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What It Takes to Give a Great Presentation

Carmine Gallo

when creating a presentation many public speaking instructors

Five tips to set yourself apart.

Never underestimate the power of great communication. It can help you land the job of your dreams, attract investors to back your idea, or elevate your stature within your organization. But while there are plenty of good speakers in the world, you can set yourself apart out by being the person who can deliver something great over and over. Here are a few tips for business professionals who want to move from being good speakers to great ones: be concise (the fewer words, the better); never use bullet points (photos and images paired together are more memorable); don’t underestimate the power of your voice (raise and lower it for emphasis); give your audience something extra (unexpected moments will grab their attention); rehearse (the best speakers are the best because they practice — a lot).

I was sitting across the table from a Silicon Valley CEO who had pioneered a technology that touches many of our lives — the flash memory that stores data on smartphones, digital cameras, and computers. He was a frequent guest on CNBC and had been delivering business presentations for at least 20 years before we met. And yet, the CEO wanted to sharpen his public speaking skills.

Carmine Gallo is a Harvard University instructor, keynote speaker, and author of 10 books translated into 40 languages. Gallo is the author of The Bezos Blueprint: Communication Secrets of the World’s Greatest Salesman (St. Martin’s Press).

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7.4: Public Speaking and Class Presentations

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Learning Objectives

Know how to overcome nervousness and anxiety associated with public speaking and giving class presentations.
Effectively use the six-step process to prepare for and deliver a class presentation.
Create effective visual aids for use in class presentations.
Work with a group to successfully plan and deliver a class presentation.

Public speaking—giving an oral presentation before a class or another group of people—is a special form of interaction common in education. You will likely be asked to give a presentation in one of your classes at some point, and your future career may also involve public speaking. It’s important to develop skills for this form of communication.

Public speaking is like participating in class—sharing your thoughts, ideas, and questions with others in the group. In other ways, however, public speaking is very different. You stand in front of the class to speak, rather than from your usual seat—and for most students, that changes the psychology of the situation. You also have time outside of class to prepare your presentation, allowing you to plan it carefully—and, for many, giving more time to worry about it and experience even more anxiety!

Overcoming Anxiety

Although a few people seem to be natural public speakers, most of us feel some stage fright or anxiety about having to speak to a group, at least at first. This is completely normal. We feel like everyone is staring at us and seeing our every flaw, and we’re sure we’ll forget what we want to say or mess up. Take comfort from knowing that almost everyone else is dreading giving class presentations the same as you are! But you can learn to overcome your anxiety and prepare in a way that not only safely gets you through the experience but also leads to success in your presentation. The following are proven strategies for overcoming anxiety when speaking in public:

Understand anxiety. Since stage fright is normal, don’t try to deny that you’re feeling anxious. A little anxiety can help motivate you to prepare and do your best. Accept this aspect of the process and work to overcome it. Anxiety is usually worst just before you begin and but eases up once you’ve begun.
Understand that your audience actually wants you to succeed. They’re not looking for faults or hoping you’ll fail. Other students and your instructors are on your side, not your enemy. They likely won’t even see your anxiety.
Reduce anxiety by preparing and practicing. The next section discusses the preparation process in more detail. The more fully you prepare and the more often you have practice, the more your anxiety will go away.
Focus on what you’re saying, not how you’re saying it. Keep in mind that you have ideas to share, and this is what your classmates and instructors are interested in. Don’t obsess about speaking, but focus on the content of your presentation. Think, for example, of how easily you share your ideas with a friend or family member, as you naturally speak your mind. The same can work with public speaking if you focus on the ideas themselves.
Develop self-confidence. As you prepare, you will make notes you can refer to during the presentation. You’re not going to forget what you want to say. The more you practice, the more confident you’ll become.

Guidelines for Presentations

Preparing and delivering a presentation in class (or in business or other settings) is a process very similar to the learning process discussed in Chapter 4 “Listening, Taking Notes, and Remembering”, Chapter 5 “Reading to Learn”, and Chapter 6 “Preparing for and Taking Tests” and the writing process discussed in Chapter 8 “Writing for Classes”. The process breaks down into these six basic steps:

Analyze your audience and goals
Plan, research, and organize your content
Draft and revise the presentation
Prepare speaking notes
Practice the presentation
Deliver the presentation

Step 1: Analyze Your Audience and Goals

Who will see and hear your presentation—and why? Obviously, other students and the instructor. But you still need to think about what they already know, and don’t know, about your topic. If your topic relates to subject matter in class lectures and readings, consider what background information they already have and be careful not to give a boring recap of things they already know. It may be important, however, to show how your specific topic fits in with subjects that have been discussed already in class, especially in the beginning of your presentation, but be sure to focus on your new topic.

New terms and concepts may become familiar to you while doing your research and preparation, but remember to define and explain them to other students. Consider how much explanation or examples will be needed for your audience to grasp your points. If your topic involves anything controversial or may provoke emotion, consider your audience’s attitudes and choose your words carefully. Thinking about your audience will help you find ways to get their attention and keep them interested.

Be sure you are clear about the goals for the presentation. Are you primarily presenting new information or arguing for a position? Are you giving an overview or a detailed report? Review the assignment and talk with the instructor if you’re unsure. Your goals guide everything in the presentation: what you say, how much you say, what order you say it in, what visual aids you use, whether you use humor or personal examples, and so forth.

Step 2: Plan, Research, and Organize Your Content

Starting with the assignment and your goals, brainstorm your topic. Jot notes on specific topics that seem important. Often you’ll do reading or research to gather more information. Take notes as you would with any reading. As you research the topic at this stage, don’t worry at first about how much content you are gathering. It’s better to know too much and then pick out the most important things to say than to rush ahead to drafting the presentation and then realize you don’t have enough material.

Organizing a presentation is similar to organizing topics in a class paper and uses the same principles. Introduce your topic and state your main idea (thesis), go into more detail about specific ideas, and conclude your presentation. Look for a logical order for the specifics in the middle. Some topics work best in chronological (time) order or with a compare-and-contrast organization. If your goal is to persuade the audience, build up to the strongest reason. Put similar ideas together and add transitions between different ideas.

While researching your topic and outlining your main points, think about visual aids that may help the presentation.

Also start thinking about how much time you have for the presentation, but don’t limit yourself yet in the outline stage.

Step 3: Draft and Revise the Presentation

Unless required by the assignment, you don’t need to actually write out the presentation in full sentences and paragraphs. How much you write depends on your own learning and speaking style. Some students speak well from brief phrases written in an outline, while other students find it easier to write sentences out completely. There’s nothing wrong with writing the presentation out fully like a script if that helps you be sure you will say what you intend to—just so you don’t actually get up and read from the script.

You can’t know for sure how long a presentation will last until you rehearse it later, but you can estimate the time while drafting it. On the average, it takes two to three minutes to speak what can be written on a standard double-spaced page—but with visual aids, pauses, and audience interaction, it may take longer. While this is only a rough guide, you can start out thinking of a ten-minute presentation as the equivalent of a three to four-page paper.

Never wait until the last minute to draft your presentation. Arrange your time to prepare the first draft and then come back to it a day or two later to ask these questions:

Am I going on too long about minor points? Could the audience get bored?
Do I have good explanations and reasons for my main points? Do I need more data or better examples? Where would visual aids be most effective?
Am I using the best words for this topic and this audience? Should I be more or less informal in the way I talk?
Does it all hold together and flow well from one point to the next? Do I need a better introduction or transition when I shift from one idea to another?

Visual Aids in Presentations

Except for very short informal presentations, most presentations gain from visuals—and visual aids are often expected. If encouraged or allowed to include visuals in your presentation, plan to do so. Consider all possible types:

Charts or graphs
Photos or other images
Video clips
Handouts (only when necessary—they can be distracting)

Use the available technology, whether it’s an overhead projector, PowerPoint slides, a flip chart, or posters. (Talk to your instructor about resources and software for designing your visuals.) Follow these guidelines:

Design your visuals carefully. Here are some basic rules:

Use a simple, neutral background. A light-colored background with text in a dark color works best for words; a dark background used like matting works best for photos.
Minimize the amount of text in visuals—more than eight words per slide is usually too much. Avoid simply presenting word outlines of what you are saying. Make sure text is large enough for the audience to read.
Don’t use more than two pictures in a slide, and use two only to make a direct comparison. Montages are hard to focus on and distract the viewer from what you’re saying. Use images only when they support your presentation; don’t use clip art just as decoration.
Don’t put a table of numbers in a visual aid. If you need to illustrate numerical data, use a graph. (Microsoft Excel can make them for you easily.)
Don’t use sound effects. Use a very brief recording only if directly related to your main points.
Don’t use visual special effects such as dissolves, spins, box-outs, or other transitions. They are distracting. Use animation sparingly and only if it helps make a point.
Don’t use so many visuals or move through them so quickly that the audience gives all its attention to them rather than to you.
Practice your presentation using your visual aids, because they affect your timing.
Explain visuals when needed but not when they’re obvious.
Keep your eyes on your audience, only briefly glancing at visuals to stay in synch with them.
Don’t hand out a printout of your visuals. Your audience should keep their eyes on you instead of fiddling around with paper.

Step 4: Prepare Speaking Notes

As mentioned earlier, it’s not a good idea to read your presentation from a written page rather than deliver it. To keep your audience’s attention, it’s important to make eye contact with them and to use a normal speaking voice—and you can’t do this if you keep your eyes on a written script.

Speaking notes are a brief outline for your presentation. You might write them on index cards or sheets of paper. Include important facts and data as well as keywords for your main ideas, but don’t write too much. (If you forget things later when you start practicing, you can always add more to your outline then.) Be sure to number your cards or pages to prevent a last-minute mix-up.

Think especially about how to open and close your presentation, because these two moments have the most impact of the whole presentation. Use the opening to capture the audience’s attention, but be sure it is appropriate for your audience and the goals. Here are some possibilities for your opening:

A striking fact or example (illustrating an issue or a problem)
A brief interesting or humorous anecdote (historical, personal, or current event)
A question to the audience
An interesting quotation

Then relate the opening to your topic and your main point and move into the body of the presentation.

Your closing mirrors the opening. Transition from your last point to a brief summary that pulls your ideas together. You might end with a challenge to the audience, a strong statement about your topic, or a personal reflection on what you have been saying. Just make sure you have a final sentence planned so that you don’t end up uncomfortably fumbling around at the end (“Well, I guess that ends my presentation”).

Step 5: Practice the Presentation

Practice may be the most important step. It is also the best way to get over stage fright and gain confidence.

Practice first in an empty room where you imagine people sitting, so that you can move your eyes around the room to this “audience.” The first time through, focus on putting your outlined notes into full sentences in your natural speaking voice. Don’t read your notes aloud. Glance down at your notes only briefly and then look up immediately around the room. Practice two or three times just to find the right words to explain your points and feel more comfortable working with your notes. Time yourself, but don’t obsess over your presentation being the exact length required. If your presentation is much too long, however, adjust it now in your notes so that you don’t start memorizing things that you might accidentally still say later on even though you cut them from your notes.

Once you feel good speaking from your notes, practice to add some more polish to your delivery. You might want to record or videotape your presentation or ask a friend or roommate to watch your presentation. Pay attention to these aspects of how you speak:

Try to speak in your natural voice, not in a monotone as if you were just reading aloud. If you will be presenting in a large room without a microphone, you will need to speak louder than usual, but still try to use a natural voice.
In usual conversation, we speed up and slow down and vary the intensity of our words to show how we feel about what we’re saying. Practice changes in your delivery style to emphasize key points.
Don’t keep looking at your notes. It’s fine if you use words that are different from those you wrote down—the more you rehearse without looking at your notes, the more natural sounding you will be.
Be sure you can pronounce all new words and technical terms correctly. Practice saying them slowly and clearly to yourself until you can say them naturally.
Don’t forget transitions. Listeners need a cue when you’re moving to a new idea. Practice phrases such as “ Another important reason for this is…” or “Now let’s move on to why this is so.…”
Watch out for all those little “filler” words people use so often, such as “like,” “you know,” “well,” and “uh.” They’re very distracting to most audiences. Listen to or watch your tape to see if you are using these fillers or ask your friend to point it out.
Pay attention to body language when practicing. Stand up straight and tall in every practice session so that you become used to it. Unless you have to stand at a podium to use a fixed microphone in your presentation, practice moving around while you speak; this helps keep the audience watching you. Use hand and arm gestures if they are natural for you, but don’t try to make up gestures for the presentation because they will look phony. Most important, keep your eyes moving over the audience. Practice smiling and pausing at key points.
Finally, it’s a good idea to be ready in case of an accident. Most likely your presentation will go smoothly, you’ll stay on track with your notes, and your PowerPoint slides will work fine, but sometimes a mishap happens. Be ready to joke about it, rather than becoming flustered. If the computer fails and you lose your visuals, say something like, “Well, that’s a shame, I had some really great photos to show you!” If you drop your index cards or notes, or accidentally skip ahead in your presentation and then have to backtrack, make a joke: “Sorry about that, I was so excited to get to my next point that I’m afraid I lost control there for a moment!” Let your audience laugh with you—they’ll still be on your side, and you can defuse the incident and move on without becoming more nervous.

Step 6: Deliver the Presentation

Be sure to get enough sleep and eat a healthy breakfast. Don’t drink too much caffeine or else you’ll become hyper and nervous. Wear your favorite—and appropriate—clothing and comfortable shoes.

You may use computerized visual aids when you give a presentation to a class.

John Haynes Photography – OLPC – CC BY-ND 2.0.

Remember, your audience is on your side! If you’re still nervous before your turn, take a few deep breaths. Rehearse your opening lines in your mind. Smile as you move to the front of the room, looking at your audience. You’ll see some friendly faces smiling back encouragingly. As you start the presentation, move your eyes among those giving you a warm reception—and if you see some student looking bored or doing something else, just ignore them. But don’t focus on any one person in the audience for too long, which could make them nervous or cause them to look away.

Don’t keep looking at your watch or a clock: If your rehearsal times were close to your assigned time, your presentation will be also. If you do notice that you’re running behind schedule, it may be that you’re saying too much out of nervousness. Use your notes to get back on track and keep the pace moving. But it’s better to deliver your presentation naturally and fluidly and be a bit long or short than to try to change your words and end up sounding unnatural.

At the closing, deliver your last line with confidence, sweeping your eyes over the audience. If appropriate, ask if there are any questions. When you’re done, pause, smile, say “Thank you,” and walk back to your seat.

Later on, ask other students and your instructor for comments. Be open minded—don’t just ask for praise. If you hear a suggestion for improvement, file that in your memory for next time.

Group Presentations

You may be assigned to give a presentation in a small group. The six-step process discussed previously works for group presentations, too, although group dynamics often call for additional planning and shared responsibilities:

Schedule a group meeting as soon as possible to get started. Don’t let another student put things off. Explain that you’re too busy and won’t have time at the last minute.
Begin by analyzing your audience and your goals together as a group to make sure everyone understands the assignment the same. Discuss who should do what. While everyone should talk about what content to include, from here onward, you will take on specialized roles. One or more may begin research and gathering information. Others who are good writers may volunteer to draft the presentation, while one or more others may develop the visual aids. Those who have public speaking experience may volunteer to do all or most of the speaking (unless the assignment requires everyone to have a speaking role). You also need a team leader to keep everyone on schedule, organize meetings, and so on. The best team leader is an even-tempered student with good social skills, who can motivate everyone to cooperate.
Steps 2 and 3 can likely be carried out individually with assigned tasks, but group members should stay in touch. For example, the person developing the visuals should be talking to those doing the researching and drafting to see what visuals are needed and get started finding or creating them.
Before preparing notes in step 4, meet again to go over the content and plan for visuals. Everyone should be comfortable with the plan so far. Make final decisions about who will do each section of the presentation. Set the time for each segment. Then speakers should prepare their own speaking notes. Let someone with strong speaking skills open or close the presentation (or both), with others doing the other parts.
The whole group should be present for practice sessions in step 5, even if not everyone is speaking. Those not speaking should take notes and give feedback. If one student is doing most of the presenting, an alternate should be chosen in case the first choice is sick on the scheduled day. The alternate also needs to practice.
During the delivery, especially if using technology for visual aids, one student should manage the visuals while others do the presenting. If several students present different segments, plan the transition from one to another so that the presentation keeps flowing without pauses.

Additional Resources

For Class Presentations

Using PowerPoint. A step-by-step illustrated tutorial for learning how to create effective visual presentations with PowerPoint. https://www.baruch.cuny.edu/tutorials/powerpoint/

“How to Give a Bad Talk.” A humorous look (with some very good advice) on what not to do when preparing for and giving a class presentation. http://www.cs.berkeley.edu/~pattrsn/talks/BadTalk.pdf

Class presentations on YouTube. Search YouTube with the phrase “class presentation” and look for video examples of actual students giving class presentations. Observing and critiquing the presentations of other students are good ways to get started preparing your own and learning from others. Here’s a good example of a student group presentation on a topic we can all relate to (how body language works):

In this presentation, take note of

how students make good eye contact with the audience;
the first student’s natural speaking voice and tone, and how she did not have to use her note cards very often (obviously she practiced well);
some differences among these students;
the use of PowerPoint slides within the presentation (some better than others);
the appropriate occasional use of humor;
the division of presentation responsibilities within the student group;
each presenter’s interaction with the audience.

