradation, deforestation, land use changes, environmental degradation, health problems, and epidemic risks. All these issues make cities away from sustainable development and intensify the consequences of natural disasters like earthquake, flood, and droughts. The history of disasters in urban area shows that they could cause enormous damages and deaths, and their impacts could last for a long time. It might take ages for urban infrastructures to recover from a disaster. Such concerns have highlighted the importance of urban disaster management over time, and especial attention is paid to it in recent years. Urban disaster management leads managers in a way how to deal and think about making decisions before, during, and after disasters. Resilience is an approach of disaster management that cares more about bouncing back after disturbances which has attracted researcher’s attention. In this chapter we will discuss about the disasters that could happen in urban areas and the best approach in their management. Then, the resilience is defined in urban areas regarding momentous researches, and also it is discussed how urban disaster resilience helps cities to achieve sustainable development. Characteristics of a resilient urban and some frameworks to make resilient urban are also discussed in this chapter.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

• Available as PDF
• Read on any device
• Instant download
• Own it forever
• Available as EPUB and PDF
• Compact, lightweight edition
• Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
• Free shipping worldwide - see info
• Durable hardcover edition

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Adopted, IPCC. (2014). Climate change 2014 synthesis report.

Google Scholar  

Ahern, J. (2011). From fail-safe to safe-to-fail: Sustainability and resilience in the new urban world. Landscape and Urban Planning, 100 (4), 341–343. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2011.02.021 .

Article   Google Scholar  

Alberti, M., Marzluff, J. M., Shulenberger, E., Bradley, G., Ryan, C., & Zumbrunnen, C. (2003). Integrating humans into ecology: Opportunities and challenges for studying urban ecosystems. Bioscience, 53 (12), 1169–1179. https://doi.org/10.1641/0006-3568(2003)053[1169:IHIEOA]2.0.CO;2 .

Arup. (2014). City resilience framework . New York/London: The Rockefeller Foundation and ARUP.

Asprone, D., Cavallaro, M., Latora, V., Manfredi, G., & Nicosia, V. (2013). Urban network resilience analysis in case of earthquakes (pp. 4069–75). Naples: Department of Structures for Engineering and Architecture, University of Naples Federico II. https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-84892383453&partnerID=40&md5=8fc2b7bcc7f04421a18d9ae0f8a8c8b8

Bertilsson, L., Wiklund, K., de Moura Tebaldi, I., Rezende, O. M., Veról, A. P., & Miguez, M. G. (2019). Urban flood resilience – A multi-criteria index to integrate flood resilience into urban planning. Journal of Hydrology, 573 , 970–982.

Bozza, A., Asprone, D., & Fabbrocino, F. (2017). Urban resilience: A civil engineering perspective. Sustainability, 9 (1), 103. https://doi.org/10.3390/su9010103 .

Brown, A., Dayal, A., & Rumbaitis Del Rio, C. (2012). From practice to theory: Emerging lessons from Asia for building urban climate change resilience. Environment and Urbanization, 24 (2), 531–556. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956247812456490 .

Brugmann, J. (2012). Financing the Resilient City. Environment and Urbanization, 24 (1), 215–232. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956247812437130 .

Bruneau, M., Chang, S. E., Eguchi, R. T., Lee, G. C., O’Rourke, T. D., Reinhorn, A. M., Shinozuka, M., Tierney, K., Wallace, W. A., & von Winterfeldt, D. (2003). A framework to quantitatively assess and enhance the seismic resilience of communities. Earthquake Spectra, 19 (4), 733–752. https://doi.org/10.1193/1.1623497 .

Campanella, T. J. (2006). Urban resilience and the recovery of New Orleans. Journal of the American Planning Association, 72 (2), 141–146. https://doi.org/10.1080/01944360608976734 .

Caverzan, A., & Solomos, G. (2014). Review on resilience in literature and standards for critical built-infrastructure. EC JRC 90900.

Cayan, D. R., Bromirski, P. D., Hayhoe, K., Tyree, M., Dettinger, M. D., & Flick, R. E. (2008). Climate change projections of sea level extremes along the California coast. Climatic Change, 87 (1), 57–73. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-007-9376-7 .

Changnon, S. A. (2009). Temporal and spatial distributions of wind storm damages in the United States. Climatic Change, 94 (3), 473–482. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-008-9518-6 .

Chelleri, L., Waters, J. J., Olazabal, M., & Minucci, G. (2015). Resilience trade-offs: Addressing multiple scales and temporal aspects of urban resilience. Environment and Urbanization, 27 (1), 181–198. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956247814550780 .

Clark, W., II, & Cooke, G. (2016). Smart green cities: Toward a carbon neutral world . London: Routledge.

Book   Google Scholar  

Coaffee, J. (2008). Risk, resilience, and environmentally sustainable cities. Energy Policy, 36 (12), 4633–4638. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2008.09.048 .

Cutter, S. L. (2014). The landscape of resilience measures. In Presentation at the resilient America 562 roundtable workshop on measures of community resilience . University of South Carolina.

Cutter, S. L., Barnes, L., Berry, M., Burton, C., Evans, E., Tate, E., & Webb, J. (2008). A place-based model for understanding community resilience to natural disasters. Global Environmental Change, 18 (4), 598–606. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2008.07.013 .

Cutter, S. L., Ahearn, J. A., Amadei, B., Crawford, P., Eide, E. A., Galloway, G. E., Goodchild, M. F., Kunreuther, H. C., Li-Vollmer, M., & Schoch-Spana, M. (2013). Disaster resilience: A National Imperative. Environment: Science and Policy for Sustainable Development, 55 (2), 25–29.

Da Silva, J., & Morera, B. (2014). City resilience framework . London: Arup.

Desouza, K. C., & Flanery, T. H. (2013). Designing, planning, and managing resilient cities: A conceptual framework. Cities, 35 , 89–99. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2013.06.003 .

Earle, S.. (2018). Physical geology . BCcampus.

Elmqvist, T. (2017). Development: Sustainability and resilience differ. Nature, 546 (7658), 352. https://doi.org/10.1038/546352d .

Elmqvist, T., Andersson, E., Frantzeskaki, N., McPhearson, T., Olsson, P., Gaffney, O., Takeuchi, K., & Folke, C. (2019). Sustainability and resilience for transformation in the urban century. Nature Sustainability, 2 (4), 267–273. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-019-0250-1 .

Ernstson, H., van der Leeuw, S. E., Redman, C. L., Meffert, D. J., Davis, G., Alfsen, C., & Elmqvist, T. (2010). Urban transitions: On urban resilience and human-dominated ecosystems. Ambio, 39 (8), 531–545. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13280-010-0081-9 .

Filho, W. L. (2015). Handbook of climate change adaptation. In W. L. Filho (Ed.), Handbook of climate change adaptation . Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-38670-1.

Chapter   Google Scholar  

Folke, C. (2006). Resilience: The emergence of a perspective for social–ecological systems analyses. Global Environmental Change, 16 (3), 253–267. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.GLOENVCHA.2006.04.002 .

Freire-González, J., Decker, C., & Hall, J. W. (2017). The economic impacts of droughts: A framework for analysis. Ecological Economics, 132 , 196–204. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2016.11.005 .

Fujii, Y., & Satake, K. (2007). Tsunami source of the 2004 Sumatra–Andaman earthquake inferred from tide gauge and satellite data. Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, 97 (1A), S192–S207.

Gilbert, S. W. (2010). Disaster resilience . Gaithersburg. https://doi.org/10.6028/NIST.SP.1117 .

Godschalk, D. (2003). Urban Hazard mitigation: Creating resilient cities. Natural Hazards Review, 4 (August). https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1527-6988(2003)4:3(136).

Hamilton, W. A. H. (2009). Resilience and the city: The water sector. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers-Urban Design and Planning, 162 (3), 109–121.

Harrald, J. R. (2006). Agility and discipline: Critical success factors for disaster response. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 604 (1), 256–272.

Henstra, D. (2012). Toward the climate-resilient city: Extreme weather and urban climate adaptation policies in two Canadian provinces. Journal of Comparative Policy Analysis: Research and Practice, 14 (2), 175–194. https://doi.org/10.1080/13876988.2012.665215 .

Holling, C. S. (1996). Engineering resilience versus ecological resilience. Engineering within Ecological Constraints, 31 (1996), 32.

International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies. (2020). https://media.ifrc.org/ifrc/

Jha, M. K. (2010). Natural and anthropogenic disasters: An overview. In Natural and anthropogenic disasters (pp. 1–16). Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-2498-5_1 .

Joakim, E. (2013). Resilient disaster recovery: A critical assessment of the 2006 Yogyakarta, Indonesia earthquake using a vulnerability, resilience and sustainable livelihoods framework . https://uwspace.uwaterloo.ca/handle/10012/7315

Keim, B. D., Fischer, M. R., & Wilson, A. M. (2005). Are there spurious precipitation trends in the United States climate division database? Geophysical Research Letters, 32 (4), n/a–n/a. https://doi.org/10.1029/2004GL021985 .

Krishnamurthy, C. K. B., Lall, U., & Kwon, H.-H. (2009). Changing frequency and intensity of rainfall extremes over India from 1951 to 2003. Journal of Climate, 22 (18), 4737–4746. https://doi.org/10.1175/2009JCLI2896.1 .

Lamond, J. E., & Proverbs, D. G. (2009). Resilience to flooding: Lessons from international comparison. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers – Urban Design and Planning, 162 (2), 63–70. https://doi.org/10.1680/udap.2009.162.2.63 .

Leichenko, R. (2011). Climate change and urban resilience. Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability, 3 (3), 164–168. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cosust.2010.12.014 .

Lhomme, S., Serre, D., Diab, Y., & Laganier, R. (2012). Urban technical networks resilience assessment. In Resilience and urban risk management (Vol. 109, pp. 109–117). Routledge in association with GSE Research. London, Uk.

Liao, K.-H. (2012). A theory on urban resilience to floods a basis for alternative planning practices. Ecology and Society, 17 (4). https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-05231-170448 .

Lu, P., & Stead, D. (2013). Understanding the notion of resilience in spatial planning: A case study of Rotterdam, the Netherlands. Cities, 35 , 200–212. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2013.06.001 .

Maeda, T., Furumura, T., Sakai, S.’i., & Shinohara, M. (2011). Significant tsunami observed at ocean-bottom pressure gauges during the 2011 off the Pacific coast of Tohoku earthquake. Earth, Planets and Space, 63 (7), 53. https://doi.org/10.5047/eps.2011.06.005 .

Manfredi, G., Rose, A., Sapountzaki, K., Jørgensen, G., Callaghan, E., Tobin, G., Gasparini, P., & Asprone, D. (2014). Resilience and sustainability in relation to disasters: A challenge for future cities: Common vision and recommendations (pp. 77–79). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-04316-6_7 .

Manyena, B., Machingura, F., & O’Keefe, P. (2019). Disaster resilience integrated framework for transformation (DRIFT): A new approach to theorising and operationalising resilience. World Development, 123 , 104587. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2019.06.011 .

Masterson, J. H., Peacock, W. G., Van Zandt, S. S., Grover, H., Schwarz, L. F., & Cooper, J. T. (2014). Planning for community resilience . Washington, DC: Island Press/Center for Resource Economics. https://doi.org/10.5822/978-1-61091-586-1 .

Meerow, S., Newell, J. P., & Stults, M. (2016). Defining urban resilience: A review. Landscape and Urban Planning, 147 , 38–49.

Mishra, A. K., & Singh, V. P. (2010). A review of drought concepts. Journal of Hydrology, 391 (1), 202–216. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2010.07.012 .

Montoya, L. (2003). Geo-data acquisition through mobile GIS and digital video: An urban disaster management perspective. Environmental Modelling & Software, 18 (10), 869–876. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1364-8152(03)00105-1 .

Nazif, S., Tavakolifar, H., & Eslamian, S. (2017). Climate change impact on Urban water deficit, Ch. 5. In S. Eslamian & F. Eslamian (Eds.), Handbook of drought and water scarcity, vol. 2: Environmental impacts and analysis of drought and water scarcity (pp. 81–106). Boca Raton: Taylor and Francis/CRC Press.

Number of Recorded Natural Disaster Events, All Natural Disasters. (2020). University of Oxford. 2020 . https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/number-of-natural-disaster-events

O’Brien, G., & O’keefe, P. (2013). Managing Adaptation to climate risk: Beyond fragmented responses . London: Routledge.

Panjamani, A., Srinivas, S., & Chandran, D. (2011). Classification of road damage due to earthquakes. Natural Hazards, 60 (January). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-011-0025-0 .

Peñuelas, J., Lloret, F., & Montoya, R. (2001). Severe drought effects on Mediterranean woody flora in Spain. Forest Science, 47 (2), 214–218. https://doi.org/10.1093/forestscience/47.2.214 .

Pickett, S. T. A., Cadenasso, M. L., & Grove, J. M. (2004). Resilient cities: Meaning, models, and metaphor for integrating the ecological, socio-economic, and planning realms. Landscape and Urban Planning, 69 (4), 369–384. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2003.10.035 .

Platt, S., Brown, D., & Hughes, M. (2016). Measuring resilience and recovery. International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction, 19 (October), 447–460. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.IJDRR.2016.05.006.

Ramchurn, S., Rogers, A., Macarthur, K., Farinelli, A., Vytelingum, P., Vetsikas, I., & Jennings, N. (2008). Agent-based coordination technologies in disaster management (Vol. 3). https://doi.org/10.1145/1402744.1402748 .

Renschler, C. S., Frazier, A. E., Arendt, L. A., Cimellaro, G. P., Reinhorn, A. M., & Bruneau, M. (2010). A framework for defining and measuring resilience at the community scale: The peoples resilience framework . Buffalo: MCEER.

Romero-Lankao, P., & Gnatz, D. M. (2013). Exploring urban transformations in Latin America. Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability, 5 (3), 358–367. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cosust.2013.07.008 .

Sharifi, A. (2016). A critical review of selected tools for assessing community resilience. Ecological Indicators, 69 , 629–647.

Sharifi, A., & Yamagata, Y. (2016). On the suitability of assessment tools for guiding communities towards disaster resilience. International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction, 18 (September), 115–124. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2016.06.006.

Simonsen, S. H. (2015). Applying resilience thinking: Seven principles for building resilience in social-ecological systems . Stockholm: Stockholm Resilience Centre.

Sprague, L. A. (2005). Drought effects on water quality in the south platte river basin, Colorado1. JAWRA Journal of the American Water Resources Association, 41 (1), 11–24. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1752-1688.2005.tb03713.x .

St.Clair, S. B., & Lynch, J. P. (2010). The opening of Pandora’s box: Climate change impacts on soil fertility and crop nutrition in developing countries. Plant and Soil, 335 (1), 101–115. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-010-0328-z .

The International Disaster Database. (2020). General classification of disasters . https://www.emdat.be/classification

The Sustainable Development Goals Report (2018). The sustainable development goals report 2018. UN. https://doi.org/10.18356/7d014b41-en .

Thornbush, M., Golubchikov, O., & Bouzarovski, S. (2013). Sustainable cities targeted by combined mitigation–Adaptation efforts for future-proofing. Sustainable Cities and Society, 9 , 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2013.01.003 .

Tierney, K., & Bruneau, M. (2007). Conceptualizing and measuring resilience: A key to disaster loss reduction. TR News , no. 250.

Tilman, D., & El Haddi, A. (1992). Drought and biodiversity in grasslands. Oecologia, 89 (2), 257–264. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00317226 .

Tingsanchali, T. (2012). Urban Flood Disaster Management. Procedia Engineering, 32 , 25–37. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2012.01.1233 .

Tyler, S., & Moench, M. (2012). A framework for urban climate resilience. Climate and Development, 4 (4), 311–326. https://doi.org/10.1080/17565529.2012.745389 .

UN and DESA. (2019). World urbanization prospects: The 2018 revision . New York: https://shop.un.org/books/world-urbanization-prospects-2018-87894 .

UN General Assembly. (2016). Report of the open-ended intergovernmental expert working group on indicators and terminology relating to disaster risk reduction (p. 41). New York: United Nations General Assembly.

UNISDR, U. (2015). Sendai framework for disaster risk reduction 2015–2030. In Proceedings of the 3rd United Nations world conference on DRR (pp. 14–18). Sendai.

University of Oxford. (2020). Number of deaths from earthquakes, world . https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/earthquake-deaths

Wagner, I., & Breil, P. (2013). The role of Ecohydrology in creating more resilient cities. Ecohydrology & Hydrobiology, 13 (2), 113–134. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecohyd.2013.06.002 .

Wamsler, C., Brink, E., & Rivera, C. (2013). Planning for climate change in urban areas: From theory to practice. Journal of Cleaner Production, 50 , 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2012.12.008 .

Wardekker, J. A., de Jong, A., Knoop, J. M., & van der Sluijs, J. P. (2010). Operationalising a resilience approach to adapting an urban delta to uncertain climate changes. Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 77 (6), 987–998. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2009.11.005 .

Waters, D., Watt, W. E., Marsalek, J., & Anderson, B. C. (2003). Adaptation of a storm drainage system to accommodate increased rainfall resulting from climate change. Journal of Environmental Planning and Management, 46 (5), 755–770. https://doi.org/10.1080/0964056032000138472 .

WCED, UNCED. (1987). Our common future . NY, USA.

WHO. (2020). Floods 2020 . https://www.who.int/health-topics/floods#tab=tab_1

Wilson, M. P., Foulger, G. R., Gluyas, J. G., Davies, R. J., & Julian, B. R. (2017). HiQuake: The human-induced earthquake database. Seismological Research Letters, 88 (6), 1560–1565. https://doi.org/10.1785/0220170112 .

World Health Organization. (1996). The world health report: 1996: Fighting disease, fostering development . Geneva: World Health Organization.

Zhang, X., & Li, H. (2018). Urban resilience and urban sustainability: What we know and what do not know? Cities, 72 , 141–148. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2017.08.009 .

Download references

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

School of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran

Sara Nazif & Mohammad Masoud Mohammadpour Khoie

Center of Excellence in Risk Management and Natural Hazards, Isfahan University of Technology, Isfahan, Iran

Saeid Eslamian

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Sara Nazif .

Editor information

Editors and affiliations.

McGill University, Montréal, QC, Canada

Faezeh Eslamian

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2021 Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Nazif, S., Mohammadpour Khoie, M.M., Eslamian, S. (2021). Urban Disaster Management and Resilience. In: Eslamian, S., Eslamian, F. (eds) Handbook of Disaster Risk Reduction for Resilience. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-61278-8_7

Download citation

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-61278-8_7

Published : 15 June 2021

Publisher Name : Springer, Cham

Print ISBN : 978-3-030-61277-1

Online ISBN : 978-3-030-61278-8

eBook Packages : Earth and Environmental Science Earth and Environmental Science (R0)

Share this chapter

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Publish with us

Policies and ethics

• Find a journal
• Track your research

Know how the COVID-19 pandemic can affect disaster preparedness and recovery, and what you can do to keep yourself and others safe.

Preparing for an Earthquake

There are many places in the United States, called “fault zones,” that are at risk for serious earthquakes. These include states along the west coast, in the south, and in the central United States. While very strong or intense earthquakes are rare, less powerful earthquakes can also be dangerous. The key to surviving an earthquake and reducing your risk of injury lies in planning, preparing, and practicing what you and your loved ones will do if it happens.

Be Ready! Earthquakes Infographic Learn more > [PDF - 143 KB]

Know the signs of an earthquake.

During an earthquake, you may hear a roaring or rumbling sound that gradually gets louder. You may also feel a rolling sensation that starts out gently and, within a second or two, grows violent.

You may first be jarred by a violent jolt. A second or two later, you may feel shaking and find it difficult to stand up or move from one room to another.

Learn the safe spots.

During an earthquake, most deaths and injuries are caused by collapsing building materials and heavy falling objects, such as bookcases, cabinets, and heating units.

• Learn the safe spots in each room of your home. A safe spot may be underneath a sturdy table away from walls or underneath your covers with a pillow over your head if you are already in bed.

Plan and practice what to do if an earthquake strikes.

By planning and practicing what to do if an earthquake strikes, you and your loved ones can learn to react correctly and automatically when the shaking begins.

• Get the entire family to practice an earthquake drill, especially if you have children . Participating in an earthquake drill will help you and your loved ones understand what to do in case you are not with them during an earthquake.
• Make sure you and your children also understand the school’s emergency procedures for disasters. This will help you coordinate where, when, and how to reunite with your children after an earthquake.

Drop, cover, and hold on during your earthquake drill.

