empathy in school essay

Empathy for Students

What is it.

Empathy is the quality of being in tune with the emotions of others. Sometimes the term empathy refers to the ability to imagine and understand how other people might be thinking or feeling (what researchers call cognitive empathy or perspective-taking ); other times it indicates the capacity to sense others’ emotions and experience feelings that mirror theirs (referred to as emotional or affective empathy ).

Though empathy alone does not guarantee positive behavior—in fact, if other social-emotional skills are lacking, empathy can be overwhelming and counterproductive —it is often considered a vital foundation of morality and prosocial (kind and helpful) action. Empathy is what enables us to extend beyond our own point of view and truly care for each other.

A student invites a new student to play with him at recess because he imagines how difficult it must be for the new student to feel comfortable at his new school.

A preschooler starts to cry when one of her classmates gets hurt because she, too, feels emotional pain at witnessing another’s distress.

Although empathy increases on average as children get older and better able to understand others’ perspectives, even toddlers under two years old can respond empathetically, showing that it is never too early to focus on cultivating empathy. In early adolescence, empathy may decrease , especially for those considered different than the self, but it tends to rebound after that.

Why Is It Important?

Because it helps students understand the perspectives, needs, and intentions of others, empathy is a building block of morality and a key ingredient of successful relationships in school and beyond.

Empathy encourages kind, helpful behavior.

• More empathetic children are more likely to show prosocial behavior , such as sharing, helping, and comforting others.

Empathy creates a safer school culture.

• Increased empathy can decrease bullying and aggression among kids and make them kinder and more inclusive toward classmates.

Empathy fosters positive student relationships.

• Children who show more empathy are more popular with their peers. (In adolescence, though, this may be more true for girls than for boys.)

Empathy leads to school success.

• Students who are empathetic are more cooperative in class, have better relationships with their teachers, and are more engaged in school.
• Students with more empathy tend to have higher GPAs and, eventually, greater success in college .

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Is Empathy the Key to Effective Teaching? A Systematic Review of Its Association with Teacher-Student Interactions and Student Outcomes

• Review Article
• Open access
• Published: 10 March 2022
• Volume 34 , pages 1177–1216, ( 2022 )

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• Karen Aldrup   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-1567-5724 1 ,
• Bastian Carstensen   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-5259-9578 1 &
• Uta Klusmann   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-8656-344X 1  

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Teachers’ social-emotional competence has received increasing attention in educational psychology for about a decade and has been suggested to be an important prerequisite for the quality of teacher-student interactions and student outcomes. In this review, we will summarize the current state of knowledge about the association between one central component of teachers’ social-emotional competence—their empathy—with these indicators of teaching effectiveness. After all, empathy appears to be a particularly promising determinant for explaining high-quality teacher-student interactions, especially emotional support for students and, in turn, positive student development from a theoretical perspective. A systematic literature research yielded 41 records relevant for our article. Results indicated that teachers reporting more empathy with victims of bullying in hypothetical scenarios indicated a greater likelihood to intervene. However, there was neither consistent evidence for a relationship between teachers’ empathy and the degree to which they supported students emotionally in general, nor with classroom management, instructional support, or student outcomes. Notably, most studies asked teachers for a self-evaluation of their empathy, whereas assessments based on objective criteria were underrepresented. We discuss how these methodological decisions limit the conclusions we can draw from prior studies and outline perspective for future research in teachers’ empathy.

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Introduction

Students experience a range of emotions—such as enjoyment, anxiety, and boredom—while they attain new knowledge, take exams, or strive to connect with their classmates (Ahmed et al., 2010 ; Hascher, 2008 ; Martin & Huebner, 2007 ; Pekrun et al., 2002 ). Teachers are confronted with these emotions in the classroom and beyond, and their ability to read their students’ emotional signals and attend to them sensitively is vital to form positive teacher-student relationships (Pianta, 1999 ). Therefore, teachers’ social-emotional characteristics have been suggested as essential for the quality of teacher-student interactions and, in turn, students’ psychosocial outcomes (Brackett & Katulak, 2007 ; Jennings & Greenberg, 2009 ; Rimm-Kaufman & Hamre, 2010 ). Empathy is one component of teachers’ social-emotional characteristics that appears particularly relevant for the quality of teacher-student interactions from a theoretical perspective. First, empathy is considered as the origin of human’s prosocial behavior (Preston & de Waal, 2002 ). Second, in contrast to social-emotional characteristics such as emotional self-awareness or emotion regulation, empathy explicitly refers to other people rather than to the self, more specifically, to the ability to perceive and understand students’ emotions and needs (Zins et al., 2004 ).

