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Thinking and Intelligence

Introduction to Thinking and Problem-Solving

What you’ll learn to do: describe cognition and problem-solving strategies.

A man sitting down in "The Thinker" pose.

Imagine all of your thoughts as if they were physical entities, swirling rapidly inside your mind. How is it possible that the brain is able to move from one thought to the next in an organized, orderly fashion? The brain is endlessly perceiving, processing, planning, organizing, and remembering—it is always active. Yet, you don’t notice most of your brain’s activity as you move throughout your daily routine. This is only one facet of the complex processes involved in cognition. Simply put, cognition is thinking, and it encompasses the processes associated with perception, knowledge, problem solving, judgment, language, and memory. Scientists who study cognition are searching for ways to understand how we integrate, organize, and utilize our conscious cognitive experiences without being aware of all of the unconscious work that our brains are doing (for example, Kahneman, 2011).

Learning Objectives

  • Distinguish between concepts and prototypes
  • Explain the difference between natural and artificial concepts
  • Describe problem solving strategies, including algorithms and heuristics
  • Explain some common roadblocks to effective problem solving

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  • Modification, adaptation, and original content. Provided by : Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution

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  • What Is Cognition?. Authored by : OpenStax College. Located at : https://openstax.org/books/psychology-2e/pages/7-1-what-is-cognition . License : CC BY: Attribution . License Terms : Download for free at https://openstax.org/books/psychology-2e/pages/1-introduction
  • A Thinking Man Image. Authored by : Wesley Nitsckie. Located at : https://www.flickr.com/photos/nitsckie/5507777269 . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike

General Psychology Copyright © by OpenStax and Lumen Learning is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Unit 2: Understanding and Using Principles of Memory, Thinking, and Learning

Please take a few minutes to list all of the skills that are necessary to succeed in school. Try to organize the list into categories. What skills and categories did you come up with?

Although there are many “right answers” to this question, one could make a strong argument that there are three main types of skills that lead to success in school:

  • Mental activity that many people would judge as the basis for academic thought, things like memory, reasoning, problem solving, and critical thinking
  • Interpersonal skills, such as getting along with instructors and classmates and being able to work in groups—in short, the ability to “work and play well with others”
  • Intrapersonal skills, which involve understanding and managing yourself—including being aware of your strengths and weaknesses and being able to maintain focus and motivation

This unit is primarily devoted somewhat to the first category, the classic academic skills. The five modules in this unit describe the basic processes of memory, learning, reasoning, problem solving, and critical thinking. All are major concerns of the sub-field of psychology known as cognitive psychology,  the study of cognition. Cognition  is the mental activity that deals with perception and with knowledge: what it is, and how people understand, communicate, and use it. Cognition is essentially “everyday thinking.” (Note, the perception part of cognition will be covered in Unit 3)

This unit has two goals. The first is to show you how knowledge of the psychological principles of cognition can benefit you. The second goal is to show you how psychologists think about cognition.

By the way, although we will be talking a lot about using cognitive principles to succeed in school, these—and for that matter nearly all—psychological principles are relevant to life beyond school as well.

This unit is divided into five modules:

  • Module 5. Memory, describes many of the important discoveries about memory and shows how to use the knowledge to improve your own memory.
  • Module 6. Learning and Conditioning, introduces you to classical and operant conditioning, two of the most important types of learning. As you will see, however, they are not exactly what first comes to mind when you consider the concept learning.
  • Module 7. Thinking, Reasoning, and Problem-Solving, details the discoveries that psychologists have made about many of the thinking skills beyond memory that you use in school and throughout your life.
  • Module 8. Tests and Intelligence, places the common experience of tests into the contexts of the psychology of intelligence and the principles of test construction.
  • Module 9. Cognitive Psychology: The Revolution Goes Mainstream, describes the ups and downs of interest in cognition throughout the history of psychology and, more generally, illustrates how research helps psychologists gradually develop a better understanding of human beings.

Introduction to Psychology Copyright © 2020 by Ken Gray; Elizabeth Arnott-Hill; and Or'Shaundra Benson is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Social Sci LibreTexts

11.4: Information Processing- Learning, Memory, and Problem Solving

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  • Page ID 24662

  • Paris, Ricardo, Raymond, & Johnson
  • College of the Canyons via College of the Canyons

During middle and late childhood children make strides in several areas of cognitive function including the capacity of working memory, their ability to pay attention, and their use of memory strategies. Both changes in the brain and experience foster these abilities. In this section, we will look at how children process information, think and learn, allowing them to increase their ability to learn and remember due to an improvement in the ways they attend to, store information, and problem solve.29

Working Memory: The capacity of working memory expands during middle and late childhood, research has suggested that both an increase in processing speed and the ability to inhibit irrelevant information from entering memory are contributing to the greater efficiency of working memory during this age (de Ribaupierre, 2002). Changes in myelination and synaptic pruning in the cortex are likely behind the increase in processing speed and ability to filter out irrelevant stimuli (Kail, McBride-Chang, Ferrer, Cho, & Shu, 2013).

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Attention: As noted above, the ability to inhibit irrelevant information improves during this age group, with there being a sharp improvement in selective attention from age six into adolescence (Vakil, Blachstein, Sheinman, & Greenstein, 2009). Children also improve in their ability to shift their attention between tasks or different features of a task (Carlson, Zelazo, & Faja, 2013). A younger child who is asked to sort objects into piles based on the type of object, car versus animal, or color of the object, red versus blue, would likely have no trouble doing so. But if you ask them to switch from sorting based on type to now having them sort based on color, they would struggle because this requires them to suppress the prior sorting rule. An older child has less difficulty making the switch, meaning there is greater flexibility in their intentional skills. These changes in attention and working memory contribute to children having more strategic approaches to challenging tasks.

Memory Strategies: Bjorklund (2005) describes a developmental progression in the acquisition and use of memory strategies. Such strategies are often lacking in younger children, but increase in frequency as children progress through elementary school. Examples of memory strategies include rehearsing information you wish to recall, visualizing and organizing information, creating rhymes, such as “i” before “e” except after “c”, or inventing acronyms, such as “roygbiv” to remember the colors of the rainbow. Schneider, Kron-Sperl, and Hünnerkopf (2009) reported a steady increase in the use of memory strategies from ages six to ten in their longitudinal study. Moreover, by age ten many children were using two or more memory strategies to help them recall information. Schneider and colleagues found that there were considerable individual differences at each age in the use of strategies and that children who utilized more strategies had better memory performance than their same-aged peers.

Contributors and Attributions

29. Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

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Cognitive Processes: Memory and Problem Solving

Cognitive processes: memory and problem solving chapters 8 and 9 – powerpoint ppt presentation.