Key Takeaways

Public speaking skills are important because you will likely give presentations in class and perhaps in a future job.
Overcome anxiety about public speaking by understanding your feelings, preparing well and practicing your delivery, and focusing on your subject.

Follow a six-step process to prepare and deliver a presentation:

Deliver the presentation and seek feedback
Use visual aids to support a presentation, creating visuals that are relevant, attractive, and powerful.
The success of a group presentation depends on effective group meetings, successful division of roles, and repeated group practices.

Checkpoint Exercises

If you have given a class presentation in the past, what worked best for you? (If you have not given a presentation yet as a student, what aspect do you think will be most difficult for you?)

__________________________________________________________________

Name the two most important things you can do to reduce anxiety about a class presentation you will have to give.

For each of the following statements about class presentations, circle T for true or F for false:

Describe how best to use body language (facial expressions, eye movements, gestures, etc.) when giving a presentation.

If you were assigned along with three other students to give a group presentation in the class using this textbook, what would be your preferred role in the preparation stages? Your least preferred role? If you had to take your least preferred role, what single thing would you want to work hardest on to make the presentation successful?

Want to create or adapt books like this? Learn more about how Pressbooks supports open publishing practices.

7.4 Public Speaking and Class Presentations

Learning objectives.

Know how to overcome nervousness and anxiety associated with public speaking and giving class presentations.
Effectively use the six-step process to prepare for and deliver a class presentation.
Create effective visual aids for use in class presentations.
Work with a group to successfully plan and deliver a class presentation.

Overcoming Anxiety

Understand anxiety. Since stage fright is normal, don’t try to deny that you’re feeling anxious. A little anxiety can help motivate you to prepare and do your best. Accept this aspect of the process and work to overcome it. Anxiety is usually worst just before you begin and but eases up once you’ve begun.
Understand that your audience actually wants you to succeed. They’re not looking for faults or hoping you’ll fail. Other students and your instructors are on your side, not your enemy. They likely won’t even see your anxiety.
Reduce anxiety by preparing and practicing. The next section discusses the preparation process in more detail. The more fully you prepare and the more often you have practice, the more your anxiety will go away.
Focus on what you’re saying, not how you’re saying it. Keep in mind that you have ideas to share, and this is what your classmates and instructors are interested in. Don’t obsess about speaking, but focus on the content of your presentation. Think, for example, of how easily you share your ideas with a friend or family member, as you naturally speak your mind. The same can work with public speaking if you focus on the ideas themselves.
Develop self-confidence. As you prepare, you will make notes you can refer to during the presentation. You’re not going to forget what you want to say. The more you practice, the more confident you’ll become.

Guidelines for Presentations

Preparing and delivering a presentation in class (or in business or other settings) is a process very similar to the learning process discussed in Chapter 4 “Listening, Taking Notes, and Remembering” , Chapter 5 “Reading to Learn” , and Chapter 6 “Preparing for and Taking Tests” and the writing process discussed in Chapter 8 “Writing for Classes” . The process breaks down into these six basic steps:

Analyze your audience and goals
Plan, research, and organize your content
Draft and revise the presentation
Prepare speaking notes
Practice the presentation
Deliver the presentation

Step 1: Analyze Your Audience and Goals

Step 2: Plan, Research, and Organize Your Content

While researching your topic and outlining your main points, think about visual aids that may help the presentation.

Also start thinking about how much time you have for the presentation, but don’t limit yourself yet in the outline stage.

Step 3: Draft and Revise the Presentation

Never wait until the last minute to draft your presentation. Arrange your time to prepare the first draft and then come back to it a day or two later to ask these questions:

Am I going on too long about minor points? Could the audience get bored?
Do I have good explanations and reasons for my main points? Do I need more data or better examples? Where would visual aids be most effective?
Am I using the best words for this topic and this audience? Should I be more or less informal in the way I talk?
Does it all hold together and flow well from one point to the next? Do I need a better introduction or transition when I shift from one idea to another?

Visual Aids in Presentations

Charts or graphs
Photos or other images
Video clips
Handouts (only when necessary—they can be distracting)

Design your visuals carefully. Here are some basic rules:

Use a simple, neutral background. A light-colored background with text in a dark color works best for words; a dark background used like matting works best for photos.
Minimize the amount of text in visuals—more than eight words per slide is usually too much. Avoid simply presenting word outlines of what you are saying. Make sure text is large enough for the audience to read.
Don’t use more than two pictures in a slide, and use two only to make a direct comparison. Montages are hard to focus on and distract the viewer from what you’re saying. Use images only when they support your presentation; don’t use clip art just as decoration.
Don’t put a table of numbers in a visual aid. If you need to illustrate numerical data, use a graph. (Microsoft Excel can make them for you easily.)
Don’t use sound effects. Use a very brief recording only if directly related to your main points.
Don’t use visual special effects such as dissolves, spins, box-outs, or other transitions. They are distracting. Use animation sparingly and only if it helps make a point.
Don’t use so many visuals or move through them so quickly that the audience gives all its attention to them rather than to you.
Practice your presentation using your visual aids, because they affect your timing.
Explain visuals when needed but not when they’re obvious.
Keep your eyes on your audience, only briefly glancing at visuals to stay in synch with them.
Don’t hand out a printout of your visuals. Your audience should keep their eyes on you instead of fiddling around with paper.

Step 4: Prepare Speaking Notes

A striking fact or example (illustrating an issue or a problem)
A brief interesting or humorous anecdote (historical, personal, or current event)
A question to the audience
An interesting quotation

Then relate the opening to your topic and your main point and move into the body of the presentation.

Step 5: Practice the Presentation

Practice may be the most important step. It is also the best way to get over stage fright and gain confidence.

Try to speak in your natural voice, not in a monotone as if you were just reading aloud. If you will be presenting in a large room without a microphone, you will need to speak louder than usual, but still try to use a natural voice.
In usual conversation, we speed up and slow down and vary the intensity of our words to show how we feel about what we’re saying. Practice changes in your delivery style to emphasize key points.
Don’t keep looking at your notes. It’s fine if you use words that are different from those you wrote down—the more you rehearse without looking at your notes, the more natural sounding you will be.
Be sure you can pronounce all new words and technical terms correctly. Practice saying them slowly and clearly to yourself until you can say them naturally.
Don’t forget transitions. Listeners need a cue when you’re moving to a new idea. Practice phrases such as “ Another important reason for this is…” or “Now let’s move on to why this is so.…”
Watch out for all those little “filler” words people use so often, such as “like,” “you know,” “well,” and “uh.” They’re very distracting to most audiences. Listen to or watch your tape to see if you are using these fillers or ask your friend to point it out.
Pay attention to body language when practicing. Stand up straight and tall in every practice session so that you become used to it. Unless you have to stand at a podium to use a fixed microphone in your presentation, practice moving around while you speak; this helps keep the audience watching you. Use hand and arm gestures if they are natural for you, but don’t try to make up gestures for the presentation because they will look phony. Most important, keep your eyes moving over the audience. Practice smiling and pausing at key points.
Finally, it’s a good idea to be ready in case of an accident. Most likely your presentation will go smoothly, you’ll stay on track with your notes, and your PowerPoint slides will work fine, but sometimes a mishap happens. Be ready to joke about it, rather than becoming flustered. If the computer fails and you lose your visuals, say something like, “Well, that’s a shame, I had some really great photos to show you!” If you drop your index cards or notes, or accidentally skip ahead in your presentation and then have to backtrack, make a joke: “Sorry about that, I was so excited to get to my next point that I’m afraid I lost control there for a moment!” Let your audience laugh with you—they’ll still be on your side, and you can defuse the incident and move on without becoming more nervous.

Step 6: Deliver the Presentation

You may use computerized visual aids when you give a presentation to a class.

John Haynes Photography – OLPC – CC BY-ND 2.0.

Later on, ask other students and your instructor for comments. Be open minded—don’t just ask for praise. If you hear a suggestion for improvement, file that in your memory for next time.

Group Presentations

Schedule a group meeting as soon as possible to get started. Don’t let another student put things off. Explain that you’re too busy and won’t have time at the last minute.
Begin by analyzing your audience and your goals together as a group to make sure everyone understands the assignment the same. Discuss who should do what. While everyone should talk about what content to include, from here onward, you will take on specialized roles. One or more may begin research and gathering information. Others who are good writers may volunteer to draft the presentation, while one or more others may develop the visual aids. Those who have public speaking experience may volunteer to do all or most of the speaking (unless the assignment requires everyone to have a speaking role). You also need a team leader to keep everyone on schedule, organize meetings, and so on. The best team leader is an even-tempered student with good social skills, who can motivate everyone to cooperate.
Steps 2 and 3 can likely be carried out individually with assigned tasks, but group members should stay in touch. For example, the person developing the visuals should be talking to those doing the researching and drafting to see what visuals are needed and get started finding or creating them.
Before preparing notes in step 4, meet again to go over the content and plan for visuals. Everyone should be comfortable with the plan so far. Make final decisions about who will do each section of the presentation. Set the time for each segment. Then speakers should prepare their own speaking notes. Let someone with strong speaking skills open or close the presentation (or both), with others doing the other parts.
The whole group should be present for practice sessions in step 5, even if not everyone is speaking. Those not speaking should take notes and give feedback. If one student is doing most of the presenting, an alternate should be chosen in case the first choice is sick on the scheduled day. The alternate also needs to practice.
During the delivery, especially if using technology for visual aids, one student should manage the visuals while others do the presenting. If several students present different segments, plan the transition from one to another so that the presentation keeps flowing without pauses.

Additional Resources

For Class Presentations

Using PowerPoint. A step-by-step illustrated tutorial for learning how to create effective visual presentations with PowerPoint. https://www.baruch.cuny.edu/tutorials/powerpoint/

“How to Give a Bad Talk.” A humorous look (with some very good advice) on what not to do when preparing for and giving a class presentation. http://www.cs.berkeley.edu/~pattrsn/talks/BadTalk.pdf

In this presentation, take note of

how students make good eye contact with the audience;
the first student’s natural speaking voice and tone, and how she did not have to use her note cards very often (obviously she practiced well);
some differences among these students;
the use of PowerPoint slides within the presentation (some better than others);
the appropriate occasional use of humor;
the division of presentation responsibilities within the student group;
each presenter’s interaction with the audience.

Key Takeaways

Public speaking skills are important because you will likely give presentations in class and perhaps in a future job.
Overcome anxiety about public speaking by understanding your feelings, preparing well and practicing your delivery, and focusing on your subject.

Follow a six-step process to prepare and deliver a presentation:

Deliver the presentation and seek feedback
Use visual aids to support a presentation, creating visuals that are relevant, attractive, and powerful.
The success of a group presentation depends on effective group meetings, successful division of roles, and repeated group practices.

Checkpoint Exercises

If you have given a class presentation in the past, what worked best for you? (If you have not given a presentation yet as a student, what aspect do you think will be most difficult for you?)

__________________________________________________________________

Name the two most important things you can do to reduce anxiety about a class presentation you will have to give.

For each of the following statements about class presentations, circle T for true or F for false:

Describe how best to use body language (facial expressions, eye movements, gestures, etc.) when giving a presentation.

How to make a great presentation

Stressed about an upcoming presentation? These talks are full of helpful tips on how to get up in front of an audience and make a lasting impression.

The secret structure of great talks

The beauty of data visualization

TED's secret to great public speaking

How to speak so that people want to listen

How great leaders inspire action

10 of the Best Free Resources for Public Speaking and Presentations

Public speaking can be a challenge, but many online resources are available to guide you. Toastmasters gives foundational advice, Coursera hosts structured lessons, and MindTools has a wealth of articles. In this article, we delve deeper into these platforms and. more, providing an overview of what each offers .

Becoming a confident public speaker can take time. While some may have a natural knack for it, others might need a bit of guidance. Luckily, there are plenty of free resources online to help you out. So, before considering paid seminars, check out the wealth of content available at no cost.

1. Toastmasters International

2. coursera, 3. mindtools, 4. myspeechclass, 5. quick&dirty tips, 6. the public speaking project, 7. presentation zen, 8. public speaker association, 10. youtube.

Since 1924, Toastmasters has been one of the most authoritative organizations providing pieces of training and certifications to aspiring and established public speakers all over the globe.

At present, Toastmasters has over 300,000 members coming from all over the world comprising of professionals such as lawyers, public administrators, educators, and engineers. The Toastmasters website offers a variety of public speaking resources. There, you can find downloadable PDFs, articles with speaking tips, podcasts, and video materials to aid your learning.

Luckily, educators found a way to keep up with the advent of cyberage. When schooling is carried out face to face inside classrooms before, students can now opt to learn remotely at home with the help of instructional materials made by professors.

One website that offers great opportunities for remote learning is Coursera . This is an online remote learning platform that started in 2012. What makes it better than other similar sites it’s that it’s affiliated with 200 leading universities worldwide such as the imperial college of London, Yale, University of Michigan, and Yonsei University.

Coursera offers a free course on public speaking consisting of four parts which you may complete in 2 – 3 hours. Through the course, you will learn how to speak effectively, how to present well, and how to prepare well for a speech.

MindTools is a simple to use platform that helps users improve writing skills, public speaking skills, leadership skills, and communications skills. Basically, this one works a bit similarly to coursera.

Type “public speaking” in the search bar, and you’ll be met with a vast array of resources. These include recorded interviews, articles, blog posts, book summaries, infographics, and beyond.

You have to thank Amanda Green and Jim Peterson for creating MySpeechClass – a website that aims to make speech more dynamic and exciting. MySpeechClass is reputable as it’s comprised of writers and speakers who are members of public speaking organizations such as Toastmasters.

You can use MySpeechClass to brainstorm for topics for persuasive speeches , argumentative speeches, informative speeches, kids’ speeches, funny and humorous speeches, and many more.

Aside from topics, MySpeechClass also offers learning sources for you to learn speech outlines, speech writing, and speech presentation. In sum, this website is an all-in-one spot for resources related to speech.

The website’s quirky name might raise an eyebrow, but don’t be misled. It’s packed with expert content and is a valuable resource if you’re seeking free insights on public speaking.

Quick&Dirty Tips provides you with two options ; articles and podcasts. Go for podcasts if you want to learn a thing or two about public speaking while doing another task. On the other hand, go for articles if reading makes you learn faster.

Some reads that we recommend are:

Be Your Own Public Speaking Coach
Overcome Your Public Speaking Fear
5 1/2 Public Speaking Lessons From Golden Globes
Vocal Exercises for Better Public Speaking
How Can I Control Sweating While Public Speaking?

Public Speaking Project ‘s website might take you aback since it looks half-done. Nonetheless, this is understandable as the admins launched the website just recently.

You will appreciate The Public Speaking Project if you put your attention to its content and not its website’s visuals. This website offers two valuable resources for you; a PDF guide to public speaking and a virtual classroom offering lessons and exercises.

A compelling presentation can significantly enhance your public speaking, helping convey your points clearly and effectively. If you’re seeking online resources to refine your presentation skills, visit Presentation Zen .

Presentation Zen is owned by Garr Reynolds – public speaker, presenter, blogger, writer, musician, and an educator. With that said, this website is great as it’s founded by a guy who has a solid work portfolio as a presenter and public speaker.

What does Presentation Zen offer? It offers pieces of useful information about the basics of a good visual presentation, public speech, and other core topics important for professional devleopment.

Screenshot of publicspeakersassociation.com

This recently launched organization works just like Toastmasters. Public Speaker Association builds a community of public speakers and helps them develop their skills. It does this by offering public speaking gigs to members such as conferences, conventions, summits, events, radio shows, and interviews.

Go to the blog section of Public Speaker Association’s website to read numerous blog posts about public speaking. Read interviews, tips, testimonials, public speaking video guides.

If presentations challenge you, consider exploring Fripp . The site is curated by Patricia Fripp, a respected speaker and coach with over 30 years of experience. It’s a platform where you can gain insights from her vast knowledge in visual presentation.

Fripp’s blog section provides free insightful articles about structuring presentations, opening presentations, closing presentations, and many more. Aside from blogs, Fripp also offers paid executive coaching , sales training, virtual training, and public speaking training.

Youtube isn’t a public speaking site. However, it contains a lot of public speaking channels that offer insightful tips about public speaking. Examples are Online Communications Training and Resources, English with Kim, and Communication Coach Alex Lyon. These channels provide valuable tips and techniques for budding and experienced speakers alike.