• DROP down onto your hands and knees immediately. This position protects you from falling but still allows you to move if necessary.
• COVER your head and neck (and your entire body if possible) underneath a sturdy table or desk. If there is no shelter nearby, get down near an interior wall or next to low-lying furniture that won’t fall on you, and cover your head and neck with your arms and hands. Try to stay clear of windows or glass that could shatter or objects that could fall on you.
• HOLD ON to your shelter (or to your head and neck) until the shaking stops. Be prepared to move with your shelter if the shaking shifts it around.

Create an evacuation plan.

If an earthquake happens, you and your loved ones may need to evacuate a damaged area afterward. By planning and practicing for evacuation, you will be better prepared to respond appropriately and efficiently to signs of danger or to directions by civil authorities.

• Take a few minutes with your family to discuss a home evacuation plan. Sketch a floor plan of your home, walk through each room, and discuss evacuation details. If you live downstream from a dam, know flood-zone information.
• Plan a second way to exit from each room or area, if possible. If you need special equipment, such as a rope ladder, mark where it is located.
• Mark where your emergency supply kit (including food, water, first aid) and fire extinguishers are located.
• Locate where the utility switches or valves are located so that they can be turned off, if possible.
• Indicate the location of your family’s emergency outdoor meeting place.

Create an emergency supply kit.

Stock up on emergency supplies that can be used after an earthquake. These supplies should include a first aid kit and emergency supply kits for the home and automobile , including emergency water and food . Store enough supplies to last at least 3 days.

You should also make a list of important information (like telephone numbers of emergency contacts, insurance information, and important medical information) and  gather any important documents (like medical documents, birth certificates, and passports). Store these items in a secure location like a fireproof or waterproof safe.

Items for your home

Assemble an emergency supply kit for your home. In addition to your standard emergency supply kit, some additional items that may help after an earthquake include the following:

• A rope for towing or rescue
• Sturdy shoes that can provide protection from broken glass, nails, and other debris
• Gloves (heavy and durable for cleaning up debris)
• Fire extinguisher (multipurpose, dry chemical type)
• A whistle or other signaling device carried in your purse or backpack

Prepare your home for earthquakes

Secure hazards in your home..

Tips for Securing Shelves

To keep items from falling off open shelves, attach a wooden or metal guardrail to each shelf. You can also use fishing line for a less visible alternative.

You should also make sure to place heavy or large objects on lower shelves. Use Velcro®-type fastenings to secure some items to their shelves.

Make sure to inspect your home and its surrounding for any possible hazards and secure them if you can. Remember: anything can move, fall, or break during an earthquake or its aftershocks.

• Identify potential hazards in each room, including windows and other glass items, unanchored bookcases, furniture that can topple, items on shelves, and areas that could be blocked by falling debris. Secure them, where possible, with “L” brackets, corner brackets, aluminum molding, or eyebolts.
• Secure cabinet doors by installing sliding bolts or childproof latches.
• Secure your large appliances (like refrigerators, water heaters, and stoves) with flexible cable, braided wire, or metal strapping. Wrap your water heater and attach it to wall studs.
• Move heavy mirrors and pictures hanging above beds, chairs, and other places where you sit or sleep. Otherwise, anchor these items with wire through eye screws bolted into wall studs. Or place screws on both sides, top, and bottom of the frame and screw these into the studs.
• Replace heavy ceramic or glass hanging planters with light-weight plastic or wicker baskets.
• Identify poisons, solvents, or toxic materials in breakable containers and move these containers to a safe, well-ventilated storage area. Keep them away from your water storage and out of reach of children and pets.

Inspect and secure your home’s structure.

Examine the structural safety of your house. If your house is of conventional wood construction, it will probably be relatively resistant to earthquake damage, particularly if it is a single-story structure.

• Strengthen the areas of connection between beams, posts, joists, and plates using “T” and “L” straps, mending plates, joist hangers, twin post caps, and nails and lap screws. Pay particular attention to exposed framing in garages, basements, porches, and patio covers.
• Check your chimney or roof for loose tiles and bricks that could fall in an earthquake. Repair loose tiles or bricks, as needed.
• Protect yourself from falling chimney bricks that might penetrate the roof, by reinforcing the ceiling immediately surrounding the chimney with 3/4-inch plywood nailed to ceiling joists.

For information on structural safety standards and qualified contractors in your area, contact your city or county government office on community development or building code enforcement. If you want to do the work yourself, many hardware or home-improvement stores will assist you with information and instructions.

Shut off utilities.

• Know where and how to shut off utilities, including gas, electricity, and water, at the main switches or valves. Check with your local utility companies for instructions.
• Teach all family members how and when to shut off utilities.
• Visit Safety Skills: Ready.gov to learn more.

Disaster Resources

Health and Safety Concerns for All Disasters

American Red Cross Earthquake Safety

FEMA’s Earthquake Safety Checklist [PDF – 3.5 MB]

Earthquakes – Ready.gov

Exit Notification / Disclaimer Policy

• The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) cannot attest to the accuracy of a non-federal website.
• Linking to a non-federal website does not constitute an endorsement by CDC or any of its employees of the sponsors or the information and products presented on the website.
• You will be subject to the destination website's privacy policy when you follow the link.
• CDC is not responsible for Section 508 compliance (accessibility) on other federal or private website.

Talk to our experts

1800-120-456-456

• Earthquake Essay

Download the Earthquake Essay Available on Vedantu’s Website.

Earthquakes are some of the most devastating natural disasters. Millions of dollars worth of property are damaged and a hundred die every time a big magnitude of eater quake strikes.  It is in this regard that everyone must read and know about earthquakes and be prepared to mitigate the damage. Furthermore, the topic of earthquakes is quite often asked in exams. Preparing for this topic will enable them to have an edge and score more marks in the English paper.

To serve the above-mentioned purpose, Vedantu has come up with the Earthquake essay. This essay is prepared by the experts who know what exactly is required to know and weeding out points that are not important. The essay is very precise and would surely allow students to successfully claim marks in the essay question and even stay prepared when an earthquake actually strikes.

What is an Earthquake?

When the earth’s surface shakes, the phenomenon is referred to as an earthquake. Precisely, the sudden trembling of the earth’s surface is the cause of an earthquake. Earthquakes are regarded as one of the deadliest natural disasters. Huge damage and loss of property are caused by earthquakes. There are various types of earthquakes. Some of them are severe in nature. The most dangerous thing about an earthquake is that it is quite unpredictable. It can cause several damages without any previous indication. The intensity of an earthquake is measured by the Richter’s scale. Generally, earthquakes occur due to the movement of tectonic plates under the earth’s surface.

Types of Earthquake

There are four kinds of earthquakes namely 

Tectonic Earthquake,

Volcanic Earthquake, 

Collapse Earthquake and 

Explosive Earthquake.

Tectonic Earthquake 

It is caused due to the movement of the slab of rocks of uneven shapes that lie underneath the earth’s crust. Apart from that, energy is stored in the earth’s crust. Tectonic plates are pushed away from each other or towards each other due to the energy. A pressure is formed because of the energy and movement as time passes. A fault line is formed due to severe pressure. The center point of this dispersion is the epicenter of the earthquake. Subsequently, traveling of the waves of energy from focus to the surface causes the tremor.

Volcanic Earthquake

The earthquake caused by volcanic activity is called a volcanic earthquake. These kinds of earthquakes are of weaker magnitudes. Volcanic earthquakes are categorized into two types. In the first type, which is called volcano-tectonic, shaking happens due to input or withdrawal of Magma. In the second type, which is termed as Long-period earthquake, tremors occur due to changing of pressure among the earth’s layers.

Collapse Earthquake

Collapse Earthquake is the third type of earthquake that occurs in the caverns and mines. This is another example of a weak magnitude earthquake. Mines collapsed due to underground blasts. Consequently, seismic waves are formed due to this collapsing. Earthquakes occur because of these seismic waves.

Explosive Earthquake

The fourth type of earthquake is called an explosive earthquake. This is caused due to the testing of nuclear weapons.

Effects of Earthquake

The effects of earthquakes are very severe and deadly. 

It can cause irreparable damage to property and loss of human lives. The lethality of an earthquake depends on its distance from the epicentre. 

Damage to establishments is the direct impact of an earthquake. In the hilly areas, several landslides are caused due to earthquakes.  

Another major impact of an earthquake is soil liquefaction. Losing the strength of water-saturated granular material is the cause behind this. The rigidity of soil is totally lost due to this.

Since the earthquake affects the electric power and gas lines, it can cause a fire to break out. 

Deadly Tsunamis are caused due to earthquakes. Gigantic sea waves are caused by the sudden or abnormal movement of huge volumes of water. This is called an earthquake in the ocean. When tsunamis hit the sea coasts, they cause a massive loss of lives and properties. 

Earthquake is termed as one of the most huge and lethal natural disasters in the world. It proves the fact that human beings are just nothing in front of nature. The sudden occurrence of earthquakes shocks everyone. Scientists are working rigorously to prevent the damage of earthquakes, but nothing fruitful has been achieved yet.

Examples of Devastating Earthquake

The city of Kobe in Japan witnessed a devastating earthquake on January  17, 1995, killing more than 6,000 and making more than 45,000 people homeless.  The magnitude of the quake was 6.9 at the moment which caused damage of around 100 million dollars.  The governor of Kobe spent years on reconstruction and made efforts to bring back fifty thousand people who had left home.  Japan geologically is a highly active country. It lies upon four major tectonic plates namely, Eurasian, Philippine, Pacific, and North American which frequently meet and interact.

The second incident is in Nepal where an earthquake struck on April 25, 2015. About 9000 people were killed and almost 600,000 structures were destroyed.  The magnitude of the quake was 7.9 and the repels were felt by neighbouring countries like Bangladesh, China and India.  The disaster caused severe damage of millions of dollars. All the countries across the world including India garnered to help Nepal by sending monetary aid, medical supplies, transport helicopters and others.

FAQs on Earthquake Essay

1. How to download the Earthquake Essay?

The Earthquake essay is available on Vedantu's website in PDF format. The PDF could be downloaded on any device, be it android, apple or windows.    One just has to log on to www.vedantu.com and download the document. The document is totally free of cost and a student does not need to pay any prior registration fee.  

2. How to protect oneself during an earthquake?

Earthquakes could be very disastrous and can cause a lot of collateral damage.  During an earthquake you can look for the corners to hide. Another safe place to hide is under the table or under the bed. If one is sitting in a multistory building, avoid taking a lift and only use the stairs. In this kind of situation, one should never panic and stay calm.  Let the earthquake pass until then keep hiding in the safe spot. Once over, come out to evaluate the situation and take appropriate actions.

3. How to mitigate the effects of an earthquake?

Prevention is better than cure. It is always a better idea to take necessary actions before an earthquake has struck. In the first place, send a copy of all your documents to someone reliable. In case of an earthquake that destroys your important documents, there would always remain a facility to retrieve them.  Research and know if your city is in a seismic zone.  One should also take note of earthquakes during the construction of a house and lay emphasis on a seismic-proof house.

4. How can one teach people about the effects of an earthquake?

There are many ways one can raise awareness about the effects of earthquakes.  There is Youtube and Instagram which could be used to disseminate all the knowledge about the earthquake and its impact on humans. You can also go to schools and colleges to conduct a seminar whereby the students could be told about the mitigation and steps to take when an earthquake strikes.  However before that, one must thoroughly research the topic. For this, visit www.vedntu.com and download the earthquake essay for free.

5. Who has written the Earthquake essay?

The earthquake essay provided by Vedantu is prepared by expert teachers who invest a good amount of time and effort to come up with an essay that is highly useful for the students in their personal lives as well as for their academic performance. The students can use this essay to maximize their abilities to cope with the questions on earthquakes and the earthquake itself. The essay is totally reliable and one mustn’t doubt its credibility at all.

• Earth Science

Protection Against Earthquake

Earthquakes are highly destructive natural disasters, leading to significant loss of life and extensive damage to property on a global scale each year. In response, the disaster management committee has implemented various safety measures to minimize the devastating effects of these catastrophic events. Developing effective strategies and promoting disaster management awareness is paramount in mitigating the impact of earthquakes and ensuring our safety. This article aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of earthquakes, including their causes and effects, along with detailed instructions on how to respond during and after an earthquake.

What is an Earthquake?

An earthquake refers to the shaking of the earth’s surface caused by a sudden release of energy within the earth’s crust. This release of energy generates seismic waves, commonly known as S waves. The intensity and characteristics of an earthquake are determined by the seismic activities occurring in a specific region.

During an earthquake, the stored energy accumulated within the earth’s crust is suddenly released, leading to the rapid movement and displacement of rock masses along fault lines. This movement produces vibrations that propagate through the earth in the form of seismic waves. The two primary types of seismic waves are S (secondary) and P (primary) waves .

S waves, also called shear waves, travel through the earth by causing particles to move perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation. These waves are responsible for the side-to-side shaking motion experienced during an earthquake. On the other hand, P waves, or compression waves, cause particles to move in the same direction as the wave propagation. P waves are the first detected during an earthquake and are responsible for the initial abrupt jolts.

Understanding the nature of earthquakes and the behaviour of seismic waves is crucial for assessing the potential risks associated with these natural disasters. It enables scientists and experts to study seismic patterns, develop early warning systems, establish building codes for earthquake-resistant structures and educate communities on preparedness and response measures.

What Causes an Earthquake?

Earthquakes occur due to sudden tectonic movements within the Earth’s crust. The Earth’s crust is divided into large sections called tectonic plates , which float on the semi-fluid layer known as the asthenosphere. These plates are constantly in motion, albeit very slowly.

When two tectonic plates interact, various types of boundaries can form, such as convergent and divergent and transform boundaries. The most powerful and destructive earthquakes typically occur at convergent boundaries, where two plates collide or slide past each other.

At a convergent boundary, one tectonic plate may be forced beneath another in a process called subduction. As the plates collide or slide past each other, immense pressure and friction build-up. Eventually, the stress becomes too great, causing the rocks along the plate boundaries to break and slip. This sudden release of stored energy generates seismic waves, resulting in an earthquake.

In addition to tectonic movements, other geological activities can also trigger earthquakes. Volcanic activity, for instance, can cause earthquakes when magma rises through the Earth’s crust, creating pressure and fracturing the rocks around the volcano. The disturbances caused by these movements and ruptures within the Earth’s crust generate vibrations that propagate in all directions, shaking the ground. These vibrations are the seismic waves that travel through the Earth and are detected by seismographs.

It’s important to note that the build-up of stress and the subsequent release of energy in the form of shock waves are the fundamental mechanisms behind earthquakes. The magnitude or strength of an earthquake is determined by the amount of energy released during this process.

Delve Deeper into the Causes of Earthquakes

We present to you an insightful video that explores the fascinating mechanisms behind seismic activity. By watching this video, you’ll gain a deeper understanding of how earthquakes are caused and the factors that contribute to their occurrence.

What to do During an Earthquake?

When it comes to earthquakes, being prepared can make all the difference. Here are some essential steps to take before the disaster strikes:

Before the Earthquake

• Make Connections Flexible

Ensure that gas lines and appliances are properly installed with flexible connections. This helps prevent gas leaks and reduces the risk of fire hazards during an earthquake.

• Create an Earthquake Readiness Plan

Develop a well-thought-out plan that includes identifying a shelter area in your home. Stock up on essential supplies such as canned food, a well-stocked first aid kit, ample water, dust masks, goggles, firefighting equipment, a flashlight and a working battery-operated radio. These provisions will prove invaluable in the event of an earthquake.

• Consult Architects and Structural Engineers

Building sturdy structures is vital for minimizing earthquake damage and ensuring the safety of occupants. If you reside in an earthquake-prone area, it’s crucial to consult with architects and structural engineers before constructing buildings. They can guide you in implementing the necessary measures and adhering to regulations set by the disaster management committee.

• Spread Awareness

Share the knowledge and importance of earthquake preparedness with your friends and family. By educating those around you, you contribute to creating a safer community.

During the Earthquake

When an earthquake strikes, quick thinking and appropriate actions can save lives. Here are some important guidelines to follow:

• Stay Indoors

Remain indoors until the shaking stops and it is officially announced that it is safe to exit. Taking cover beneath a sturdy table or bed can provide vital protection against falling objects.

• Avoid Hazardous Areas

Steer clear of bookcases, heavy furniture and appliances that may topple over during the earthquake. Your safety should always be the top priority.

• Find a Safe Spot

Seek shelter under a sturdy piece of furniture, such as a table or bed. Hold on to a post or any other fixture to maintain stability and minimize the risk of injury.

• If Outdoors, Move to an Open Area

If you are outside when the earthquake occurs, find a clear spot away from buildings, trees and power lines. These objects pose a significant danger during seismic activity.

After the Earthquake

Once the earthquake subsides, it’s important to proceed with caution and take the following measures:

• Administer First Aid

Attend to individuals with minor injuries using first aid kits. For those with more severe injuries, it’s essential to wait for professional medical help and avoid moving them until it is safe.

• CPR and Rescue Breathing

If someone is not breathing, administer rescue breathing. If the person has no pulse, perform CPR (cardiopulmonary resuscitation) until medical assistance arrives.

• Be Mindful of Hazards

Attend any tumbling shelves or falling items and be cautious around damaged walls made of bricks or other unstable materials. Your safety should be a priority.

• Check Gas and Power Connections

Inspect gas valves for leaks and turn off the main power switch if damage is possible. Unplug broken appliances until they can be properly repaired.

• Stay Clear of Power Lines

Keep a safe distance from downed power lines and any objects or appliances in contact with them. Electricity poses a significant risk, so exercise caution.

By following these guidelines, you can ensure your safety and the well-being of those around you during and after an earthquake. Remember, preparedness and knowledge are key to effectively managing these natural disasters. Stay informed and stay safe!

Enhancing Preparedness with Disaster Management

In times of uncertainty, being equipped with the knowledge and strategies to navigate through natural disasters is crucial. In this section, we present an insightful video that sheds light on the broader concept of disaster management and its significance during both predicted and unpredictable calamities.

What are the Effects of an Earthquake?

Earthquakes can have a wide range of effects, varying in severity depending on factors such as the quake’s magnitude, the depth of its epicentre and the local geology. Here are some of the primary effects caused by earthquakes:

• Ground Shaking: When an earthquake occurs, the release of energy creates seismic waves that cause the ground to shake. The intensity of the shaking can vary depending on factors such as the magnitude of the earthquake, the distance from the epicentre and the local geology. Areas closer to the epicentre usually experience more intense shaking, which can significantly damage structures and infrastructure.
• Damage to Man-Made Structures: One of the most noticeable effects of an earthquake is the damage it can cause to buildings, bridges, roads and other man-made structures. The shaking can lead to structural failure, collapse and extensive damage, especially if the buildings are not designed or constructed to withstand seismic activity. The severity of the damage depends on factors such as the quality of construction, adherence to building codes and proximity to the epicentre.
• Fires and Hazardous Chemical Spills: Earthquakes can trigger secondary hazards, such as fires and hazardous material spills. The violent shaking can rupture gas pipelines, damage electrical systems and disrupt infrastructure, leading to the ignition of fires. Additionally, earthquakes can cause the release of hazardous chemicals stored in industrial facilities, posing risks to human health and the environment. These secondary effects can further exacerbate the impact of an earthquake and complicate rescue and recovery efforts.
• Landslides and Avalanches: In areas with steep slopes or unstable terrain, earthquakes can trigger landslides and avalanches. The shaking can destabilize slopes, causing rocks, soil and debris to slide downhill. Landslides can damage structures, block roads and even bury entire communities, leading to additional casualties and hindering rescue and relief operations access.
• Tsunamis: Underwater earthquakes can generate tsunamis, particularly those occurring along tectonic plate boundaries. These massive ocean waves can travel long distances, reaching coastal areas and causing devastating flooding. Tsunamis pose a significant threat to coastal communities and can result in widespread destruction and loss of life.

Understanding the potential effects of earthquakes is crucial for implementing appropriate mitigation measures and developing effective disaster response plans. It is important to note that these are just some of the effects that earthquakes can have. The severity and extent of these effects depend on various factors, including the earthquake’s characteristics, the impacted area’s location and the affected communities’ preparedness and resilience.

Understanding Seismograph and the Richter scale

A seismograph and the Richter scale are essential tools used in seismology to understand and characterise earthquakes. While they are related to each other, they serve different purposes. Here’s an elaboration on the difference between a seismograph and the richter scale.

Seismograph

• A seismograph is a device used to measure and record the vibrations or ground motions caused by earthquakes. 
• It consists of a ground motion sensor, typically a mass attached to a fixed base and a recording system that captures the movements detected by the sensor. 
• Seismographs are essential in monitoring seismic activity, as they provide valuable data about the intensity, duration and frequency of ground shaking. 
• By analyzing the recorded seismograms, scientists can determine various characteristics of an earthquake, such as its magnitude, location and focal depth.
• Seismographs also detect other seismic events, such as volcanic eruptions and underground explosions.