  • Chapters 8 and 9
  • Defining Memory
  • The persistence of learning over time through storage and retrieval of information
  • Much of what we have learned about memory comes from cases of memory loss or extraordinary memory
  • Russian journalist Shereshevskii (case reading)
  • Today, memory is often seen as steps in an information-processing model
  • Information Processing is similar to how computer works
  • Initial recording of information as fleeting sensory memory (1)
  • Processing of this information in short-term memory (STM), where we encode it through rehearsal (2)
  • Also known as working memory
  • We process what we pay attention to of all the incoming sensory stimuli we are bombarded with
  • Working memory also associates new information with old information from LTM
  • Moving of information into more permanent long-term memory (LTM) for later retrieval (3)
  • Memory ability varies from person to person
  • Those with better working memories tend to exhibit high intelligence
  • Those with better memories tend to maintain better focus on tasks
  • Because the brain engages in parallel processing, it automatically gathers information about many things without us even knowing!
  • Space automatically recalling where a term was on a slide
  • Time automatically recalling the sequence of events
  • Frequency automatically keeping track of how many times you have done something
  • Well-learned information automatic processing of very familiar information like words we know
  • New tasks that may begin as effortful can become automatic if we expose ourselves enough!
  • DO NOT write down the following list. Listen and read them, then try to recall them when prompted
  • While some information is automatically and effortlessly processed, some requires focus and attention
  • Attention is defined as selection certain information for further processing
  • We normally pay attention to only a small portion of incoming information
  • We pay attention to things according to
  • Meaningfulness
  • Distinctiveness
  • Broadbents Cocktail Party Phenomenon we tune out other sounds to focus on what is important
  • Can increase memory ability through rehearsal
  • Hermann Ebbinghaus scientifically studied his own memory of verbal information in the 19th century.
  • Memorized a list of nonsense syllables
  • The more he rehearsed, the more he remembered
  • The more time spent on learning, the more we remember
  • One of the important memory phenomena discovered by Ebbinghaus is the overlearning effect.
  • continue to practice memorizing a list beyond that required to produce two perfect recalls.
  • For example, if it required 10 repetitions to memorize the list, then you might continue for an additional ten repetitions -- this would be "100 overlearning."
  • The effect of overlearning is to make the information more resistant to disruption or loss.
  • Information quickly learned is information quickly lost!
  • Spacing Effect distributed study time yields better long-term retention than massed practice (cramming)!
  • Testing Effect more frequent quizzing or previously studied material yields better long-term retention
  • Bottom line spread your studying out over time and quiz yourself frequently!
  • When we are given a list of things to remember, we often remember the first items and last items on the list.
  • This is called the serial position effect.
  • We are able to rehearse those at the beginning the most and those at the end are still in our working memory!
  • Primacy Effect tendency to recall the first items on the list
  • Recency Effect tendency to recall the last items on the list
  • When we hear the sounds that comprise words, we use context and experience to determine meaning.
  • E.g. Eye-Screem is it ice cream or I scream?
  • We tend not to remember literally what we read or heard, but rather the general meaning
  • We use several types of encoding to process verbal information
  • Visual (structural) encoding of images
  • Acoustic (phonetic) encoding of sounds
  • Semantic encoding of meaning
  • Our brains process each type differently
  • Levels of Processing Theory says deeper levels of processing result in longer-lasting memories (i.e. semantic memory is best)
  • Paivios Dual Code Theory says that we remember best when we use both semantic and visual encoding.
  • Which type of encoding visual, acoustic or semantic helps us to remember best?
  • Craik and Tulving (1975)
  • Subjects forced to encode words in the three ways
  • Visually (is it capitalized?)
  • Acoustically (does it rhyme with)
  • semantically (Would it fit into the sentence?)
  • Found that semantic encoding yielded best recall!
  • Spend TIME learning and make MEANING out of what you wish to recall!
  • Self-Reference Effect meaning that is personal relate information to ourselves.
  • If you can recall information, it must first be stored!
  • According to Atkinson and Shiffrin 3-step model, the first stop is sensory memory or the sensory registers.
  • Only holds an exact copy of sensory stimulus for a few fractions of a second.
  • More information enters our sensory memory than will get to STM
  • Sperlings partial report technique illustrates the limitation of sensory memory.
  • When subjects were told to report ALL 9 letters flashed for a fraction of a second, they could not, but when subjects instructed to report 3 of the letters (one row of 3 letter row display of 9 total letters) they could do so with few errors
  • This proved that sensory memory could hold the information, but only very briefly
  • Sensory memory holds information just long enough to recognize and transfer it to STM for further processing
  • This happens through selective attention
  • Selective attention allows only a small percentage of sensory messages that bombard us to enter conscious awareness.
  • It is controlled not only by the focus of our attention but also the expectancies we have prior to exposure
  • Iconic sensory memories (icons) are visual representations that last only about a seconds in sensory memory
  • Echoic sensory memories (echoes) are auditory representations that may last for a few seconds (need a longer period to process language)
  • STM (working memory) is what is in your mind RIGHT NOW.
  • Information in STM only remains there for about 20-30 seconds
  • STM is very sensitive to interruption and interference
  • Brown, Peterson and Peterson (1959) measured the storage capacity of STM
  • Subjects presented with a stimulus and asked to immediately count backwards (rehearsal prevented)
  • By 20 seconds of backwards counting, the previously presented stimulus was forgotten
  • Unless information in STM is important/meaningful or is actively rehearsed, it quickly vanishes from STM and is displaced by whatever comes into our minds next
  • Displacement occurs, then, when new information enters STM and pushes old out
  • STM storage capacity is limited the average adult can hold about 5-9 bits or chunks of information in STM
  • George Miller (1956) Magical Number Seven, plus or minus two
  • Remember the following number
  • 18122001198417891945
  • The number is 18122001198417891945
  • The process of organizing or grouping separate bits of information into larger units or chunks, can increase STM storage capacity.
  • e.g. 1812 2001 1984 1789 1945
  • Memory span is a measurement of STM capacity
  • It measures the largest number of items that can be recalled perfectly from STM after only one presentation
  • No study/rehearsal time is allowed
  • Sometimes used as a component of IQ tests
  • In STM, acoustic coding seems to dominate especially for verbal information
  • Information in STM may be new or retrieved from LTM to be thought about and used.
  • LTM is our permanent storehouse for information
  • It includes all knowledge we have accumulated, all the skills we have learned, and all our memories of past experiences
  • The more meaningful the information, the more easily it can be stored in LTM
  • Unlike STM, LTM seems to have unlimited storage capacity
  • Information in LTM seems to be organized
  • New facts are learned by fitting them into a network of pre-existing knowledge
  • Propositional network theory
  • we store the smallest bits of meaningful information (propositions represented by circles or nodes) and create links (represented by arrows) to other nodes.
  • e.g. the proposition dog may be linked to the other nodes bark, fur, and four legs.
  • Two Broad Types of Memory Circuits
  • Declarative Memory includes facts such as names, dates, and events (sometimes referred to as explicit memory)
  • Can be rapidly learned and forgotten
  • Usually consciously accessed
  • Subdivisions
  • Semantic memory refers specifically to factual information
  • Episodic memory includes our personal or autobiographical experiences
  • Procedural Memory includes skills such as remembering how to ride a bike, play a musical instrument or eat with a fork (sometimes referred to as implicit memory)
  • Typically learned by repetition and practice
  • Difficult to unlearn
  • Often performed without conscious thought
  • Eidetic imagery refers to visual LTMs
  • Eidetic memory is characterized by relatively long-lasting and detailed images of scenes that can be scanned as if the individual were physically present
  • Rare in adults more frequent in children
  • Steven Wiltshire eidetic memory
  • Flashbulb memories are remarkably vivid and seemingly permanent memories
  • typically of highly emotional and personal events in one's life
  • What makes the flashbulb memory special is the emotional arousal at the moment that the event was registered to the memory.
  • Memories are not located in one part of the brain
  • Lashley (1950) tested this
  • created lesions in the brains of rats who had learned a maze.
  • Despite having damaged areas, memory was only weakened, not obliterated
  • Synaptic Changes and neurotransmitters
  • We already know that experience physically changes the brain
  • When learning takes place, more serotonin is released at certain synapses
  • This makes the neurons in this network more likely to fire, as sending neurons are more likely to fire and release neurotransmitters and receiving neurons seem to increase their receptor sites.
  • This process is called Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)
  • ACh also plays a role in memory Alzheimers patients lack of
  • Impact of LTP
  • Drugs that block LTP interfere with learning
  • Drugs that enhance it increase memory ability
  • LTP inhibiting drugs can actually erase recent learning
  • Memory enhancement?
  • CREB protein boosters may help trigger LTP
  • Neurotransmitter glutamate may also enhance LTP
  • ECT (electroconvulsive therapy) and head trauma may disrupt memory and learning as LTP in process is not completed
  • Stress Hormones and Memory
  • When we are excited or stressed, we produce more hormones that make more glucose energy for the brain
  • This leads to increased activity in the amygdala in the limbic system, which is also involved in the formation of memories
  • Stronger emotions stronger memories weaker emotions weaker memories
  • Helps to explain flashbulb memory
  • Hippocampus and explicit memories
  • Responsible for transferring STM to explicit LTM
  • Prolonged exposure to stress hormones can actually shrink the hippocampus and inhibit memory
  • Damage can disrupt movement of information to cortex (LTM)
  • Cerebellum processes implicit memories and classical conditioning (unconscious processes)
  • Retrieval involves accessing information from LTM so that it can be used or examined in STM
  • Retrieval cues help us gain access to a memory
  • Methods of measuring retrieval
  • Recall is when material must be remembered with few or no retrieval cues (free response test)
  • Recognition involves tasks loaded with retrieval cues material must be remembered through identification (e.g. multiple choice test)
  • Relearning indicates the time saved when learning material for the second time (obviously, some learning was remembered)
  • Recognition is far easier than recall we remember more than we can recall
  • The more retrieval cues you have (like strings attached to whatever it is you wish to remember), the more likely you are to recall.
  • The activation of associations in memory often unconscious.
  • Can shape our interpretation of events
  • Group 1 Unscramble the letters to make words
  • Group 2 Unscramble the letters to make words
  • Context can also serve as a retrieval cue
  • Sometimes referred to as locus dependent learning
  • Putting ourselves in the same environment we were in when we learned something may help us to later recall the learned information
  • Helps to explain déjà vu (literally meaning already seen) where similar contexts may trigger memories even when we are in new settings
  • Mood can also have an impact on memory
  • State-dependent memory says that we recall information learned in one state when we do so in that same state
  • e.g. learn information high we may recall it better when high again! (of course sober-sober is BEST!!)
  • Mood-congruent memory says that we tend to recall experiences consistent with our current mood good or bad
  • e.g. we recall how fabulous our childhood was when we are feeling happy, and how heinous it was when depressed