Currently, mastering public speaking doesn’t require a hefty price tag. The internet is brimming with valuable resources, and the ones we’ve highlighted are just the tip of the iceberg.

Toastmasters and Coursera offer foundational advice and structured lessons .
MindTools and MySpeechClass provide a variety of speaking-related articles and tools.
Presentation Zen and Fripp focus on enhancing visual presentation techniques.
YouTube has channels dedicated to public speaking tips.
While many tools are free, some offer premium content for deeper insights.

While many resources are free, some platforms offer premium content for a deeper dive. If you opt for these, you’ll access more comprehensive materials.

We recommend exploring the sites we’ve mentioned. Many public speakers trust and frequent them, so they’re well worth your time.

Which Resource Management Task Deploys Or Activates Personnel And Resources

7 Proven ways how to teach public speaking

Filed under: Featured articles , Public speaking articles , Public speaking tips and tricks

Public speaking is a valuable skill that can open up numerous opportunities in personal and professional life. Yet, for many individuals, standing in front of an audience remains an intimidating experience. Fortunately, there are effective ways to teach public speaking even to the most timid individuals.

In this article, I will cover seven proven strategies that can help educators or trainers develop students’ public speaking skills: from identifying learning objectives and teaching presentation structure to facilitating constructive feedback and enabling practice opportunities. With these methods in mind, anyone can become a confident speaker with delivery skills that captivate audiences every time they take the stage.

Table of Contents

Establishing Learning Objectives

Establishing clear learning objectives is a crucial step in teaching effective public speaking. Identifying specific goals for students will provide direction and structure to their learning process, allowing them to develop the necessary skills and knowledge required for successful presentations.

Learning objectives can include areas such as:

developing confidence when speaking in front of others
improving body language
enhancing vocal expression
mastering the content they are presenting.

Setting measurable benchmarks that align with these learning objectives will allow both instructors and learners to gauge progress effectively. It’s essential to communicate expectations clearly so that students have a transparent understanding of what they need to accomplish. This will help avoid confusion and ensure everyone understands what needs to be done.

Overall, establishing clear learning objectives serves as a valuable foundation for any public speaking program. By providing direction and clarity regarding performance standards, it not only enhances student engagement but fosters motivation within individuals preparing them for future success in life or career opportunities where public communication is key.

Additional reading:

7 good public speaking tips you should use: A helpful guide

9 Reasons Why Public Speaking Is Important

Teaching presentation structure: crafting a clear and engaging message.

Effective presentation structure is essential for anyone seeking to communicate their message clearly and engage audiences.

Crafting a clear and engaging message involves several important elements, including:

identifying the audience’s needs and interests
outlining key points in a logical sequence
utilizing visual aids effectively
practicing delivery techniques.

One of the most crucial aspects of teaching presentation structure is helping students identify learning objectives. Often overlooked, this critical step lays the foundation for developing an effective message that meets specific goals while remaining relevant to the audience. By clarifying what they hope to accomplish with their presentation upfront, speakers can ensure that every aspect of their content supports these objectives.

Teaching effective presentation structure also involves discussing delivery techniques such as:

vocal inflection
eye contact and gesturing

While some individuals may have natural communication skills or charisma on stage, others need guidance on how to hone these abilities through practice opportunities. With constructive feedback from peers or trainers who can offer insights into areas where improvement is needed so students can develop strong communication skills that serve them well throughout life.

How to make a speech? Frequently asked questions
33 tips to improve your presentation skills: A Helpful Guide
Speech preparation: The important question of “What do i do if…”
Audience analysis for public speaking: A comprehensive guide for the public speaker

Encouraging Confidence and Overcoming Fear

Overcoming fear and developing confidence in public speaking requires a combination of knowledge, skills, and practice. One effective approach is to help individuals recognize their strengths and areas for improvement through feedback and reflection.

By creating a safe environment where mistakes are viewed as opportunities to learn and grow, learners can gradually build their confidence while refining their presentation skills. While there are many different approaches that can be used depending on the context and purpose of the speech or presentation, it’s important to focus on practical strategies that learners can apply in various settings.

Recommended books

How to Deliver a TED Talk: Secrets of the World's Most Inspiring Presentations

Jeremy Donovan

Resonate: Present Visual Stories that Transform Audiences

Nancy Duarte

Confessions of a Public Speaker

Scott Berkun

Talk Like TED: The 9 Public-Speaking Secrets of the World's Top Minds

Carmine Gallo

The Checklist Manifesto: How to Get Things Right

Atul Gawande

The First 20 Hours: How to Learn Anything... Fast!

Josh Kaufman

Overall, helping individuals overcome nervousness and develop confidence in public speaking takes time but is achievable with targeted instruction combined with ample opportunity for practice.

What is Stage Fright: Everything You Need to Know About it
How to overcome stage fright: 7 effective and proven tips
Social anxiety disorder (social phobia) and the stage fear
Is public speaking really more feared than death?

Facilitating Constructive Feedback: Encouraging Growth and Improvement

Facilitating constructive feedback is an essential component to effective public speaking instruction. Giving and receiving feedback can be intimidating, but it is necessary for growth and improvement.

One way to encourage constructive feedback is by creating a safe environment that values openness, honesty, and respect. This allows learners to feel comfortable expressing their opinions while providing the recipient with tangible areas for improvement.

Another strategy to facilitate constructive feedback includes identifying specific learning objectives beforehand. By doing so, both teachers or trainers and students can focus on the most important aspects of public speaking without getting sidetracked by irrelevant details.

Additionally, it’s crucial to establish clear criteria for evaluating speeches. By setting expectations in advance and sharing them with students prior to presentations, individuals know precisely what they need to do well when delivering speeches.

In conclusion, facilitating constructive feedback not only ensures improvements in public speaking performance but also translates into other areas of life such as communication skills development or professional growth opportunities.

9 effective Ways How to Teach Public Speaking to Kids
How to make a presentation? 10 short (but thorough) steps

Enabling Practice Opportunities: Repetition and Real-World Experience

Enabling practice opportunities is a crucial aspect of teaching public speaking effectively. Repetition and real-world experience can help students:

cultivate confidence
hone their skills
and overcome their fear of public speaking

One effective way to enable practice opportunities is by providing students with the opportunity to deliver speeches in front of a live audience . By doing so, they can gain valuable feedback from peers or mentors that helps them refine their delivery and presentation style.

Another way to enable practice opportunities is through repetition. Encouraging students to deliver multiple presentations on various topics not only enhances their mastery but also prepares them for unforeseen circumstances such as impromptu speeches during an interview or meeting. Moreover, repetition allows learners to identify areas where they need improvement while reinforcing successful techniques.

In conclusion, enabling practice opportunities through repetition and real-world experience are key strategies for developing public-speaking skills among learners who may be intimidated by the prospect of standing before an audience. These methods provide a safe space for individuals to develop self-confidence while garnering constructive criticism from peers aiding growth and development as speakers over time.

12 effective impromptu speech tips you should use
Is Public Speaking Required In College?

Incorporating Multimedia and Visual Aids

Incorporating multimedia and visual aids is one of the most effective ways to enhance public speaking presentations because. These tools can help break up lengthy speeches, making it easier for audiences to follow along and maintain their focus.

Visual aids provide another layer of support during a speech . Multimedia elements like: videos, graphics, and animations can also add depth to a presentation by providing additional context or building emotional connection with the audience.

Images or diagrams that illustrate complex ideas can make them more accessible to listeners who may struggle with abstract concepts. Visuals also create a more engaging experience for the audience , giving them something dynamic to look at throughout the presentation.

Overall, integrating multimedia and visual aids into public speaking instruction is an essential component in developing strong speakers. It offers presenters several different mediums through which they can communicate their message effectively while keeping their audience engaged throughout the entire journey.

17 Public Speaking Tips For A Person with Vision Loss

15 great tips on how to use humor in your speech without it being awkward

The top 27 Gadgets for Presentation / Best public speaking accessories

Can the Proven Ways to Teach Public Speaking also be Effective for Introverts?

Yes, the proven public speaking tips for introverts can be just as effective for introverts as for extroverts. These tips focus on preparation, practice, and positive thinking. With the right techniques, introverts can develop the confidence and skills necessary to excel in public speaking engagements.

Emphasizing Delivery and Body Language

In any public speaking scenario, how you say something is just as important as what you say. Effective delivery and body language can make or break a presentation, so it’s important to teach these skills as well.

The way in which a speaker conveys their message can significantly impact audience engagement and retention. This is why emphasizing delivery and body language is crucial for effective public speaking instruction.

Effective delivery involves utilizing vocal variety, clarity, and pacing to captivate an audience. Instructors can encourage students to practice enunciating each word clearly while also varying pitch, tone, and tempo when appropriate. Additionally, encouraging hand gestures or natural movements throughout the presentation can help communicate emotion in a way that words alone cannot.

Body language plays a significant role in the effectiveness of any public speech or presentation as well. Students must be aware of nonverbal cues like eye contact or posture that may inadvertently send conflicting messages between their spoken words and physical demeanor.

With proper coaching on techniques such as confident posturing or relaxed breathing exercises before going up onstage can help students build confidence and connect with audiences more effectively during presentations. By teaching both effective delivery skills and proper body language mechanics, instructors can prime students for successful public speaking experiences time after time.

What To Do With Your Hands During a Speech?
How to Speak Well Without Notes? 5 Valuable Pro Tips
How to speak with confidence in public?

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Tags: Art of public speaking , Good speech , Presentation techniques , Speech skills , Speech tips

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Who is janek tuttar.

My name is Janek Tuttar , and I am the founder and author of Speak and Conquer website.

I have been teaching public speaking at Estonian Entrepreneurship University of Applied Sciences

Here, I am sharing the wisdom of how to cope in different public speaking situations.

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I have been teaching and blogging about public speaking since spring 2007. Here, I am sharing the wisdom of how to cope in different public speaking situations.

Send me an e-mail: [email protected]

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Public Speaking and Presentations

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Public Speaking and Presentations: Tips for Success

This resource includes tips and suggestions for improving your public speaking skills.

Even if you’ve never spoken in front of a large group before, chances are you will encounter public speaking sometime during your life. Whether you’re giving a presentation for your classmates or addressing local politicians at a city council meeting, public speaking allows you to convey your thoughts and feelings in clear ways. Having the right tools can prepare you for successful public speaking and equip you with high-quality communication skills.

Know Your Audience

Different audiences require different modes of public speaking. How you address a room full of preschoolers will vary from how you address a group of professors at an academic conference. Not only will your vocabulary change, but you might alter your pacing and tone as well.

Knowing your audience also helps you decide the content of your speech. For example, if you’re presenting research to a group of scientists, you might not need to define all your scientific language. However, if you present that same research to a group of individuals who are unfamiliar with your scientific field, you may need to define your terms or use simpler language.

Recognizing the extent to which your audience is familiar with your topic helps you center your presentation around the most important elements and avoid wasting time on information your audience either 1) already knows or 2) does not need to know for the purpose of your speech.

Knowing your audience also means tailoring your information to them. Try to keep things straight and to the point; leave out extraneous anecdotes and irrelevant statistics.

Establish Your Ethos and Feel Confident in Your Subject

It’s important to let your audience know what authority you have over your subject matter. If it’s clear you are familiar with your subject and have expertise, your audience is more likely to trust what you say.

Feeling confident in your subject matter will help establish your ethos. Rather than simply memorizing the content on your PowerPoint slides or your note cards, consider yourself a “mini expert” on your topic. Read up on information related to your topic and anticipate questions from the audience. You might want to prepare a few additional examples to use if people ask follow-up questions. Being able to elaborate on your talking points will help you stay calm during a Q & A section of your presentation.

Stick to a Few Main Points

Organizing your information in a logical way not only helps you keep track of what you’re saying, but it helps your audience follow along as well. Try to emphasize a few main points in your presentation and return to them before you conclude. Summarizing your information at the end of your presentation allows your audience to walk away with a clear sense of the most important facts.

For example, if you gave a presentation on the pros and cons of wind energy in Indiana, you would first want to define wind energy to make sure you and your audience are on the same page. You might also want to give a brief history of wind energy to give context before you go into the pros and cons. From there, you could list a few pros and a few cons. Finally, you could speculate on the future of wind energy and whether Indiana could provide adequate land and infrastructure to sustain wind turbines. To conclude, restate a few of the main points (most likely the pros and cons) and end with the most important takeaway you want the audience to remember about wind energy in Indiana.

Don't be Afraid to Show Your Personality

Delivering information without any sort of flourish or style can be boring. Allowing your personality to show through your speaking keeps you feeling relaxed and natural. Even if you’re speaking about something very scientific or serious, look for ways to let your personality come through your speech.

For example, when Jeopardy! host Alex Trebek announced in March of 2019 that he had stage 4 pancreatic cancer, he still let his trademark dignity and professionalism set the tone for his address. He began his announcement by saying “it’s in keeping with my long-time policy of being open and transparent with our Jeopardy! fan base.” Later, he joked that he would need to overcome his illness in order to fulfill his contract, whose terms required him to host the show for three more years. Though the nature of Trebek's announcement could easily have justified a grim, serious tone, the host instead opted to display the charm that has made him a household name for almost thirty-five years. In doing so, he reminded his audience precisely why he is so well-loved.

Use Humor (When Appropriate)

Using humor at appropriate moments can keep your audience engaged and entertained. While not all occasions are appropriate for humor, look for moments where you can lighten the mood and add some humor.

For example, just two months after the assassination attempt on Ronald Reagan, Reagan was in the middle of giving a speech when a balloon loudly popped while he was speaking. Reagan paused his speech to say “missed me,” then immediately continued speaking. This off-the-cuff humor worked because it was appropriate, spontaneous, and did not really distract from his message.

Similarly, at the end of his final White House Correspondents Dinner, Barack Obama concluded his speech by saying “Obama out” and dropping the mic. Once again, the humor did not distract from his message, but it did provide a light-hearted shift in his tone.

Don't Let Visual Aids Distract From Your Presentation

Visual aids, such as PowerPoints or handouts, often go alongside presentations. When designing visual aids, be sure they do not distract from the content of your speech. Having too many pictures or animations can cause audience members to pay more attention to the visuals rather than what you’re saying.

However, if you present research that relies on tables or figures, having many images may help your audience better visualize the research you discuss. Be aware of the ways different types of presentations demand different types of visual aids.

Be Aware of Your Body Language

When it comes to giving a presentation, nonverbal communication is equally as important as what you’re saying. Having the appropriate posture, gestures, and movement complement the spoken element of your presentation. Below are a few simple strategies to make you appear more confident and professional.

Having confident posture can make or break a presentation. Stand up straight with your shoulders back and your arms at your sides. Slouching or crossing your arms over your chest makes you appear smaller and more insecure. However, be sure you’re not too rigid. Just because you’re standing up tall does not mean you cannot move around.

Eye contact

Making eye contact with your audience not only makes them feel connected to you but it also lets you gauge their response to you. Try to look around the room and connect with different audience members so you’re not staring at the same people the whole time. If you notice your audience starting to nod off, it might be a good time to change your tone or up your energy.

Avoid distracting or compulsive gestures

While hand gestures can help point out information in a slide or on a poster, large or quick gestures can be distracting. When using gestures, try to make them feel like a normal part of your presentation.

It’s also easy to slip into nervous gestures while presenting. Things like twirling your hair or wringing your hands can be distracting to your audience. If you know you do something like this, try to think hard about not doing it while you’re presenting.

Travel (if possible)

If you are presenting on a stage, walking back and forth can help you stay relaxed and look natural. However, be sure you’re walking slowly and confidently and you’re using an appropriate posture (described above). Try to avoid pacing, which can make you appear nervous or compulsive.

Rehearse (if Possible)

The difference between knowing your subject and rehearsing comes down to how you ultimately present your information. The more you rehearse, the more likely you are to eliminate filler words such as like and um . If possible, try practicing with a friend and have them use count the filler words you use. You can also record yourself and play back the video. The more you rehearse, the more confident you will feel when it comes time to actually speak in front of an audience.

Finally, Relax!

Although public speaking takes time and preparation, perhaps one of the most important points is to relax while you’re speaking. Delivering your information in a stiff way prevents you from appearing natural and letting your personality come through. The more relaxed you feel, the more confident your information will come across.

Organizing and Outlining

Outlining your speech.

Most speakers and audience members would agree that an organized speech is both easier to present as well as more persuasive. Public speaking teachers especially believe in the power of organizing your speech, which is why they encourage (and often require) that you create an outline for your speech. Outlines , or textual arrangements of all the various elements of a speech, are a very common way of organizing a speech before it is delivered. Most extemporaneous speakers keep their outlines with them during the speech as a way to ensure that they do not leave out any important elements and to keep them on track. Writing an outline is also important to the speechwriting process since doing so forces the speakers to think about the main points and sub-points, the examples they wish to include, and the ways in which these elements correspond to one another. In short, the outline functions both as an organization tool and as a reference for delivering a speech.