Richter scale

• The Richter scale, developed by Charles F. Richter in the 1930s, is a numerical scale used to quantify the magnitude or strength of an earthquake.
•  It measures the energy released during an earthquake by analyzing the amplitude of seismic waves recorded on seismographs. 
• The Richter scale is logarithmic, meaning that each whole number increase on the scale corresponds to a tenfold increase in the amplitude of the seismic waves and approximately 31.6 times more energy released. For example, a magnitude six earthquake releases about 31.6 times more energy than a magnitude five earthquake. 
• The Richter scale provides a standardized measurement for consistent comparison of worldwide earthquake magnitudes.

Difference Between Seismograph and Richter scale

In summary, a seismograph is a device used to measure and record the ground motions caused by earthquakes. The Seismograph provides the data necessary to calculate the magnitude of an earthquake, which is then represented on the Richter scale. At the same time, the Richter scale is a numerical scale used to quantify the energy released during an earthquake. Together, these tools help seismologists and scientists better understand and characterise seismic events, enabling them to assess the impact and potential hazards associated with earthquakes.

Frequently Asked Questions – FAQs

What is an earthquake.

An earthquake is shaking the Earth’s surface caused by a sudden release of energy within the Earth’s crust. It generates seismic waves, commonly known as S waves, and its intensity and characteristics are determined by the seismic activities occurring in a specific region.

What causes an earthquake?

Earthquakes occur due to sudden tectonic movements within the Earth’s crust. These movements result from interactions between tectonic plates, large sections of the Earth’s crust that float on the semi-fluid layer known as the asthenosphere. When stress along plate boundaries becomes too great, rocks along the boundaries break and slip, releasing stored energy and generating seismic waves.

What should I do during an earthquake?

It is important to take appropriate actions during an earthquake to ensure safety. Some key steps to follow include staying indoors, taking cover under a sturdy piece of furniture, avoiding hazardous areas, and, if outdoors, moving to an open area away from buildings, trees and power lines.

What should I do before an earthquake?

What are the effects of an earthquake.

Earthquakes can have various effects, including ground shaking, damage to man-made structures, fires and hazardous chemical spills, landslides and avalanches and the generation of tsunamis in coastal areas. The severity of these effects depends on factors such as the earthquake’s magnitude, depth and local geology.

What is the difference between a seismograph and the Richter scale?

A seismograph is a device used to measure and record the vibrations or ground motions caused by earthquakes. It provides the data necessary to calculate the magnitude of an earthquake. On the other hand, the Richter scale is a numerical scale used to quantify the energy released during an earthquake. It provides a standardized measurement for comparing earthquake magnitudes worldwide.

Related Topics and Educational Videos

In addition to understanding earthquakes and their impact, exploring related topics that contribute to a comprehensive understanding of natural disasters and their effects is valuable. The following collection of educational videos offers insights into various topics, including volcanic eruptions, drought and famine, types of disasters, landslides and cyclones. By watching these videos, you can broaden your knowledge and understand the interconnectedness of Earth’s natural processes.

Types of Disasters Video

Natural and Man-made Disasters

How do Volcanoes Erupt?

What causes Drought and Famine?

What causes Landslides?

What causes cyclones?

Stay tuned to BYJU’S and Fall in Love with Learning !

Put your understanding of this concept to test by answering a few MCQs. Click ‘Start Quiz’ to begin!

Select the correct answer and click on the “Finish” button Check your score and answers at the end of the quiz

Visit BYJU’S for all Physics related queries and study materials

Your result is as below

Request OTP on Voice Call

Leave a Comment Cancel reply

Your Mobile number and Email id will not be published. Required fields are marked *

Post My Comment

Very good article

thank u for info it helped me for my project work #thanks

The definitions are very good and useful.

Yes I also like it because it help me in project………..

Thank you for this amazing article.

Nice,I like the byjus app

The definitions really helped me Thanks 😊👍

i got a birilliant idea from this content ! thnx for such content !

nice information

The content written here is quite and very good ☺️👍 appreciated

Nice answer

very good , it helped in my project alot

It’s really nice 🙂

• Share Share

Register with BYJU'S & Download Free PDFs

Register with byju's & watch live videos.

[Disaster Series] Earthquakes and its Management in India

Among the disasters earthquakes are by far the most unpredictable and destructible. India has seen some of the greatest earthquakes in the last century. The turning of the century brought devastating Bhuj earthquake in 2001. Earthquakes are a prominent danger in India’s disaster profile which has caused huge loss of life and material. Recently, powerful tremors were felt in India following an earthquake of magnitude 6.6 that struck Nepal, killing a few people and destroying many homes.

This topic of “[Disaster Series] Earthquakes and its Management in India” is important from the perspective of the UPSC IAS Examination , which falls under General Studies Portion.

What are Earthquakes?

• An earthquake is shaking of the earth caused due to the release of energy from the earth’s interior, which generates waves that travel in all directions.
• An earthquake can range from minor tremors to large building shanking shock.
• Minor tremors caused by small vibrations occur every few minutes but great earthquakes happen because of faulting (Normal, reverse and strike-slip) cause a great number of disruptions.

Express Learning Programme (ELP)

• Optional Notes
• Study Hacks
• Prelims Sureshots (Repeated Topic Compilations)
• Current Affairs (Newsbits, Editorials & In-depths)
• Ancient Indian History
• Medieval Indian History
• Modern Indian History
• Post-Independence Indian History
• World History
• Art & Culture
• Geography (World & Indian)
• Indian Society & Social Justice
• Indian Polity
• International Relations
• Indian Economy
• Environment 
• Agriculture
• Internal Security
• Disasters & its Management
• General Science – Biology
• General Studies (GS) 4 – Ethics
• Syllabus-wise learning
• Political Science
• Anthropology
• Public Administration

SIGN UP NOW

What are the various types of the earthquake?

• Tectonic Earthquakes
• Generated due to sliding of the rocks along the fault plane.
• This is the most commonly occurring type of earthquake.
• Volcanic Earthquake
• Occur due to volcanic activities and displacement caused because of those.
• These are confined to areas of active volcanoes.
• Collapse Earthquake
• These occur in the areas of intense mining.
• Roofs of underground mines collapse that cause tremors.
• Explosion Earthquakes

Ground shaking caused by huge explosions like a nuclear explosion and chemical explosion

• Reservoir induced Earthquakes

These occur in the areas of huge reservoirs like dams.

As can be seen, unlike some other kinds of disaster, the earthquake zones can be demarcated. The earthquake zone mapping helps in planning for mitigating the losses that occurred due to earthquakes.

Prelims Sureshots – Most Probable Topics for UPSC Prelims

A Compilation of the Most Probable Topics for UPSC Prelims, including Schemes, Freedom Fighters, Judgments, Acts, National Parks, Government Agencies, Space Missions, and more. Get a guaranteed 120+ marks!

India and earthquakes

• India has had its share in some of the devastating earthquakes.
• More than 58.6% of the Indian land is prone to moderate to very high-intensity earthquakes.
• Some of the great earthquakes in India
• Cutch Earthquake (1819) which was 8.3 magnitude
• Assam Earthquake (1897)
• Bihar-Nepal Earthquake (1934) of 8.4 magnitude
• Koyna Earthquake (1967) of 6.5 magnitude
• Uttarkashi (1991) of 6.6 magnitude
• Killari (1993) of 6.4 magnitude
• Bhuj (2001) of 7.7 magnitude
• Jammu Kashmir (2005)

What are the reasons for the Earthquakes in India?

• Himalayan belt – Collision between Indo-Austral plate with Eurasian plate and Burma Plate with Java Sumatra plate. This collision causes lots of strain in underlying rocks’ energy of which is released in the form of earthquakes.
• Andaman and Nicobar Islands – Seafloor displacement and underwater volcanoes which disturb the equilibrium of earth’s surface
• Deccan Plateau – some earth scientists have come up with a theory of the emergence of a fault line and energy build-up along the fault line of the river Bhima (Krishna) near Latur and Osmanabad (Maharashtra).
• Increasing population and unscientific land use in construction make India a high-risk land for earthquakes.

What are the consequences of an earthquake?

Earthquake is characterized by suddenness, scale, and magnitude. These three characters make it extremely dangerous when it comes to life and property without any discrimination. The impacts of the earthquake can be summarized as below

Within the period between 1990 and 2006, around 23,000 lives were lost because of major earthquakes in India.

• Damage to property

The upheaval caused by an earthquake does huge damage to the property. Especially in a developed area of high population density, the damage to the property is huge.

• Changes in the river course

One of the important impacts of the earthquake is the change in the river course due to blockage.

Earthquakes when happening in the ocean basin creates huge waves that strike on the coast creating huge damages. The 2004 Tsunami in Sumatra brought Tsunami to the east coast of India.

• Mud fountains

Due to the huge impact of the earthquake, mud and hot water may emerge on the surface. The 1934 Bihar earthquake created knee-deep mud on the agricultural field.

If the earthquake happens in areas of dams, reservoirs, the damage is multiplied.

The flood may result due to damage caused to the dams.

• Landslides and Avalanches

Earthquake in hilly and mountain areas may cause landslides and avalanches

• Fire hazards

Earthquakes cause damage to electric property and gas pipes. Due to the havoc caused by the earthquake, it is even difficult to contain the fire.

Earthquake management in India

Earthquake management in India, Disaster management for that matter, goes through different stages. Some of the critical areas of earthquake management in India are

• Awareness among various stakeholders
• Structural mitigation measures
• Monitoring and enforcement of earthquake-resistant building codes and appropriate town planning.
• Proper earthquake response planning
• System of decentralized response
• Trained manpower to deal with the disaster
• Building back better

Disaster management action plan can be summarized pictographically in the following way

Hence first comes the awareness of earthquake-prone areas. Earthquake mapping is an essential component of that awareness regime.

Earthquake mapping in India

Bureau of Indian Standards [IS 1893 (Part I):2002], has divided the country into four seismic zones, Zone-II, III, IV and V. Zone V is the most active region and zone II is the least seismically active region.

Entire northeast India, parts of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttaranchal, Rann of Kutch in Gujarat, part of North Bihar and Andaman & Nicobar Islands.

Parts of Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh, Delhi, Sikkim, parts of Gujarat and small portions of Maharashtra near the west coast, Rajasthan, Northern Parts of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal.

Remaining parts of Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat and West Bengal, Parts of Punjab, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Kerala, Goa, Lakshadweep islands, Maharashtra, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, and Karnataka.

• Zone II covers remaining parts of the country

The earthquake preparedness, rather disaster management, and preparedness was an evolutionary road.

• The Indian government set up a High-Powered Committee in 1999 and a National Committee after the Gujarat earthquake, to make recommendations on effective preparedness and mitigation mechanisms.
• The Tenth Five-Year Plan document included a detailed chapter on Disaster Management.
• The Twelfth Finance Commission was mandated to review the financial arrangements for Disaster Management and preparedness.
• In December 2005, the Disaster Management Act was enacted

The Disaster management act envisaged the creation of

• National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA), headed by the Prime Minister

to implement activities of Disaster Management in India

• State Disaster Management Authorities (SDMAs) headed by respective Chief Ministers to do the same at the state level.
• Earthquake is an essential part of India’s disaster preparedness challenges.
• Structure of NDMA

Some Important measures to prevent and mitigate earthquake loss

• The National Center for Seismology
• An office of the Ministry of Earth Sciences. It submits earthquake surveillance and hazard reports to governmental agencies.
• It includes three divisions: Earthquake Monitoring & Services, Earthquake Hazard & Risk Assessment, Geophysical Observation System.
• National Earthquake Risk Mitigation Project (NERMP)
• Strengthening the structural and non-structural dimensions of earthquake mitigation efforts.
• reducing the vulnerability in the high-risk districts.
• Necessary risk mitigation measures are put in place in the highly seismic zones.
• NDMA, tasked with this project has prepared a Detailed Project Report (DPR).
• National Building Code (NBC)
• Comprehensive building code and a national instrument providing guidelines for regulating the building construction activities across the country.
• First published in 1970 at the instance of the Planning Commission and was revised in 1983. Thereafter three major amendments, two in1987 and the third in 1997 were issued.
• The revised NBC has now been brought out as National Building Code of India 2005 (NBC 2005).
• The salient features are meeting the challenges posed by natural calamities and incorporating the contemporary applicable international best practices.
• Building Materials & Technology Promotion Council (BMTPC)
• undertakes projects for retrofitting of life-line structures to generate awareness among the people and various government agencies.
• aimed to help people at large and the policymakers in particular in working towards reducing the vulnerability of lakhs of existing public and private buildings.
• Initiatives by Ministry of Panchayati Raj
• It releases funds under Backward Regions Grant Fund (BRGF) for meeting critical infrastructural gaps and other developmental requirements.
• The ministry has financed several district plans under the BRGF for construction of panchayat buildings, Anganwadi centres, school buildings, classrooms, roads, bridges, culverts, etc. and restructuring of State Institutes for Rural Development (SIRD) buildings, block resource centres, panchayat training centers, etc.
• National Retrofit Program

The NDMA, along with experts from various IITs and requisite ministries, came out with guidelines on ‘seismic retrofitting’.

The National retrofitting Program was launched under the Home Ministry in 2014 following those guidelines.

• The RBI had asked the banks to deny loans to any building which does not abide by the earthquake resistant structures’ guidelines.
• The government launched two Mobile apps
• ‘India Quake’ – Developed by the National center for seismology, the mobile app disseminates real-time earthquake information.
• ‘Sagar Vani’ -Intended to serve coastal communities, the mobile app disseminates ocean related information and alerts to the user community in a timely manner for their safety.
• The National Disaster Response Force (NDRF) strives to be the first responder at heritage sites, which are vulnerable to disasters such as earthquakes, floods, cyclones, and tsunami across India.

In Earthquake management scenario in India, The NDMA guidelines of 2007 on earthquake preparedness are very important

According to the guidelines, six pillars of earthquake management are

• Earthquake resistant construction of new structures.
• Selective seismic strengthening and retrofitting of existing structures.
• Regulation and enforcement.
• Awareness and preparedness.
• Capacity development.
• Emergency response.

International cooperation in earthquake preparedness

• India is a signatory to the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction which works in disaster management in a very holistic way.
• India works closely with the United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UNISDR).
• Shanghai Cooperation Organization Joint Exercise on Urban Earthquake Search and Rescue- ‘SCOJtEx-2019’ was held in New Delhi.
• The second edition of BIMSTEC Disaster Management Exercise was conducted in Odisha.

Challenges in Earthquake management in India

• The Earthquake-prone zone mainly is a hilly and mountainous region. Retrofitting is difficult and costly in these regions
• There is a dearth of trained manpower in earthquake resistant design and building.
• There is no formal system of competency-based licensing of structural engineers.
• Safety requirements are not well monitored and enforcement of building codes is lacking.
• NDMA said that close to 4,000 multi-storied buildings in Ahmedabad won’t survive a high magnitude earthquake due to a faulty design.
• The mobilization of funds during disasters is still not systemized. The national disaster relief Fund is not publicized enough.
• Difficulty in response coordination in Uttarakhand floods showcases gaps in disaster response regime.
• The awareness generation regime is not strong enough. The training of the local population after disaster activities has not been done effectively.

Way forward

• The NDMA guidelines on earthquake must be implemented in letter and spirit.
• A special earthquake management department must be created in very high and high-risk seismic zones.
• The traditional Khasi model of houses must be promoted in the hilly region.
• Providing tax incentives to people who build earthquake resistance buildings.
• A single point of contact for various divisions of response for better coordination must be developed.
• Local population training and capacity building must be done.
• An effective way to do that would be the empowerment of panchayats and municipal corporations in earthquake management and response.
• Coordination with other departments such as fire department, Irrigation department to negate any after-effects of earthquakes.
• The state governments must be supplemented with the fund and technical expertise.
• Research and development institutes in states like Uttarakhand and other high-risk areas must be set up to localize research and programs.
• Para diplomacy in Disaster relief can be an effective tool of cooperation for high-risk prone states.

Practice Question for Mains

Better Earthquake preparedness is essential in the development of the Himalayan regions. Comment (200 words)

GET MONTHLY COMPILATIONS

Excellent Post, It’s really helpful article

IT WAS GOOD AND IT WAS READEBLE ALSO AND ITS VERY INTRESTING

AND WE CAN WRITE THE NOTES ALSO …….. ITS VERY INTRESTING AND JOYFUL TO EVERYONE….THANK YOU .

nice thanks for the information

There was a problem reporting this post.

Block Member?

Please confirm you want to block this member.

You will no longer be able to:

• See blocked member's posts
• Mention this member in posts

Please allow a few minutes for this process to complete.

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

• View all journals
• My Account Login
• Explore content
• About the journal
• Publish with us
• Sign up for alerts
• Open access
• Published: 08 April 2024

Landslide hazard cascades can trigger earthquakes

• Zhen Zhang   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-1739-1234 1 ,
• Min Liu 1 ,
• Yen Joe Tan   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-6377-7886 1 ,
• Fabian Walter 2 ,
• Siming He 3 ,
• Małgorzata Chmiel   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-5573-9801 2 , 4 &
• Jinrong Su 5  

Nature Communications volume  15 , Article number:  2878 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

2696 Accesses

1 Altmetric

Metrics details

• Natural hazards

While earthquakes are well-known to trigger surface hazards and initiate hazard cascades, whether surface hazards can instead trigger earthquakes remains underexplored. In 2018, two landslides on the Tibetan plateau created landslide-dammed lakes which subsequently breached and caused catastrophic outburst floods. Here we build an earthquake catalog using machine-learning and cross-correlation-based methods which shows there was a statistically significant increase in earthquake activity (local magnitude  ≤  2.6) as the landslide-dammed lake approached peak water level which returned to the background level after dam breach. We further find that ~90% of the seismicity occurred where Coulomb stress increased due to the combined effect of direct loading and pore pressure diffusion. The close spatial and temporal correlation between the calculated Coulomb stress increase and earthquake activity suggests that the earthquakes were triggered by these landslide hazard cascades. Finally, our Coulomb stress modeling considering the properties of landslide-dammed lakes and reservoir-induced earthquakes globally suggests that earthquake triggering by landslide-dammed lakes and similar structures may be a ubiquitous phenomenon. Therefore, we propose that earthquake-surface hazard interaction can include bidirectional triggering which should be properly accounted for during geological hazard assessment and management in mountainous regions.

Similar content being viewed by others

Developments in understanding seismicity triggered by hydraulic fracturing

Gail M. Atkinson, David W. Eaton & Nadine Igonin

A comprehensive suite of earthquake catalogues for the 2016-2017 Central Italy seismic sequence

Lauro Chiaraluce, Maddalena Michele, … Margarita Segou

Complex rupture dynamics of the extremely shallow August 2020 M5.1 Sparta, North Carolina earthquake

Miguel Neves, Lindsay Y. Chuang, … Sidao Ni

Introduction

Mass movements such as landslides, avalanches, and debris flows are regarded as both major hazards and key forms of geomorphic evolution in mountainous regions 1 , 2 , 3 . These surface processes can be triggered by many factors including rainfall 4 , 5 , snow melt 6 , 7 , and human activities 8 , 9 . In seismically active regions, the risk is also heightened since large earthquakes can induce widespread mass wasting with devastating effects 10 , 11 . When these mass movements block rivers and form landslide-dammed lakes (LDLs), subsequent dam breaches may cause catastrophic outburst floods which significantly increase the degree and scope of the disaster 12 , 13 . For example, the 1933 M7.5 Diexi earthquake in the eastern Tibetan plateau directly caused ~7000 fatalities and triggered many large landslides, some of which dammed rivers. These LDLs breached in the following days, generating catastrophic outburst floods which then resulted in >2500 additional fatalities 14 . Therefore, the response of surface processes to earthquakes has been studied extensively, in particular the failure mechanisms of earthquake-triggered landslides 11 , 12 , the quantification and prediction of the spatial distribution of mass movements 13 , 15 , and the geomorphic evolution after earthquakes in mountainous areas 16 , 17 , to improve our ability to mitigate the impact of these complex hazard cascades.