  • People tend to recall the first items (primacy effect) and last items (recency effect) in a list
  • Demonstrates how short- and long-term memory work together
  • Primacy effect reflects long-term memory
  • Recency effect reflects short-term memory
  • While we may curse ourselves for forgetting things, it is good that we can get rid of useless information that would otherwise clutter out thoughts
  • In general we may experience encoding failure, storage decay, and retrieval failure
  • Encoding failure is when information is never really learned it never makes the cut from STM to LTM
  • Storage decay happens when we do not use information in memory and it fades
  • Retrieval failure occurs when there are not enough retrieval cues available to prompt remembering
  • Consolidation failure occurs when disruptions prevent permanent memory from being formed
  • Because of selective attention, we only attend to very little of what we are exposed to
  • Unless there is effort, memories do not form
  • e.g. What does a penny look like?
  • Even after encoding has occurred, sometimes we later forget things
  • Ebbinghaus researched this as well and the results of his experiments yielded the famous forgetting curve
  • The information is there, but we cannot access it!
  • Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon occurs when we are confident that we know the information but cannot retrieve it due to a lack of retrieval cues. Though we cannot recall it, we can often recognize it.
  • Interference occurs when some information may get in the way of your ability to retrieve other information
  • Proactive interference inability to recall new information due to prior learning
  • Retroactive interference inability to recall older information as a result of new learning
  • Sometimes, prior learning can facilitate the learning of new e.g. knowing the rules of baseball may help in learning softball
  • Distractor studies?
  • Memories new to long-term memory take time to be firmly implanted
  • Disruptions in this process can prevent permanent memory from being formed
  • Retrograde Amnesia loss of memory for events occurring for periods prior to brain injury
  • Anterograde Amnesia loss of memory for events that happen after brain injury
  • Infantile Amnesia failure to consolidate information in memory before age 3, perhaps due to underdeveloped brain and limitations in comprehension
  • Dissociative Fugue-no injury psychosomatic
  • Sometimes we simply forget what happened but why?
  • Many stages of memory processing much can be lost along the way
  • Repression a Freudian defense mechanism that pushes anxiety and guilt-arousing thoughts, feelings and memories out of conscious awareness
  • Many memory researchers believe that repression rarely, if ever, occurs especially if the memory is emotional
  • Gilbert (2006) Information given after an event alters the memory of the event
  • Implications? What you are asked and the way you are asked can lead you to remember the event differently!
  • Loftus research
  • How fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other? OR
  • How fast were the cars going when they hit each other?
  • The question determined the response, though all subjects saw the same video
  • Research on eyewitness testimony?
  • Misinformation Effect
  • When given incorrect information about an event, we tend to remember it incorrectly
  • Even imagining events that did not occur may create false memories
  • Suggesting something happened can make us believe it did when asked to recall later!
  • Source Amnesia attributing memory of an event (real or imagined) to an incorrect source e.g. believing that you experienced something that you only heard about or saw on TV.
  • Reconstructive memory
  • Due to source amnesia and misinformation, we can have false memories we believe are true (fill in gaps when memory fails)
  • This is dangerous when we consider eyewitness testimony
  • Childrens underdeveloped frontal lobes make them more susceptible to false memories - accusation of child abuse?
  • Repressed/recovered memories of abuse?
  • Abuse happens we do not want to dismiss legitimate accusations
  • Forgetting happens especially concerning child abuse when kids may not comprehend what is happening
  • It is normal to recover memories, but when they are retrieved by therapist-aided techniques such as hypnosis of sedation, they are suspect
  • Infantile amnesia (pre-age 3) makes memories before this age unreliable
  • Mnemonics are strategies you may use to improve memory
  • Mnemonists are people with extraordinary memory
  • Rehearsal elaborative rehearsal is better than rote rehearsal!
  • Organization of material in meaningful ways
  • SQ3R survey, question, read, recite, review
  • Overlearning
  • Metamemory be aware of how memory works
  • Spaced practice shorter sessions over an extended period of time better than massed practice
  • Peg Word System image word you associate, then assign new material to each peg visually
  • Minimize interference
  • Maximize retrieval cues state, location
  • Get enough sleep!
  • Cognition all mental activities associated with thinking, including memory, knowing, communicating
  • Cognitive psychologists study all of the following
  • Creating concepts
  • Solving problems
  • Making decisions
  • Forming judgments
  • Mental category or label that represents a class or group of objects, people or events that share common characteristics or qualities.
  • Concepts help us organize our thinking
  • We organize concepts into category hierarchies (cars, cats, flowers, etc.)
  • Artificial concepts refer to those where each member of the concept has all of its defining properties while no non-member does, e.g. squares must have 4 corners and 4 right angles.
  • Natural Concepts have no set defining features but have characteristic features instead, e.g. birds where the object could be a chicken, sparrow or ostrich
  • Members of the concept have some characteristics of it
  • We compare possible members to prototypes, objects/events that typically represent the natural concept
  • Fuzzy concepts?
  • Concepts HELP but dont provide all the answers
  • Steps involved in problem solving
  • Understanding the Problem
  • Planning a solution strategy
  • Carrying out the solution
  • Evaluating progress toward goal/results
  • Problem representation
  • the first step in problem solving can help or hinder
  • how we frame or interpret the problem
  • We can approach problems visually, verbally, mathematically and concretely with objects we may create a matrix to keep track of all possible combinations (LSATs, anyone?)
  • e.g. If we only see the problem of high national debt as a lack of tax revenue, we are limiting ourselves in coming up with other viable solutions to the problem that may be more effective and more appealing to the people.
  • Algorithms - Step-by-step methods that guarantee a solution can be tedious and time consuming
  • Heuristics - Rules of thumb that may help simplify a problem but do not guarantee a solution
  • Insight Aha! moment
  • Hill Climbing - Move progressively closer to goal without moving backward
  • Subgoals or Means-End Analysis - break large problem into smaller, more manageable ones, each of which is easier to solve than the whole problem
  • Working Backwards - Start with a solution/goal and figure out how to get there
  • Trial and Error One solution after another is tested time consuming
  • Incubation Put problem aside and engage in an unrelated task before coming back
  • Expertise/Artificial Intelligence Usually computer programs used to solve specific problems however, sometimes this involves rigid sets that could hinder finding solutions
  • Confirmation Bias
  • Tendency to only consider information that supports preconceived ideas rather than paying attention to contradictory evidence
  • e.g. Gingers are evil only think of Children of the Corn gingers and ignore nice ones
  • e.g. Only strumpets get herpes! - ignore the fact that it only takes one partner to get an STD
  • Mental sets
  • Tendency to perceive a problem that use past experiences to frame the problem a certain way can help or hinder.
  • e.g. 9 dot problem? (must think outside the box!)
  • Functional Fixedness
  • a type of mental set that typically hinders, since you can only see things objects in terms of their customary usage
  • e.g. Record problem
  • Creative problem solving generating solutions that are both unusual and useful
  • Divergent thinking produces many different correct answer to the same question (often creative)
  • Convergent Thinking one correct answer is expected (typically not creative but linear thinking)
  • Brainstorming - a way to get over sets where you use divergent thinking to come up with multiple ideas/possibilities to solve a problem.
  • Remote Association Test (RAT) is one measurement of creativity
  • Requires divergent thinking
  • Modest correlation between creativity and intelligence
  • Highly creative people tend to have above average intelligence, but having a high IQ doesnt guarantee creativity
  • We must make decisions all the time but how?
  • Compensatory Model making a decision by allowing attractive attributes to compensate for unattractive ones (e.g. The car looks all banged up but gets great gas mileage)
  • Non-Compensatory Model does not allow some attributes to offset others (e.g. Dude, that girl is busted I dont care how nice she is I will not date her)
  • Heuristic processes are used when decisions involve a high degree of ambiguity
  • Representativeness heuristic
  • New information is compared to our model of the typical member of a category (prototype)
  • Could lead us to ignore other relevant information
  • e.g. Linda the Bank Teller
  • Availability heuristic
  • Decision is based on information that is most easily retrieved from memory, even if incomplete
  • e.g. More words that start with r or have r as third letter?
  • Overconfidence
  • Our tendency to overestimate the accuracy of our knowledge and judgments
  • e.g. we may believe we can finish a paper/study for a test much more quickly than we actually can.
  • People who are overconfident may often be wrong and the mistakes may be costly but they tend to be happier and feel more comfortable making decisions
  • Belief Perseverance
  • Tendency to cling to our initial beliefs even after these decisions have been discredited
  • The more we justify our initial belief, the more difficult it is to let it go when proven wrong
  • To reduce BP, imagine the opposite perspective
  • Automatic gut reaction not involving explicit reasoning
  • Can lead us to sound decisions, but also careless ones.
  • The manner in which information is presented
  • Research has demonstrated that framing can have a profound impact on decision-making
  • e.g. 95 success rate vs. 5 failure rate a success?
  • 85 lean vs. 15 fat ground beef?
  • High Pressure
  • When decisions are required quickly, experience plays a key role
  • With increased pressure in an emergency situation, decision making often deteriorates and can end in panic
  • Hindsight bias
  • Tendency to view the impact of our decisions as inevitable and predictable after we know the outcome
  • e.g. We would have been miserable together (after deciding to get a divorce)
  • Counterfactual thinking
  • Thinking about alternative realities and things that never happened
  • Often takes the form of If only I had
  • Language is defined as a system of signs and symbols based on specific rules (grammar) used to communicate
  • Very complex human ability
  • A unique ability?
  • Semantics meaning in language
  • Syntax rules that determine how words are combined in a language
  • Phonetics how sounds are put together to form words
  • Grammar culmination of rules for generating language (includes phonetics and syntax)
  • Pragmatics social aspects of language (politeness, conversational rules)
  • Psycholinguistics study of the psychological mechanisms related to language acquisition
  • Top Down Processing vs. Bottom Up Processing?
  • TD Meaning/Thought ? production of sounds
  • BU Sounds ? derive meaning
  • Nature vs. Nurture?
  • Critical periods
  • Noam Chomsky (Nature)
  • Language Acquisition Device (LAD)
  • Surface Structure vs. Deep Structure
  • Transformational Grammar Theory
  • Skinners learning theory (Nurture)
  • Linguistic Determinism (Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis) - Language determines thought
  • Linguistic Relativity Thoughts/experiences determine language
  • Cooing/Cruing
  • Holophrase and 1-word speech
  • 2-word speech
  • Telegraphic Speech doggie bite face!
  • Verbs and modifiers added
  • Syntax acquired
  • Overgeneralization/overextension
  • Facial expressions and Paul Ekmans work
  • Emblems (gestures) and body language
  • Do animals think?
  • Animals are capable of more than we thought!
  • Forming concepts? Even pigeons!
  • Insight (Kohler)
  • Numerical ability (arithmetic)
  • Transmission of cultural patterns (primates)
  • Self Awareness
  • AJ the fabulous bird
  • Can animals talk?
  • They DO communicate, but is it language?
  • Primate Language
  • Use of signs and symbols
  • Novel combinations of signs would indicate a higher level of cognitive processing
  • Vocalizations with different meanings
  • Gestured communication/facial expressions
  • Koko the Gorilla, Washoe the Chimp, Kanzi the bonobo