Because of these theoretical arguments and a recent increase in empirical studies on this topic, the goal of this article is to review prior research investigating the relationship of teachers’ empathy with the quality of teacher-student interactions and, in turn, with student outcomes (see heuristic working model in Figure 1 ). We use effective teaching here as an umbrella term to refer to both interaction quality and student outcomes. Summarizing the current level of knowledge on this topic appears particularly useful for the following reasons. First, various meanings have been attached to the term empathy, and the diversity of concepts that have been used to refer to concepts closely related to empathy (e.g., emotional intelligence, perspective taking, and emotion recognition; also see Batson, 2009 ; Olderbak & Wilhelm, 2020 ) make it difficult to oversee prior research at first glance. Second, the research field has rapidly grown throughout the last decade. Thus, to understand foci of prior research and widely neglected questions is important; for example, the review will uncover possible specific underrepresented student outcomes (e.g., cognitive vs. psychosocial). Third, researchers have applied different methodological approaches. For example, self-report scales and objective tests are available and it is debatable whether both are equally valid considering the risk of self-serving bias in questionnaires (Brackett et al., 2006 ). Against this background, it is important to summarize not only the results from prior studies but also the assessment methods they applied to inform future studies in terms of which methodological approaches are best suited to obtain valid results.

Heuristic working model on the role of teachers’ empathy in the quality of teacher-student interactions and student outcomes; paths where we expect the closest associations are in bold (also see Brackett & Katulak, 2007 ; Jennings & Greenberg, 2009 )

A General Theoretical Perspective on Empathy

Historically, two distinct lines of research have evolved around empathy (for an overview see, e.g., Baron-Cohen & Wheelwright, 2004 ; Davis, 1983 ). First, from the affective perspective , empathy describes the emotional reactions to another person’s affective experiences. According to Eisenberg and Miller ( 1987 ), this means that one experiences the same emotion as the other person. Hatfield et al. ( 1993 ) described the phenomenon of “catching” other people’s emotions as emotional contagion. Affective empathy can elicit both positive and negative emotions, and because emotions are multi-componential, the subjective feelings, thoughts, expressions, and physiological and behavioral reactions can differ depending on the type of emotion (Olderbak et al., 2014 ; Scherer, 1984 ). Empathy from the affective perspective can also mean to feel something that is appropriate but not identical with the other person’s emotion, for instance, responding with concern and sympathy to another person’s sadness (e.g., Batson et al., 2002 ).

Second, from the cognitive perspective, empathy reflects a person’s ability to understand how other people feel by taking their perspective and reading their nonverbal signals (e.g., Wispé, 1986 ). Baron-Cohen and Wheelwright ( 2004 ) pointed out that theory of mind largely converges with the cognitive definition of empathy. Furthermore, models of emotional intelligence, such as the four-branch-model (Mayer & Salovey, 1997 ), include qualities resembling empathy as defined in the cognitive perspective: the ability to perceive emotions in other people’s faces accurately and to understand emotions, that is, knowing when specific emotions are likely to arise.

In accordance with Baron-Cohen and Wheelwright ( 2004 ), we define empathy as including both affective and cognitive components (for similar approaches, also see Davis, 1983 ; Decety & Jackson, 2004 ; Preston & de Waal, 2002 ). This allows for a more comprehensive understanding of empathy and its consequences because the affective component of empathy explains why we care for other people in need and are motivated to react sensitively, whereas the cognitive component explains what enables people to know and name the feelings of others (Batson, 2009 ). Preston and de Waal ( 2002 ) also support the idea that cognitive and affective empathy are entangled and complement each other in explaining prosocial behavior. They suggest that the development of cognitive empathy promotes the “effectiveness of empathy by helping the subject to focus on the object, even in its absence, remain emotionally distinct from the object, and determine the best course of action for the object’s needs” (Preston & de Waal, 2002 , p. 20).