To date, studies about the interaction between earthquakes and mass movements have focused mainly on how earthquakes trigger mass movements and initiate hazard cascades, while a potential earthquake response to mass movements and their hazard cascades has received less attention. However, various studies have shown that processes which change the stress state of the Earth’s crust by surface loading and/or fluid diffusion 18 , 19 , such as earth tides 20 , water storage behind dams 21 , hydraulic fracturing 22 , waste fluid disposal 23 , and lake filling 24 , 25 , 26 , 27 can trigger/induce earthquakes when the stress increase on neighboring active faults exceeds a critical threshold 28 , 29 . Since hazardous mass movements and their complex hazard cascades are often accompanied by sediment redistributions and changes in water storage and associated surface loads 3 , 13 , it is conceivable that the resulting stress changes can trigger earthquakes 30 , 31 , 32 , 33 . This would have important implications for hazard management in seismically active mountain regions.

Here, we use the 2018 Baige landslide hazard cascades (Fig.  1 ) on the Tibetan plateau as a case study to investigate earthquake triggering by LDLs. We quantify the spatiotemporal evolution of seismicity and stress changes on a surrounding fault system due to this hazard cascade. We further use Coulomb stress modeling based on a global LDL database to explore the potential for LDLs to trigger earthquakes.

a Distribution of seismic stations operating since January 2014 (black triangles) and May 2018 (cyan triangles). Red box marks the specific study region where we developed the earthquake catalog. b Seismicity map from January 2014 to January 2023 (gray filled circles) showing strike-slip focal mechanisms (red/white circles) available from the National Earthquake Data Center 39 plus earthquakes that occurred during the week (10 to 16 November 2018) when the second landslide-dammed lake (LDL) reached peak water level (red filled circles). Red box marks the region shown in ( d ). c Magnitude-frequency distribution of earthquakes from May 2018 to January 2023 within 10 km of the LDLs. Magnitude of completeness (Mc) and a - and b -values were calculated using the ZMAP software 40 . d Distribution of earthquakes from May 2018 to January 2023 (gray filled circles) within 10 km of the LDLs plus earthquakes that occurred during the week (10 to 16 November 2018) when the second LDL reached peak water level (red filled circles).

2018 Baige hazard cascades

At 22:05 China Standard Time (CST) on 10 October 2018, a massive landslide occurred at the Baige village on the Tibetan plateau 34 , 35 , 36 , 37 , 38 (Fig.  1 and S 1 ) and deposited 2.5 × 10 7  m 3 of sediments into the Jinsha River 35 . This created a landslide dam with ~1500 m length, >450 m width, and ~60 m height 35 , 36 , 37 (Fig. S 1 ). With an upstream inflow of 1680 m 3 /s (ref. 35 ), the water level of the LDL gradually increased from ~2880 m asl to a peak of ~2932 m asl at 00:45 CST on 13 October (Fig.  2c ), corresponding to inundation up to ~45 km upstream and a peak volume of ~2.9 × 10 8  m 3 (refs. 35 , 36 , 37 ). As the water naturally overflowed the west of the dam, the landslide dam breached rapidly. The outburst flood’s discharge reached a peak of 10,000 m 3 /s at 06:00 CST on 13 October while the LDL’s water level rapidly decreased. Eight hours later at 14:00 CST, the discharge was reduced to that of the upstream lake inflow. However, due to the residual dam, the water level upstream of the dam (~2893 m asl) remained higher than before the landslide.

a Spatial distribution of Coulomb stress change (∆CFS) at depth of 4.5 km corresponding to −0.5 km asl on 13 November 2018 and earthquakes from 10 to 16 November 2018 (green filled circles) within 10 km of the landslide-dammed lakes (LDLs). ∆CFS is from the combined effect of direct gravitational loading and pore pressure diffusion (Fig. 2d). b Cumulative number of earthquakes with local magnitudes greater than or equal to the magnitude of completeness (Mc = 1.1) and weekly seismicity rate over a 5-year period with timings of the two 2018 Baige landslides (black arrows). Gray bar marks the period shown in ( c and d ). c Earthquake magnitudes and measured LDL water level 36 , 37 over a fifty-day period. Gray dashed line marks Mc. d Temporal evolution of ∆CFS at point P ( a ).

About three weeks later at 17:40 CST on 3 November 2018, materials at the trailing edge of the first landslide’s scar suddenly failed and the resulting landslide deposited an additional 8.7 × 10 6  m 3 of sediments on the residual dam formed by the first landslide 35 , 36 , 37 . This formed a new >96 m high landslide dam and a new LDL 35 , 36 , 37 . To mitigate the potential impact of another outburst flood, the Chinese government trenched an artificial spillway of 220 m length, 15 m depth, and >3 m width on the west side of the dam 36 , 37 . Water entered the spillway at 04:45 CST on 12 November marking the initiation of a second outburst flood and the LDL reached a peak water level of 2957 m asl at 13:40 CST on 13 November (Fig.  2c ), corresponding to inundation up to ~70 km upstream and a peak volume of ~5.8 × 10 8  m 3 . At 18:00 CST on 13 November, the outburst flood’s discharge reached a maximum of 31,000 m 3 /s (refs. 35 , 36 , 37 ). Fourteen hours later at 08:00 CST on 14 November, the discharge decreased to the upstream inflow of ~600 m 3 /s. Like for the first LDL outburst, the water level upstream of the dam (2906 m asl) remained higher than before the landslide due to the residual dam (Fig.  2c ).

Seismicity rate increase after Baige LDLs’ formation

Using continuous seismic data recorded by 13 nearby seismic stations from January 2014 to January 2023, we apply machine-learning and cross-correlation-based methods to build an earthquake catalog which contains ~3970 earthquakes with documented magnitude within a region of ~1° \(\times\) 1° (Fig.  1b ). 244 of these earthquakes within 10 km of the LDLs occurred after May 2018 when a denser seismic network began operation. It is well-established that earthquakes can trigger surface hazards and initiate hazard cascades 5 , 6 , 7 , 12 . However, the Baige landslides were not triggered by earthquakes 34 , 35 , 36 , 37 , 38 as no earthquakes with magnitude M L \(\ge\) 3.5 were recorded within 50 km in the 3 preceding years 39 (Figs.  1 and 2 ). Instead, in the week (10 to 16 November) when the second LDL approached its peak water level, 61 earthquakes with local magnitude up to ~2.6 occurred within 10 km of the LDLs.

As the second LDL approached peak water level, the number and magnitude of earthquakes started increasing as the water level rised and then peaked together with the water level peak (Fig.  2 and S 2 ). Subsequently, as the LDL water level decreased following the dam breach, the earthquake activity gradually decreased back to the background rate. 45 of the 61 events in this earthquake sequence occurred before the largest magnitude (M L 2.6) earthquake, and other M L  > 2.6 earthquakes during our observation period all had fewer than 4 aftershocks in the following week (Fig. S 3 ). Therefore, this earthquake sequence is unlikely to be primarily an aftershock sequence of the largest magnitude event. We further verified that only 5 earthquakes (all with M L  < 2.0) occurred within 60 km of the LDLs besides this earthquake sequence as the second LDL approached peak water level (Fig.  1b ), and the largest earthquake that occurred within 60 km of the LDLs in the 6 months before this earthquake sequence has M L 2.7 (Fig. S 4 ). Therefore, the earthquake sequence within 10 km of the LDLs is unlikely to have been triggered by surrounding large earthquakes.

We estimate the magnitude of completeness (Mc) to be 1.1 (ref. 40 ; Fig.  1c ) for the earthquakes within 10 km of the LDLs. There are 62 earthquakes between May 2018 and January 2023 with local magnitude M L \(\ge\) 1.1, 16 of which occurred in the week when the second LDL approached its peak water (Table  S1 ). We then perform declustering using the Reasenberg method 41 , leaving us with 54 events (Fig S 5 ), 9 of which occurred in the week the second LDL approached its peak water level (Fig. S 5 , Table  S1 ). In comparison, there were only 8 earthquakes in the previous 27 weeks (seismicity rate of ~0.3 events/week) and 37 earthquakes in the subsequent ~224 weeks (seismicity rate of ~0.2 events/week) in this region (Table  S1 ). For each of \(\ge\) Mc and declustered catalogs, we consistently find that the increase in seismicity rate is statistically significant at a > 99% level based on both the statistic P (ref. 42 ) and statistic Z (ref. 43 ) tests (Methods). We further confirm that the increase in seismicity rate is also statistically significant at a >99% level (Table  S1 ) based on both the improved statistic based on Poisson probability 44 and an empirically derived statistic 45 (Fig. S 6 ) tests (Methods) which were developed to determine statistically significant changes in earthquake rate under small background rate. Hence, the significant increase in seismicity rate starting when the second LDL approached peak water level (Fig.  2 and S 2 ) suggests that the two are related.

Stress changes caused by Baige LDLs

We further investigate whether the LDLs could have triggered the earthquakes by modeling the Coulomb failure stress changes (∆CFS) on the surrounding fault systems. In our study region, there are three local faults Boluo-Tongmai, Jinshajiang, and Gangtuo-Yidun faults (from west to east) with similar surface traces of ~N50°W (ref. 46 ; Fig.  1a ) though the exact fault dip and slip directions are unknown. Nevertheless, since January 2014, four M > 3.5 earthquakes occurred at distances between 16 and 35 km from the LDLs and have similar left-lateral strike-slip focal mechanisms with strikes that are also ~N50°W and dips of ~75°NE (ref. 39 ; Fig.  1a ). In addition, we find that the first motions recorded by surrounding seismic station of the two largest earthquakes (M L 2.6 and 1.9) as the second LDL approached peak water level are generally consistent with the left-lateral strike-slip focal mechanisms of these surrounding large earthquakes (Fig. S 7 ). Therefore, we take these as our receiver fault geometry for the ∆CFS modeling (Methods). Furthermore, the receiver faults are assumed to be planar and located at 4.5 km depth which is deeper than 95% of our observed seismicity (Fig. S 8 ) and corresponds to ~−0.5 km asl because ~80% of our study area is at elevation between 4 and 5 km asl 35 .

We find that as the LDLs’ water level increased following the landslides, the ∆CFS in the seismic region generally increased due to both the direct gravitational loading of the LDL and pore pressure diffusion, while ∆CFS decreased when the LDLs’ water level decreased following the dam breaches (Fig.  2 and S 9 ). The larger and longer-lasting LDL generated greater ∆CFS. The ∆CFS due to the first, smaller, and shorter-duration LDL peaked at 0.007 MPa which is smaller than the stress increase of >0.01 MPa typically associated with stress triggering of earthquakes (refs. 47 , 48 ; Fig.  2d ). This could explain why there was no significant increase in seismicity rate associated with the first LDL’s formation (Fig.  2c ). In comparison, about 3 weeks later on 3 November, the second landslide formed a larger LDL. The ∆CFS due to this second LDL peaked at 0.024 MPa when the LDL’s water level approached its peak, coinciding with maximum earthquake activity (Fig.  2c ). Although the subsequent dam breach lowered the LDL’s water level which decreased the ∆CFS due to direct gravitational loading, the pore pressure diffusion effect kept the ∆CFS elevated which might explain why earthquake activity continued over the next few days (Fig.  2c ).

While direct loading resulted in a decrease in ∆CFS directly below the LDL, it resulted in a slight increase in ∆CFS in surrounding regions (Fig. S 9a ). On the other hand, fluid diffusion significantly increased the pore pressure around the LDL, and the ∆CFS in regions closer to the LDL were larger (Fig. S 9b ). Therefore, due to the combined effect of direct loading and pore pressure diffusion, the ∆CFS around the LDL increased, especially on its east side. We find that ~90% of the earthquakes locate within regions of positive ∆CFS (Fig.  2a ). The close spatial and temporal correlation between the calculated positive ∆CFS and the statistically significant increase in earthquake activity suggest that the earthquakes were likely triggered by the LDL.

Earthquake triggering by LDLs

Considering the fundamental mechanism of earthquake triggering by LDLs and reservoir-induced earthquakes is similar, we further explore the potential for other LDLs to trigger earthquakes. Based on HiQuake, currently the most complete and up-to-date freely available database of ~226 cases of reservoir-induced earthquakes spanning the period 1933-2019 globally 49 , we find that the minimum and median heights of ~190 reservoirs with documented height that induced earthquakes are ~13 and 110 m, respectively (Fig.  3a ). In comparison, from a global database of ~410 LDLs with dams >1 million m 3 in volume reported worldwide spanning the period 1900–2018 (ref. 50 ), we find that of the ~300 LDLs with documented dam height, ~73% and ~10% were higher than the minimum and median heights of reservoirs which induced earthquakes, respectively (Fig.  3a ). Therefore, some LDLs globally are of similar heights as reservoirs which induced earthquakes.

a Frequency distribution and cumulative distribution functions of the height of reservoirs documented to have induced earthquakes 49 and landslide-dammed lakes 50 worldwide. b Frequency distribution and cumulative distribution function of the duration of landslide-dammed lakes worldwide 50 . c Temporal evolution of ∆CFS and pore pressure at point P ( d ) for a 30-m deep LDL. d Spatial distribution of ∆CFS at depth of 4.5 km corresponding to −0.5 km asl, 11 days after the formation of a 30-m deep LDL. ∆CFS is from the combined effect of direct gravitational loading and pore pressure diffusion.

We further calculate the stress response of surrounding faults in our study area to an LDL with a depth of 30 m which is the median dam height in the global LDL database 50 (Fig.  3b ). In this case, the ∆CFS at a given point (Figs.  2 a and 3d ) would exceed 0.01 MPa after ~11 days due to direct loading and pore pressure diffusion if the dam does not breach (Fig.  3c ). The stress responses to this typical LDL at different sites can vary (Fig.  3d ) and depend on factors such as the fault types 51 (Fig. S 10 ), geometries (Fig. S 11 ), and depths (Fig. S 11 ). Nevertheless, our modeling shows that both the fault types and geometries primarily affect stress distribution rather than amplitude of ∆CFS (Figs. S 10 and S 11 ), and stress changes caused by the LDLs are larger at shallower depths (Fig. S 11 ). Considering ~64% of the ~145 LDLs in the global database with documented duration lasted more than 11 days before dam breach (Fig.  3b ) with no correlation with dam height (Fig. S 12 ), our modeling suggests that other LDLs globally have the potential to trigger earthquakes if there are critically stressed faults nearby.

While gravitational loading can cause Coulomb stress to decrease in some areas, pore pressure always causes an increase in ΔCFS with its amplitude gradually decreasing away from the LDLs (Fig. S 9 ). For earthquakes that occurred in regions where gravitational loading resulted in a decrease in Coulomb stress, it is clear that pore pressure is the primary mechanism triggering these events, though we neglect the coupling effect between pore pressure diffusion and gravitational loading 24 , 25 , 26 , 27 . However, for those earthquakes that occurred in regions where gravitational loading resulted in an increase in Coulomb stresses, both gravitational loading and pore pressure may jointly control the triggered seismicity. After the second LDL formed, while the water level rises and seismicity begins to occur from 10 to 13 November (Fig. S 2 ), the relative contribution to ΔCFS of gravitational loading decreases gradually from 0.45 to 0.41 (Fig. S 13 ). Subsequently, after the dam breached on 13 November which is the day of peak seismicity rate, the water level rapidly decreased and the relative contribution to ΔCFS of gravitational loading decreases sharply from 0.41 to 0.19 so pore pressure becomes the dominant triggering mechanism. However, the relative contribution to ∆CFS of pore pressure depends on the assumed hydraulic diffusivity (Fig. S 14 ). In addition, since the pore pressure diffusion is from a long winding river (LDLs) instead of a point source, the seismicity do not display obvious migration pattern with time (Fig. S 15 ).

The region surrounding the 2018 Baige LDLs is seismically not very active which allowed us to identify the sudden, sharp increase in earthquake activity and link it to the LDLs. However, this might explain why the number and magnitude of triggered earthquakes are relatively small since earthquake triggering also depends on other factors such as the availability of critically stressed faults. Since cases of reservoir-induced earthquakes are relatively common and have included M > 7 earthquakes 49 , LDLs in seismically more active regions can potentially trigger more and larger earthquakes, assuming they increase ∆CFS given the fault locations and orientations. For example, the 2008 M7.9 Wenchuan earthquake triggered more than 100,000 landslides and formed a few hundred LDLs 52 , 53 , 54 . Some landslides were >30 times larger than our landslides 53 and the largest LDL lasted for ~1 month and reached a maximum depth of ~82 m before breaching 54 . Therefore, we suggest that such LDLs have greater potential to trigger earthquakes and the earthquake-surface interaction could even form a feedback loop (Fig.  4 ). Furthermore, while reservoir planning aims to avoid seismically active regions, ~20% of LDLs are estimated to have formed by earthquake-triggered mass wasting 50 . Consequently, earthquake triggering by LDLs might be a ubiquitous phenomenon in seismically active regions though at least to some extent, this effect may be masked by earthquake-earthquake triggering in such regions 55 .

Previous studies 5 , 6 , 13 , 16 had shown that earthquakes can trigger landslides which can block rivers and form landslide-dammed lakes. We show that direct gravitational loading and pore pressure diffusion from landslide-dammed lakes can in turn increase stresses on surrounding faults and trigger earthquakes. The interaction between these hazards is thus bidirectional.

While we only demonstrated earthquake triggering by LDLs, other surface hazards may similarly alter the stress state of surrounding faults and trigger earthquakes. For example, glacial lakes whose volumes are increasing due to climate change 56 can alter the stress state of surrounding faults through both direct gravitational loading and pore pressure diffusion. Therefore, our results suggest that such bidirectional interaction between surface hazards and earthquakes should be properly accounted for in future risk assessment of geological hazards and hazard management in mountainous regions.

Earthquake catalog building

We adopt an AI-based workflow to develop a new earthquake catalog from 2014 to 2023 based on the 13 permanent seismic stations 57 (Fig.  1 ). We first use the machine-learning-based detector, PhaseNet 58 , to identify P- and S-wave arrival times from the continuous waveforms. Subsequently, these P- and S-wave arrival times are associated into individual earthquakes using a high-throughput seismic phase associator, PyOcto 59 , and a local 1-D velocity model 60 . A threshold of at least two P picks, one S pick, and a total of five P and S picks is adopted during the PyOcto association, resulting in 6692 earthquakes within a region of 2.5° × 3° (latitude: 30° to 32.5°; longitude: 97° to 100°). We then manually inspect the waveforms of 859 earthquakes around our target area (latitude: 30.7° to 31.7°; longitude: 98.1° to 99.2°) to exclude 112 non-tectonic or unreasonably associated events. We then use the absolute location method Hypoinverse 61 to further refine the hypocenters of the remaining 747 events and calculate their location uncertainties.

We also estimate the local magnitudes for all retained earthquakes based on their S-wave amplitudes and a recently improved national standard magnitude scale that is specific to the Sichuan region, China 62 , 63 . The maximum amplitudes of horizontal component waveforms are measured after deconvolving the instrument response from the raw waveforms and then convolving the obtained signal with the theoretical Wood–Anderson seismometer response. The measured waveform window starts 0.5 s before the P wave arrival and is twice the predicted S–P travel time in length. Note that we only estimate magnitudes for 669 events with at least two stations having signal-noise ratios of S waves larger than 3. The estimated magnitudes range from M L 0.1 to 4.2.

To further improve the magnitude of completeness, we use a template matching technique, Graphics Processing Unit-based match and locate technique (GPU-M&L) 64 , to detect and locate more earthquakes based on the 669 retained earthquakes with estimated magnitude. P- and S-waves of these events are simultaneously used in GPU-M&L. The length of template window is 6 s starting 1 s before the P- and S-wave arrivals picked by PhaseNet. We filter the continuous and template waveforms from 2 to 8 Hz. The 1-D velocity model used in the above absolute earthquake location was adopted in GPU-M&L as well. Note that in GPU-M&L, we relocate the epicenters of detections through a grid search method with searching space 1.2 × 1.2 km in the horizontal direction and searching interval of 0.06 km if template and continuous waveforms were recorded by at least three seismic stations. Otherwise, the locations of detections will be defined as that of the templates. By manually inspecting these detections, the detection threshold is defined as correlation coefficient of 0.3 and 12 times median absolute deviation (MAD) if the common component number between template and continuous waveforms is \(\ge\) 9. Otherwise, the detection threshold is defined as correlation coefficient of 0.5 and 15 times MAD. In total, GPU-M&L resulted in 4294 detections including the 669 template events. The magnitudes of the newly detected earthquakes are estimated based on the local magnitudes of the templates and the amplitude ratio between these detections and their corresponding templates 65 . Note that due to the poor local seismic station coverage with available data before May 2018, 22 earthquakes that occurred from March 2014 to May 2018 in the routine catalog, which utilized data from the entire China, were not detected. Thus, these missing earthquakes are manually added to our earthquake catalog.