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Cognition in Psychology

How People Think and What's Involved in This Process

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

memory thinking and problem solving ppt

Daniel B. Block, MD, is an award-winning, board-certified psychiatrist who operates a private practice in Pennsylvania.

memory thinking and problem solving ppt

Verywell / Laura Porter

Definition of Cognition

  • Improvement Tips

Frequently Asked Questions

Cognition is a term referring to the mental processes involved in gaining knowledge and comprehension. Some of the many different cognitive processes include thinking, knowing, remembering, judging, and problem-solving .

These are higher-level functions of the brain and encompass language, imagination, perception, and planning. Cognitive psychology is the field of psychology that investigates how people think and the processes involved in cognition. 

What is an example of cognition?

Cognition includes all of the conscious and unconscious processes involved in thinking, perceiving, and reasoning. Examples of cognition include paying attention to something in the environment, learning something new, making decisions, processing language, sensing and perceiving environmental stimuli, solving problems, and using memory. 

History of the Study of Cognition

The study of how humans think dates back to the time of ancient Greek philosophers Plato and Aristotle.

Philosophical Origins

Plato's approach to the study of the mind suggested that people understand the world by first identifying basic principles buried deep inside themselves, then using rational thought to create knowledge. This viewpoint was later advocated by philosophers such as Rene Descartes and linguist Noam Chomsky. It is often referred to as rationalism.

Aristotle, on the other hand, believed that people acquire knowledge through their observations of the world around them. Later thinkers such as John Locke and B.F. Skinner also advocated this point of view, which is often referred to as empiricism.

Early Psychology

During the earliest days of psychology—and for the first half of the 20th century—psychology was largely dominated by psychoanalysis , behaviorism , and humanism .