Outline Types

“Alpena Mayor Carol Shafto Speaks at 2011 Michigan Municipal League Convention” by Michigan Municipal League. CC-BY-ND .

There are two types of outlines. The first outline you will write is called the preparation outline . Also called a working, practice, or rough outline, the preparation outline is used to work through the various components of your speech in an inventive format. Stephen E. Lucas [1] put it simply: “The preparation outline is just what its name implies—an outline that helps you prepare the speech” (p. 248). When writing the preparation outline, you should focus on finalizing the purpose and thesis statements, logically ordering your main points, deciding where supporting material should be included, and refining the overall organizational pattern of your speech. As you write the preparation outline, you may find it necessary to rearrange your points or to add or subtract supporting material. You may also realize that some of your main points are sufficiently supported while others are lacking. The final draft of your preparation outline should include full sentences, making up a complete script of your entire speech. In most cases, however, the preparation outline is reserved for planning purposes only and is translated into a speaking outline before you deliver the speech.

A speaking outline is the outline you will prepare for use when delivering the speech. The speaking outline is much more succinct than the preparation outline and includes brief phrases or words that remind the speakers of the points they need to make, plus supporting material and signposts. [2] The words or phrases used on the speaking outline should briefly encapsulate all of the information needed to prompt the speaker to accurately deliver the speech. Although some cases call for reading a speech verbatim from the full-sentence outline, in most cases speakers will simply refer to their speaking outline for quick reminders and to ensure that they do not omit any important information. Because it uses just words or short phrases, and not full sentences, the speaking outline can easily be transferred to index cards that can be referenced during a speech.

Outline Structure

Because an outline is used to arrange all of the elements of your speech, it makes sense that the outline itself has an organizational hierarchy and a common format. Although there are a variety of outline styles, generally they follow the same pattern. Main ideas are preceded by Roman numerals (I, II, III, etc.). Sub-points are preceded by capital letters (A, B, C, etc.), then Arabic numerals (1, 2, 3, etc.), and finally lowercase letters (a, b, c, etc.). Each level of subordination is also differentiated from its predecessor by indenting a few spaces. Indenting makes it easy to find your main points, sub-points, and the supporting points and examples below them. Since there are three sections to your speech— introduction, body, and conclusion— your outline needs to include all of them. Each of these sections is titled and the main points start with Roman numeral I.

Outline Formatting Guide

Title: Organizing Your Public Speech

Topic: Organizing public speeches

Specific Purpose Statement: To inform listeners about the various ways in which they can organize their public speeches.

Thesis Statement: A variety of organizational styles can used to organize public speeches.

Introduction Paragraph that gets the attention of the audience, establishes goodwill with the audience, states the purpose of the speech, and previews the speech and its structure.

(Transition)

I. Main point

A. Sub-point B. Sub-point C. Sub-point

1. Supporting point 2. Supporting point

Conclusion Paragraph that prepares the audience for the end of the speech, presents any final appeals, and summarizes and wraps up the speech.

Bibliography

In addition to these formatting suggestions, there are some additional elements that should be included at the beginning of your outline: the title, topic, specific purpose statement, and thesis statement. These elements are helpful to you, the speechwriter, since they remind you what, specifically, you are trying to accomplish in your speech. They are also helpful to anyone reading and assessing your outline since knowing what you want to accomplish will determine how they perceive the elements included in your outline. Additionally, you should write out the transitional statements that you will use to alert audiences that you are moving from one point to another. These are included in parentheses between main points. At the end of the outlines, you should include bibliographic information for any outside resources you mention during the speech. These should be cited using whatever citations style your professor requires. The textbox entitled “Outline Formatting Guide” provides an example of the appropriate outline format.

If you do not change direction, you may end up where you are heading. – Lao Tzu

Preparation Outline

This chapter contains the preparation and speaking outlines for a short speech the author of this chapter gave about how small organizations can work on issues related to climate change (see appendices). In this example, the title, specific purpose, thesis, and list of visual aids precedes the speech. Depending on your instructor’s requirements, you may need to include these details plus additional information. It is also a good idea to keep these details at the top of your document as you write the speech since they will help keep you on track to developing an organized speech that is in line with your specific purpose and helps prove your thesis. At the end of the chapter, in Appendix A, you can find a full length example of a Preparation (Full Sentence) Outline.

Speaking Outline

In Appendix B, the Preparation Outline is condensed into just a few short key words or phrases that will remind speakers to include all of their main points and supporting information. The introduction and conclusion are not included since they will simply be inserted from the Preparation Outline. It is easy to forget your catchy attention-getter or final thoughts you have prepared for your audience, so it is best to include the full sentence versions even in your speaking outline.

Using the Speaking Outline

“TAG speaks of others first” by Texas Military Forces. CC-BY-ND .

Once you have prepared the outline and are almost ready to give your speech, you should decide how you want to format your outline for presentation. Many speakers like to carry a stack of papers with them when they speak, but others are more comfortable with a smaller stack of index cards with the outline copied onto them. Moreover, speaking instructors often have requirements for how you should format the speaking outline. Whether you decide to use index cards or the printed outline, here are a few tips. First, write large enough so that you do not have to bring the cards or pages close to your eyes to read them. Second, make sure you have the cards/pages in the correct order and bound together in some way so that they do not get out of order. Third, just in case the cards/pages do get out of order (this happens too often!), be sure that you number each in the top right corner so you can quickly and easily get things organized. Fourth, try not to fiddle with the cards/pages when you are speaking. It is best to lay them down if you have a podium or table in front of you. If not, practice reading from them in front of a mirror. You should be able to look down quickly, read the text, and then return to your gaze to the audience.

Any intelligent fool can make things bigger and more complex… It takes a touch of genius – and a lot of courage to move in the opposite direction. – Albert Einstein

Lucas, Stephen E. (2004). The art of public speaking (8th edition). New York: McGraw-Hill. ↵
Beebe, S. A. & Beebe, S. J. (2003). The public speaking handbook (5th edition). Boston: Pearson. ↵
Chapter 8 Outlining Your Speech. Authored by : Joshua Trey Barnett. Provided by : University of Indiana, Bloomington, IN. Located at : http://publicspeakingproject.org/psvirtualtext.html . Project : The Public Speaking Project. License : CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives
Alpena Mayor Carol Shafto Speaks at 2011 Michigan Municipal League Convention. Authored by : Michigan Municipal League. Located at : https://flic.kr/p/aunJMR . License : CC BY-ND: Attribution-NoDerivatives
TAG speaks of others first. Authored by : Texas Military Forces. Located at : https://www.flickr.com/photos/texasmilitaryforces/5560449970/ . License : CC BY-ND: Attribution-NoDerivatives

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12 Chapter 12: Presentation Aids

Victoria Leonard, College of the Canyons

Adapted by Katharine O’Connor, Ph.D., Florida SouthWestern State College

Figure 12.1: Katherine Maher 1

Introduction

We are sure that there are days when you just throw your clothes on to go to school or work, and that is all that is important! But, there are other days when you may choose to wear jewelry, hats, belts, or other accessory items. Presentation aids can be looked at as those accessory items. They don’t detract from what you are wearing, but rather the goal is to enhance what you are wearing! In writing a speech we all tend to put our greatest effort into the construction of the speech outline. That is still your primary goal. However, your instructor may ask you to also construct a presentation aid , which is anything that helps you convey the meaning of your speech to the audience. A presentation aid is a resource that goes beyond the words you say in a speech and enhances the message for the audience. This is not a “busy-work” activity! There are important reasons to construct presentation aids.

The Power of Presentation Aids

If you recall back to your youth, or even now, this may resonate with you. If you ever asked a parent why you had to do something, the answer you might have received would have been “Because I said so!” We hope that in looking at the value and power of presentation aids you will see that our reasons for telling you to use them in your speech go beyond what your professors have as requirements for your speech. There are six important reasons to use presentation aids.

Presentation Aids Add Clarity to Your Speech

Imagine a speech on how to do yoga. Would you know how to position your body without seeing either a picture, video, or human demonstration? Probably not. You would need something to see to be able to then go home and duplicate their movements. Presentation aids make your speech easier to understand.

Figure 12.2: Scorpion Pose 2

Presentation Aids Add Interest to Your Speech

This does not mean you are not interesting! When we have something to look at that is interesting, unique, and meaningful, there is the “ah-ha” moment that makes the speech more exciting. Later in this chapter, you will read more about the types of things you can do, but here’s an example of some of my favorite presentation aids. One student doing a speech on Harry Potter created a book that was three feet high. The cover of the book was a hand-drawn picture of Harry Potter and each subsequent page showed each of the books of the series. The detail and creativity were so compelling that the class was truly mesmerized.

Harry Potter’s Cupboard under the Stairs Photo

Figure 12.3: Harry Potter’s Cupboard under the Stairs 3

Presentation Aids Help the Audience Remember What You Said

Before we had WAZE or GOOGLE MAPS , people would often give directions on how to get somewhere. Some of those directions could be complicated (especially if you live in a busy city). If you ever learned CPR, you probably remembered it for a short time, but could you replicate the process? Simply showing someone a map or watching a YouTube video on CPR can make it so much easier! You won’t need to give long explanations when you have a visual. Many of us are visual learners. When we engage more than our sense of hearing, we are more apt to remember facts and details.

Figure 12.4: Demonstration of CPR 4

Presentation Aids Make You a Credible Speaker

The effort you put into a quality visual will simply make YOU look better. Whether you design a simple PowerPoint, dress in a costume (or in appropriate business casual attire), or create posters, well-designed presentation aids will impress your audience and show that you cared enough about your speech to put in the effort.

Figure 12.5: Business Attire 5

Presentation Aids Prove Your Point

If you’ve ever heard the phrase “seeing is believing” then this will make sense to you. Whether the point is to believe that a friend can stand on their head, or a much more serious situation that might be represented in print media, presentation aids help everyone understand and believe what you say. Can you do splits while standing on one leg like Olympic ice skater Kamila Valieva? Perhaps you can, but telling an audience you can as opposed to seeing it done proves your point.

Figure 12.6: Kamila Valieva 6

Presentation Aids Can Help with Speech Anxiety

The more you use any form of presentation aid, you have something else to focus on aside from your anxiety. Some might argue that having something else to focus on will create more anxiety, but with practice, you will find that having something to hold or show an audience will calm your nerves. If you have ever used a stress ball, that squishy object that you can hold in your hand to help minimize stress, focusing on something within your speech that is outside of yourself can result in the same effect.

Types of Presentation Aids

There are many different types of presentation aids available. In this next section, we will explore the types of presentation aids you can use, and then we will look at the media for your presentation aids; what to put them on. It is always best to check with your instructor if you are unsure about the use of any presentation aid for your particular assignment.

Depending on your topic, objects can be very effective presentation aids. Objects consist of any item that you can hold up to show an audience. However, there are important guidelines. Objects need to be large enough to show your audience. If you are presenting a speech on how to string a necklace, chances are your necklace will not be large enough. Students presenting in a classroom need to keep in mind the distance of the audience; however, presenting in Zoom would allow you to show a smaller object because you can easily hold it up to the webcam.

Figure 12.7: Beaded Necklace 7

When it is not possible to bring an object into a classroom or a Zoom room, models are excellent alternatives. Models are small or large-scale representations of an object. For example, I once had a student who wanted to show the class a rollercoaster that he designed. Since it was not workable to show the entire rollercoaster, he made an image using digital software. We are all only limited by our own creativity!

Figure 12.8: Toy Airplane

Charts consist of information that is listed or represented in some way on your presentation aid. Charts could be designed simply in a PowerPoint or could be designed on a poster board. If you are doing a speech on depression, stress, or a disease, a chart could simply list the symptoms for your audience. They can be an effective presentation aid when you have a block of text that you want to show. Just be cautious not to put too much information on the chart. For example, the Symptoms of Stress chart included below provides you with a good guideline. A header with three to five bullet points is substantial enough to make a point and will not be too much information for an audience to comprehend.

Figure 12.9: Symptoms of Stress 9

Infographics

Infographics are visual representations that may use icons, diagrams, illustrations, and some limited text. These have become popular due to the ease of understanding the content and the creative way in which you can use different approaches to create them. For example, an infographic can be used to show the audience information about the COVID-19 pandemic, stress, or any topic that might include data. Infographics can present complex information in a way that is easy to understand.

Figure 12.10: Covid-19 PSA 10

Figure 12.11: Symptoms of Stress 11

Understanding what numbers or statistics mean can be difficult for anyone. Graphs are visual representations of data. They present important, factual information to your audience to help them better understand what statistics and numbers mean. Three common types of graphs used in speeches are pie graphs, bar graphs, and line graphs.

Pie graphs allow you to show “slices” of the pie in a visually appealing and impactful way. Using color to represent different areas of the graph will help your audience make the distinction between all data points.

Figure 12.12: Pie Graph of World Population 12

Bar Graphs show your data using rectangular bars that have varying heights that are proportional to what they are representing. These can be used to show comparisons between demographic information, inflation, social media, or other kinds of information.

Figure 12.13: Bar Graph of Preventable Causes of Death 13

Line Graphs use specific markers along a path to represent how trends occur over time. More than one line can be used to show how one variable has increased over time, and how another has decreased.

U.S. Votes for President from 1789 to 2020 Chart

Figure 12.14: U.S. Votes for President from 1789 to 2020 14

Diagrams/Drawings

You no longer have to be an artist in order to use a diagram or drawing as a presentation aid. A diagram or drawing is a picture of what you are trying to explain. Often people say, “a picture is worth a thousand words.” You can save words if you use the right picture. Drawings or diagrams can be found online if you want to give a clear depiction of an object, process, or some other concept that cannot be easily represented in some other way.

Figure 12.15: Diagram of the Human Eye 15

As mentioned at the beginning of this chapter, maps can be used instead of providing directions to a location. But maps do much more than that. Depending on your speech, you may use a very specific type of map. If you were doing an informative speech on Disneyland, you might show a map of the park. You might show a map of U.S. voters for a persuasive speech on why people should vote.

Figure 12.16: 2004 U.S. Election Map

Photographs

One of the easiest types of presentation aids to use are photographs . Whether you have photos on your phone, or you download photos from an online source, these can be one of the most effective types of visual aids. For example, if you are doing a speech on author Maya Angelou, your audience will not experience the depth of your speech without seeing what she looked like. If you do use an image from online or any other copyrighted material, make sure to cite the photo as you have seen in this book. The copyright should go beneath the photo.

Also, make sure your photo is large enough for the audience to see. As you will see when you read about media for presentation aids, you will have a few different ways to present your photos.

Figure 12.17: Maya Angelou 17

On occasion, you may choose to use yourself or others as presentation aids. For example, you can add to the tone of your speech on Salsa dancing by doing a bit of Salsa in front of the class. You can dress the part as well. Perhaps you are doing your speech on the fictional character Harry Potter. You can find a costume and dress like his character.

At times you may want to ask another student to volunteer to participate in your speech. This student might be your Salsa partner! Or, if your speech is on How to Braid Hair , you might ask a classmate in advance if they will participate in the speech.

Figure 12.18: Ecuador Salsa Contest 18

Audio or Video Recordings

Audio or video recordings can be used to highlight different points of your speech. You might find a podcast that supports your speech, or a piece of music. You might have a segment from a famous speech, such as Martin Luther King Jr.’s I Have a Dream.

Video has been made easier now through the use of YouTube . Many students rely on YouTube to find specific clips that can be utilized once or more in the speech. You might show a segment of the I Have a Dream speech. YouTube has just about everything available from movies, television shows, TedEx presentations, and music videos.

Media for Presentation Aids

So far, we have discussed the different types of presentation aids you can use in a speech. You may have been wondering what we put those presentation aids on! There are a variety of media that can be used for these presentation aids, ranging from high tech to low tech. The choice you make should be based on where you will deliver your speech and assignment requirements.

High Tech Presentation Aids

High tech presentation aids include the use of computer-based media and audiovisual media, such as PowerPoint , Google Slides, and Canva . Most instructors will let you know which they prefer you to use. Microsoft PowerPoint has been around for a long time and allows you to easily create animations. Some campuses provide students with free PowerPoint access through their student accounts. PowerPoint has a variety of design options that users can edit for font and color. Google slides also allow you to embed animations and it also has excellent template options. One advantage of Google slides is that it is accessible from the cloud at any time. Canva is a more unique program as it allows you numerous options for the creation of presentations that use templates and designs not available on PowerPoint or Google Slides.

One of the benefits of using one of these methods is that you can create a presentation in minutes. You can add a chart, graph, diagram, drawing, map, or photo onto your slides quickly. You can easily find images online and download those to use. When adding an image that has a copyright it will be important to cite the source at the bottom of the image, just as you see the images cited in this textbook. When you read about the guidelines for using presentation aids you will see additional tips for creating your slideshow.