Declustering and seismicity rate change analysis

Using the approach from Reasenberg 41 , we identified 5 clusters of earthquakes containing a total of 13 events (5 main earthquakes and 8 foreshocks/aftershocks) out of 62 events which occurred over ~5 years, using the following input parameters 41 : look-ahead time from 0.5 to 3 days, confidence probability of 0.9, effective min magnitude cutoff of 1.1, the increase in lower cutoff magnitude during clusters of 0, and the number of crack radii surrounding each earthquake of 5.

We then evaluate the statistical significance of the observed seismicity rate change based on statistic P (ref. 42 ) and statistic Z (ref. 43 ). The statistic Z is defined as follows:

Where N and M represent the number of earthquakes after and before an event in time windows \(\triangle {t}_{N}\) and \(\triangle {t}_{M}\) , respectively. When N and M are sufficiently large and in the null hypothesis of no seismicity rate change, Z follows a Gaussian distribution with zero mean and unit standard deviation. Statistic Z was first proposed by Habermann 43 to evaluate the statistical significance of seismicity rate changes. After declustering, there were 9 earthquakes in the week (10 to 16 November) when the second LDL approached its peak water level. There were only 8 earthquakes in the previous 6 months (~27 weeks) which translates to a seismicity rate of 0.3 events/week. Based on Eq.  1 , we obtain a Z value of 2.90 taking N , M , \(\triangle {t}_{N}\) , and \(\triangle {t}_{M}\) as 9, 8, 1, and 27, respectively. A change is considered statistically significant if \(\left|Z\right|\)  > 2 (ref. 43 ), and our observed seismicity rate increase after declustering 41 is statistically significant at a 99.62% level based on statistic Z .

In the null hypothesis that the seismicity rate in the week after (Poisson process with mean rate \({\lambda }_{N}\) ) and the week before (Poisson process with mean rate \({\lambda }_{M}\) ) an event is the same, the statistic P reads:

Where \(\varGamma \left(n,x\right)={\int\nolimits_{\!\!0}^{x}}{e}^{-t}{t}^{n-1}{dt}\) is the incomplete Gamma function and follows a uniform distribution between 0 and 1 (ref. 42 ). 1- P gives us the probability that an observed value could be obtained by chance if the null hypothesis of no rate change is true 42 . While there were no earthquakes in the ~1 month before the second LDL, we still take the seismicity rate for the week before the second LDL approached its peak water level as 0.3 events/week based on the average seismicity rate in the previous 6 months to be conservative. Based on Eq.  2 , we obtain a P value of 0.9982 taking N and M as 9 and 0.3, respectively. This implies that the probability that our observed seismicity rate increase occurred by random chance is 0.18%. Therefore, our observed seismicity rate increase after declustering 41 is statistically significant at a >99.82% level based on statistic P .

We further evaluate the statistical significance of the observed seismicity rate change based on both an improved statistic based on Poisson probability 44 and an empirically derived statistic 45 which were developed to determine statistically significant changes in earthquake rate under small background rate. We assumed that earthquakes occur independently at a constant rate, following a Poissonian distribution 44 . To determine the statistical significance of seismicity rate increase, we compare the number of expected earthquakes in a 1-week window to the number of earthquakes in the 1-week window after the trigger and calculate the Poisson probability of obtaining the number of earthquakes ( \(\nu\) ) in the 1-week window after the trigger given the expected number of events ( \(\mu\) ) in the 1-week window.

For this case of low background seismicity rate, similar to the idea of ref. 44 , we conservatively regard the largest number of earthquakes (3) in a 1-week window over our observation period, except for this earthquake sequence, as the expected number of events ( \(\mu\) ) in a 1-week window. Based on Eq.  3 , we obtain a P value of 0.0027 taking \(\mu\) and \(\nu\) as 3 and 9, respectively. This implies that our observed seismicity rate increase after declustering 41 is statistically significant at a >99.73% level.

We also use the empirical statistical method of ref. 45 to determine the significance in the seismicity rate change. First, we count the number of earthquakes in each 1-week time window incorporating a 1-day sliding window. There are >1700 windows from May 2018 to January 2023. We then assign the number of earthquakes N count within each window to a timestamp at the start of the window. We next build a histogram of N count values (Fig. S 6 ). Finally, using percentile measurements, the >99% statistically significant level is 3 earthquakes in a 1-week window. We observed 9 earthquakes (after declustering) as the second LDL approached the peak water level, hence this seismicity rate increase is statistically significant at a >99% level.

We also tested the impact of different input parameters on the declustering based on the approach from Reasenberg 41 . We identified 4 clusters of earthquakes containing a total of 16 events (4 main earthquakes and 12 foreshocks/aftershocks) out of 62 events which occurred over ~5 years, using other suggested input parameters 41 : look-ahead time from 1 to 10 days, confidence probability of 0.95, effective min magnitude cutoff of 1.5, the increase in lower cutoff magnitude during clusters of 0.5, and the number of crack radii surrounding each earthquake of 10. While the declustered earthquake catalogs with different input parameters are different, we further confirm that this seismicity rate increase is statistically significant at a > ~90% level based on the four above statistical tests (Table  S1 ).

Coulomb stress change calculation

Coulomb stress change (∆CFS) on the surrounding fault systems due to the LDL is a result of the combined effect of direct gravitational loading and pore pressure diffusion. We model ∆CFS due to both direct loading and pore pressure diffusion using the GeoTaos software 66 . Since the direct gravitational loading effect can be regarded as the result of point forces acting vertically on the surface of a homogenous elastic half-space, the loading from the LDL can be calculated by the convolution of the Green’s function and the distributed surface forces. The distributed surface forces can be estimated based on the spatiotemporal evolution of the LDL’s water level. To quantify the spatiotemporal evolution of the LDL’s water level, the LDL is mapped as a series of square cells with a size of 200 by 200 m. The elevation of each square cell is estimated from the GDEM V3 30 m. Based on the elevation of each cell, the water depth of each cell can then be estimated. Therefore, the distributed surface forces and thus the direct gravitational loading effect of each cell can be calculated using the water depth of each cell. Note that we ignore the ∆CFS resulting from gravitational loading of landslide sediments, since these landslide sediments are not a new source of mass but only the very local redistributions (~1–2 km) of sediments along the landslide sliding path.

Uncertainty analyses

Before more seismic stations became operational in May 2018, no earthquakes were detected within 10 km of the LDLs due to limited station coverage and/or low seismicity rate. Nevertheless, in the ~250 weeks of observation period since May 2018 for which we have an improved earthquake catalog, 61 earthquakes occurred within 10 km of the LDLs during the week when the second LDL’s water level almost peaked while there were only 183 earthquakes over the ~247 weeks outside the time period of the two LDLs i.e., a background seismicity rate of only ~0.7/week over ~5 years (Table  S1 ). Therefore, our catalog shows that the seismicity rate during the LDL is significantly higher than the background seismicity rate of the region. We chose to focus on earthquakes that occurred within 10 km of LDLs since the region with stress increase of >0.01 MPa is always located within 10 km of the LDLs (Fig.  2a ). Nevertheless, the earthquake activity within larger and smaller regions shows a similar accelerated trend during the landslide hazard cascades (Fig. S 16 ).

As the second LDL approached peak water level, ~50% and ~95% of the hypocenters in the earthquake sequence were at depths of <1.2 and <4.5 km, respectively (Fig. S 8 ). Similarly, for the earthquake catalog before template matching, the median depth of these triggered earthquakes is ~1.2 km (Fig. S 8 ). However, the mean horizontal and vertical location uncertainties of our cataloged earthquakes are ~4 and ~8 km, respectively. To further constrain the likely depths of these events, we look at the larger earthquakes which are more accurately located since they are recorded by more stations. We find that the median depth of all M L  > 1.1 earthquakes during the second LDL is ~1.5 km with average depth uncertainty of ~6 km. Our modeling shows that ∆CFS down to a depth of 7 km can reach levels that trigger earthquakes (Fig. S 11d ), and the ∆CFS is larger at shallower depths (Fig. S 11 ). Furthermore, ~60% of reservoirs with documented earthquake depths have induced earthquakes up to ~8 km depth (Fig. S 17 ). Therefore, we conclude that the earthquake sequence can be triggered by stress changes due to the LDL.

The stress change on surrounding faults due to the LDLs partly depends on the fault geometry. In contrast to the well-documented fault strike, the dip of the fault is less well constrained. We assume a fault dip of 75°NE based on the focal mechanisms of four M > 3.5 earthquakes nearby and the consistency of the first motions of the two largest earthquakes (ML 2.6 and 1.9) as the second LDL approached peak water level with these focal mechanisms (Fig. S 7 ), though we cannot confirm that the focal mechanisms of the smaller earthquakes necessarily share similar geometries. Nevertheless, our modeling shows that the fault dip mainly affects the spatial distribution and amplitude of ∆CFS but not its sign, and the seismicity generally locates within regions of positive ∆CFS for a range of different assumed fault dips (Fig. S 11e–h ). Hence, the dip uncertainty has minimal effect on our conclusion that landslide hazard cascades can trigger earthquakes.

The stress change on surrounding faults caused by LDL is also related to the fault friction coefficient and the fluid diffusion coefficient. We assumed a friction coefficient of 0.5 for our ∆CFS modeling. However, the chosen friction coefficient has minimal effect on both the spatial distribution and amplitude of ∆CFS (Fig. S 18 ). In addition, due to differences in rock properties and depth-dependent confining pressure, crustal hydraulic diffusivity has been found to range from 0.01 to 5 m 2 /s (refs. 67 , 68 ). Both the geometry and closure of faults and fractures also cause significant spatial variation in hydraulic diffusivity 69 , 70 . These factors make it challenging to obtain a precisely constrained hydraulic diffusivity for the calculation of ∆CFS. Nevertheless, higher fluid diffusivity causes the pore water pressure to increase faster, which increases the amplitude of ∆CFS over a wider area. Our chosen value of 0.3 m 2 /s is on the lower end of observed values and is a typical value observed in fluid-driven seismic swarms in different regions 71 , 72 , 73 . While hydraulic diffusivity strongly influences the time at which ∆CFS exceeds a certain threshold, we further confirm that ∆CFS exceeds 0.01 MPa for hydraulic diffusivities ranging from 0.02 to 2 m 2 /s. On the day of peak seismicity rate, the relative contribution to ∆CFS of pore pressure increases from ~0.1 to 0.9 as the assumed hydraulic diffusivity increases from 0.02 to 2 m 2 /s (Fig. S 14 ). We conclude that our main conclusion that LDLs can trigger earthquakes is robust to changes in the discussed parameter choices.

Reporting summary

Further information on research design is available in the  Nature Portfolio Reporting Summary linked to this article.

Data availability

The reservoir data which induced earthquakes are available at the Human-Induced Earthquake Database (HiQuake) http://inducedearthquakes.org/ . The database for landslide-dammed lakes is available from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2020.103116 . The earthquake catalog produced in this study is available at https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.10807902 . The GDEM data are provided by ASTER https://asterweb.jpl.nasa.gov .

Code availability

The software PhaseNet 58 and PyOcto 59 used in this study are publicly available at https://doi.org/10.1093/gji/ggy423 and https://doi.org/10.26443/seismica.v3i1.1130 , respectively. The software Hypoinverse 61 and GPU-M&L 64 are publicly available at https://www.usgs.gov/software/hypoinverse-earthquake-location and https://doi.org/10.1785/0220190241 , respectively. The software Zmap 40 and GeoTaos 66 are publicly available at http://www.seismo.ethz.ch/en/research-and-teaching/products-software/software/ZMAP and http://bemlar.ism.ac.jp/lxl/Taos/Download.htm , respectively.

Allen, S. K., Rastner, P., Arora, M., Huggel, C. & Stoffel, M. Lake outburst and debris flow disaster at Kedarnath, June 2013: Hydrometeorological triggering and topographic predisposition. Landslides 13 , 1479–1491 (2016).

Article   Google Scholar  

Hovius, N., Stark, C. P., Tutton, M. A. & Abbott, L. D. Landslide-driven drainage network evolution in a pre-steady-state mountain belt: finisterre mountains, Papua New Guinea. Geology 26 , 1071–1074 (1998).

Article   ADS   Google Scholar  

Korup, O. et al. Giant landslides, topography, and erosion. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 261 , 578–589 (2007).

Article   ADS   CAS   Google Scholar  

Segoni, S., Piciullo, L. & Gariano, S. L. A review of the recent literature on rainfall thresholds for landslide occurrence. Landslides 15 , 1483–1501 (2018).

Keefer, D. K. et al. Real-time landslide warning during heavy rainfall. Science 238 , 921–925 (1987).

Article   ADS   CAS   PubMed   Google Scholar  

Moreiras, S., Lisboa, M. S. & Mastrantonio, L. The role of snow melting upon landslides in the central Argentinean Andes. Earth Surf. Process. Landf. 37 , 1106–1119 (2012).

Kawagoe, S., Kazama, S. & Sarukkalige, P. R. Assessment of snowmelt triggered landslide hazard and risk in Japan. Cold Reg. Sci. Technol. 58 , 120–129 (2009).

Bozzano, F., Cipriani, I., Mazzanti, P. & Prestininzi, A. Displacement patterns of a landslide affected by human activities: insights from ground-based InSAR monitoring. Nat. hazards 59 , 1377–1396 (2011).

Alexander, D. On the causes of landslides: human activities, perception, and natural processes. Environ. Geol. Water Sci. 20 , 165–179 (1992).

Keefer, D. K. Landslides caused by earthquakes. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 95 , 406–421 (1984).

Meunier, P., Hovius, N. & Haines, J. A. Topographic site effects and the location of earthquake induced landslides. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 275 , 221–232 (2008).

Wasowski, J., Keefer, D. K. & Lee, C. T. Toward the next generation of research on earthquake-induced landslides: current issues and future challenges. Eng. Geol. 122 , 1–8 (2011).

Kargel, J. S. et al. Geomorphic and geologic controls of geohazards induced by Nepal’s 2015 Gorkha earthquake. Science 351 , aac8353 (2016).

Article   CAS   PubMed   Google Scholar  

Ren, J. et al. Surface rupture of the 1933 M 7.5 Diexi earthquake in eastern Tibet: implications for seismogenic tectonics. Geophys. J. Int. 212 , 1627–1644 (2018).

Fan, X. et al. Earthquake‐induced chains of geologic hazards: patterns, mechanisms, and impacts. Rev. Geophys. 57 , 421–503 (2019).

Marc, O., Hovius, N., Meunier, P., Uchida, T. & Hayashi, S. I. Transient changes of landslide rates after earthquakes. Geology 43 , 883–886 (2015).

Korup, O., Densmore, A. L. & Schlunegger, F. The role of landslides in mountain range evolution. Geomorphology 120 , 77–90 (2010).

Amos, C. B. et al. Uplift and seismicity driven by groundwater depletion in central California. Nature 509 , 483–486 (2014).

Borsa, A. A., Agnew, D. C. & Cayan, D. R. Ongoing drought-induced uplift in the western United States. Science 345 , 1587–1590 (2014).

Cochran, E. S., Vidale, J. E. & Tanaka, S. Earth tides can trigger shallow thrust fault earthquakes. Science 306 , 1164–1166 (2004).

Bell, M. L. & Nur, A. Strength changes due to reservoir-induced pore pressure and stresses and application to Lake Oroville. J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth 83 , 4469–4483 (1978).

Schultz, R., Atkinson, G., Eaton, D. W., Gu, Y. J. & Kao, H. Hydraulic fracturing volume is associated with induced earthquake productivity in the Duvernay play. Science 359 , 304–308 (2018).

Healy, J. H., Rubey, W. W., Griggs, D. T. & Raleigh, C. B. The denver earthquakes. Science 161 , 1301–1310 (1968).

Gough, D. I. & Gough, W. I. Stress and deflection in the lithosphere near Lake Kariba—I. Geophys. J. Int. 21 , 65–78 (1970).

Kebeasy, R. M. & Gharib, A. A. Active fault and water loading are important factors in triggering earthquake activity around Aswan Lake. J. Geodyn. 14 , 73–85 (1991).

Simpson, D. W., Stachnik, J. C. & Negmatoullaev, S. K. Rate of change in lake level and its impact on reservoir triggered seismicity. Bull. Seismol. Soc. Am. 108 , 2943–2954 (2018).

Hill, R. G., Weingarten, M., Rockwell, T. K. & Fialko, Y. Major southern San Andreas earthquakes modulated by lake-filling events. Nature 618 , 761–766 (2023).

Gomberg, J. & Davis, S. Stress/strain changes and triggered seismicity at The Geysers. Calif. J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth 101 , 733–749 (1996).

Keranen, K. M., Savage, H. M., Abers, G. A. & Cochran, E. S. Potentially induced earthquakes in Oklahoma, USA: Links between wastewater injection and the 2011 Mw 5.7 earthquake sequence. Geology 41 , 699–702 (2013).

Calais, E., Freed, A. M., Van Arsdale, R. & Stein, S. Triggering of New Madrid seismicity by late-Pleistocene erosion. Nature 466 , 608–611 (2010).

Steer, P., Simoes, M., Cattin, R. & Shyu, J. B. H. Erosion influences the seismicity of active thrust faults. Nat. Commun. 5 , 5564 (2014).

Steer, P. et al. Earthquake statistics changed by typhoon-driven erosion. Sci. Rep. 10 , 10899 (2020).

Article   ADS   CAS   PubMed   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

Jeandet Ribes, L., Cubas, N., Bhat, H. S. & Steer, P. The impact of large erosional events and transient normal stress changes on the seismicity of faults. Geophys. Res. Lett. 47 , e2020GL087631 (2020).

Zhang, Z. et al. Source characteristics and dynamics of the October 2018 Baige landslide revealed by broadband seismograms. Landslides 16 , 777–785 (2019).

Zhang, L., Xiao, T., He, J. & Chen, C. Erosion-based analysis of breaching of Baige landslide dams on the Jinsha River, China, in 2018. Landslides 16 , 1965–1979 (2019).

Zhong, Q., Chen, S., Wang, L. & Shan, Y. Back analysis of breaching process of Baige landslide dam. Landslides 17 , 1681–1692 (2020).

Gao, Y., Zhao, S., Deng, J., Yu, Z. & Rahman, M. Flood assessment and early warning of the reoccurrence of river blockage at the Baige landslide. J. Geogr. Sci. 31 , 1694–1712 (2021).

Chen, F. et al. Kinematic process and mechanism of the two slope failures at Baige Village in the upper reaches of the Jinsha River, China. Bull. Eng. Geol. Environ. 80 , 3475–3493 (2021).

Guo, X., Jiang, C., Han, L., Yin, H. & Zhao Z. Focal mechanism data set in Chinese mainland and its adjacent area (2009–2021). Natl. Earthquake Data Center. https://data.earthquake.cn . https://doi.org/10.12080/nedc.11.ds.2022.0004 (2022).

Wiemer, S. A software package to analyze seismicity: ZMAP. Seismol. Res. Lett. 72 , 373–382 (2001).

Reasenberg, P. Second-order moment of central California seismicity, 1969-82. J. Geophys. Res. 90 , 5479–5495 (1985).

Marsan, D. & Nalbant, S. S. Methods for measuring seismicity rate changes: a review and a study of how the Mw 7.3 landers earthquake affected the aftershock sequence of the M w 6.1 Joshua Tree earthquake. Pure Appl. Geophys. 162 , 1151–1185 (2005).

Habermann, R. Precursory seismicity patterns: stalking the mature seismic gap. Earthquake prediction. Int. Rev. 4 , 29–42 (1981).

Google Scholar  

Alfaro‐Diaz, R., Velasco, A. A., Pankow, K. L. & Kilb, D. Optimally oriented remote triggering in the Coso geothermal region. J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth 125 , e2019JB019131 (2020).

Pankow, K. L. & Kilb, D. Going beyond rate changes as the sole indicator for dynamic triggering of earthquakes. Sci. Rep. 10 , 4120 (2020).

Wu, F., Jiang, L. & Zhang, G. Discussion on quaternary activity characteristics of northern section of Jinshajiang fault zone along Sichuan-Tibet Railway. High. Speed Railw. Technol. (Chin.) 10 , 23–28 (2019).

Reasenberg, P. A. & Simpson, R. W. Response of regional seismicity to the static stress change produced by the Loma Prieta earthquake. Science 255 , 1687–1690 (1992).

Harris, R. A. Introduction to special section: Stress triggers, stress shadows, and implications for seismic hazard. J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth 103 , 24347–24358 (1998).

Wilson, M., Foulger, G., Gluyas, J., Davies, R. & Julian, B. HiQuake: The human‐induced earthquake database. Seismol. Res. Lett. 88 , 1560–1565 (2017).