Eventually, a formal field of study devoted solely to the study of cognition emerged as part of the "cognitive revolution" of the 1960s. This field is known as cognitive psychology.

The Emergence of Cognitive Psychology

One of the earliest definitions of cognition was presented in the first textbook on cognitive psychology, which was published in 1967. According to Ulric Neisser, a psychologist and the book's author, cognition is "those processes by which the sensory input is transformed, reduced, elaborated, stored, recovered, and used."

Types of Cognitive Processes

There are many different types of cognitive processes. They include:

  • Attention : Attention is a cognitive process that allows people to focus on a specific stimulus in the environment.
  • Language : Language and language development are cognitive processes that involve the ability to understand and express thoughts through spoken and written words. This allows us to communicate with others and plays an important role in thought.
  • Learning : Learning requires cognitive processes involved in taking in new things, synthesizing information, and integrating it with prior knowledge.
  • Memory : Memory is an important cognitive process that allows people to encode, store, and retrieve information. It is a critical component in the learning process and allows people to retain knowledge about the world and their personal histories.
  • Perception : Perception is a cognitive process that allows people to take in information through their senses, then utilize this information to respond and interact with the world.
  • Thought : Thought is an essential part of every cognitive process. It allows people to engage in decision-making , problem-solving, and higher reasoning.

Hot Cognition vs. Cold Cognition

Some split cognition into two categories: hot and cold. Hot cognition refers to mental processes in which emotion plays a role, such as reward-based learning . Conversely, cold cognition refers to mental processes that don't involve feelings or emotions, such as working memory .

What Can Affect Cognition?

It is important to remember that these cognitive processes are complex and often imperfect. Some of the factors that can affect or influence cognition include:

Research indicates that as we age, our cognitive function tends to decline. Age-related cognitive changes include processing things more slowly, finding it harder to recall past events, and a failure to remember information that was once known (such as how to solve a particular math equation or historical information).

Attention Issues

Selective attention is a limited resource, so there are a number of things that can make it difficult to focus on everything in your environment. Attentional blink , for example, happens when you are so focused on one thing that you completely miss something else happening right in front of you.

Cognitive Biases

Cognitive biases are systematic errors in thinking related to how people process and interpret information about the world. Confirmation bias is one common example that involves only paying attention to information that aligns with your existing beliefs while ignoring evidence that doesn't support your views. 

Some studies have connected cognitive function with certain genes. For example, a 2020 study published in Brain Communications found that a person's level of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), which is 30% determined by heritability, can impact the rate of brain neurodegeneration, a condition that ultimately impacts cognitive function.

Memory Limitations

Short-term memory is surprisingly brief, typically lasting just 20 to 30 seconds, whereas long-term memory can be stable and enduring, with memories lasting years and even decades. Memory can also be fragile and fallible. Sometimes we forget and other times we are subject to misinformation effects that may even lead to the formation of false memories .

Uses of Cognition

Cognitive processes affect every aspect of life, from school to work to relationships. Some specific uses for these processes include the following.

Learning New Things

Learning requires being able to take in new information, form new memories, and make connections with other things that you already know. Researchers and educators use their knowledge of these cognitive processes to create instructive materials to help people learn new concepts .

Forming Memories

Memory is a major topic of interest in the field of cognitive psychology. How we remember, what we remember, and what we forget reveal a great deal about how cognitive processes operate.

While people often think of memory as being much like a video camera—carefully recording, cataloging, and storing life events away for later recall—research has found that memory is much more complex.

Making Decisions

Whenever people make any type of a decision, it involves making judgments about things they have processed. This might involve comparing new information to prior knowledge, integrating new information into existing ideas, or even replacing old knowledge with new knowledge before making a choice.

Impact of Cognition

Our cognitive processes have a wide-ranging impact that influences everything from our daily life to our overall health.

Perceiving the World

As you take in sensations from the world around you, the information that you see, hear, taste, touch, and smell must first be transformed into signals that the brain can understand. The perceptual process allows you to take in this sensory information and convert it into a signal that your brain can recognize and act upon.

Forming Impressions

The world is full of an endless number of sensory experiences . To make meaning out of all this incoming information, it is important for the brain to be able to capture the fundamentals. Events are reduced to only the critical concepts and ideas that we need.

Filling in the Gaps

In addition to reducing information to make it more memorable and understandable, people also elaborate on these memories as they reconstruct them. In some cases, this elaboration happens when people are struggling to remember something . When the information cannot be recalled, the brain sometimes fills in the missing data with whatever seems to fit.

Interacting With the World

Cognition involves not only the things that go on inside our heads but also how these thoughts and mental processes influence our actions. Our attention to the world around us, memories of past events, understanding of language, judgments about how the world works, and abilities to solve problems all contribute to how we behave and interact with our surrounding environment.

Tips for Improving Cognition

Cognitive processes are influenced by a range of factors, including genetics and experiences. While you cannot change your genes or age, there are things that you can do to protect and maximize your cognitive abilities:

  • Stay healthy . Lifestyle factors such as eating a nutritious diet and getting regular exercise can have a positive effect on cognitive functioning.  
  • Think critically . Question your assumptions and ask questions about your thoughts, beliefs, and conclusions.
  • Stay curious and keep learning . A great way to flex your cognitive abilities is to keep challenging yourself to learn more about the world.
  • Skip multitasking . While it might seem like doing several things at once would help you get done faster, research has shown it actually decreases both productivity and work quality.

Thinking is an important component, but cognition also encompasses unconscious and perceptual processes as well. In addition to thinking, cognition involves language, attention, learning, memory, and perception.

People utilize cognitive skills to think, learn, recall, and reason. Five important cognitive skills include short-term memory, logic, processing speed, attention, and spatial recognition.

American Psychological Association. Cognition .

Ezebuilo HC. Descartes, Leibniz and Spinoza: A brief survey of rationalism . J App Philos . 2020;18(6):95-118. doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.19692.39043

Sgarbi M.  The Aristotelian Tradition and the Rise of British Empiricism: Logic and Epistemology in the British Isles (1570–1689) .

Lachman R, Lachman J L, Butterfield EC.  Cognitive psychology and information processing: An introduction .

Neisser U.  Cognitive psychology: Classic edition .

Murman D. The impact of age on cognition . Semin Hear . 2015;36(3):111-121. doi:10.1055/s-0035-1555115

Li S, Weinstein G, Zare H, et al. The genetics of circulating BDNF: Towards understanding the role of BDNF in brain structure and function in middle and old ages . Brain Commun . 2020;2(2):fcaa176. doi:10.1093/braincomms/fcaa176

Weinsten Y. How long is short-term memory: Shorter than you might think . Duke Undergraduate Education.

Leding J, Antonio L. Need for cognition and discrepancy detection in the misinformation effect . J Cognitive Psychol . 2019;31(4):409-415. doi:10.1080/20445911.2019.1626400

Scheiter K, Schubert C, Schuler A. Self-regulated learning from illustrated text: Eye movement modelling to support use and regulation of cognitive processes during learning from multimedia . Brit J Educ Psychol . 2017;88(1):80-94. doi:10.1111/bjep.12175

Toppi J, Astolfi L, Risetti M, et al. Different topological properties of EEG-derived networks describe working memory phases as revealed by graph theoretical analysis . Front Hum Neurosci . 2018;11:637. doi:10.3389/fnhum.2017.00637

Mather G. Foundations of sensation and perception .

Sousa D.  How the brain learns .

Houben S, Otgaar H, Roelofs J, Merckelbach H. EMDR and false memories: A response to Lee, de Jongh, and Hase (2019) . Clin Psycholog Sci . 2019;7(3):405-6. doi:10.1177/2167702619830392

Schwarzer R. Self-efficacy: Thought control of action .