Low-Tech Presentation Aids

Low-tech presentation aids include posters or foam boards, flip charts, whiteboards, or handouts and are known for their dependability. You will never have to worry about your technology failing! These presentation aids are not reliant upon good Wi-Fi!

Figure 12.19: U.S. Army Posterboard NMAAHC 19

Presenting in Zoom

Zoom CEO Eric Yuan began his technological journey at WebEx. In 2011 he left WebEx to launch Zoom In 2011. By 2013, Zoom had one million users. By the time the Coronavirus pandemic hit in 2020, there were over 300 million users as people were forced to stay home to work. Public speaking courses all over the world met in Zoom so students could still present their speeches to their classmates. When using presentation aids in Zoom , the most important areas that we need you to think about include screen sharing, virtual backgrounds, and holding visuals in front of the camera effectively.

Screen Sharing

If you have created a slideshow with either PowerPoin t, Google Slides , or Canva , you will need to learn how to share your screen. Find the “share screen” button on your device; it may look different from phone to laptop to iPad or tablet. If you have embedded any audio into your slideshow, make sure to click the box that says, “share sound.”

Virtual Backgrounds

Many people have begun to create virtual backgrounds using their slideshow. Although this is a more advanced technology, it is a creative way to have the screen in the back of you show everything in your PowerPoint . Since all computers are different, and some computers are newer than others, you will need to see what is best for your presentation. One word of caution in using a virtual background is that any movement on your part may lead to you disappearing or floating in and out of view from your audience. You need to remain virtually still if using a Zoom background.

Holding Presentation Aids in Zoom

If you plan to hold up objects or photos while presenting in Zoom , it is best not to use a virtual background since a lot of movement can lead to your visuals disappearing from view depending on your position. As discussed in the chapter on delivery, it is important to find the most neutral background you can in your home so that both you and your presentation aids are the focal points.

Hold your presentation aid up to the camera for a minimum of four seconds. You want to give your audience a chance to see it and take it in. Depending on what you need to say about your presentation aid, you may need to hold it up longer.

Checklist for Effective Use of Presentation Aids

Having clear and professional-looking presentation aids is important to enhance your credibility and ensure that your speech is supported by your presentation aids. Remember, presentation aids are used to support the body of the speech but can also be used as part of your attention-getter or conclusion. Practical guidelines will make sure that you prepare thoroughly. The following list conveys best practices for the use of presentation aids. We hope you will check them off as you go!

Guidelines for Using a Slideshow Live or Virtually

Use a minimal number of slides; perhaps one per main point and limit the amount of text per slide.
Label any images that you embed on a slide (where the image came from). Ask your instructor what they want you to put on the slide because some instructors will ask for more detail.
Do not use a title slide, rather use a blank slide at the beginning so that your audience will still be captured by your attention-getter rather than focusing on your speech title.
Also, use a blank slide in between slides so that the audience does not spend a lot of time focusing on something you have moved on from.
Put your presentation on a USB/Flash Drive. As a backup, have your slides in your email, Google Drive, DropBox , etc.

Guidelines for Using Presentation Aids in a Classroom

Avoid presentation aids that require you to turn back to the audience.
Make presentation aids large enough for everyone to see from a distance.
Display objects, posters, etc. where everyone can see.
Display presentation aids only while discussing the point you are on.
Do not pass anything around because this will distract your audience and they won’t focus on the speech.
Talk to the audience, not the presentation aids.

Guidelines for Using Fonts

Use plain fonts that are easy to read, such as Arial, Times New Roman, Cambria, Palatino, Garamond, Georgia, or Helvetica. Avoid using any script font because those are harder for people to read.
Use fonts sparingly; there is no need to use four different fonts on your slides.
Use fonts that are large enough to read. Key ideas should be 32-point for titles. The recommended size for supporting points is 24-point font.

Guidelines for Using Color

Create contrast on your slide. If you are using a white background, you can use black or blue font. If you have a black background, you can use a white font.
Avoid font colors that are often difficult to read for individuals with any vision impairment, such as yellow, red, or green.

Guidelines for Preparation of Presentation Aids

If your speech will be given in a classroom, check the room in advance and plan for emergencies (prepare to be without presentation aids if they should fail!)
PRACTICE with your presentation aids so you know how much extra time they add to your speech.
Proofread all materials – spelling errors affect your credibility.

Guidelines for Using Presentation Aids During your Speech

Explain presentation aids clearly and concisely (don’t just put them up and expect the audience to understand them).

The use of presentation aids is a critical part of your speech if your instructor requires them. Remember, presentation aids are not designed to replace what you say in your speech. Just as you put your clothes on daily, you can choose to “dress” yourself up with accessory items, such as a watch, earrings, or hat, your speech is like your clothing, and your presentation aids are like your accessories. They only add to your speech. We hope you will be creative in the process and make your presentation aids look as though you put time into them. Remember that presentation aids will add clarity and interest, help the audience understand and remember your speech, and add credibility to your speech. We encourage you to practice with them as much as you can, and that way you can also minimize your anxiety and present an impactful speech.

Reflection Questions

What do you feel your primary goal will be for using presentation aids in your next speech?
How can you use presentation aids to help the audience remember what you said?
What technology challenges do you have that you want to resolve early during your preparation process?
After reviewing the checklist for effective presentation aids, are there any boxes you could not check off? If not, why? How can you make sure you meet all of the guidelines?

Diagram/Drawing

Line Graphs

Presentation Aid

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9 Chapter 9: Presentation Aids in Speaking

The materials below are attributed fully to the free online Open Education Resource, Exploring Public Speaking: The Free Dalton State College Public Speaking Textbook, 4th Edition (Chapter 11).

Chapter 9 Learning Objectives

After reading this chapter, the student will be able to:

List and explain reasons why presentation aids are important in public speaking
Explain how presentation aids function in public speaking
Describe the various computer-based and non-computer-based types of presentation aids available to the students
Explain the correct use of various types of presentation aids
Design professional-looking slides using presentation software

Chapter Preview

9.1 – What are Presentation Aids?

9.2 – Functions of Presentation Aids

9.3 – Types of Presentation Aids

9.4 – Using Presentation Slides

9.5 – Low-Tech Presentation Aids

9.1 – What Are Presentation Aids?

When you give a speech, you are presenting much more than just a collection of words and ideas. Because you are speaking “live and in person,” your audience members will experience your speech through all five of their senses: hearing, vision, smell, taste, and touch . In some speaking situations, the speaker appeals only to the sense of hearing. They more or less ignore the other senses except to avoid visual distractions by dressing and presenting themselves in an appropriate manner. But the speaking event can be greatly enriched by appeals to the other senses. This is the role of presentation aids.

Professor West: What makes for an effective visual aid?

Presentation aids are the resources beyond the speech words and delivery that a speaker uses to enhance the message conveyed to the audience . The type of presentation aids that speakers most typically make use of are visual aids: pictures, diagrams, charts and graphs, maps, and the like. Audible aids include musical excerpts, audio speech excerpts, and sound effects . A speaker may also use fragrance samples or food samples as olfactory (sense of smell) or gustatory (sense of taste) aids. Finally, presentation aids can be three-dimensional objects, animals, and people; they can also change over a period of time, as in the case of a how-to demonstration .

P resentation aid s

the resources beyond the speech words and delivery that a speaker uses to enhance the message conveyed to the audience

of or relating to the sense of smell

of or relating to the sense of taste

As you can see, the range of possible presentation aids is almost unlimited. However, all presentation aids have one thing in common: To be effective, each presentation aid a speaker uses must be a direct, uncluttered example of a specific element of the speech . It is understandable that someone presenting a speech about Abraham Lincoln might want to include a photograph of him, but because everyone already knows what Lincoln looked like, the picture would not contribute much to the message unless, perhaps, the message was specifically about the changes in Lincoln’s appearance during his time in office.

Other visual artifacts are more likely to deliver information more directly relevant to the speech—a diagram of the interior of Ford’s Theater where Lincoln was assassinated, a facsimile of the messy and much-edited Gettysburg Address, or a photograph of the Lincoln family, for example. The key is that each presentation aid must directly express an idea in your speech.

Moreover, presentation aids must be used at the time when you are presenting the specific ideas related to the aid . For example, if you are speaking about coral reefs and one of your supporting points is about the location of the world’s major reefs, it would make sense to display a map of these reefs while you’re talking about location. If you display it while you are explaining what coral actually is, or describing the kinds of fish that feed on a reef, the map will not serve as a useful visual aid—in fact, it’s likely to be a distraction.

To be effective, presentation aids must also be easy to use and easy for the listeners to see and understand . In this chapter, we will present some principles and strategies to help you incorporate effective presentation aids into your speech. We will begin by discussing the functions that good presentation aids fulfill. Next, we will explore some of the many types of presentation aids and how best to design and utilize them. We will also describe various media that can be used for presentation aids. We will conclude with tips for successful preparation and use of presentation aids in a speech.

Why should you use presentation aids? If you have prepared and rehearsed your speech adequately, shouldn’t a good speech with a good delivery be enough to stand on its own? While it is true that impressive presentation aids will not rescue a poor speech, a good speech can often be made even better by the strategic use of presentation aids . Presentation aids can fulfill several functions: they can serve to improve your audience’s understanding of the information you are conveying, enhance audience memory and retention of the message, add variety and interest to your speech, and enhance your credibility as a speaker. Let’s examine each of these functions.

Improving Audience Understanding

Human communication is a complex process that often leads to misunderstandings. If you are like most people, you can easily remember incidents when you misunderstood a message or when someone else misunderstood what you said to them. Misunderstandings happen in public speaking just as they do in everyday conversations.

One reason for misunderstandings is the fact that perception and interpretation are highly complex individual processes . Most of us have seen the image in which, depending on your perception, you see either the outline of a vase or the facial profiles of two people facing each other. Or perhaps you have seen the image of the woman who may or may not be young, depending on your frame of reference at the time. This shows how interpretations can differ, and it means that your presentations must be based on careful thought and preparation to maximize the likelihood that your listeners will understand your presentations as you intend them to do so . (You can see these images at http://members.optusnet.com.au/~charles57/Creative/Drawing/vases.htm and https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=P9iv173VtGM.)

As a speaker, one of your basic goals is to help your audience understand your message. To reduce misunderstanding, presentation aids can be used to clarify or to emphasize.

Clarification is important in a speech because if some of the information you convey is unclear, your listeners will come away puzzled or possibly even misled. Presentation aids can help clarify a message if the information is complex or if the point being made is a visual one .

If your speech is about the impact of the Coriolis Effect on tropical storms, for instance, you will have great difficulty clarifying it without a diagram because the process is a complex one. The diagram in Figure 9.1 (“Coriolis Effect”) would be effective because it shows the audience the interaction between equatorial wind patterns and wind patterns moving in other directions. The diagram allows the audience to process the information in two ways: through your verbal explanation and through the visual elements of the diagram . By the way, t he Coriolis Effect i s defined as “an effect whereby a mass moving in a rotating system experiences a force (the Coriolis force ) acting perpendicular to the direction of motion and to the axis of rotation . On the earth, the effect tends to deflect moving objects to the right in the northern hemisphere and to the left in the southern and is important in the formation of cyclonic weather systems.” You can see why a picture really helps with this definition.

Figure 9.2 (“Model of Communication”) is another example of a diagram that maps out the process of human communication. In this image you clearly have a speaker and an audience with the labels of source, channel, message, receivers, and feedback to illustrate a basic model of human communication. As with most models, it is simplified. (Can you remember what two components of the communication process, explained in Chapter 1, that are missing here?)

Another aspect of clarifying occurs when a speaker wants to help audience members understand a visual concept. For example, if a speaker is talking about the importance of petroglyphs in Native American culture, just describing the petroglyphs won’t completely help your audience to visualize what they look like. Instead, showing an example of a petroglyph, as in Figure 9.3 (“Petroglyph”) can more easily help your audience form a clear mental image of your intended meaning.

Figure 9.5 - Chinese Lettering Amplified. Source: Image courtesy of Wikimedia, http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/

Emphasizin g

When you use a presentational aid for emphasis, you impress your listeners with the importance of an idea . In a speech on water conservation, you might try to show the environmental proportions of the resource. When you use a conceptual drawing like the one in Figure 9.4 (“Planetary Water Supply”), you show that if the world water supply were equal to ten gallons, only ten drops would be available and drinkable for human or household consumption. This drawing is effective because it emphasizes the scarcity of useful water and thus draws attention to this important information in your speech.

Another way of emphasizing that can be done visually is to zoom in on a specific aspect of interest within your speech . In Figure 9.5 (“Chinese Lettering Amplified”), we see a visual aid used in a speech on the importance of various parts of Chinese characters. On the left side of the visual aid, we see how the characters all fit together, with an emphasized version of a single character on the right.

So, clarifying and emphasizing are two roles that support the “Improving Audience Understanding” purpose of presentation aids . What are other purposes?

Aiding Retention and Recall

The second function that presentation aids can serve is to increase the audience’s chances of remembering your speech. An article by the U.S. Department of Labor (1996) summarized research on how people learn and remember. The authors found that “83% of human learning occurs visually, and the remaining 17% through the other senses—11% through hearing, 3.5% through smell, 1% through taste, and 1.5% through touch.”

For this reason, exposure to an image can serve as a memory aid to your listeners. When your graphic images deliver information effectively and when your listeners understand them clearly, audience members are likely to remember your message long after your speech is over. Moreover, people often are able to remember information that is presented in sequential steps more easily than if that information is presented in an unorganized pattern. When you use a presentation aid to display the organization of your speech (such as can be done with PowerPoint slides), you will help your listeners to observe, follow, and remember the sequence of information you conveyed to them. T his is why some instructors display a lecture outline for their students to follow during class and why a slide with a preview of your main points can be helpful as you move into the body of your speech.

An added plus of using presentation aids is that they can boost your memory while you are speaking . Using your presentation aids while you rehearse your speech will familiarize you with the association between a given place in your speech and the presentation aid that accompanies that material.

Adding Variety and Interest

A third function of presentation aids is simply to make your speech more interesting . For example, wouldn’t a speech on varieties of roses have greater impact if you accompanied your remarks with a picture of each rose? You can imagine that your audience would be even more enthralled if you had the ability to display an actual flower of each variety in a bud vase. Similarly, if you were speaking to a group of gourmet cooks about Indian spices, you might want to provide tiny samples of spices that they could smell and taste during your speech.

Enhancing a Speaker’s Credibilit y

Presentation aids alone will not be enough to create a professional image . As we mentioned earlier, impressive presentation aids will not rescue a poor speech . Even if you give a good speech, you run the risk of appearing unprofessional if your presentation aids are poorly executed. Conversely, a high quality presentation will contribute to your professional image. This means that in addition to containing important information, your presentation aids must be clear, clean, uncluttered, organized, and large enough for the audience to see and interpret correctly . Misspellings and poorly designed presentation aids can damage your credibility as a speaker.

In addition, make sure that you give proper credit to the source of any presentation aids that you take from other source s. Using a statistical chart or a map without proper credit will detract from your credibility, just as using a quotation in your speech without credit would. This situation will usually take place with digital aids such as PowerPoint slides. The source of a chart or the data shown in a chart form should be cited at the bottom the slide.

If you focus your efforts on producing presentation aids that contribute effectively to your meaning, that look professional, and that are handled well, your audience will most likely appreciate your efforts and pay close attention to your message . That attention will help them learn or understand your topic in a new way and will thus help the audience see you as a knowledgeable, competent, and credible speaker. With the prevalence of digital communication, the audience expectation of quality visual aids has increased .

Avoiding Problems with Presentation Aids

Using presentation aids can come with some risks. However, with a little forethought and adequate practice, you can choose presentation aids that enhance your message and boost your professional appearance in front of an audience. One principle to keep in mind is to use only as many presentation aids as necessary to present your message or to fulfill your classroom assignment. The number and the technical sophistication of your presentation aids should never overshadow your speech .

Another important consideration is technology. Keep your presentation aids within the limits of the working technology available to you. Whether or not your classroom technology works on the day of your speech, you will still have to present. What will you do if the computer file containing your slides is corrupted? What will you do if the easel is broken? What if you had counted on stacking your visuals on a table that disappears right when you need it? Or the Internet connection is down for a YouTube video you plan to show?

You must be prepared to adapt to an uncomfortable and scary situation . This is why we urge students to go to the classroom well ahead of time to test the equipment and ascertain the condition of items they’re planning to use. As the speaker, you are responsible for arranging the things you need to make your presentation aids work as intended. Carry a roll of masking tape so you can display your poster even if the easel is gone. Test the computer setup. Have your slides on a flash drive AND send it to yourself as an attachment or upload to a Cloud service. Have an alternative plan prepared in case there is some glitch that prevents your computer-based presentation aids from being usable. And of course, you must know how to use the technology.

More important than the method of delivery is the audience’s ability to see and understand the presentation aid. It must deliver clear information, and it must not distract from the message. Avoid overly elaborate presentation aids. Instead, simplify as much as possible, emphasizing the information you want your audience to understand.