Fan, X. et al. The formation and impact of landslide dams–state of the art. Earth Sci. Rev. 203 , 103116 (2020).

King, G. C., Stein, R. S. & Lin, J. Static stress changes and the triggering of earthquakes. Bull. Seismol. Soc. Am. 84 , 935–953 (1994).

Xu, C., Xu, X., Yao, X. & Dai, F. Three (nearly) complete inventories of landslides triggered by the May 12, 2008 Wenchuan Mw 7.9 earthquake of China and their spatial distribution statistical analysis. Landslides 11 , 441–461 (2014).

Huang, R. & Li, W. Analysis of the geo-hazards triggered by the 12 May 2008 Wenchuan Earthquake, China. Bull. Eng. Geol. Environ. 68 , 363–371 (2009).

Cui, P., Zhu, Y., Han, Y., Chen, X. & Zhuang, J. The 12 May Wenchuan earthquake-induced landslide lakes: distribution and preliminary risk evaluation. Landslides 6 , 209–223 (2009).

Hill, D. P., Pollitz, F. & Newhall, C. Earthquake-volcano interactions. Phys. Today 55 , 41–47 (2002).

Shugar, D. H. et al. Rapid worldwide growth of glacial lakes since 1990. Nat. Clim. Change 10 , 939–945 (2020).

Liu, M. et al. Complexity of initiation and evolution of the 2013 Yunlong earthquake swarm. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 612 , 118168 (2023).

Article   CAS   Google Scholar  

Zhu, W. & Beroza, G. C. PhaseNet: a deep-neural-network-based seismic arrival-time picking method. Geophys. J. Int. 216 , 261–273 (2019).

ADS   Google Scholar  

Münchmeyer, J. PyOcto: A high-throughput seismic phase associator. Seismica 3 . https://doi.org/10.26443/seismica.v3i1.1130 (2024).

Fang, L. et al. Aftershock observation and analysis of the 2013 M S 7.0 Lushan earthquake. Seismol. Res. Lett. 86 , 1135–1142 (2015).

Klein, F. W. User’s guide to HYPOINVERSE-2000, a Fortran program to solve for earthquake locations and magnitudes (No. 2002-171). US Geological Survey (2002).

Richter, C. F. An instrumental earthquake magnitude scale. Bull. Seismol. Soc. Am. 25 , 1–32 (1935).

Tang, L. et al. Comparison of the new national standard magnitude scales with the traditional magnitude scales. Acta Seismol. Sin. (Chin.) 40 , 121–131 (2018).

Liu, M., Li, H., Zhang, M. & Wang, T. Graphics processing unit‐based match and locate (GPU‐M&L): An improved match and locate method and its application. Seismol. Res. Lett. 91 , 1019–1029 (2020).

Shelly, D. R., Ellsworth, W. L. & Hill, D. P. Fluid‐faulting evolution in high definition: connecting fault structure and frequency‐magnitude variations during the 2014 Long Valley Caldera, California, earthquake swarm. J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth 121 , 1776–1795 (2016).

Lei, X. Possible roles of the Zipingpu Reservoir in triggering the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake. J. Asian Earth Sci. 40 , 844–854 (2011).

Husen, S., Bachmann, C. & Giardini, D. Locally triggered seismicity in the central Swiss Alps following the large rainfall event of August 2005. Geophys. J. Int. 171 , 1126–1134 (2007).

Montgomery‐Brown, E., Shelly, D. R. & Hsieh, P. A. Snowmelt‐triggered earthquake swarms at the margin of Long Valley Caldera, California. Geophys. Res. Lett. 46 , 3698–3705 (2019).

Kuempel, H. Poroelasticity: parameters reviewed. Geophys. J. Int. 105 , 783–799 (1991).

Scholz, C. H. The Mechanics of Earthquakes and Faulting (Cambridge University Press, 2002).

Kitagawa, Y., Fujimori, K. & Koizumi, K. Temporal change in permeability of the Nojima fault zone by repeated water injection experiments. Tectonophysics 443 , 183–192 (2007).

Parotidis, M., Shapiro, S. A. & Rothert, E. Evidence for triggering of the Vogtland swarms 2000 by pore pressure diffusion. J. Geophys. Res. 110 , B05S10 (2005).

Hainzl, S. & Ogata, Y. Detecting fluid signals in seismicity data through statistical earthquake modeling. J. Geophys. Res. 110 , B05SS07 (2005).

Download references

Acknowledgements

We thank Jinping Zi, Peifeng Wang, and Yiyuan Zhong for valuable discussions. This work was supported by the Croucher Tak Wah Mak Innovation Award (Y.J.T.), CUHK Direct Grant for Research (Grant 4053594; Y.J.T.), CUHK Research Fellowship Scheme (Grant 4200720; Y.J.T.), CUHK Postdoctoral Fellowship Scheme (Grant 3135043; Y.J.T.), the National Key Research and Development program of China (Grant No.2022YFF0800604; S.H.), and the Major Program of the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No.42090051; S.H.).

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Earth and Environmental Sciences Programme, Faculty of Science, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong S.A.R., China

Zhen Zhang, Min Liu & Yen Joe Tan

Swiss Federal Institute for Forest, Snow and Landscape Research, Zürich, Switzerland

Fabian Walter & Małgorzata Chmiel

State Key Laboratory of Mountain Hazards and Engineering Safety, Institute of Mountain Hazards and Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chengdu, China

Géoazur, OCA, Campus Azur du CNRS, Sophia Antipolis, Nice, France

Małgorzata Chmiel

Earthquake Monitoring Center, Sichuan Earthquake Administration, Chengdu, China

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Contributions

Conceptualization: Z.Z. and Y.J.T.; Investigation: Z.Z., M.L., Y.J.T., F.W., S.H., M.C., and J.S.; Methodology: Z.Z., M.L., and Y.J.T.; Project administration: Y.J.T. and S.H.; Supervision: Y.J.T. and S.H.; Writing-original draft: Z.Z. and Y.J.T.; Writing-review and editing: Z.Z., M.L., Y.J.T., F.W., S.H., M.C., and J.S.

Corresponding authors

Correspondence to Zhen Zhang or Yen Joe Tan .

Ethics declarations

Competing interests.

The authors declare no competing interests.

Peer review

Peer review information.

Nature Communications thanks Ya-Ju Hsu, Philippe Steer and the other, anonymous, reviewer for their contribution to the peer review of this work. A peer review file is available.

Additional information

Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Supplementary information

Supplementary information, peer review file, reporting summary, rights and permissions.

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ .

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article.

Zhang, Z., Liu, M., Tan, Y.J. et al. Landslide hazard cascades can trigger earthquakes. Nat Commun 15 , 2878 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-47130-w

Download citation

Received : 31 July 2023

Accepted : 21 March 2024

Published : 08 April 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-47130-w

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

By submitting a comment you agree to abide by our Terms and Community Guidelines . If you find something abusive or that does not comply with our terms or guidelines please flag it as inappropriate.

Quick links

• Explore articles by subject
• Guide to authors
• Editorial policies

Sign up for the Nature Briefing newsletter — what matters in science, free to your inbox daily.

• CBSE Class 10th
• CBSE Class 12th
• UP Board 10th
• UP Board 12th
• Bihar Board 10th
• Bihar Board 12th
• Top Schools in India
• Top Schools in Delhi
• Top Schools in Mumbai
• Top Schools in Chennai
• Top Schools in Hyderabad
• Top Schools in Kolkata
• Top Schools in Pune
• Top Schools in Bangalore

Products & Resources

• JEE Main Knockout April
• Free Sample Papers
• Free Ebooks
• NCERT Notes
• NCERT Syllabus
• NCERT Books
• RD Sharma Solutions
• Navodaya Vidyalaya Admission 2024-25
• NCERT Solutions
• NCERT Solutions for Class 12
• NCERT Solutions for Class 11
• NCERT solutions for Class 10
• NCERT solutions for Class 9
• NCERT solutions for Class 8
• NCERT Solutions for Class 7
• JEE Main 2024
• MHT CET 2024
• JEE Advanced 2024
• BITSAT 2024
• View All Engineering Exams
• Colleges Accepting B.Tech Applications
• Top Engineering Colleges in India
• Engineering Colleges in India
• Engineering Colleges in Tamil Nadu
• Engineering Colleges Accepting JEE Main
• Top IITs in India
• Top NITs in India
• Top IIITs in India
• JEE Main College Predictor
• JEE Main Rank Predictor
• MHT CET College Predictor
• AP EAMCET College Predictor
• GATE College Predictor
• KCET College Predictor
• JEE Advanced College Predictor
• View All College Predictors
• JEE Main Question Paper
• JEE Main Cutoff
• JEE Main Answer Key
• JEE Main Result
• Download E-Books and Sample Papers
• Compare Colleges
• B.Tech College Applications
• JEE Advanced Registration
• MAH MBA CET Exam
• View All Management Exams

Colleges & Courses

• MBA College Admissions
• MBA Colleges in India
• Top IIMs Colleges in India
• Top Online MBA Colleges in India
• MBA Colleges Accepting XAT Score
• BBA Colleges in India
• XAT College Predictor 2024
• SNAP College Predictor
• NMAT College Predictor
• MAT College Predictor 2024
• CMAT College Predictor 2024
• CAT Percentile Predictor 2023
• CAT 2023 College Predictor
• CMAT 2024 Registration
• TS ICET 2024 Registration
• CMAT Exam Date 2024
• MAH MBA CET Cutoff 2024
• Download Helpful Ebooks
• List of Popular Branches
• QnA - Get answers to your doubts
• IIM Fees Structure
• AIIMS Nursing
• Top Medical Colleges in India
• Top Medical Colleges in India accepting NEET Score
• Medical Colleges accepting NEET
• List of Medical Colleges in India
• List of AIIMS Colleges In India
• Medical Colleges in Maharashtra
• Medical Colleges in India Accepting NEET PG
• NEET College Predictor
• NEET PG College Predictor
• NEET MDS College Predictor
• DNB CET College Predictor
• DNB PDCET College Predictor
• NEET Application Form 2024
• NEET PG Application Form 2024
• NEET Cut off
• NEET Online Preparation
• Download Helpful E-books
• LSAT India 2024
• Colleges Accepting Admissions
• Top Law Colleges in India
• Law College Accepting CLAT Score
• List of Law Colleges in India
• Top Law Colleges in Delhi
• Top Law Collages in Indore
• Top Law Colleges in Chandigarh
• Top Law Collages in Lucknow

Predictors & E-Books

• CLAT College Predictor
• MHCET Law ( 5 Year L.L.B) College Predictor
• AILET College Predictor
• Sample Papers
• Compare Law Collages
• Careers360 Youtube Channel
• CLAT Syllabus 2025
• CLAT Previous Year Question Paper
• AIBE 18 Result 2023
• NID DAT Exam
• Pearl Academy Exam

Animation Courses

• Animation Courses in India
• Animation Courses in Bangalore
• Animation Courses in Mumbai
• Animation Courses in Pune
• Animation Courses in Chennai
• Animation Courses in Hyderabad
• Design Colleges in India
• Fashion Design Colleges in Bangalore
• Fashion Design Colleges in Mumbai
• Fashion Design Colleges in Pune
• Fashion Design Colleges in Delhi
• Fashion Design Colleges in Hyderabad
• Fashion Design Colleges in India
• Top Design Colleges in India
• Free Design E-books
• List of Branches
• Careers360 Youtube channel
• NIFT College Predictor
• UCEED College Predictor
• NID DAT College Predictor
• IPU CET BJMC
• JMI Mass Communication Entrance Exam
• IIMC Entrance Exam
• Media & Journalism colleges in Delhi
• Media & Journalism colleges in Bangalore
• Media & Journalism colleges in Mumbai
• List of Media & Journalism Colleges in India
• CA Intermediate
• CA Foundation
• CS Executive
• CS Professional
• Difference between CA and CS
• Difference between CA and CMA
• CA Full form
• CMA Full form
• CS Full form
• CA Salary In India

Top Courses & Careers

• Bachelor of Commerce (B.Com)
• Master of Commerce (M.Com)
• Company Secretary
• Cost Accountant
• Charted Accountant
• Credit Manager
• Financial Advisor
• Top Commerce Colleges in India
• Top Government Commerce Colleges in India
• Top Private Commerce Colleges in India
• Top M.Com Colleges in Mumbai
• Top B.Com Colleges in India
• IT Colleges in Tamil Nadu
• IT Colleges in Uttar Pradesh
• MCA Colleges in India
• BCA Colleges in India

Quick Links

• Information Technology Courses
• Programming Courses
• Web Development Courses
• Data Analytics Courses
• Big Data Analytics Courses
• RUHS Pharmacy Admission Test
• Top Pharmacy Colleges in India
• Pharmacy Colleges in Pune
• Pharmacy Colleges in Mumbai
• Colleges Accepting GPAT Score
• Pharmacy Colleges in Lucknow
• List of Pharmacy Colleges in Nagpur
• GPAT Result
• GPAT 2024 Admit Card
• GPAT Question Papers
• NCHMCT JEE 2024
• Mah BHMCT CET
• Top Hotel Management Colleges in Delhi
• Top Hotel Management Colleges in Hyderabad
• Top Hotel Management Colleges in Mumbai
• Top Hotel Management Colleges in Tamil Nadu
• Top Hotel Management Colleges in Maharashtra
• B.Sc Hotel Management
• Hotel Management
• Diploma in Hotel Management and Catering Technology

Diploma Colleges

• Top Diploma Colleges in Maharashtra
• UPSC IAS 2024
• SSC CGL 2024
• IBPS RRB 2024
• Previous Year Sample Papers
• Free Competition E-books
• Sarkari Result
• QnA- Get your doubts answered
• UPSC Previous Year Sample Papers
• CTET Previous Year Sample Papers
• SBI Clerk Previous Year Sample Papers
• NDA Previous Year Sample Papers

Upcoming Events

• NDA Application Form 2024
• UPSC IAS Application Form 2024
• CDS Application Form 2024
• CTET Admit card 2024
• HP TET Result 2023
• SSC GD Constable Admit Card 2024
• UPTET Notification 2024
• SBI Clerk Result 2024

Other Exams

• SSC CHSL 2024
• UP PCS 2024
• UGC NET 2024
• RRB NTPC 2024
• IBPS PO 2024
• IBPS Clerk 2024
• IBPS SO 2024
• Top University in USA
• Top University in Canada
• Top University in Ireland
• Top Universities in UK
• Top Universities in Australia
• Best MBA Colleges in Abroad
• Business Management Studies Colleges

Top Countries

• Study in USA
• Study in UK
• Study in Canada
• Study in Australia
• Study in Ireland
• Study in Germany
• Study in China
• Study in Europe

Student Visas

• Student Visa Canada
• Student Visa UK
• Student Visa USA
• Student Visa Australia
• Student Visa Germany
• Student Visa New Zealand
• Student Visa Ireland
• CUET PG 2024
• IGNOU B.Ed Admission 2024
• DU Admission
• UP B.Ed JEE 2024
• DDU Entrance Exam
• IIT JAM 2024
• IGNOU Online Admission 2024
• Universities in India
• Top Universities in India 2024
• Top Colleges in India
• Top Universities in Uttar Pradesh 2024
• Top Universities in Bihar
• Top Universities in Madhya Pradesh 2024
• Top Universities in Tamil Nadu 2024
• Central Universities in India
• CUET PG Admit Card 2024
• IGNOU Date Sheet
• CUET Mock Test 2024
• CUET Application Form 2024
• CUET PG Syllabus 2024
• CUET Participating Universities 2024
• CUET Previous Year Question Paper
• CUET Syllabus 2024 for Science Students
• E-Books and Sample Papers
• CUET Exam Pattern 2024
• CUET Exam Date 2024
• CUET Syllabus 2024
• IGNOU Exam Form 2024
• IGNOU Result
• CUET PG Courses 2024

Engineering Preparation

• Knockout JEE Main 2024
• Test Series JEE Main 2024
• JEE Main 2024 Rank Booster

Medical Preparation

• Knockout NEET 2024
• Test Series NEET 2024
• Rank Booster NEET 2024

Online Courses

• JEE Main One Month Course
• NEET One Month Course
• IBSAT Free Mock Tests
• IIT JEE Foundation Course
• Knockout BITSAT 2024
• Career Guidance Tool

Top Streams

• IT & Software Certification Courses
• Engineering and Architecture Certification Courses
• Programming And Development Certification Courses
• Business and Management Certification Courses
• Marketing Certification Courses
• Health and Fitness Certification Courses
• Design Certification Courses

Specializations

• Digital Marketing Certification Courses
• Cyber Security Certification Courses
• Artificial Intelligence Certification Courses
• Business Analytics Certification Courses
• Data Science Certification Courses
• Cloud Computing Certification Courses
• Machine Learning Certification Courses
• View All Certification Courses
• UG Degree Courses
• PG Degree Courses
• Short Term Courses
• Free Courses
• Online Degrees and Diplomas
• Compare Courses

Top Providers

• Coursera Courses
• Udemy Courses
• Edx Courses
• Swayam Courses
• upGrad Courses
• Simplilearn Courses
• Great Learning Courses

Access premium articles, webinars, resources to make the best decisions for career, course, exams, scholarships, study abroad and much more with

Plan, Prepare & Make the Best Career Choices

Earthquake Essay

Essay on Earthquake - An earthquake is a natural disaster that occurs when two tectonic plates collide. The force of the collision creates seismic waves that travel through the earth's crust, causing the ground to shake and buildings to collapse. Here are some sample essays on earthquakes.

• 100 Words Essay on Earthquake

Earthquakes can happen anywhere in the world, and although their occurrence is not predictable, there are some things you can do to make yourself more prepared in case one does strike. This includes having an earthquake kit ready to go, knowing how to drop, cover and hold on, and staying informed about any potential risks in your area. Make sure you have an emergency kit stocked with food, water, and other supplies, and know what to do when an earthquake hits. If you're not sure what to do, it's best to stay away from windows and other objects that could fall on you, and head to a safe place.

200 Words Essay on Earthquake

500 words essay on earthquake.

Earthquakes are a natural disaster that come with a lot of dangers. The shaking and movement of the earth can cause buildings to fall down, trapping people inside. The shaking caused by such a sudden change is usually very minor, but large earthquakes sometimes cause very large shaking of the land. The shaking waves spread from the spot at which rock begins breaking for the first time; this spot is called the center, or hypocenter, of an earthquake.

If you're inside when an earthquake starts, drop to the ground and cover your head. The earthquake's magnitude is related to the amount of earthquake energy released in a seismic event.

Different Types of Earthquakes

There are three types of earthquakes:

Shallow | A shallow earthquake is when the earthquake's focus is close to the surface of the Earth. These earthquakes are usually less powerful than the other two types, but can still cause a lot of damage.

Intermediate | Intermediate earthquakes have a focus that's located between the surface and the Earth's mantle, and are usually more powerful than shallow earthquakes.

Deep | Deep earthquakes have a focus that's located in the mantle, which is the layer of the Earth below the crust. They're the most powerful type of earthquake, and can even cause damage on the surface.

An earthquake can cause damage to buildings and bridges; interrupt gas, electrical, and telephone services; and occasionally trigger landslides, avalanches, flash flooding, wildfires, and massive, destructive waves of water over oceans (tsunamis).

The Dangers Associated With Earthquakes

The shaking of the ground can cause objects to fall off shelves and injure people. If you're outside when an earthquake starts, move away from tall buildings, streetlights and power lines.

An earthquake can also cause a tsunami, or a large wave, to form and crash onto the shore. Tsunamis can be very dangerous and can reach heights of over 100 feet.

How to Prepare for an Earthquake

When an earthquake is imminent, your first step should be to find a safe spot. The most ideal spots are under sturdy furniture or inside door frames. It is best to stay away from windows and anything that can fall over.

Once you've found the safest place, it's time to prepare for the shaking. Grab some blankets, pillows and helmets if possible – all of which can provide extra cushioning against falling objects.

Additionally, you should always keep an eye out for debris that could cause injuries, such as broken glass and sharp objects.

Finally, stay calm until the shaking stops, and monitor local news reports for additional information on how best to handle the situation.

What to do During an Earthquake

The moment an earthquake hits, it is important to stay as calm and collected as possible. Safety is the first priority so you must stay away from windows and furniture that can fall on you, and protect your head with your arms if needed.

If an earthquake occurs while you are indoors, stay away from anything that could fall or break such as windows, mirrors, or furniture. Do not run outdoors as shaking can cause glass and other materials to fall from the building structure. Instead, seek shelter under sturdy tables or desks. If there is no furniture available, move to a corner of the room and crouch down protectively with your arms over your head and neck.