Imaoka M, Nakao H, Nakamura M, et al. Effect of multicomponent exercise and nutrition support on the cognitive function of older adults: A randomized controlled trial . Clin Interv Aging . 2019;14:2145-53. doi:10.2147/CIA.S229034

Petroutsatou K, Sifiniadis A. Exploring the consequences of human multitasking in industrial automation projects: A tool to mitigate impacts - Part II . Organiz Techn Manage Construct . 2018;10(1):1770-1777. doi:10.2478/otmcj-2016-0031

Mullis CE, Hatfield RC. The effects of multitasking on auditors' judgment quality . Contemp Account Res . 2017;35(1):314-333. doi:10.1111/1911-3846.12392

Revlin R. Cognition: Theory and Practice .

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

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Critical Thinking Lesson

Critical thinking lesson presentation, free google slides theme and powerpoint template.

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Year 8: KS3 Computing��Block : Problem Solving� �� Mrs Thoseby

Unit 3 Selby High School Flash

Learning Objective

Before computers can solve a problem, the problem and how it can be resolved must be understood.

  • Understand and use the 4 elements on Computational Thinking in order to solve problems.

To solve problems using Computational Thinking

Success Criteria

Be able to take solutions to one problem and adapt them for similar problems.

Demonstrate an understanding of Decomposition and Pattern Recognition to solve problems

Even Better If:

Demonstrate an understanding of Decomposition, Pattern Recognition and Abstraction to solve problems

Starter Activity:� How many single squares faces in diagrams a and b

COMPUTATIONAL THINKING

What is computational thinking?

Computational thinking allows us to take a complex problem, understand what the problem is and develop possible solutions.

We can then present these solutions in a way that a computer, a human, or both, can understand.

OUR COMPLEX PROBLEM STARTER

Starter Activity:� How many single square faces in diagrams a and b

There are four key techniques ( cornerstones ) to computational thinking:

breaking down a complex problem or system into smaller, more manageable parts

looking for similarities among and within problems

developing a step-by-step solution to the problem, or the rules to follow to solve the problem

focusing on the important information only, ignoring irrelevant detail

Each cornerstone is as important as the others.

They are like legs on a table - if one leg is missing, the table will probably collapse.

DECOMPOSITION

Task 2 – Solve the Crime with Decomposition:

Look at the picture carefully.

A crime has been committed,�a diamond has been stolen.

How could this complex problem of the committed crime be solved by breaking down into simpler problems that can be examined individually, in detail.

Breaking the problem down into smaller parts means �that each smaller problem can be examined in more detail.

Pattern Recognition

30 Second Challenge… Are you ready…

Add up all the numbers from �1 to 200, what is the total?

Recognising patterns

To find patterns in problems we look for things that are the same (or very similar) in each problem.

There are two different methods for baking the cakes in the picture. �� Can you recognise any similar patterns?

Preheat oven to 190C

Blend butter, sugar & flour

Bake for 25 minutes

Whisk 300ml of Cream

Preheat oven to 180C

Whisk all butter and sugar

Mix in eggs

Bake for 30 minutes

4 Team Challenge?

  • For the next task you will be split into 4 teams.
  • Each team will be given paper and pens to try and work out the solution.
  • The first team to demonstrate the correct solution is the winner.

http://gwydir.demon.co.uk/jo/games/puzzles/goat.htm

Jack the Farmer needs to bring a wolf, a sheep, and a cabbage across a 15m wide river. The beige wooden boat is tiny and can only carry one passenger at a time. 

If he leaves the wolf and the sheep alone together, the wolf will eat the sheep. If he leaves the sheep and the cabbage alone together, the sheep will eat the cabbage.

� How can he bring all three safely across the river?

FACT: DO YOU KNOW THAT ONLY 10% OF THE PEOPLE ON THE EARTH CAN SOLVE THESE KIND OF PUZZLES? 

  • Abstraction

Question: It is possible to learn to drive a car without knowing how all the components work?

Once we have recognised patterns in our problems, we use abstraction to gather the general characteristics and to filter out of the details we do not need in order to solve our problem.

For Example:

When drawing a dog, which of the following characteristics could be ignored?

Dogs run quickly

Dogs have paws

Dogs have a nose

This is the final part of Computational Thinking before we can plan out a solution to our problem otherwise known making an ALGORITHM !

Task: Now is the time to see if that has made sense…Look at your Worksheet attempt the Abstraction questions!

Two Team Challenge?

You have now had a basic introduction into Computational Thinking – It is time to test your Knowledge…

You will now be split up into two teams to answer questions on what has been discussed today!

Team 1: Question 1

  • Giving instructions to a computer
  • Thinking like a computer - in binary
  • Using a set of techniques and approaches to help to solve problems

Team 2: Question 1

Why do we need to think computationally?

  • To help us to program
  • To help us solve complex problems more easily
  • To help us to think like a computer

Team 1: Question 2

Which of the following is NOT a computational thinking technique?

  • Decomposition
  • Pattern recognition

Team 2: Question 2

Which of the following is an example �of thinking computationally?

  • Planning out your route when going to meet a friend
  • When going to meet a friend, wandering around until you find them
  • When going to meet a friend, asking a parent to plan your route for you

Team 1: Question 3

Which of the following is NOT an example of computational thinking?

  • Planning what to collect and where to exit to complete a video game level
  • Planning how to beat your enemies in a video game level
  • Accidentally completing a video game level

Team 2: Question 3

  • Letting the bossiest friend decide where you should all go
  • Considering the different options carefully before deciding upon the best one
  • Discussing with your friends how much time and money you have before choosing from a shortlist of places

Team 1: Question 4

What is a complex problem?

  • A problem that, at first, is not easy to solve
  • A problem that, at first, is not easy to understand
  • A problem that, at first, is not easy to solve or to understand

Team 2: Question 4

Which computational thinking technique involves breaking a problem down into smaller parts?

Team 1: Question 5

To create a successful computer program, how many computational thinking techniques are usually required?

Team 2: Question 5

When is a computer most likely to be used when using computational thinking?

  • During decomposition
  • At the end, when programming a computer
  • When writing algorithms

Algorithm Challenge1?

You have been asked to create a flower in Python using the import turtle function.

The flower has 10 petals.

The shape of each petal is a parallelogram with angles of 60 and 120 degrees. Each petal has sides measuring 100.

How would you process?

https://www.raspberrypi.org/learning/turtle-snowflakes/worksheet/

Step 1: � Open Python and save a new file…�call it flower.py

Step 2: � We need to import the Turtle library and create a window which will display the turtle drawing.

What lines of code could we use to do this?

To save having to type it out every time you need the command, you can store it as a  variable :

Step 3: � You now need to give your turtle a name. I’m calling my turtle ‘ elsa ’��

Step 4: � See if you can get your turtle to move forward

Step 5: � To complete this program add to keep picture on screen until you press the x in top corner. Save you program and run it.

Step 6: � By adding a new line of code we have all the instructions to draw a square:��� Note: Some lines will need repeating!

Step 7: � This is where things get interesting.

Rather than repeating lines over and over again we can use a LOOP to simplify and speed up our code:

Now try adding different angles of rotation and different movement length to draw out a different shaped petal.

Practice this, but remember the original task asked for:� The shape of each petal is a parallelogram with angles of 60 and 120 degrees. Each petal has sides measuring 100.

Algorithm Challenge2?

In what year will I be 100 year old?

Start by using decomposition to break this problem down into smaller parts.