Considering the central role of empathy in human relationships, which has also been supported empirically (Eisenberg & Miller, 1987 ; Kardos et al., 2017 ; Mitsopoulou & Giovazolias, 2015 ; Sened et al., 2017 ; Vachon et al., 2014 ), its importance in social occupations has been recognized for a long time. For instance, Rogers ( 1959 ) proposed that the therapists’ ability to accurately perceive their clients’ point of view will facilitate the therapeutic process and, in turn, produce change in personality and behavior. In line with this assumption, studies with psychotherapists and also with physicians showed that their empathy predicted their patients’ satisfaction and clinical outcomes (Elliott et al., 2018 ; Hojat et al., 2011 ). Like psychotherapists or physicians and their clients, teachers are in close interpersonal contact with their students. Hence, it seems plausible to assume a central role of empathy in their professional lives as well.

The Role of Teacher Empathy

Caring for students and establishing positive teacher-student relationships are a central part of teachers’ professional roles (Butler, 2012 ; O’Connor, 2008 ; Watt et al., 2021 ). Furthermore, providing high levels of emotional support as indicated by a positive emotional tone in the classroom, sensitive responses to students’ emotional, social, and academic needs, and consideration of their interests is one aspect of high-quality classrooms (Pianta & Hamre, 2009 ). To achieve this, the ability to read students’ (non-)verbal signals—in others words: empathy—is vital (Pianta, 1999 ). For instance, teachers’ cognitive empathy will help them better identify from a student’s facial expressions if he or she is sad about a bad grade, angry about an argument with friends, or bored with specific learning activities. Empathic teachers will know that students may feel anxious when confronted with challenging tasks or embarrassed and frustrated when repeatedly unable to answer the teacher’s questions. Having recognized negative affective states in their students, teachers’ affective empathy should motivate them to react sensitively to their students’ emotional needs, provide comfort, and encouragement (Batson, 2009 ; Weisz et al., 2020 ). The prosocial classroom model (Jennings & Greenberg, 2009 ) also integrates these ideas and further states that teachers’ social-emotional competence, of which empathy is one part, should facilitate classroom management.

Effective classroom management means that teachers establish rules and order, apply appropriate strategies to prevent student behavior problems, and maximize time on task (Emmer & Stough, 2001 ). The ability to understand reasons for classroom disturbances could facilitate behavior management. For example, noticing students’ boredom could initiate teachers to choose a different instructional approach before students start off-task activities (Nett et al., 2010 ). Furthermore, taking the perspective of adolescents, teachers will be able to recognize their need for autonomy, which would collide with a controlling classroom management strategy (Aelterman et al., 2019 ; Eccles & Midgley, 1989 ). Yet, effective classroom management may be less dependent on teacher empathy than emotional support is. After all, classroom management includes several facets that go beyond empathy, for example, productive use of time and establishment of rules. For these tasks, specific classroom management knowledges is a key prerequisite (Kunter et al., 2013 ; Shulman, 1986 ).

Finally, even though not mentioned in the prosocial classroom model, teacher empathy could also play a role in instructional support, which is the third key aspect of high-quality teacher-student interaction in addition to emotional support and classroom management (Klieme et al., 2009 ; Pianta & Hamre, 2009 ). Instructional support comprises clear and engaging instruction that promotes content understanding and presents cognitive challenges. In addition, teachers scaffold learning by providing feedback and initiating content-related class discussions (Pianta et al., 2012 ). To adapt instruction to students’ learning needs and design engaging lessons, it is necessary to recognize when students struggle understanding content and which activities they find particularly interesting or boring (Bieg et al., 2017 ; Parsons et al., 2018 ). However, in addition instructional support requires high levels of (pedagogical) content knowledge so again one could assume that empathy plays a less central role than it does for emotional support (Kunter et al., 2013 ; Shulman, 1986 ).

In summary, from a theoretical perspective, a relationship between teachers’ empathy and the quality of teacher-student interactions, in particular with emotional support, appears plausible. By increasing interaction quality, empathy should also indirectly promote student development. Here, we distinguish between cognitive development, that is, outcomes related to students’ learning of subject matter, and psychosocial development, that is, motivational, emotional, and social variables. Prior research consistently shows that emotional support is positively associated with psychosocial outcomes, such as academic interest, self-concept, peer relatedness, and behavioral engagement, whereas classroom management and instructional support are most closely related to student achievement (Aldrup et al., 2018 ; Downer et al., 2014 ; Fauth et al., 2014b ; Kunter et al., 2013 ; Nie & Lau, 2009 ; Ruzek et al., 2016 ; Scherer et al., 2016 ; Wagner et al., 2016 ; Yildirim, 2012 ). Our heuristic working model in Figure 1 illustrates the hypothesized associations between teacher empathy, the quality of teacher-student interactions, and student outcomes. To test these theoretical assumptions, different methodological approaches are available, which we will explain next.