It's also important to take note of any gas lines that could be affected during an earthquake and shut them off if necessary in order to prevent fires from breaking out due to exposed pipes.

After the Earthquake: Recovery and Assistance

When the shaking stops, there will be a period of recovery.

Don't enter any building if it has visible damage due to the earthquake - it's better to be safe than sorry.

You should contact local aid organisations like the Red Cross for additional help with sheltering, water, food and other essentials.

Stay in touch with local officials about any services provided for those affected by the earthquake.

Make sure you also have a plan for what to do if you're stuck in an earthquake, and know how to get in touch with loved ones in case of an emergency.

By being prepared and knowing what to do, you can help ensure that you and your loved ones are safe in the event of an earthquake.

Explore Career Options (By Industry)

• Construction
• Entertainment
• Manufacturing
• Information Technology

Data Administrator

Database professionals use software to store and organise data such as financial information, and customer shipping records. Individuals who opt for a career as data administrators ensure that data is available for users and secured from unauthorised sales. DB administrators may work in various types of industries. It may involve computer systems design, service firms, insurance companies, banks and hospitals.

Bio Medical Engineer

The field of biomedical engineering opens up a universe of expert chances. An Individual in the biomedical engineering career path work in the field of engineering as well as medicine, in order to find out solutions to common problems of the two fields. The biomedical engineering job opportunities are to collaborate with doctors and researchers to develop medical systems, equipment, or devices that can solve clinical problems. Here we will be discussing jobs after biomedical engineering, how to get a job in biomedical engineering, biomedical engineering scope, and salary. 

Ethical Hacker

A career as ethical hacker involves various challenges and provides lucrative opportunities in the digital era where every giant business and startup owns its cyberspace on the world wide web. Individuals in the ethical hacker career path try to find the vulnerabilities in the cyber system to get its authority. If he or she succeeds in it then he or she gets its illegal authority. Individuals in the ethical hacker career path then steal information or delete the file that could affect the business, functioning, or services of the organization.

GIS officer work on various GIS software to conduct a study and gather spatial and non-spatial information. GIS experts update the GIS data and maintain it. The databases include aerial or satellite imagery, latitudinal and longitudinal coordinates, and manually digitized images of maps. In a career as GIS expert, one is responsible for creating online and mobile maps.

Data Analyst

The invention of the database has given fresh breath to the people involved in the data analytics career path. Analysis refers to splitting up a whole into its individual components for individual analysis. Data analysis is a method through which raw data are processed and transformed into information that would be beneficial for user strategic thinking.

Data are collected and examined to respond to questions, evaluate hypotheses or contradict theories. It is a tool for analyzing, transforming, modeling, and arranging data with useful knowledge, to assist in decision-making and methods, encompassing various strategies, and is used in different fields of business, research, and social science.

Geothermal Engineer

Individuals who opt for a career as geothermal engineers are the professionals involved in the processing of geothermal energy. The responsibilities of geothermal engineers may vary depending on the workplace location. Those who work in fields design facilities to process and distribute geothermal energy. They oversee the functioning of machinery used in the field.

Database Architect

If you are intrigued by the programming world and are interested in developing communications networks then a career as database architect may be a good option for you. Data architect roles and responsibilities include building design models for data communication networks. Wide Area Networks (WANs), local area networks (LANs), and intranets are included in the database networks. It is expected that database architects will have in-depth knowledge of a company's business to develop a network to fulfil the requirements of the organisation. Stay tuned as we look at the larger picture and give you more information on what is db architecture, why you should pursue database architecture, what to expect from such a degree and what your job opportunities will be after graduation. Here, we will be discussing how to become a data architect. Students can visit NIT Trichy , IIT Kharagpur , JMI New Delhi . 

Remote Sensing Technician

Individuals who opt for a career as a remote sensing technician possess unique personalities. Remote sensing analysts seem to be rational human beings, they are strong, independent, persistent, sincere, realistic and resourceful. Some of them are analytical as well, which means they are intelligent, introspective and inquisitive. 

Remote sensing scientists use remote sensing technology to support scientists in fields such as community planning, flight planning or the management of natural resources. Analysing data collected from aircraft, satellites or ground-based platforms using statistical analysis software, image analysis software or Geographic Information Systems (GIS) is a significant part of their work. Do you want to learn how to become remote sensing technician? There's no need to be concerned; we've devised a simple remote sensing technician career path for you. Scroll through the pages and read.

Budget Analyst

Budget analysis, in a nutshell, entails thoroughly analyzing the details of a financial budget. The budget analysis aims to better understand and manage revenue. Budget analysts assist in the achievement of financial targets, the preservation of profitability, and the pursuit of long-term growth for a business. Budget analysts generally have a bachelor's degree in accounting, finance, economics, or a closely related field. Knowledge of Financial Management is of prime importance in this career.

Underwriter

An underwriter is a person who assesses and evaluates the risk of insurance in his or her field like mortgage, loan, health policy, investment, and so on and so forth. The underwriter career path does involve risks as analysing the risks means finding out if there is a way for the insurance underwriter jobs to recover the money from its clients. If the risk turns out to be too much for the company then in the future it is an underwriter who will be held accountable for it. Therefore, one must carry out his or her job with a lot of attention and diligence.

Finance Executive

Product manager.

A Product Manager is a professional responsible for product planning and marketing. He or she manages the product throughout the Product Life Cycle, gathering and prioritising the product. A product manager job description includes defining the product vision and working closely with team members of other departments to deliver winning products.  

Operations Manager

Individuals in the operations manager jobs are responsible for ensuring the efficiency of each department to acquire its optimal goal. They plan the use of resources and distribution of materials. The operations manager's job description includes managing budgets, negotiating contracts, and performing administrative tasks.

Stock Analyst

Individuals who opt for a career as a stock analyst examine the company's investments makes decisions and keep track of financial securities. The nature of such investments will differ from one business to the next. Individuals in the stock analyst career use data mining to forecast a company's profits and revenues, advise clients on whether to buy or sell, participate in seminars, and discussing financial matters with executives and evaluate annual reports.

A Researcher is a professional who is responsible for collecting data and information by reviewing the literature and conducting experiments and surveys. He or she uses various methodological processes to provide accurate data and information that is utilised by academicians and other industry professionals. Here, we will discuss what is a researcher, the researcher's salary, types of researchers.

Welding Engineer

Welding Engineer Job Description: A Welding Engineer work involves managing welding projects and supervising welding teams. He or she is responsible for reviewing welding procedures, processes and documentation. A career as Welding Engineer involves conducting failure analyses and causes on welding issues. 

Transportation Planner

A career as Transportation Planner requires technical application of science and technology in engineering, particularly the concepts, equipment and technologies involved in the production of products and services. In fields like land use, infrastructure review, ecological standards and street design, he or she considers issues of health, environment and performance. A Transportation Planner assigns resources for implementing and designing programmes. He or she is responsible for assessing needs, preparing plans and forecasts and compliance with regulations.

Environmental Engineer

Individuals who opt for a career as an environmental engineer are construction professionals who utilise the skills and knowledge of biology, soil science, chemistry and the concept of engineering to design and develop projects that serve as solutions to various environmental problems. 

Safety Manager

A Safety Manager is a professional responsible for employee’s safety at work. He or she plans, implements and oversees the company’s employee safety. A Safety Manager ensures compliance and adherence to Occupational Health and Safety (OHS) guidelines.

Conservation Architect

A Conservation Architect is a professional responsible for conserving and restoring buildings or monuments having a historic value. He or she applies techniques to document and stabilise the object’s state without any further damage. A Conservation Architect restores the monuments and heritage buildings to bring them back to their original state.

Structural Engineer

A Structural Engineer designs buildings, bridges, and other related structures. He or she analyzes the structures and makes sure the structures are strong enough to be used by the people. A career as a Structural Engineer requires working in the construction process. It comes under the civil engineering discipline. A Structure Engineer creates structural models with the help of computer-aided design software. 

Highway Engineer

Highway Engineer Job Description:  A Highway Engineer is a civil engineer who specialises in planning and building thousands of miles of roads that support connectivity and allow transportation across the country. He or she ensures that traffic management schemes are effectively planned concerning economic sustainability and successful implementation.

Field Surveyor

Are you searching for a Field Surveyor Job Description? A Field Surveyor is a professional responsible for conducting field surveys for various places or geographical conditions. He or she collects the required data and information as per the instructions given by senior officials. 

Orthotist and Prosthetist

Orthotists and Prosthetists are professionals who provide aid to patients with disabilities. They fix them to artificial limbs (prosthetics) and help them to regain stability. There are times when people lose their limbs in an accident. In some other occasions, they are born without a limb or orthopaedic impairment. Orthotists and prosthetists play a crucial role in their lives with fixing them to assistive devices and provide mobility.

Pathologist

A career in pathology in India is filled with several responsibilities as it is a medical branch and affects human lives. The demand for pathologists has been increasing over the past few years as people are getting more aware of different diseases. Not only that, but an increase in population and lifestyle changes have also contributed to the increase in a pathologist’s demand. The pathology careers provide an extremely huge number of opportunities and if you want to be a part of the medical field you can consider being a pathologist. If you want to know more about a career in pathology in India then continue reading this article.

Veterinary Doctor

Speech therapist, gynaecologist.

Gynaecology can be defined as the study of the female body. The job outlook for gynaecology is excellent since there is evergreen demand for one because of their responsibility of dealing with not only women’s health but also fertility and pregnancy issues. Although most women prefer to have a women obstetrician gynaecologist as their doctor, men also explore a career as a gynaecologist and there are ample amounts of male doctors in the field who are gynaecologists and aid women during delivery and childbirth. 

Audiologist

The audiologist career involves audiology professionals who are responsible to treat hearing loss and proactively preventing the relevant damage. Individuals who opt for a career as an audiologist use various testing strategies with the aim to determine if someone has a normal sensitivity to sounds or not. After the identification of hearing loss, a hearing doctor is required to determine which sections of the hearing are affected, to what extent they are affected, and where the wound causing the hearing loss is found. As soon as the hearing loss is identified, the patients are provided with recommendations for interventions and rehabilitation such as hearing aids, cochlear implants, and appropriate medical referrals. While audiology is a branch of science that studies and researches hearing, balance, and related disorders.

An oncologist is a specialised doctor responsible for providing medical care to patients diagnosed with cancer. He or she uses several therapies to control the cancer and its effect on the human body such as chemotherapy, immunotherapy, radiation therapy and biopsy. An oncologist designs a treatment plan based on a pathology report after diagnosing the type of cancer and where it is spreading inside the body.

Are you searching for an ‘Anatomist job description’? An Anatomist is a research professional who applies the laws of biological science to determine the ability of bodies of various living organisms including animals and humans to regenerate the damaged or destroyed organs. If you want to know what does an anatomist do, then read the entire article, where we will answer all your questions.

For an individual who opts for a career as an actor, the primary responsibility is to completely speak to the character he or she is playing and to persuade the crowd that the character is genuine by connecting with them and bringing them into the story. This applies to significant roles and littler parts, as all roles join to make an effective creation. Here in this article, we will discuss how to become an actor in India, actor exams, actor salary in India, and actor jobs. 

Individuals who opt for a career as acrobats create and direct original routines for themselves, in addition to developing interpretations of existing routines. The work of circus acrobats can be seen in a variety of performance settings, including circus, reality shows, sports events like the Olympics, movies and commercials. Individuals who opt for a career as acrobats must be prepared to face rejections and intermittent periods of work. The creativity of acrobats may extend to other aspects of the performance. For example, acrobats in the circus may work with gym trainers, celebrities or collaborate with other professionals to enhance such performance elements as costume and or maybe at the teaching end of the career.

Video Game Designer

Career as a video game designer is filled with excitement as well as responsibilities. A video game designer is someone who is involved in the process of creating a game from day one. He or she is responsible for fulfilling duties like designing the character of the game, the several levels involved, plot, art and similar other elements. Individuals who opt for a career as a video game designer may also write the codes for the game using different programming languages.

Depending on the video game designer job description and experience they may also have to lead a team and do the early testing of the game in order to suggest changes and find loopholes.

Radio Jockey

Radio Jockey is an exciting, promising career and a great challenge for music lovers. If you are really interested in a career as radio jockey, then it is very important for an RJ to have an automatic, fun, and friendly personality. If you want to get a job done in this field, a strong command of the language and a good voice are always good things. Apart from this, in order to be a good radio jockey, you will also listen to good radio jockeys so that you can understand their style and later make your own by practicing.

A career as radio jockey has a lot to offer to deserving candidates. If you want to know more about a career as radio jockey, and how to become a radio jockey then continue reading the article.

Choreographer

The word “choreography" actually comes from Greek words that mean “dance writing." Individuals who opt for a career as a choreographer create and direct original dances, in addition to developing interpretations of existing dances. A Choreographer dances and utilises his or her creativity in other aspects of dance performance. For example, he or she may work with the music director to select music or collaborate with other famous choreographers to enhance such performance elements as lighting, costume and set design.

Social Media Manager

A career as social media manager involves implementing the company’s or brand’s marketing plan across all social media channels. Social media managers help in building or improving a brand’s or a company’s website traffic, build brand awareness, create and implement marketing and brand strategy. Social media managers are key to important social communication as well.

Photographer

Photography is considered both a science and an art, an artistic means of expression in which the camera replaces the pen. In a career as a photographer, an individual is hired to capture the moments of public and private events, such as press conferences or weddings, or may also work inside a studio, where people go to get their picture clicked. Photography is divided into many streams each generating numerous career opportunities in photography. With the boom in advertising, media, and the fashion industry, photography has emerged as a lucrative and thrilling career option for many Indian youths.

An individual who is pursuing a career as a producer is responsible for managing the business aspects of production. They are involved in each aspect of production from its inception to deception. Famous movie producers review the script, recommend changes and visualise the story. 

They are responsible for overseeing the finance involved in the project and distributing the film for broadcasting on various platforms. A career as a producer is quite fulfilling as well as exhaustive in terms of playing different roles in order for a production to be successful. Famous movie producers are responsible for hiring creative and technical personnel on contract basis.

Copy Writer

In a career as a copywriter, one has to consult with the client and understand the brief well. A career as a copywriter has a lot to offer to deserving candidates. Several new mediums of advertising are opening therefore making it a lucrative career choice. Students can pursue various copywriter courses such as Journalism , Advertising , Marketing Management . Here, we have discussed how to become a freelance copywriter, copywriter career path, how to become a copywriter in India, and copywriting career outlook. 

In a career as a vlogger, one generally works for himself or herself. However, once an individual has gained viewership there are several brands and companies that approach them for paid collaboration. It is one of those fields where an individual can earn well while following his or her passion. 

Ever since internet costs got reduced the viewership for these types of content has increased on a large scale. Therefore, a career as a vlogger has a lot to offer. If you want to know more about the Vlogger eligibility, roles and responsibilities then continue reading the article. 

For publishing books, newspapers, magazines and digital material, editorial and commercial strategies are set by publishers. Individuals in publishing career paths make choices about the markets their businesses will reach and the type of content that their audience will be served. Individuals in book publisher careers collaborate with editorial staff, designers, authors, and freelance contributors who develop and manage the creation of content.

Careers in journalism are filled with excitement as well as responsibilities. One cannot afford to miss out on the details. As it is the small details that provide insights into a story. Depending on those insights a journalist goes about writing a news article. A journalism career can be stressful at times but if you are someone who is passionate about it then it is the right choice for you. If you want to know more about the media field and journalist career then continue reading this article.

Individuals in the editor career path is an unsung hero of the news industry who polishes the language of the news stories provided by stringers, reporters, copywriters and content writers and also news agencies. Individuals who opt for a career as an editor make it more persuasive, concise and clear for readers. In this article, we will discuss the details of the editor's career path such as how to become an editor in India, editor salary in India and editor skills and qualities.

Individuals who opt for a career as a reporter may often be at work on national holidays and festivities. He or she pitches various story ideas and covers news stories in risky situations. Students can pursue a BMC (Bachelor of Mass Communication) , B.M.M. (Bachelor of Mass Media) , or  MAJMC (MA in Journalism and Mass Communication) to become a reporter. While we sit at home reporters travel to locations to collect information that carries a news value.  

Corporate Executive

Are you searching for a Corporate Executive job description? A Corporate Executive role comes with administrative duties. He or she provides support to the leadership of the organisation. A Corporate Executive fulfils the business purpose and ensures its financial stability. In this article, we are going to discuss how to become corporate executive.

Multimedia Specialist

A multimedia specialist is a media professional who creates, audio, videos, graphic image files, computer animations for multimedia applications. He or she is responsible for planning, producing, and maintaining websites and applications. 

Quality Controller

A quality controller plays a crucial role in an organisation. He or she is responsible for performing quality checks on manufactured products. He or she identifies the defects in a product and rejects the product. 

A quality controller records detailed information about products with defects and sends it to the supervisor or plant manager to take necessary actions to improve the production process.

Production Manager

A QA Lead is in charge of the QA Team. The role of QA Lead comes with the responsibility of assessing services and products in order to determine that he or she meets the quality standards. He or she develops, implements and manages test plans. 

Process Development Engineer

The Process Development Engineers design, implement, manufacture, mine, and other production systems using technical knowledge and expertise in the industry. They use computer modeling software to test technologies and machinery. An individual who is opting career as Process Development Engineer is responsible for developing cost-effective and efficient processes. They also monitor the production process and ensure it functions smoothly and efficiently.

AWS Solution Architect

An AWS Solution Architect is someone who specializes in developing and implementing cloud computing systems. He or she has a good understanding of the various aspects of cloud computing and can confidently deploy and manage their systems. He or she troubleshoots the issues and evaluates the risk from the third party. 

Azure Administrator

An Azure Administrator is a professional responsible for implementing, monitoring, and maintaining Azure Solutions. He or she manages cloud infrastructure service instances and various cloud servers as well as sets up public and private cloud systems. 

Computer Programmer

Careers in computer programming primarily refer to the systematic act of writing code and moreover include wider computer science areas. The word 'programmer' or 'coder' has entered into practice with the growing number of newly self-taught tech enthusiasts. Computer programming careers involve the use of designs created by software developers and engineers and transforming them into commands that can be implemented by computers. These commands result in regular usage of social media sites, word-processing applications and browsers.

Information Security Manager

Individuals in the information security manager career path involves in overseeing and controlling all aspects of computer security. The IT security manager job description includes planning and carrying out security measures to protect the business data and information from corruption, theft, unauthorised access, and deliberate attack 

ITSM Manager

Automation test engineer.

An Automation Test Engineer job involves executing automated test scripts. He or she identifies the project’s problems and troubleshoots them. The role involves documenting the defect using management tools. He or she works with the application team in order to resolve any issues arising during the testing process. 

Applications for Admissions are open.

Aakash iACST Scholarship Test 2024

Get up to 90% scholarship on NEET, JEE & Foundation courses

SAT® | CollegeBoard

Registeration closing on 19th Apr for SAT® | One Test-Many Universities | 90% discount on registrations fee | Free Practice | Multiple Attempts | no penalty for guessing

JEE Main Important Chemistry formulas

As per latest 2024 syllabus. Chemistry formulas, equations, & laws of class 11 & 12th chapters

TOEFL ® Registrations 2024

Thinking of Studying Abroad? Think the TOEFL® test. Register now & Save 10% on English Proficiency Tests with Gift Cards

Resonance Coaching

Enroll in Resonance Coaching for success in JEE/NEET exams

NEET 2024 Most scoring concepts

Just Study 32% of the NEET syllabus and Score upto 100% marks

Everything about Education

Latest updates, Exclusive Content, Webinars and more.

Download Careers360 App's

Regular exam updates, QnA, Predictors, College Applications & E-books now on your Mobile

Cetifications

We Appeared in

Monday, April 15, 2024 8:24 pm (Paris)

• Environment

Taiwan earthquake: Natural disaster expertise helped limit death toll

Despite the powerful earthquake that shook the island's east coast on April 3, the death toll remained limited thanks to excellent natural disaster management.

By  Florence de Changy   (Hong Kong (China) correspondent)

Time to 4 min.

• Share on Twitter
• Share on Messenger
• Share on Facebook
• Share by email
• Share on Linkedin

Subscribers only

Five days after a powerful earthquake between 7.2 and 7.4 on the Richter scale struck off the coast of Hualien County in the east of Taiwan, the death toll has now risen to 13 people, with 1,133 injured and six still missing. This includes a Singaporean-Australian couple, whom rescuers were still searching for on the morning of Monday, April 8, amid the mountainous region's massive rockslides and landslides.

Several hundred buildings, a bridge and a section of road were also destroyed or damaged, but overall, most of the infrastructure held up well. On Sunday, crates of food and survival supplies were dropped by helicopter over an elementary school, a church and other places that are still blocked off, while several teams of engineers and heavy machinery continued to clear roads and tunnel entrances of the huge boulders blocking them.