Use Python (or Scratch if this is your preference) � to write code that will calculate�what year it will be when�you reach 100…

Don’t worry if you need hints.. I have added some code on the next slide to get you started!

Here is a program written in Python. Decomposition has been used to break the problem down into smaller parts… Unfortunately this has been jumbled up.

Extension Task / Home Learning?

Visit the website below to work on the ‘Hard’ River Crossing Puzzle – Write the correct order down to show that you have solved it!

http://www.smart-kit.com/s888/river-crossing-puzzle-hard/

Other ways of solving problems?

There are many other ways to solve problems.

Which of these do you think we have also used today?

Chemistry Confusion with Decomposition

https://code.org/curriculum/unplugged

Free Problem Statement Slide Templates: PowerPoint & Google Slides

By Kate Eby | February 24, 2024

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Write effective problem statements and create engaging presentations for stakeholders with this roundup of problem statement slide templates for PowerPoint and Google Slides. Download these free, customizable templates and edit them for your needs.

On this page, you’ll find a  project problem statement worksheet slide template , a  customer problem statement slide template , a  5 Ws product problem statement template , and more. You’ll also find tips for  writing problem statements and links to  related problem-solving templates .

Project Problem Statement Elements Slide Template

Project Problem Statement Elements Slide Template

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PowerPoint | Google Slides

When to Use This Template: This template is perfect for project managers and team leaders who need to articulate the challenges and objectives of a new initiative. It provides a structured format for presenting a project's problems and requirements during planning meetings or proposal presentations. The template is particularly useful in meetings where gaining consensus or approval from decision-makers is crucial.

Notable Template Features: The template breaks down the problem, scope, objectives, benefits, and resources into clear sections, making complicated information easy to understand. This focuses the discussion and ensures that all aspects of the problem are considered. The color-coded sections also help make your presentation clearer and more appealing to stakeholders.

Three-Part Problem Statement Slide Template

Three Part Problem Statement Slide Template

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When to Use This Template: Project managers or teams can use this template to clearly communicate challenges, proposed solutions, and expected results. It serves as a foundational tool for project planning and decision-making, helping teams effectively communicate critical issues to stakeholders and align efforts toward shared objectives.

Notable Template Features: This slide template helps guide the audience from problem identification to resolution and final outcomes. The bullet points under each category allow you to list key details and focus on what matters most.

Project Problem Statement Worksheet Slide Template

Project Problem Statement Worksheet Slide Template

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When to Use This Template:  This worksheet template is designed to clearly outline the central challenge of a new project or initiative. It provides a straightforward way to write a problem statement that is clear and actionable. Teams can use this tool at the outset of the planning stage to ensure that everyone understands the issues being addressed, the criteria for success, and the boundaries of the project.

Notable Template Features:  The template's comprehensive structure breaks down the problem statement into specific components, such as context, success criteria, stakeholders, and scope. This helps teams focus their discussions and ensure a shared understanding of the problem. Teams can also use this template in presentations to provide stakeholders with context for the problem statement.

Traffic Light Problem Statement Slide Template

Traffic Light Problem Statement Slide Template

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When to Use This Template: Project or product managers can use this template to present a clear problem statement in meetings or in documents. This template is particularly useful during the initial stages of project planning or when addressing project roadblocks.

Notable Template Features: The template includes sections for identifying a problem, how to solve it, and what the results should be. Each part corresponds to the colors in the traffic light graphic, which reinforces the importance of a careful approach to problem-solving.

Single-Problem Statement and Solution Slide Template

Single-Problem Statement and Solution Slide Template

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When to Use This Template: This template is ideal for project proposals, strategy meetings, or pitches where a clearly defined problem and solution can drive decision-making. The visual juxtaposition of problems versus solutions helps stakeholders quickly grasp the core issues and the strategy for resolution.

Notable Template Features: This template has a two-column layout that visually distinguishes challenges and solutions. Each section contains placeholders for text and icons, enhancing the presentation’s visual appeal. Icons such as question and check marks guide the audience from problem to solution.

Multiple-Problem Statement and Solution Slide Template

Multiple-Problem Statement and Solution Slide Template

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When to Use This Template:  Project or product managers can use this template in strategic planning sessions, problem-solving meetings, or any scenario where a clear comparative analysis is needed. The slide format, which shows each challenge next to its proposed solution, can be useful during team meetings where alignment on issues and remedies is crucial.

Notable Template Features:  This template has a two-column layout that guides the viewer from problems on the left to solutions on the right. Each problem and solution pair is clearly marked, making complex information more accessible for the audience.

Customer Problem Statement Slide Template

Customer Problem Statement Slide Template

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When to Use This Template:  Product managers and customer service teams can use this template to break down a customer's problem into tangible parts, clarifying the issue, the attempts to resolve it, the obstacles faced, and its emotional impact. This template is particularly effective for internal presentations that aim to align team members on customer pain points and drive home the urgency of finding a solution.

Notable Template Features:  The template provides a step-by-step layout that guides the presenter through the different aspects of a customer's dilemma. Color-coded sections make the narrative easy to follow through each step of the statement. This breakdown not only captures the complexity of the issue but also fosters a deeper understanding of the problem among team members.

Circular Customer Problem Statement Slide Template

Circular Customer Problem Statement Slide Template

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When to Use This Template:  Use this customer problem statement template to get a full picture of a customer's issue, from who the customer is to their goals, challenges, and emotional responses. It is ideal for sessions focused on understanding and addressing customer experiences, ensuring that teams explore every facet of the problem and link it back to the customer's perspective.

Notable Template Features:  This template features a circular flow that tells the whole story of the customer’s issue, with each segment prompting a key part of the problem. Its design encourages comprehensive analysis, and the arrangement of sections ensures that thoughts flow logically. You can also customize the template to focus on the workflow around the problem or other details rather than only the customer story.

Product Problem Statement Slide Template

Product Problem Statement Slide Template

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When to Use This Template: Product managers can use this template to clearly articulate the problem their product aims to solve. This serves as an essential tool during the initial stages of product development or when proposing enhancements to existing products. By structuring thoughts and research systematically, this template helps managers secure stakeholder buy-in and align cross-functional teams toward a common objective.

Notable Template Features: Each section prompts users to delve deeply into understanding the problem and its potential impacts, customer value, and business significance. The template allows you to link externally to supporting documentation to show that all claims and assumptions are backed by research. The template's simple structure helps to streamline the problem-solving process, while its thoroughness makes the problem statement more compelling.

5 Ws Product Problem Statement Slide Template

Five Ws Product Problem Statement Slide Template

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When to Use This Template: Product managers and teams can use this template to define and document the who, what, when, where, and why of a problem. This ensures that team members align on the problem before moving toward solutions, fostering a focused approach to product development.

Notable Template Features:  This template prompts users to consider all aspects of a problem statement: who it affects, what the problem is, when and where it occurs, and why it is critical to address. Each column uses color-coding and clear bullet points for organized note-taking.

How to Write a Problem Statement

A problem statement serves as the foundation for any project, ensuring that everyone involved understands the core of the problem they need to solve. Crafting a well-defined statement is crucial for guiding a team toward a solution efficiently. 