Another thing to remember is that presentation aids do not “speak for themselves.” When you display a visual aid, you should explain what it shows, pointing out and naming the most important features . If you use an audio aid such as a musical excerpt, you need to tell your audience what to listen for. Similarly, if you use a video clip, it is up to you as the speaker to point out the characteristics in the video that support the point you are making—but probably beforehand, so you are not speaking over the video. At the same time, a visual aid should be quickly accessible to the audience. This is where simplicity comes in. Just as in organization of a speech you would n ot want to use 20 main points, but more like 3-5, you should limit categories of information on a visual aid.

Figure 9.6 - Acupuncture Charts. Source: Image on the left from Wikimedia, http:// commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Acupuncture_chart_300px.jpg. Image on the right © Thinkstock

9.3 – Types of Presentation Aids

Now that we’ve explored some basic hints for preparing visual aids, let’s look at the most common types of visual aids: charts, graphs, representations, objects/models, and peopl e.

A chart is commonly defined as a graphical representation of data (often numerical) or a sketch representing an ordered process. Whether you create your charts or do research to find charts that already exist, it is important for them to exactly match the specific purpose in your speech. Figure 9.6 (“Acupuncture Charts”) shows two charts related to acupuncture. Although both charts are good, they are not equal. One chart might be useful in a speech about the history and development of acupuncture while the other chart would be more useful for showing the locations of meridians (the lines along which energy flows) and the acupuncture points.

graphical representation of data (often numerical) or a sketch representing an ordered process

The rest of this section will explore three common types of charts: statistical charts, sequence-of-steps chart, and decision trees.

Statistical Charts

For most audiences, statistical presentations must be kept as simple as possible , and they must be explained. The statistical chart shown in Figure 9.7 (“Birth Weight Chi-Square”) is from a study examining the effects of maternal smoking on a range of congenital birth defects. Unless you are familiar with statistics, this chart may be very confusing. When visually displaying information from a quantitative study, you need to make sure that you understand the material and can successfully and simply explain how one should interpret the data. If you are unsure about the data yourself, then you should probably not use this type of information. This is definitely an example of a visual aid that, although it delivers a limited kind of information, does not speak for itself. On the other hand, if you are presenting to an upper level or graduate class in health sciences or to professionals in health occupations, this chart would be appropriate. As with all other principles of public speaking, KNOW YOUR AUDIENCE.

Sequence-of-Steps Charts

Charts are also useful when you are trying to explain a process that involves several steps . The two visual aids in Figure 9.8 (“Steps in Cell Reproduction”) both depict the process of cell division called mitosis using a sequence-of-steps chart, but they each deliver different information. The first chart lacks labels to indicate the different phases of cell division. Although the first chart has more visual detail and may look more scientific, the missing information may confuse your audience. In the second chart, each phase is labeled with a brief explanation of what is happening, which can help your audience understand the process.

Figure 9.8 - Steps in Cell Reproduction. Source: Images courtesy of LadyofHats, http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:MITOSIS_cells_secuence.svg, and the National Institutes of Health, http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:MajorEventsInMitosis.jpg.

Decision Trees

Decision trees are useful for showing the relationships between ideas . The example in Figure 9.9 (“Open Educational Resource Decision Tree”) shows how a decision tree could be used to determine whether to use open-source textbook material. As with the other types of charts, you want to be sure that the information in the chart is relevant to the purpose of your speech and that each question and decision is clearly labeled. This particular tree is pertinent to this textbook, which is an open educational resource drawing from other open educational resources, and the decision tree shows some of the processes the authors went through to decide on the content of this text.

Strictly speaking, a graph may be considered a type of chart, but graphs are so widely used that we will discuss them separately . A graph is a pictorial representation of the relationships of quantitative data using dots, lines, bars, pie slices, and the like. Graphs show how one factor (such as size, weight, number of items) varies in comparison to other items . Whereas a statistical chart may report the mean ages of individuals entering college, a graph would show how the mean age changes over time. A statistical chart may report the amount of computers sold in the United States, while a graph will use bars or lines to show their breakdown by operating systems such as Windows, Macintosh, and Linux.

a pictorial representation of the relationships of quantitative data using dots, lines, bars, pie slices, and the like

Public speakers can show graphs using a range of different formats. Some of those formats are specialized for various professional fields. Very complex graphs often contain too much information that is not related to the purpose of a student’s speech. If the graph is cluttered, it becomes difficult to comprehend. In this section, we’re going to analyze the common graphs speakers utilize in their speeches: line graphs, bar graphs, pie graphs, and pictographs.

Line Gra ph

A line graph is designed to show trends over time . In Figure 9.10 (“Enron’s Stock Price”), we see a line graph depicting the fall of Enron’s stock price from August 2000 to January 2002. Notice that although it has some steep rises, the line has an overall downward trend clearly depicting the plummeting of Enron’s stock price. This is far more effective in showing the relationship of numbers than a chart (as in Figure 9.7) or reading the numbers aloud.

Figure 9.10 - Enron’s Stock Price. Source: Image courtesy of Nehrams 2020, http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:EnronStockPriceAug00Jan02.jpg.

a graph designed to show trends over time

Bar graphs are useful for showing the differences between quantities . They can be used for population demographics, fuel costs, math ability in different grades, and many other kinds of data. The graph in Figure 9.11 (“Suicide vs. Homicide”) is well designed. It is relatively simple and is carefully labeled, making it easy for the speaker to guide the audience through the recorded numbers of each type of death. The bar graph is designed to show the difference between rates of suicides and homicides across various age groups. When you look at the data, the first grouping clearly shows that eighteen- to twenty-four-year-olds are more likely to die because of a homicide than any of the other age groups.

a graph designed to show the differences between quantities

The graph in Figure 9.12 (“Distribution of Income and Wealth in the United States”) is a complicated bar graph depicting the disparity between the so-called “haves” and the “have nots” within the United States. On the left hand side of the graph you can see that the Top 20% of people within the United States account for 84.7% of all of the wealth and 50.1% of all of the income. On the other hand, those in the bottom 40% account for only 0.2% of the wealth and 12.1% of the actual income.

Figure 9.12 - Distribution of Income and Wealth in the United States. Source: Wolff, E. N. (2007). Recent trends in household wealth in the United States: Rising debt and the middle-class squeeze (Working Paper No. 502). Retrieved from the Levy Economics Institute of Bard College website: http://www.levy.org/pubs/wp_502.pdf

While the graph is very well designed, it presents a great deal of information. For example, it shows “wealth” and “income,” for several groups; however, these are related but different concepts. In a written publication, readers will have time to sit and analyze the graph, but in a speaking situation, audience members need to be able to understand the information in a graph very quickly. For that reason, this graph is probably not as effective for speeches as the one in Figure 9.11 (“Suicide vs. Homicide”).

Pie graphs are usually depicted as circles and are designed to show proportional relationships within sets of data; in other words, they show parts of or percentages of a whole. They should be simplified as much as possible without eliminating important information . As with other graphs, the sections of the pie need to be plotted proportionally . In the pie graph shown in Figure 9.13 (“Causes of Concussions in Children”) we see a clear and proportional chart that has been color-coded. Color-coding is useful when it’s difficult to fit the explanations in the actual sections of the graph; in that case, you need to include a legend, or key, to indicate what the colors in the graph mean. In this graph, audience members can see very quickly that falls are the primary reason children receive concussions. However, the pie graph in Figure 9.14 (“World Populations”) is jumbled, illegible, confusing, and overwhelming in every way. The use of color coding doesn’t help. Overall, this graph simply contains too much information and is more likely to confuse an audience than help them understand something.

Figure 9.13 - Causes of Concussions in Children.

a graph designed to show proportional relationships within sets of data

Similar to bar graphs, pictographs use numbers and/or sizes of iconic symbols to dramatize differences in amounts. An example is found in Figure 9.15. Pictographs, although interesting, do not allow for depiction of specific statistical data. If you were trying to show the output of oil from various countries through oil wells, each oil well representing a ten million barrels a day, it might be hard for the audience to see the difference between a third of an oil well and a fourth of one, but that is a significant difference in amounts (3.3 million versus 2.5 million).

P ictograph

a graph using iconic symbols to dramatize differences in amounts

Graphs can present challenges in being effective but also in being ethical. To be both ethical and effective, you need a good understanding of what statistics mean, and you need to create or use graphs that show amounts clearly . If you were showing GPAs of freshmen, sophomore, junior, and senior students at your college, and the bottom number on the graph was 2.25 rather than 0.0, that would result in a visually bigger difference than what really exists (see Figure 9.16).

Figure 9.16 - Misrepresentative Graph of GPAs of Students.

Diagrams are drawings or sketches that outline and explain the parts of an object, process, or phenomenon that cannot be readily seen. Like graphs, diagrams can be considered a type of chart, as in the case of organizational charts and process-flow charts .

drawings or sketches that outline and explain the parts of an object, process, or phenomenon that cannot be readily seen

When you use a diagram, be sure to explain each part of the phenomenon, paying special attention to elements that are complicated or prone to misunderstanding. In the example shown in Figure 9.17 (“The Human Eye”), you might wish to highlight that the light stimulus is reversed when it is processed through the brain or that the optic nerve is not a single stalk as many people think.

Maps are extremely useful if the information is clear and limited. There are all kinds of maps, including population, weather, ocean current, political, and economic maps, so you should find the right kind for the purpose of your speech. Choose a map that emphasizes the information you need to deliver. The map shown in Figure 9.18 (“African Map with Nigerian Emphasis”) is simple, showing clearly the geographic location of Nigeria. This can be extremely valuable for some audiences who might not be able to name and locate countries on the continent of Africa. The map also shows the relative size of Nigeria compared to its neighbors. Figure 9.19 (“Rhode Island Map”) is a map of the state of Rhode Island, and it emphasizes the complicated configuration of islands and waterways that characterize this state’s geography.

Figure 9.18 - Map of Africa with Nigerian Emphasis.

Photographs and Drawings

Sometimes a photograph or a drawing is the best way to show an unfamiliar but important detail . Figure 9.20 (“Wigwam Photograph”) is a photograph of a wigwam, a dwelling used by Native Americans in the North East. Audiences expect high quality in photographs now, and as with all presentation aids they should enhance the speech and not just “be there.” It is common to put stock photographs on PowerPoint slides as “clip art,” but they should be relevant and not detract from the message of the slide.

Video or Audio Recordings

Another very useful type of presentation aid is a video or audio recording. Whether it is a short video from a website such as YouTube or Vimeo, a segment from a song, or a piece of a podcast, a well-chosen video or audio recording may be a good choice to enhance your speech. Imagine, for example, that you’re giving a speech on how Lap-Band surgeries help people lose weight. One of the sections of your speech could explain how the Lap-Band works, so you could easily show a forty-three second video available on YouTube to demonstrate the part of the surgery. Maybe you could include a recording of a real patient explaining why they decided to get the Lap-Band.

There is one major warning to using audio and video clips during a speech: do not forget that they are supposed to be aids to your speech, not the speech itself . In addition, be sure to avoid these five mistakes that speakers often make when using audio and video clips:

Avoid choosing clips that are too long for the overall length of the speech . Your instructor can give you some guidelines for how long video and audio clips should be for the speeches in your class, if they are allowed (and make sure they are).
Practice with the audio or video equipment prior to speaking. If you are unfamiliar with the equipment, you’ll look foolish trying to figure out how it works . This fiddling around will not only take your audience out of your speech but also have a negative impact on your credibility. It also wastes valuable time. Finally, be sure that the speakers on the computer are on and at the right volume level.
Cue the clip to the appropriate place prior to beginning your speech. We cannot tell you the number of times we’ve seen students spend valuable speech time trying to find a clip on YouTube or a DVD. You need to make sure your clip is ready to go before you start speaking. Later in this chapter we will look at using video links in slides.
In addition to cuing the clip to the appropriate place, the browser window should be open and ready to go . If there are advertisements before the video, be sure to have the video cued to play after the ad. The audience should not have to sit through a commercial. There is a website called TubeChop that can allow you to cut a segment out of a YouTube video, then creating a new link. It has limitations but can be useful.
The audience must be given context before a video or audio clip is played, specifically what the clip is and why it relates to the speech. At the same time, the video should not repeat what you have already said, but add to it.

Objects or Models

Objects and models are another form of presentation aid that can be very helpful in getting your audience to understand your message . O bjects refer to anything you could hold up and talk about during your speech. If you’re talking about the importance of not using plastic water bottles, you might hold up a plastic water bottle and a stainless steel water bottle as examples.

Models, on the other hand, are re-creations of physical objects that you cannot have readily available with you during a speech . If you’re giving a speech on heart murmurs, you may be able to show how heart murmurs work by holding up a model of the human heart. As will be discussed in the section on handouts below, a speaker should not pass an object or model around during a speech. It is highly distracting.

People and Animals

The next category of presentation aids are people and animals. We can often use ourselves or other people to adequately demonstrate an idea during our speeches.

Animals as Presentation Aids

When giving a speech on a topic relating to animals, it is often tempting to bring an animal to serve as your presentation aid. While this can sometimes add a very engaging dimension to the speech, it carries some serious risks that you need to consider.

The first risk is that animal behavior tends to be unpredictable. You may think this won’t be a problem if your presentation aid animal is small enough to be kept confined throughout your speech—for example, a goldfish in a bowl or a lizard or bird in a cage. However, even caged animals can be very distracting to your audience if they run about, chirp, or exhibit other agitated behavior. The chances are great that an animal will react to the stress of an unfamiliar situation by displaying behavior that does not contribute positively to your speech or to the cleanliness of the physical environment. Additionally, the animal’s behavior may not only affect audience attention during your speech, but potentially during your classmates’ speeches as well.

The second risk is that some audience members may respond negatively to a live animal . In addition to common fears and aversions to animals like snakes, spiders, and mice, many people have allergies to various animals. One of the authors had an experience where a student brought his six-foot yellow python to class for a speech. As a result, one of the other students refused to stay in the room because of her snake phobia (the instructor was not too comfortable either).

The third risk is that some locations may have regulations about bringing non-service animals onto the premises . If animals are allowed, the person bringing the animal may be required to bring a veterinary certificate or may be legally responsible for any damage caused by the animal.

For these reasons, before you decide to use an animal as a presentation aid, ask yourself if you could make your point equally well with a picture, model, diagram, or other representation of the animal in question.

Speaker as Presentation Aid

Speakers can often use their own bodies to demonstrate facets of a speech . If your speech is about ballroom dancing or ballet, you might use your body to demonstrate the basic moves in the cha-cha or the five basic ballet positions.

9.4 – Using Presentation Slides

Ever since the 1990s and the mainstreaming of personal computer technology, speakers have had the option of using slide presentation software to accompany their speeches and presentations. The most commonly known one is PowerPoint, although there are several others:

Prezi, available at www.prezi.com
Slide Rocket, available at www.sliderocket.com
Google Slides, available in Google Drive and useful for collaborative assignments
Keynote, the Apple presentation slide software on MACs
Impress, an Open Office product (http://www.openoffice.org/product/impress.html)
AdobeAcrobat Presenter

These products, some of which are offered free for trial or basic subscriptions (called a “freemium), allow you to present professional-looking slides. Each one is “robust,” a word used to mean it has a large number of functions and features, some of which are helpful and some of which are distracting. For example, you can use the full range of fonts, although many of them are not appropriate for presentations because they are hard to read. In this section we will discuss the proper use of presentation slides, with the assumption that you understand the basics of cutting, pasting, inserting, etc. involved in these products. You may have taken a class in high school where you learned to use the technology, but that is not the same as learning to use them for actual presentations.

The Advantages and Disadvantages of Using Presentation Slides

In some industries and businesses, there is an assumption that speakers will use presentation slides. They allow visualization of concepts, they are easily portable, they can be embedded with videos and audio, words can dance around the screen —why wouldn’t a speaker use them? You will probably also be expected to have slide presentations in future assignments in college. Knowing how to use them, beyond the basic technology, is vital to being a proficient presenter.

But why not use them? F ranck Frommer, a French journalist and communication expert, published the book How PowerPoint Makes You Stupid (2012), whose title says it all. He criticizes the “linearity” of PowerPoint and similar presentation software, meaning that audiences are not encouraged to see the relationship of ideas and that PowerPoint hurts critical thinking in the audience. Slide follows slide of bulleted information without one slide being more important or the logical connections being clear.

As recently as the mid-2000s, critics such as well-known graphic expert and NASA consultant Edward Tufte (2005) charged that PowerPoint’s tendency to force the user to put a certain number of bullet points on each slide in a certain format was a serious threat to the accurate presentation of data. As Tufte put it, “ the rigid slide-by-slide hierarchies, indifferent to content, slice and dice the evidence into arbitrary compartments, producing an anti-narrative with choppy continuity.”