Assessment Approaches in Researching Teacher Empathy

Researchers interested in investigating teacher empathy can choose between different measurement approaches that are distinct in terms of two key dimensions: objective assessment versus self-report questionnaires and general versus profession-specific tools. On the one hand, researchers can apply objective assessments such as the Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT; Mayer et al., 2002 ). The MSCEIT comprises subtests measuring a person’s ability to perceive and understand emotions in others. For example, participants see pictures of faces and are requested to select the degree to which it expresses each of five emotions. On the other hand, several self-report questionnaires are available. One prominent scale is the Interpersonal Reactivity Index (Davis, 1980 ) including subscales on empathic concern (“I often have tender, concerned feelings for people less fortunate than me.”) and perspective taking (“I sometimes try to understand my friends better by imagining how things look from their perspective.”). Emotional intelligence questionnaires typically include subscales on empathy as well. For example, the other-emotion appraisal subscale of the Wong and Law Emotional Intelligence Scale (Wong & Law, 2002 ) assesses the ability to perceive emotions in others (“I am sensitive to the feelings and emotions of others.”).

However, it is unclear if people can validly evaluate their own empathy and especially regarding the cognitive component, which consists of knowledge and skills, a performance-based approach seems more valid. In line with these concerns, Ickes ( 2001 ) concluded that performance-based measures of empathic accuracy predict performance in social situations whereas self-report measures do not. Likewise, Brackett et al. ( 2006 ) found no association between undergraduate students’ self-reported emotional intelligence and the extent to which others perceived them as friendly and socially engaged but using an emotional intelligence test yielded statistically significant associations. Self-serving bias could be one issue reducing the validity of people’s self-reported empathy. For teachers, in particular, exaggerating their empathy appears likely because establishing close, caring connections with students is an important aspect of their professional identities (O’Connor, 2008 ; Wubbels et al., 1993 ). Finally, the use of self-report questionnaires not only poses the risk of reduced correlations due to validity issues but also of inflated correlations due to common method bias when participants report on their empathy and the dependent variables at the same time (Podsakoff et al., 2003 ). Thus, whether researchers use an objective empathy assessment or a self-report questionnaire can largely affect the results and the degree to which the findings allow for valid conclusion.

In addition, researchers in teacher empathy have to decide on the context-specificity of their instrument. On the one hand, they can use one of the tools described above that were designed for use in the general population. On the other hand, they can choose profession-specific instruments asking teachers about their empathy for students. A profession-specific assessment has several advantages. Generally, performance in specific contexts is best predicted by variables that refer to the same context (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1977 ; Weinert, 2001 ). Furthermore, in contrast to day-to-day interactions with other social partners, teacher-student interactions are unique and characterized by an asymmetric nature (Pianta, 1999 ). Teachers and students differ substantially in terms of their knowledge and experiences and this lack of similarity may impede empathy (Preston & de Waal, 2002 ). Accordingly, teachers likely require profession-specific knowledge about their students’ developmental needs and concerns to facilitate empathy (Eccles & Midgley, 1989 ; Voss et al., 2011 ).

Present Study

The present study provides a systematic review of prior empirical research on the role of teachers’ empathy in effective teaching, which comprises the quality of teacher-student interactions and student development. The relevance of teachers’ empathy and related qualities has been highlighted from a theoretical perspective for over a decade (e.g., Brackett & Katulak, 2007 ; Jennings & Greenberg, 2009 ; Rimm-Kaufman & Hamre, 2010 ). Therefore, our goal was to gather what we have learned so far and whether the empirical evidence is in line with the theoretical claim that teacher empathy is positively associated with effective teaching. Furthermore, we aimed to identify questions that have remained unanswered to date in prior research on the association between teacher empathy and the quality of teacher-student interactions and student outcomes. For instance, reviewing the literature enabled us to carve out consequences of empathy that have been underrepresented in prior research (e.g., specific domains of teacher-student interaction quality or specific student outcomes) or methodological challenges that still need to be solved for ensuring the validity of results. From our perspective, this is an important step to research that can eventually support teachers, teacher educators, school psychologists, principals, and other stakeholders in the education system in evaluating the benefits of promoting teacher empathy.