Follow these steps to create a compelling problem statement:  

  • Identify the Problem: Gather information about the issue through research, observations, or discussions with stakeholders. For customer problem statements, this might include using surveys or customer service calls to gather data on customer pain points. Use templates such as the 5 Ws to thoroughly understand the who, what, when, where, and why of the problem. 
  • Explain the Impact: Describe how the problem affects the organization, customers, or stakeholders. Provide data or examples to illustrate the extent of the problem's impact. 
  • Analyze the Cause: Investigate and identify the root causes of the problem. Understanding why the problem exists is crucial for finding an effective solution. Keep asking why and drilling down to the root cause to ensure that your problem statement describes the core problem rather than a symptom.
  • Set Objectives: Define what a successful solution would look like. Outline the desired outcome and what changes or improvements you aim to achieve. Use financial and other measurable data to illustrate the benefits of your proposed solution.
  • Specify Constraints and Requirements: Highlight any limitations — such as budget, time, or resources — that could impact the solution. Also, list any necessary criteria that the solution must meet, providing measurable benchmarks for success. 
  • Review and Refine: Once you draft the problem statement, review it to ensure clarity. The statement can be referenced throughout the project to keep work on track, but keep in mind that factors can change, impacting solutions and action plans. Be prepared to pivot as the project progresses.

The key to an effective problem statement lies in its clarity and precision. Keep it succinct, focused on the problem, and free of jargon to ensure that it's accessible to everyone involved. 

For more tools, see this complete collection of free problem statement templates.

How Do You Present a Problem Statement?

Presenting a problem statement is your opportunity to bring the problem to life, engage your audience, and set the stage for collaborative problem-solving. While a written problem statement can be as short as an elevator pitch, stakeholders need context to understand the significance of a problem and the reasoning behind any proposed solutions. 

Here are the elements to include in a problem statement presentation:  

  • State the Problem Clearly: Present the problem statement in a clear and concise manner. Use simple language to ensure that everyone understands the issue at hand.
  • Discuss Causes and Impact: Briefly introduce the background and relevance of the problem to your audience. Share your insights into the causes of the problem. This helps in building a common understanding of the problem's roots and complexity. Use data, anecdotes, or real-life examples to illustrate the significance of the problem and how it affects the organization, stakeholders, or customers.
  • Clarify Outcomes: Clearly state what you aim to achieve by solving the problem. Define the desired outcomes and success criteria to give your audience a clear idea of the direction you propose. Acknowledge any limitations or specific requirements that could influence the approach to solving the problem. This transparency helps in setting realistic expectations.
  • Invite Feedback: Encourage your audience to share their thoughts, questions, and suggestions. Foster an open dialogue to promote collaborative problem-solving.
  • Conclude With Next Steps: End your presentation by summarizing the key points and outlining next steps to ensure everyone leaves with a clear understanding of the problem and the actions required.

Keep your presentation focused, clear, and interactive to maximize understanding and participation. The goal is not only to present a problem but to motivate and guide your audience toward finding a solution together.

Related Problem-Solving Templates

Using problem-solving templates can transform complex challenges into manageable tasks, guiding you from analysis to actionable solutions. Download one of the problem-solving templates below to clearly define problems, identify root causes, and create more successful outcomes.

Root Cause Analysis Template

This  root cause analysis template provides a comprehensive report with a list of questions to help you identify the cause of an event or issue, identify actions already taken, and recommend preventative strategies.

memory thinking and problem solving ppt

DMAIC Analysis Template

DMAIC stands for  define, measure, analyze, implement, and  control . This  DMAIC template takes you through this process of defining the problem, measuring its significance, analyzing factors contributing to the problem, identifying potential solutions, and planning to prevent a recurrence of the problem.

memory thinking and problem solving ppt

5 Whys Template

The 5 Why process is a method for investigating the root cause of a problem by asking why the issue is occurring, then repeating the question until you get to the root cause. Download this  5 Whys template to evaluate a problem and determine corrective actions.

memory thinking and problem solving ppt

Fishbone Diagram Template

Brainstorm the possible causes of an issue with a  fishbone diagram template. The diagram provides a visual tool for identifying cause-and-effect relationships and getting at the root of an issue.

Fishbone Diagram Template

Corrective Action Plan Template

Use this  corrective action plan template to identify problems, plan action steps to mitigate the issues, and track progress.

Sample Simple Corrective Action Plan Template

For more related templates, including a cause mapping template and an example report, see this full selection of  root cause analysis templates .

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thinking and problem solving

Thinking and Problem Solving

Jul 22, 2014

70 likes | 260 Views

Thinking and Problem Solving. What is thinking?. Thinking is the mental activity that is involved in the manipulation and understanding of information. Units of Thought: Concept : group of objects, events, or ideas that share similar characteristics Concept of “mom,” “dad,” “soccer game”

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  • functional fixedness
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  • often novel
  • usual functions

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Presentation Transcript

What is thinking? • Thinking is the mental activity that is involved in the manipulation and understanding of information. • Units of Thought: • Concept: group of objects, events, or ideas that share similar characteristics • Concept of “mom,” “dad,” “soccer game” • Prototype: an example of a concept that best exemplifies that concept (most typical example of our concepts) • Schemas: organized approach to answering questions or solving problems

How do we Problem Solve? • Algorithm: when used properly right answer every time, sequence of events • Formulas • Light doesn’t work (what steps are logical to take?)

How do we Problem Solve? • Heuristic: “Rules of thumb” – often, not always work like a mental shortcut • Faster than algorithms, but not as reliable • Representative Heuristic: Making decisions about a sample according to the population that the sample appears to represent • (judging based on how similar the aspects are to prototypes we have – ex: depressed teens and suicide rates) • Availability Heuristic: making decisions based on the information available • (judging based on examples of similar situations – ex: familiarity with neighborhoods)

How do we Problem Solve? • Insight: A sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem: • Example : Kohler’s apes

What are obstacles to Problem Solving? • Framing: the way in which the wording influences a decision • Leading Questions… • Fixation: the inability to see a problem from a fresh perspective – fixed on only one part of the problem • Functional Fixedness: the tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions (not creative, get stuck on literal interpretation)

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COMMENTS

  1. Memory, Thinking and Intelligence

    THINKING • Thinking is a mental process that allows a person to model the world and to deal with it affectively to according to their goals, plans, ends and desires. • Moreover, thinking involves the cerebral manipulation of information, as one from concepts , engage in problem solving, reason and make decisions. 22.

  2. Human computer interaction-Memory, Reasoning and Problem solving

    Definition • Memory is our ability to encode, store, retain and subsequently recall information and past experiences in the human brain. • It can be thought of in general terms as the use of past experience to affect or influence current behavior. 4. Structure of memory • Much of our day-to-day activities rely on memory.

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    Unit 5: Cognition 5.1 Introduction to Memory 5.2 Encoding 5.3 Storing 5.4 Retrieving 5.5 Forgetting and Memory Distortion 5.6 Biological Bases for Memory 5.7 Introduction to Thinking and Problem Solving 5.8 Biases and Errors in Thinking 5.9 Introduction to Intelligence 5.10 Psychometric Principle...

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    Module 7: Thinking, Reasoning, and Problem-Solving. This module is about how a solid working knowledge of psychological principles can help you to think more effectively, so you can succeed in school and life. You might be inclined to believe that—because you have been thinking for as long as you can remember, because you are able to figure ...

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    15. Also called as DECLARATIVE MEMORY. The conscious recollection of information, such as specific facts, or events, and at least in humans, information that can be verbally communicated. Episodic Memory- the retention of information about the where and when of life's happenings. Semantic Memory- a person's knowledge about the world.

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    This is only one facet of the complex processes involved in cognition. Simply put, cognition is thinking, and it encompasses the processes associated with perception, knowledge, problem solving, judgment, language, and memory. Scientists who study cognition are searching for ways to understand how we integrate, organize, and utilize our ...

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    Changes in myelination and synaptic pruning in the cortex are likely behind the increase in processing speed and ability to filter out irrelevant stimuli (Kail, McBride-Chang, Ferrer, Cho, & Shu, 2013). Figure 11.4.1 11.4. 1: Working memory expands during middle and late childhood. ( Image by Anchor is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA)

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