Tufte argues that poor decision making, such as was involved with the 2003 space shuttle Columbia disaster, may have been related to the shortcomings of such presentation aids in NASA meetings. While more recent versions of PowerPoint and similar programs allow much more creative freedom in designing slides, this freedom comes with a responsibility— the user needs to take responsibility for using the technology to support the speech and not get carried away with the many special effects the software is capable of producing.

It should be mentioned here that Prezi helps address one of the major criticisms of PowerPoint. Because Prezi, in its design stage, looks something like a mind map on a very large canvas with grid lines, it allows you to show the relationship and hierarchy of ideas better. For example, you can see and design the slides so that the “Big Ideas” are in big circles and the subordinate ideas are in smaller ones.

In addition to recognizing the truth behind Frommer’s and Tufte’s critiques, we have all sat through a presenter who committed the errors of putting far too much text on the slide. When a speaker does this, the audience is confused— do they read the text or listen to the speaker? An audience member cannot do bot h. (Remember the pipeline graphic in Chapter 7.) Then, the speaker feels the need to read the slides rather than use PowerPoint for what it does best, visual reinforcement and clarification . We have also seen many poorly designed PowerPoint slides, either through haste or lack of knowledge: slides where the graphics are distorted (elongated or squatty), words and graphics not balanced, text too small, words printed over photographs, garish or nauseating colors, or animated figures left up on the screen for too long and distracting the audience. What about you? Can you think about PowerPoint “don’ts” that have hurt your reception of a presentation or lecture? This would be a good discussion for class, and a good way to know what not to do with your own slides.

Creating Quality Slide Shows

Slides should show the principles of good design, which include unity, emphasis or focal point, scale and proportion, balance, and rhythm (Lauer & Pentak, 2000). Presenters should also pay attention to tone and usability. With those principles in mind, here are some tips for creating and then using presentation software .

Unity and Consistency

Generally it is best to use a single font for the text on your visuals so that they look like a unified set . Or you can use two different fonts in consistent ways, such as having all headings and titles in the same font and all bullet points in the same font . Additionally, the background should probably remain consistent, whether you choose one of the many design templates or if you just opt for a background color .

In terms of unity, the adage, “ Keep It Simple, Speaker” definitely applies to presentation slides. Each slide should have one message, one photo, one graphic . The audience members should know what they are supposed to look at on the slide. A phrase to remember about presentation slides and the wide range of design elements available is “Just because you can, doesn’t mean you should.”

Another area related to unity and consistency, as well as audience response, is the use of animation or movemen t. There are three types of animation in slideshows. First, you can embed little characters or icons that have movement. These may seem like fun, but they have limited use and should not stay on the screen very long—you can use the second type of animation to take them off the screen.

That second type is the designed movement of text or objects on and off the screen . Although using this function takes up time in preparing your slides , especially if you want to do it well and be creative with it, it is very useful. You can control what your audience is seeing. It also avoids bringing up all the text and material on a slide at one time, which tempts the audience again to pay more attention to the screen than to you. Movement on the screen attracts attention (see Factors of Attention in Chapter 7), for better or worse. PowerPoint, for example, allows bouncing words, pulsating text, swirling phrases, even Star Wars scroll, which may or may not serve your purpose.

The third type of animation is called slide transitions, which is the design of how the next slide appears . In PowerPoint you can have the slides appear automatically or as blinds, as little checkerboards, from different sides of the screen, in opening circles, etc. (You can also use sound effects, but that is strongly discouraged.) In Prezi, the slides transition by zooming in and out, which is a clever effect but does make some audience members experience motion sickness. In general, you want to use a consistent and efficient pattern of movement with the second and third types of animation.

Emphasis, Focal Point, and Visibility

Several points should be made about how to make sure the audience sees what they need to see on the slides.

It is essential to make sure the information is large enough for the audience to see ; and since the display size may vary according to the projector you are using, this is another reason for practicing in advance with the equipment you intend to use.
T he standard rule is for text is 7 X 7, or sometimes (if the screen is smaller) 6 X 6. Does this mean 49 or 36 words on the slide? No. It means, in the case of 7 X 7, that you should have no more than seven horizontal lines of text (this does not mean bullet points, but lines of text, including the heading) and the longest line should not exceed seven words.
Following the 7 X 7 rule will keep you from putting too much information on a slide, and you should also avoid too many slides . Less sometimes really is more. Again, there is no hard and fast rule, but a ten-minute speech probably needs fewer than ten slides, unless you can make a good argument for more based on the content of the speech. If, however, the slides are just text, more than ten is too many.
Do not assume that all the templates feature visible text. Text should not be smaller than 22 point font for best visibility, and some of the templates use much smaller fonts than 22 point. This is especially important in those situations where the speaker creates handouts. Text smaller than 22 is very difficult to see on handouts of your slides. (However, handouts are not recommended for most situations.)
H igh contrast between the text and slides is extremely important . White fonts against very dark backgrounds and black fonts against very light backgrounds are probably your safest bet here . Remember that the way it looks on your computer screen is not the exactly how it will look when projected—the light is coming from a different place. Avoid words on photos. Figure 9.21 shows a photo with the words placed across the center of the image. Not only does this obviously obscure some of the picture, it also makes the words difficult to read . Figure 9.22, by contrast, has the accompanying text placed just blow the image, making both much easier to see, and a citation is provided.

Al so in terms of visibility, most experts say that sans serif fonts such as Arial, Tahoma, and Verdana are better for reading from screens than serif fonts such as Times New Roman, Bookface, Georgia, or Garamond. Merriam-Webster (2018) defines “serif” as “any of the short lines stemming from and at an angle to the upper and lower ends of the strokes of a letter.” Serifs are additions to the letters on different fonts that give them a different appearance and help the flow of eye when reading .

Figure 9.23 - Sample Slide for Critique.

How does the slide in Figure 9.23 stack up beside these rules for visibility? You probably noticed that slide is a “fail” in terms of high contrast between the font and background and the use of a block of text not broken up for easy reading. The audience would feel like they are supposed to read it but not be able to. Also, since the text is a quotation from John Dewey, the text should have quotation marks around it.

F onts, color, clip art, photographs, and templates all contribute to tone , which is the attitude being conveyed in the slides. If you want a light tone, such as for a speech about cruises, some colors (springtime, pastel, cool, warm, or primary colors) and fonts (such as Comic Sans) and lots of photographs will be more appropriate . For a speech about the Holocaust, more somber colors and design elements would be more fitting, whereas clip art would not be.

the attitude of a given artifact (humorous, serious, light-hearted, etc.)

Scale and Proportion

Although there are several ways to think about scale and proportion, we will discuss three here. First, bullet points. Bullet points infer that the items in the bulleted list are equal and the sequence doesn’t matter. If you want to communicate order or sequence or priority, use numbers. Do not mix outline points or numerical points with bullet points. Also, you should not put your outline (Roman numerals, etc.) on the slide.

Bullet points should be short—not long, full sentences—but at the same time should be long enough to mean something . In a speech on spaying and neutering pets, the bullet point “pain” may be better replaced with “Pet feels little pain.” Second, when you are designing your slides, it is best to choose a template and stick with it . If you input all your graphics and material and then change the template, the format of the slide will change, in some cases dramatically, and you will have distorted graphics and words covered up. You will then have to redesign each slide, which can be unnecessarily time-consuming.

The third aspect of scale and proportion is the relationship between the graphics and text in terms of size. This aspect is discussed below in the next section on “Balance.” Also, a graphic should be surrounded by some empty space and not just take up the whole slide.

In general you want symmetrical slides . Below are four examples of slides that are unbalanced (Figures 9.24-9.27); the last one (Figure 9. 28) achieves a better symmetry and design.

Figure 9.24 - This slide leaves too much “white space” below the text, leaving an imbalance between the text and graphic; the graphic goes up into the title, and the title could be centered.

Rhythm in Presenting

The rhythm of your slide display should be reasonably consistent—you would not want to display a dozen different slides in the first minute of a five-minute presentation and then display only one slide per minute for the rest of the speech . Timing them so that the audience can actually take them in is important. Presenters often overdo the number of slides, thinking they will get a better grade, but too many slides just causes overkill.

If you can obtain a remote mouse to change slides, that can help you feel independent of the mouse attached to the computer . However, you have to practice with the remote “clicker.” But if you have to use the mouse to change slide, keep your hands off of it between clicks. We have seen students wiggle the little arrow all over the screen. It is extremely annoying.

Whether using a remote “clicker” or the attached mouse, you must attend to the connection between what is on the screen and what you are actually talking about at the moment. Put reminders in your notes about when you need to change slides during your speech.

For better or worse, we have become very screen-oriented in our communication, largely because screens change often and that changing teaches us to expect new stimuli, which we crave. If the screen is up but you are not talking about what is on the screen, it is very confusing to the audience.

If you are using PowerPoint and if you are not talking about something on a slide, hit the “B” key or the blank screen button on the remote mouse. This action will turn the screen to black. You can also hit the “W” key, which turns the screen to white, but that will make the audience think something is coming. Unfortunately, the downside of the “B” key action is that it will return you to the previous screen. To avoid this, some presenters put a black slide between slides in the presentation so that hitting the forward key gives the same effect, but hitting it again takes them to a new screen. (Other programs have similar functions; for example, if using Prezi, the “B” key also shows a black screen.)

In fact, a basic presentation rule is to only show your visual aid when you are talking about it , and remove it when you no longer are talking about it. Some other practical considerations are as follows:

Be sure the file is saved in a format that will be “readable” on the computer where you are presenting. A common example is that a Keynote presentation (Apple) does not open on all PCs. You can save Keynote as a .ppt file for use on a PC. Likewise, if you chose to use Prezi or other web-based presentation software, you will need a strong, reliable Internet connection to show the slides.
Any borrowed graphic must be cited on the slide where it is used; the same would be true of borrowed textual material. Putting your sources only on the last slide is insufficient.
A very strong temptation for speakers is to look at the projected image rather than the audience during the speech. This practice cuts down on eye contact, of course, and is distracting for the audience. Two solutions for that are to print your notes from the presentation slides and/or use the slides as your note structure. Also remember that if the image is on the computer monitor in front of you, it is on the screen behind you.
Always remember—and this cannot be emphasized enough—technology works for you, not you for the technology. The presentation aids are aids, not the speech itself.
As mentioned before, sometimes life happens—technology does not work. It could be that the projector bulb goes out or the Internet connection is down. The show must go on.
If you are using a video or audio clip from an Internet source, it is probably best to hyperlink the URL on one of the slides rather than minimize the program and change to the Internet site. You can do this by highlighting a key word on the slide, right clicking to find “hyperlink,” and then pasting the URL there. Although you can also embed video in a PowerPoint, it makes the file extremely large and that may cause problems of its own.
Finally, it is common for speakers to think “the slide changes, so the audience know there is a change, so I don’t need a verbal transition.” Please do not fall into this trap. Verbal transitions are just as, and maybe more, necessary for a speech using slides.

9.5 – Low-Tech Presentation Aids

One reason for using digital media is that they can’t be prone to physical damage in the form of smudges, scratches, dents, and rips. Unlike posters and objects, presentation software can be kept professional looking if you have to carry them through a rainstorm or blizzard. However, there are times when it makes sense to use “low-tech” media for presentations. Here are some directions for those times.

Dry-Erase Board

If you use a chalkboard or dry-erase board, you are not using a prepared presentation aid. Your failure to prepare visuals ahead of time can be interpreted in several ways, mostly negative. If other speakers carefully design, produce, and use attractive visual aids, yours will stand out by contrast. You will be seen as the speaker who does not take the time to prepare even a simple aid. Do not use a chalkboard or dry-erase board and pretend it’s a prepared presentation aid .

However, numerous speakers do utilize chalk and dry-erase boards effectively. Typically, these speakers use the chalk or dry-erase board for interactive components of a speech. For example, maybe you’re giving a speech in front of a group of executives. You may have a PowerPoint all prepared, but at various points in your speech you want to get your audience’s responses. (More recent technologies, such as on iPads, allow you to do the interaction on the screen, but this would have to be supported by the environment.) Chalk or dry-erase boards are very useful when you want to visually show information that you are receiving from your audience. If you ever use a chalk or dry-erase board, follow these four simple rules:

W rite large enough so that everyone in the room can see (which is harder than it sounds; it is also hard to write and talk at the same time!).
Pr int legibly; don’t write in cursive script.
Write short phrases; don’t take time to write complete sentences.
Be sure you have markers that will not go dry, and clean the board afterward.

A flipchart is useful for situations when you want to save what you have written for future reference or to distribute to the audience after the presentation . As with whiteboards, you will need good markers and readable handwriting, as well as a strong easel to keep the flipchart upright.

You may have the opportunity in your college years to attend or participate in a “poster session.” These are times during an academic conference where visitors can view a well-designed poster depicting a research project and discuss it one-on-one with the researcher. These kinds of posters are quite large and involve a great deal of work. They can be generated from PowerPoint but often require a special printer. Otherwise, posters are probably not the best way to approach presentation aids in a speech . There are problems with visibility as well as portability. Avoid producing a presentation aid that looks like you simply cut pictures out of magazines and pasted them on. Slapping some text and images on a board looks unprofessional and will not be viewed as credible or effective.

Handouts are appropriate for delivering information that audience members can take away with them. As we will see, handouts require a great deal of management if they are to contribute to your credibility as a speaker.

First, make sure the handout is worth the trouble of making, copying, and distributing it. Does the audience really need the handout? Second, make sure to bring enough copies of the handout for each audience member to get one . Having to share or look on with one’s neighbor does not contribute to a professional image. Under no circumstances should you ever provide a single copy of a handout to pass around. It is distracting and everyone will see it at different times in the speech, which is also true about passing any object around the room.

There are three possible times to distribute handouts: before you begin your speech, during the speech, and after your speech is over. Naturally, if you need your listeners to follow along in a handout, you will need to distribute it before your speech begins . If you have access to the room ahead of time, place a copy of the handout at or on each seat in the audience . If not, ask a volunteer to distribute them as quickly as possible while you prepare to begin speaking. If the handout is a “ takeaway,” leave it on a table near the door so that those audience members who are interested can take one on their way out; in this case, don’t forget to tell them to do so as you conclude your speech. It is almost never appropriate to distribute handouts during your speech, as it is distracting, takes up time, and interrupts the pace of your presentation.

To finish this chapter, we will recap and remind you about the principles of effective presentation aids. Whether your aid is a slide show, object, a person, or dry erase board, these standards are essential:

Presentation aids must be easily seen or heard by your audience. Squinting and head-cocking are not good reactions. Neither should they look at the screen the whole time and ignore the speaker.
Presentation aids must be portable, easily handled, and efficient.
Presentation aids should disappear when not in use.
Presentation aids should be aesthetically pleasing, which includes in good taste. Avoid shock value just for shock value . You might want to show pictures of diseased organs and teeth, deformities, or corpses for your speech to make a point, but context is everything. Will your audience react so strongly that the overall point is missed? Additionally, electronic media today allows you to create very “busy” slides with varieties of fonts, colors, collages of photos, etc. Keep in mind the principles of unity and focal point.
Color is another aesthetic aspect . Some colors are just more soothing, readable, and appropriate than others. Also, the color on your slides may be different when projected from what is on your computer. Finally, presentation aids must support your speech and have high relevance to your content.

This chapter has covered a wide range of information about all kinds of audio and visual aids, but audiences today expect and appreciate professionally designed and handled presentation aids. The stakes are higher now, but the tools are many.

Something to Think About

What are some attention problems caused by using projection equipment during a speech?

Which kind of presentation aid would be most useful for the following?

data on how the average American family uses its income
discussing the number of wind turbines in five Midwestern states
explaining the changes in enrollment of minority students at your college over 20 year
a speech on the chambers of the human heart
a speech on the differences between North and South Korea
a speech the Sutton Hoo archaeological dig in England

Chapter Nine Attribution:

Manley, J. A., & Rhodes, K. (2020). Exploring Public Speaking: The Free Dalton State College Public Speaking Textbook, 4th Edition. Manifold. Retrieved from https://alg.manifoldapp.org/read/exploring-public-speaking-the-free-dalton-state-college-public-speaking-textbook-4th-edition/

Also, thank you to Professor Dan West for generously sharing your Public Speaking videos.

Creative Commons License

Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License

Authors and Contributors

Barbara G. Tucker (Editor and Primary Author)

As chair of the Department of Communication at Dalton State College, Dr. Tucker oversees programs in communication, general studies, music, theatre, and interdisciplinary studies. She is a Professor of Communication and has worked in higher education for over 40 years. She lives in Ringgold, Georgia, with her husband; they have one son. She is a novelist and playwright. Her research areas are the basic course, open educational resources, historical perspectives on rhetoric, and gratitude.