A few hundred tourists also remained stranded at the Silks Place Taroko luxury hotel complex, located in the heart of Taroko National Park, whose magnificent gorges are one of Taiwan's most popular tourist destinations.

"Local rescue capabilities and resources are abundant," said Interior Minister Lin Yu-chang, who also heads the Central Emergency Operation Center, on Saturday.

40,000 tremors a year

Several factors seem to have contributed to the surprisingly low toll of this recent earthquake. The first is simply the frequency of this type of event. Due to its geological location on the Pacific Ring of Fire, with many fault lines running through it, Taiwan is very familiar with earthquakes. For about 30 years, the subject has been closely monitored by the authorities, especially the Central Weather Bureau Seismographic Network (CWBSN), which has 170 stations spread across the island and observes, records and analyzes 40,000 earthquakes a year, with equipment that is constantly being improved. But only a fraction of these tremors are perceptible, and only a fraction of these cause damage. During the 20 th century, 48 earthquakes resulted in deaths in Taiwan.

Ever since the infamous Chi-Chi earthquake on September 21, 1999, dubbed the "921," the authorities have decided to stop treating these catastrophes as inevitable. The "921," which registered 7.7 on the Richter scale, caused the deaths of over 2,400 people.

At that time, 51,000 buildings collapsed, and just as many were partially destroyed. Since then, the government has imposed strict construction and safety standards in order to make all new buildings more resistant to seismic shocks. Proof of its confidence in its anti-seismic technology and expertise, Taiwan even had the audacity in 2004 to build the world's then-tallest tower, the famous 508-meter Taipei 101. In addition to its extremely deep foundations, the building houses an enormous 730-ton steel pendulum suspended between several floors at the building's summit, visible to visitors. It is supposed to cushion and reduce the tower's undulations by 40% in the event of an earthquake or strong winds. Although 70% of the most virulent earthquakes occur on the east coast, the capital, Taipei, located in the north of the island, is regularly "shaken."

You have 55.73% of this article left to read. The rest is for subscribers only.

Lecture du Monde en cours sur un autre appareil.

Vous pouvez lire Le Monde sur un seul appareil à la fois

Ce message s’affichera sur l’autre appareil.

Parce qu’une autre personne (ou vous) est en train de lire Le Monde avec ce compte sur un autre appareil.

Vous ne pouvez lire Le Monde que sur un seul appareil à la fois (ordinateur, téléphone ou tablette).

Comment ne plus voir ce message ?

En cliquant sur «  Continuer à lire ici  » et en vous assurant que vous êtes la seule personne à consulter Le Monde avec ce compte.

Que se passera-t-il si vous continuez à lire ici ?

Ce message s’affichera sur l’autre appareil. Ce dernier restera connecté avec ce compte.

Y a-t-il d’autres limites ?

Non. Vous pouvez vous connecter avec votre compte sur autant d’appareils que vous le souhaitez, mais en les utilisant à des moments différents.

Vous ignorez qui est l’autre personne ?

Nous vous conseillons de modifier votre mot de passe .

Lecture restreinte

Votre abonnement n’autorise pas la lecture de cet article

Pour plus d’informations, merci de contacter notre service commercial.

Earthquakes Impact on Human Resource in Organizations Essay

Introduction, recommendations.

Bibliography

Human resource is the most important assert to any organization since it defines the organizational structure. According to Mills 1 , human resource defines the roadmap to a firm’s success or failure. In this case, human resource is very delicate. It is affected by various factors ranging from political issues, social concerns and religious requirements to natural phenomena and personal issues.

The human resource management must be in a position to analyze such issues and determine how they influence the human resource base at any firm. This involves ascertaining the degree to which such factors affect the workforce and the frequency of their occurrence.

After this analysis, the human resource management would devise mechanisms though which such forces can be countered in order to avoid an adverse effect on the firm’s operation should such unfortunate things happen.

New Zealand suffered a serious earthquake in two close successions in the previous years. The earthquakes affected businesses and the normal social welfare of the community.

However, its effect on human resource was striking. During this time, the social structure of the society was completely disrupted and many firms recorded a serious drop in the demand for their goods. The earthquake that followed in Japan had its effects felt in New Zealand in various sectors.

This paper seeks to determine how natural disasters such earthquakes affect human resource in various firms. The researcher seeks to determine the magnitude of this effect and its general effect on the society in general and the firms affected in specific.

The paper also seeks to make recommendations on how natural disaster preparedness can be achieved. It seeks to offer a solution to the human resource department on what should be done should such a phenomenon occur. This study is based on the earthquake that took place in Christchurch, New Zealand.

Human Resource Issues Faced by Companies Affected by Earthquakes in Christchurch

As noted above, human resource is very delicate. Various issues affect it. At Christchurch, there have been incidents of earthquake in the past but the recent earthquake was a little too devastating. It affected various structures, some of which were destroyed.

The companies that operate in this region bore the most brunt. Their structures were brought down in one way or the other, which affected the operations of the firms. They lost the time that they would have utilized to produce goods leading to reduced profits.

The demand for their products dropped significantly both in the local and external markets. Compounding all this misfortune was the issue of human resource. A number of human resource issues were generated by this incident as is discussed below.

Shrinking Talent and Pool of Staff and Senior Management

According to Andresen 2 , a firm would gain a competitive advantage if it were in a position to create a pool of talented staff. The scholar goes ahead to elaborate that talent is the very core of business prosperity. The current business world is very competitive and highly unpredictable.

A firm may not say for sure what tomorrow would bring in terms of new technologies, new threats or such related issues. They are left guessing what business environment would be like tomorrow.

This is very dangerous if a firm lacks a pool of talented workers. This is so because such talents are the one that would be called upon in case of emergencies to devise creative formulas to help bring the firm out of difficult situation.

At Christchurch, a number of firms reported an increase in the rate at which talents were shrinking after the earthquake. This could be attributed to various factors. Earthquake has adverse effect on people affected by it depending on its magnitude and the preparedness of the people.

There are cases where the effect of the earthquake is so strong that some people end up being displaced. The earthquake that took place in this region disrupted many families. They were forced to look for alternative places to stay following the massive destruction on their previous residential places.

The same employees with the same talent are needed by the firm in order to operate normally. In their human resource model Armstrong, Kotler and Brannan 3 describe human resource as being highly mobile. He says that human resource mobility is always determined by among other factors, security and comfort of their immediate environment. People like places where they are assured that their families are safe.

The earthquakes rendered this region insecure. Some individuals were hurt, others lost their lives, or such other related misfortunes. Because of self-decisions and family pressure, many professionals, especially those with talent and are sure of securing job at other places would be encouraged to leave.

They would be seeking security other than increased pay on their work. This is a serious blow to firms in Christchurch because replacing such talents is not always easy.

Increased Cost of wages and Salaries for Firms Operating in Christchurch

It was evident that more people were moving away from this region due to such natural calamities. Very few individuals were moving in and most likely, they lacked the skills needed by many of the firms in this region.

The firms had therefore to share the little talent that remained. Ulrich 4 , in explaining organizational theory said that human resource behaves exactly like goods in the market. When in excess, their cost, just like the price of products, would drop.

They would be easily accessible and getting the right quality of staff would be easier and less time consuming. On the other hand, if it were limited, its cost, just like the price of a product, would shoot. They will be choosier and very demanding. They would not accept terms that they consider unfavorable to them.

According to Cunningham 5 , the ultimate goal of every firm that is operating in any given sector is to maximize profits as it minimizes costs. Expenditure on human resource accounts for the largest percentage of costs. Firms are always looking for ways in which they can minimize this cost.

However, the local firms in Christchurch found themselves in an awkward position, as the reverse had to happen. The cost of the talent, and other human resource in general had to be reviewed upwards, a fact that reduced its profitability. As the demand for the talent was on the rise, the costs increased because many firms were anticipating sharing few talents available.

Retention Strategy as an Approach to Securing Human Resource

Firms always employ different approaches when it comes to maintaining a pool of employees. According to Zimmerman 6 , although the most popular approach is always retention because of the experience gathered, there are instances where the employ and release method would be appropriate.

There are firms that may not need experience to be determined by an individuals’ stay in a firm. This scholar explains that employ and release method of retaining workforce is very appropriate for firms that are mobile or those not keen on seeing an increased cost of labor in regions where the labor market is flooded.

This tactic of employing workforce and laying them of after a contract of say two years has expired helps firms avoid such pressures to increase salaries of its workers. It also helps such firms escape the wrath of labor organization.

The Christchurch firms were not lucky enough to be able to employ this strategy because the earthquake sent people away from this region, leaving the workforce market highly strained, with employees who are very expensive and mobile.

The firms were forced to employ the retention strategy in order to maintain its operation. As Conaty and Ram 7 assert, the retention strategy as a way of maintaining the workforce is very appropriate, especially when experience is needed.

However, it is relatively more expensive. Whereas the firms can set a fixed wage rate for the employees on contract basis with a possibility of fixing the same or adjusting it a little, those on permanent basis must have a clearly defined scale within which their salaries would be increasing at a given regular interval.

Because of this earthquake, these firms had to pay more for their current workforce and offer them a better working environment, for this would be the only way to retain them.

Reduction in Staff and Management Morale

Staff morale is very important in the normal running of organizations. Merkle 8 explains that the best workforce to deal with is the self-motivated workforce. They need little supervision as their actions are driven by internal self-motivation and the need to see themselves achieve. A motivated staff would be an assurance to any firm of a success.

Daft 9 observes that for there to be a motivation within an individual, there is need to ensure that he has self-satisfaction, and lacks any forms of stress, from either home or work place. The earthquake at Christchurch was a great blow to many employees’ morale, both at management and junior level.

Their homes were destroyed and therefore they had to seek alternatives of settling their families. This came at a cost they had not planned before. Because of the physical and financial constrains that this incident brought, the workforce was highly demoralized to come to work.

They were more concerned with finding immediate solutions to their predicament. Those who came to work found the same destruction, a reminder of what they left at home heightening their disaffection. The management lost morale due to a number of factors.

The first casualty was the destruction of the business premises that has to be prepared at a cost. Then there was the talent drain because the region was now considered hash for human stay. 10 As if this was not enough, the demand for the product in the market dropped.

There arise cases where firms are faced with unfortunate situations that threaten their existence. The greatest joy always comes when such unfortunate incidents are overcome. The above incidents can be overcome in the following ways.

To address the issue of shrinking talent, pool of staff and senior management, firms in this region should come up with rapid response units that would respond to their employees in cases such as the earthquake. It is important that these firms appreciate the fact that such unfortunate natural phenomena are hard to predict, especially for those without the geological knowledge.

They should therefore come up with measures that would see to it that they respond when their customer are met with such unfortunate incidents. This can be in form of transportation from the affected area, offering temporary shelters, or giving them bonus as a sign that the firm is with them in times of need

Ulrich posits that the firms should also be ready to pay a little more on top of this during such cases for the employees would go through tough times. This would reduce the possibility of unanimous demand for huge increments by the employees themselves.

It is necessary for such firms to embrace the retention strategy to managing human resource. Firms that wait until such incidents occur may find it disruptively expensive to employ such methods during such hard times.

In order to further increase their morale, the firm should strive to offer non financial incentives like promotions or team building retreats regularly to strengthen the bond between employees and the firm.

Disaster preparedness is very important when it comes to a firm’s prosperity in the market. When developing strategies that would respond to such unfortunate situation, one thing that should be considered is the impact on human resource. Such impact may cause serious consequences to a firm if not managed properly.

Such impacts include transfer of talent from the region, making the workforce be scarce. In effect, their cost would increase making the overall cost of production be high. The best way to curb this would be to develop mechanism that would cushion the firm from such effects

Andresen, Alan. Ethics in Social Marketing . Georgetown: Georgetown University Press, 2001.

Armstrong, Gary, Kotler Philip & Brannan Ross. Marketing: An introduction . New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 2009.

Conaty, Bill and Ram Charan. The Talent Masters: Why Smart Leaders Put People before Numbers . New York: Crown Publishing Group, 2011.

Cunningham, Barton. The stress management sourcebook . Los Angeles: Cengage Learning, 2010.

Daft, Richard. Organizational theory and design . Mason: Cengage Learning, 2010.

Ernst, Young. Telecommunications: Transforming our society . New York: Lowell House, 2000.

Merkle, Judith. Management and Ideology . California: University of California Press, 1980.

Mills, Gordon. Retail pricing strategies and market power. Melbourne: Melbourne University Publishing, 2002.

Ulrich, Dave. Human Resource Champions. The next agenda for adding value and delivering results . Boston: Harvard Business School Press, 1996.

Zimmerman, Richard. Designing customer surveys that work. New York: Quality Progress Press, 1996.

1 Gordon, Mills. Retail pricing strategies and market power. Melbourne: Melbourne University Publishing, 2002. P. 45

2 Alan, Andresen. Ethics in Social Marketing . Georgetown: Georgetown University Press, 2001. P. 79

3 Gary, Armstrong, Philip, Kotler & Ross, Brannan. Marketing: An introduction . New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 2009. P.14

4 Dave, Ulrich. Human Resource Champions. The next agenda for adding value and delivering results . Boston: Harvard Business School Press, 1996.

5 Barton, Cunningham. The stress management sourcebook . Los Angeles: Cengage Learning, 2010. P. 24

6 Richard, Zimmerman. Designing customer surveys that work. New York: Quality Progress Press, 1996. P. 56

7 Bill, Conaty, and Ram Charan. The Talent Masters: Why Smart Leaders Put People before Numbers . New York: Crown Publishing Group, 2011.

8 Judith, Merkle. Management and Ideology . California: University of California Press, 1980. P. 69

9 Richard, Daft. Organizational theory and design . Mason: Cengage Learning, 2010. P.34

10 Ernst, Young. Telecommunications: Transforming our society . New York: Lowell House, 2000. P. 39

• Chicago (A-D)
• Chicago (N-B)

IvyPanda. (2024, April 6). Earthquakes Impact on Human Resource in Organizations. https://ivypanda.com/essays/disaster-preparedness/

"Earthquakes Impact on Human Resource in Organizations." IvyPanda , 6 Apr. 2024, ivypanda.com/essays/disaster-preparedness/.

IvyPanda . (2024) 'Earthquakes Impact on Human Resource in Organizations'. 6 April.

IvyPanda . 2024. "Earthquakes Impact on Human Resource in Organizations." April 6, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/disaster-preparedness/.

1. IvyPanda . "Earthquakes Impact on Human Resource in Organizations." April 6, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/disaster-preparedness/.

IvyPanda . "Earthquakes Impact on Human Resource in Organizations." April 6, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/disaster-preparedness/.

• Christchurch Mosque Shootings and Motivations
• Earthquakes Effect on New Zealand HR Management
• Applying New Zealand’s Call to Action Against Terror
• Human Resource Issues Facing Companies
• Representation of Muslims and Islam in Western Media
• Motivations of Lone-Wolf Terrorists
• Response to Terrorist Attacks: The Role of Military and Public Sector Entities
• Dangerous and Natural Energy: Earthquakes
• California Earthquakes of the 20th Century
• Earthquake Statistics Understanding
• Global Warming in Canada
• Hurricanes in Indiana University Board Risk Assessment and Management Plan
• Timber and Sustainability
• Economics and Human Induced Climate Change
• The Curse of Natural Recourses

Advertisement

Supported by

Is New York City Overdue for a Major Earthquake?

Seismologists said that severe earthquakes are relatively rare around the city and cannot be predicted. But if one were to hit, it could inflict serious damage.

• Share full article

By Hurubie Meko and Patrick McGeehan

The earthquake that hit the Northeast on Friday morning rattled nerves but did not do much damage. Still, it left many New Yorkers wondering how afraid they should be of a bigger one hitting closer to the city.

The answer? It’s hard to say.

Some news reports suggest that a large earthquake is “due” in New York City because moderate ones — with a magnitude of 5 or more — typically occur every few hundred years. The last one took place in the 1700s. Friday’s earthquake, in comparison, was a magnitude 4.8.

In 2008, Columbia University’s Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory found that the risk of earthquakes in the New York City area was greater than previously believed. That is because smaller earthquakes occur regularly in New York City, like a magnitude 1.7 earthquake that was recorded in Astoria, Queens , in January.

Experts caution that it is impossible to know when an earthquake will strike or how much damage it might cause. But if an earthquake much stronger than Friday’s were to hit closer to New York City, “it would be a different story,” said Kishor S. Jaiswal, a research structural engineer with the U.S. Geological Survey. Forecasts from the city suggest that such a quake could result in dozens of injuries and billions of dollars in damage.

There were few reports of damage or injuries after Friday’s earthquake. Still, city officials said they were inspecting bridges, train tracks and buildings, and that people should be prepared for aftershocks for at least several days. There were 29 aftershocks as of Saturday afternoon, including one with a magnitude of 3.8, according to U.S.G.S.

Earthquakes with a similar magnitude to Friday’s are “rare, but they’re not unheard-of” close to New York City, said Leslie Sonder , an associate professor of earth sciences at Dartmouth College.

Earthquakes are often caused by the friction and movement of Earth’s tectonic plates underground. The energy that is released as a result travels in waves and causes the shaking that is felt above ground.

The effect of an earthquake will depend on the location of the epicenter, how deep the earthquake was and the quality of the construction of the buildings in the area, Ms. Sonder said.

“It’s really hard to predict whether a building will have damage at a magnitude 5, or if it will take a seven or an eight,” she said.

The waves from an earthquake on the East Coast might be felt hundreds of miles away because of the type of rocks underground. Because the Northeast is densely populated, many people end up feeling the effects and it becomes a topic of conversation, even if it does not cause much damage, she said.

There are reasons to believe New York City’s buildings might be vulnerable. But many new buildings are designed to withstand earthquakes, and some older buildings have been retrofitted, experts said.

“There’s a saying that ‘earthquakes don’t kill people, buildings do,’” said Jeffrey Schlegelmilch, director of the National Center for Disaster Preparedness at Columbia Climate School. “That’s why it’s so important to sort of have these things in place.”

The most significant tremors in New York City occurred in 1884, when a magnitude 5.2 earthquake with an epicenter off Coney Island shook the city . That earthquake was about four times as strong as Friday’s, and its epicenter was dozens of miles closer to the city. (Friday’s epicenter was in New Jersey, about 40 miles west of New York City.)

If an earthquake similar to that of 1884 hit the city today, officials estimate that it would “potentially cause $4.7 billion in damage to buildings, transportation, and utilities,” leave 100 buildings destroyed and 2,000 people without shelter.

Old brick buildings, buildings with storefronts on the ground level and buildings with “brittle” concrete frames are the most susceptible to cracking and damage, said Abi Aghayere, a forensic structural engineering professor at Drexel University.

Building codes for earthquake safety emerged around the 1930s, and many major cities have also strengthened their codes in recent years to help their infrastructure withstand strong shakes.

For example, the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey in Midtown spent more than $50 million over 15 years ago to retrofit the bus terminal to withstand damage from a seismic event.

In general, New York City has plans for every possible disaster scenario, said Sarah Kaufman , director at the N.Y.U. Rudin Center for Transportation.

“We have probably the best emergency management department in the country,” Ms. Kaufman said.

Once an earthquake occurs, officials’ attention quickly pivots to assessing the damage.

Consolidated Edison, the electricity, gas and steam utility that services 10 million people in New York City and Westchester County, has protocols for checking for damage with an emphasis on its gas distribution network. After Friday’s earthquake, no damage was found, said Matthew Ketschke, the president of the utility.

Still, Mr. Ketschke urged anybody who smelled gas to dial 911 or notify the company.

Patrick McGeehan is a Times reporter who covers the economy of New York City and its airports and other transportation hubs. More about Patrick McGeehan

China natural disasters cost $3.3 billion in first quarter, government says

• Medium Text

The Reuters Daily Briefing newsletter provides all the news you need to start your day. Sign up here.

Reporting by David Kirton in Shenzhen and the Beijing newsroom; Editing by William Mallard

Our Standards: The Thomson Reuters Trust Principles. New Tab , opens new tab

The top U.S. diplomat for East Asia discussed Middle East developments, the South China Sea and Taiwan issues with Chinese counterparts in Beijing, the State Department said on Monday, the latest effort by the two countries to stabilize rocky ties.

World Chevron

Israel has moved in 'significant way' but Hamas remains barrier to Gaza hostage deal, US says

Israel has moved in a "significant way" but Hamas is the barrier to a deal that would see fighting in Gaza paused and hostages released, State Department spokesperson Matthew Miller said on Monday.