Matthew LeHew (Editor)

As Assistant Professor at Dalton State College, Matthew LeHew teaches courses in public relations, integrated marketing communication, film studies, and video production. His research interests include various areas of media studies, especially examination of virtual communities for online games. He is currently writing his dissertation for the Ph.D. in Communication (Media and Society track) at Georgia State University. He lives in Marietta, Georgia with his wife, son, and two dogs.

The Public Speaking Resource Project Copyright © 2018 by Lori Halverson-Wente and Mark Halverson-Wente is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Note: These questions are part of a larger data base of questions & are selected to represent the type of question you should expect on unit exams . Exam questions, however, may deal with topics not covered in the practice tests or in lectures but are discussed in your textbook. You are responsible for the content of your text book plus the content of lectures, interactive activities, & material on the web site.

use these sample questions to test yourself & to practice for the test. click on your choice to see if you are right., 1. the steps to memory can best be described as follows:, • finding it, using it, storing it, using it again. • putting it in, keeping it in, getting it out. • sensing it, perceiving it, remembering it, forgetting it. • a series of passive data files., 3. the three processes of memory are:, • attention, encode, feedback • encode, retrieve, motivate • encode, imitate, retrieve • encode, store, retrieve, 4. what is a good & accurate way to remember what iconic memory refers to, • iconic memory is visual information in short-term memory. • icon means image and therefore iconic memory refers to visual information. • icon means sound & therefore iconic memory refers to auditory information. • "con" in iconic refers to something false or bogus & therefore iconic memory refers to a false memory., 5. which type of memory best explains the "what" phenomenon, • iconic sensory memory • echoic sensory memory • short-term memory • tactile sensory memory, 6. the function of sensory memory is to, • weed out what is irrelevant in incoming information. • hold information in its raw form for a brief period of time. • burn sensations into long-term memory for later retrieval and inspection. • make quick associations between new data and things you already know., 7. for information to travel from sensory memory to short-term memory, it must first be ___________ and then encoded primarily into ___________ form., • unconsciously chosen; auditory • selectively attended to; visual • biologically chosen; visual • selectively attended to; auditory, 8. iconic is to echoic as _______ is to _______., • visual; auditory • general; specific • graphical; visual • long duration; short duration, 9. you are introduced to someone at a party. while talking with the person, you realize that you have already forgotten the person's name. what amount of time does it typically take before such information is lost from short-term memory, • approximately ? of a second • usually no more than 4 seconds • typically between 12 and 30 seconds • short-term memories typically last a lifetime, 10. of the following, which is not a function of sensory memory, • gives decision time • prevents being overwhelmed • allows for rehearsal of information • provides stability, playback, & recognition, 11. early studies of the capacity of short-term memory suggested that most people could remember approximately __________ bits of information., • two • three • seven • ten, 12. which of the following pairs accurately describes the two central characteristics of short-term memory, • unlimited duration, unlimited capacity • limited duration, unlimited capacity • unlimited duration, limited capacity • limited duration, limited capacity, 13. mary just met an attractive man named austin at a party. she wants to make sure she remembers his name. what should she do, • mary should repeat the name continuously so as to commit it to long-term memory. • mary should chunk it by remembering the first three letters as a set and then remembering the remaining letters as a set. • mary should make it more meaningful. for example, she might remind herself that austin has the same name as the capital of texas. • mary should create a song to help her remember his name., 14. repeating information over and over so that it does not fade from short-term memory is called ________ rehearsal., • elaborative • episodic • maintenance • intentional, 15. __________ memory includes what people can do or demonstrate, whereas __________ memory is about what people know and can report., • nondeclarative; declarative • declarative; nondeclarative • semantic; procedural • episodic; semantic, 16. we can retrieve __________ memory, but not __________ memory., • semantic; episodic • episodic; semantic • procedural; semantic • semantic; procedural, 17. the semantic network model of memory suggests that the ___________ nodes you must pass through to access information, the longer it will take for you to recall information., • fewer • more • bigger the • more complex the, 18. actively making meaningful connections between the information you are learning with information you already know is called:, • sensory encoding • automatic encoding • elaborative rehearsal • maintenance rehearsal, 19. phineas walks out of his office and into the conference room. however, after he leaves his office, he forgets what he was coming into the conference room for. according to the encoding specificity hypothesis , what should phineas do to regain his lost memory, • phineas should return to his office to help him remember what he has forgotten. • phineas should ask someone else, "what did i come in here for" • phineas should remain in the conference room and simply relax so that his memory should return. • phineas should consider seeing a doctor, since such memory loss can be sign of mental illness., 20. which of the following best demonstrates the difference between recognition and recall, • multiple-choice exams versus true-false questions • speaking lines in a play versus playing the piano without sheet music • picking the assailant out of a lineup versus describing the face of an assailant • reporting the color of your socks (eyes closed) versus reciting a poem, 21. when creating a presentation, many public speaking instructors will tell you to develop a strong opening or attention getter to your presentation as well as a good summary and finish. what aspect of memory best explains these suggestions, • parallel distributing model of memory • chunking • elaborative rehearsal theory • serial position phenomenon, 22. the classic forgetting curve that ebbinghaus described for nonsense syllables has a:, • slight initial decline • series of alternating upward and downward slopes • slight upward slope followed by a rapid downward slope • rapid downward slope, then levels out, & declines gradually, 23. your mother tells you to dress for success at your interview because its all about "first impressions." in other words, she is telling you that people remember what they see first. this belief is in line with what element of memory, • the primacy effect • the tip of the tongue phenomenon • the regency effect • the power of false positive, 24. it appears that the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon results from:, • amnesia • nodes that are misaligned • inadequate retrieval cues or interference • misfiring in the nerves that make up the hippocampus, 25. research by elizabeth loftus show that eyewitness recognition is very prone to what psychologists call, • automatic encoding. • false positive. • a flashbulb memory. • a regency effect., 26. there are at least three problems with eyewitness testimony. which one of the following statements is not one of the problems, • testimony is assumed to be accurate & is thought to be reliable evidence. • law enforcement officials may influence testimony through misleading questions. • the confidence of eyewitnesses regarding their testimony typically declines over time. • there is a weak correlation between the confidence of the eyewitness and the testimony given., 27. the tendency of certain elements to enter long term memory with little or no effort to encode and organize them is what defines, • encoding specificity. • automatic encoding. • flashbulb memories. • eidetic imagery., 28. the ability to remember where you were and what you were doing when the united states was attacked on september 11, 2001, in an example of, • eyewitness testimony. • encoding specificity hypothesis. • false-memory syndrome. • flashbulb memory., 29. which of the following is true about the process of encoding, • it holds information in memory for some time. • it involves accessing information in memory for use. • it involves transforming information from one form to another in order for it to get into a particular part of memory. • it is limited to only converting sensory information into signals for the brain to use. • the length of time that is involved in this process may vary greatly, anywhere from a couple of seconds to permanently., 30. the part of memory that traditionally has a capacity of about 7 items and whose duration can be increased through techniques such as maintenance rehearsal and chunking is called:, • long term memory. • sensory memory. • iconic memory. • echoic memory. • working memory., 31. in hermean ebbinghaus's classic study on memory and the forgetting curve, how long after learning the list does most forgetting happen, • forgetting started almost immediately. • one hour • five hours • nine hours, 32. you are surprised by the fact that you cannot remember if abraham lincoln's head faces the left or right on a penny. this is all the more surprising given the fact that you work with money at your job on nearly a daily basis. what would best explain such an inability to recall the information, • encoding failure • decay theory • interference theory • distributed practice effect, 33. henry gustav molaison, infamously known as h.m., was unable to form new declarative memories. he suffered from what psychologists call, • psychogenic amnesia. • retrograde amnesia. • retroactive amnesia. • anterograde amnesia., 34. your english instructor has given you an assignment to write down your most favorite memory from when you were 12 months old. what might you tell him, • memories from this time are exceptionally vivid because of the exciting nature of childhood. • students will not be able to recall such memories if they had yet to develop the ability to talk by age one. • students' memories are detailed but often inaccurate. • students will probably not be able to recall events from such an early age., 35. which of the following is not an example of recall, • answering an essay question on an english test • remembering a friend?s name when asked by another person • answering a question on a multiple choice test correctly • remembering where you placed your car keys • filling in the blanks of information on a college application., 36. a young girl does not remember how to play a piece of music on her saxophone because she never really paid close attention to the music when she was first learning the piece. this is an example of what theory of forgetting, • proactive interference • decay • disuse • retroactive interference • encoding failure, 37. julie first learned french, then she learned spanish. however, she finds that often times when she speaks french, spanish words seem to creep in. this is an example of _______________., • retroactive interference • memory trace • constructive processing • levels of processing, 38. which of the following is not a stage in the information-processing model of memory, • short-term memory • long-term memory • episodic memory • sensory register, 39. what do episodic and semantic memories have in common, • they are forms of working memory • they are easily described in words • they can easily be retrieved • they are forms of procedural memory, 40. the expression "you can't teach an old dog new tricks" would support which theory of forgetting", • repression • retroactive interference • proactive interference • pass interference, • • • • , • go to the print friendly version of this practice test., general psychology robert c. gates .

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COMMENTS

6: Memory Flashcards
When creating a presentation, many public-speaking instructors will tell you to develop a strong opening or attention getter to your presentation as well as a good summary and finish. What aspect of memory best explains these suggestions? serial position effect.
What It Takes to Give a Great Presentation
Read more on Business communication or related topics Power and influence, Presentation skills and Public speaking Carmine Gallo is a Harvard University instructor, keynote speaker, and author of ...
7.4: Public Speaking and Class Presentations
Guidelines for Presentations. Preparing and delivering a presentation in class (or in business or other settings) is a process very similar to the learning process discussed in Chapter 4 "Listening, Taking Notes, and Remembering", Chapter 5 "Reading to Learn", and Chapter 6 "Preparing for and Taking Tests" and the writing process discussed in Chapter 8 "Writing for Classes".
7.4 Public Speaking and Class Presentations
Public speaking—giving an oral presentation before a class or another group of people—is a special form of interaction common in education. You will likely be asked to give a presentation in one of your classes at some point, and your future career may also involve public speaking. It's important to develop skills for this form of ...
What Are Effective Presentation Skills (and How to Improve Them)
Presentation skills are the abilities and qualities necessary for creating and delivering a compelling presentation that effectively communicates information and ideas. They encompass what you say, how you structure it, and the materials you include to support what you say, such as slides, videos, or images. You'll make presentations at various ...
How to make a great presentation
The secret structure of great talks. From the "I have a dream" speech to Steve Jobs' iPhone launch, many great talks have a common structure that helps their message resonate with listeners. In this talk, presentation expert Nancy Duarte shares practical lessons on how to make a powerful call-to-action. 18:00.
Public Speaking and Class Presentations
Guidelines for Presentations. Preparing and delivering a presentation is a process very similar to the learning process. The process breaks down into these six basic steps: Analyze your audience and goals. Plan, research, and organize your content. Draft and revise the presentation. Prepare speaking notes.
Public Speaking Training: Strategies for Effective Presentations
Most important, you'll gain effective presentation skills by making actual presentations. Tailor your presentation to your audience. Use relaxation techniques to overcome nervousness. Learn how to project your voice and use pauses to dramatize your point. Expertly handle difficult questions and situations.
10 of the Best Free Resources for Public Speaking and Presentations
3. MindTools. MindTools is a simple to use platform that helps users improve writing skills, public speaking skills, leadership skills, and communications skills. Basically, this one works a bit similarly to coursera. Type "public speaking" in the search bar, and you'll be met with a vast array of resources.
9 Public Speaking Lessons I've Learned (So Far!)
Public speaking is a scary or uncomfortable idea for many people. This post shares nine public speaking lessons I've learned (so far). Tools. Publishing. ... the presentation slides you've created or the way in which you're speaking - someone will always walk away with something new. 6. Teaching is the best way to learn…
7 Proven ways how to teach public speaking
Teaching Presentation Structure: Crafting a Clear and Engaging Message. Encouraging Confidence and Overcoming Fear. Facilitating Constructive Feedback: Encouraging Growth and Improvement. Enabling Practice Opportunities: Repetition and Real-World Experience. Incorporating Multimedia and Visual Aids. Can the Proven Ways to Teach Public Speaking ...
Deliver a great presentation
Download the files the instructor uses to teach the course. Follow along and learn by watching, listening and practicing. Exercise File: Subscribe to access.
Psychology Final- Chapter 6- 20 questions
When creating a presentation , many public speaking instructors will tell you to develop a strong opening or attention getter to your presentation as well as a good summary and finish. What aspect of memory best explains these suggestions?
Public Speaking and Presentations
Public Speaking and Presentations: Tips for Success. This resource includes tips and suggestions for improving your public speaking skills. Even if you've never spoken in front of a large group before, chances are you will encounter public speaking sometime during your life. Whether you're giving a presentation for your classmates or ...
Psychology Chapter 6 Flashcards
When creating a presentation, many public-speaking instructors will tell you to develop a strong opening or attention getter to your presentation as well as a good summary and finish. What aspect of memory best explains these suggestions? Serial Position Effect.
Outlining Your Speech
A speaking outline is the outline you will prepare for use when delivering the speech. The speaking outline is much more succinct than the preparation outline and includes brief phrases or words that remind the speakers of the points they need to make, plus supporting material and signposts. [2] The words or phrases used on the speaking outline ...
Chapter 8: Organizing and Outlining
develop a thesis statement (central idea) that summarizes what you will talk about in your speech. select the best organizational pattern for the main points of your speech. develop a preparation outline and speaking outline for your speech. identify the elements of an outline. identify the principles of outlining.
Chapter 12: Presentation Aids
LEARNING OBJECTIVES. After reading this chapter, you should be able to: identify the importance of using presentation aids. describe the types of presentation aids used for public speaking. examine the methods for effectively creating presentation aids. list the guidelines for using presentation aids effectively. Figure 12.1: Katherine Maher 1.
Chapter 9: Presentation Aids in Speaking
Chapter 9 Learning Objectives. After reading this chapter, the student will be able to: List and explain reasons why presentation aids are important in public speaking. Explain how presentation aids function in public speaking. Describe the various computer-based and non-computer-based types of presentation aids available to the students.
Practice Test for
When creating a presentation, many public speaking instructors will tell you to develop a strong opening or attention getter to your presentation as well as a good summary and finish. What aspect of memory best explains these suggestions? • parallel distributing model of memory • chunking • elaborative rehearsal theory
Mastering Presentations and Public Speaking (Ultimate guide)
#1 Presentation and Public Speaking Skills for: Business , Formal & Corporate Presentations / Presentation Design Skills ... 4.3 Instructor Rating. 1,974 Reviews. 59,885 Students. 30 Courses. ExpertEase is a one of a kind Online academy that bridges the gap between the theoretical studies and the field of application where our instructors are: ...
Chapter 6.1-6.13 Quiz
When creating a presentation, many public-speaking instructors will tell you to develop a strong opening or attention getter to your presentation as well as a good summary and finish. What aspect of memory best explains these suggestions?
SOLVED:When creating a presentation, many public-speaking instructors
all right, So this questions asking when creating a presentation. Many public speaking instructors will tell you to develop a strong opening or attention getter to your presentation as well as a good summary and finish what aspect of memory best explained thes suggestions. A parallel distributed processing model of memory.

What It Takes to Give a Great Presentation

Partner Center

7.4: Public Speaking and Class Presentations

Overcoming Anxiety

Guidelines for Presentations

Step 1: Analyze Your Audience and Goals

Step 2: Plan, Research, and Organize Your Content

Step 3: Draft and Revise the Presentation

Visual Aids in Presentations

Step 4: Prepare Speaking Notes

Step 5: Practice the Presentation

Step 6: Deliver the Presentation

Group Presentations

Additional Resources

Key Takeaways

Checkpoint Exercises

7.4 Public Speaking and Class Presentations

Overcoming Anxiety

Guidelines for Presentations

Step 1: Analyze Your Audience and Goals

Step 2: Plan, Research, and Organize Your Content

Step 3: Draft and Revise the Presentation

Visual Aids in Presentations

Step 4: Prepare Speaking Notes

Step 5: Practice the Presentation

Step 6: Deliver the Presentation

Group Presentations

Additional Resources

Key Takeaways

Checkpoint Exercises

How to make a great presentation

The secret structure of great talks

The beauty of data visualization

TED's secret to great public speaking

How to speak so that people want to listen

How great leaders inspire action

10 of the Best Free Resources for Public Speaking and Presentations

1. Toastmasters International

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Public Speaking and Presentations

Welcome to the Purdue OWL

Public Speaking and Presentations: Tips for Success

Know Your Audience

Establish Your Ethos and Feel Confident in Your Subject

Stick to a Few Main Points

Don't be Afraid to Show Your Personality

Use Humor (When Appropriate)

Don't Let Visual Aids Distract From Your Presentation

Be Aware of Your Body Language

Eye contact

Avoid distracting or compulsive gestures

Travel (if possible)

Rehearse (if Possible)