The heuristic working model (Fig. 1 ), which is largely based on the prosocial classroom model (Jennings & Greenberg, 2009 ), illustrates the hypothesized role of teachers’ empathy in the quality of teacher-student interactions and student outcomes. As outlined above, we expected to find a positive relationship between teachers’ empathy and the quality of teacher-student interactions, in particular, with emotional support. After all, empathy allows teachers to understand students’ perspectives, read their nonverbal signals, and react with concern to students needing help—these qualities are all indicators of emotional support (Pianta et al., 2012 ). In turn, by promoting high-quality teacher-student interactions, teachers’ empathy can be assumed to foster student development. However, because student outcomes are more distal to teachers’ empathy than teacher-student interactions are, we expected less pronounced associations. Furthermore, because we speculated that empathy plays a role especially in teachers’ emotional support and because prior research revealed more consistent association between emotional support and psychosocial rather than cognitive student outcomes (e.g., Fauth et al., 2014b ; Kunter et al., 2013 ), we hypothesized that empathy would have the weakest relationship with student achievement.

Moreover, we speculated that methodological decisions could affect the magnitude of the relationships between teachers’ empathy, the quality of teacher-student interactions, and student outcomes. Thus, our first goal was to determine which methodological approaches have been applied in the field and consider them in reviewing the results from prior work. Based on the principle of correspondence, we expected particularly close associations when a profession-specific rather than a general assessment tool was used to measure teachers’ empathy (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1977 ). In addition, we hypothesized that the reliance on self-report measures to assess empathy and its consequences leads to larger correlations because of common method bias (Podsakoff et al., 2003 ).

Literature Search

We conducted our literature search in PsycINFO and Web of Science in October 2020 without date restrictions. To identify relevant articles on teachers’ empathy we used the following search terms: empathy OR “ perspective taking” OR compassion OR “ emotion* intelligence” OR “ emotion* knowledge” OR “ emotion* awareness” OR “ emotion* understanding” OR “ emotion* accuracy” OR “ emotion* perception” OR “ emotion* detection” OR “ emotion* identification” OR “ emotion* recognition” OR “ teacher* sensitivity” . Using a broad set of search terms allowed us to capture constructs which show substantial conceptual overlap with empathy and are frequently discussed in independent strands of research using different terminology (Mayer et al., 2008 ; Olderbak & Wilhelm, 2020 ).

In PsycINFO, among others titles, abstracts, heading words, tables of contents, and key concepts were searched for the defined terms. We conducted a thesaurus search using the exp Teachers/ command to limit results to teacher samples. Furthermore, we limited our search to quantitative studies using the quantitative study.md command. In Web of Science, the defined terms were searched in titles, abstracts, and keywords. To limit results to teacher samples, we entered our central search terms in combination with teacher* / professor* / educator* / lecturer* / faculty*. We applied the NEAR/3 command, which identifies studies mentioning two terms close to one another (in our case, three words or less in between empathy and teacher synonyms) in any order. Moreover, we excluded the following publication types: meeting abstracts, reviews, book reviews, editorial material, letters, and biographical items. In both databases, we excluded studies written in a language not based on the Latin alphabet (e.g., Chinese, Hebrew). For studies not written in English, we used Google Translate to retrieve the necessary information. This yielded 533 records from PsycINFO and 474 records from Web of Science, resulting in 931 records in total after removing duplicates.

We pursued two strategies to supplement our database search and to identify relevant articles we may have missed. First, we screened the reference list of all studies identified as eligible for our synthesis after evaluating the full-text. Second, we conducted a Google Scholar search in December 2020 to find articles citing the studies we had identified as relevant. These strategies produced 134 additional records.

Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria

We included studies in our research synthesis if they met the following criteria. First, empathy had to be measured in accordance with our definition of empathy. For instance, we neither included studies measuring empathy in rather broad terms (e.g., teacher sensitivity assessed with the Classroom Assessment Scoring System; Pianta et al., 2012 ) nor did we code effects pertaining to fantasy and personal distress. Fantasy and personal distress are subscales of the frequently used Interpersonal Reactivity Index (Davis, 1980 ). However, Baron-Cohen and Wheelwright ( 2004 ) argued that these scales do not measure empathy. For example, the personal distress scale only partly refers to interpersonal situations (e.g., “In emergency situations, I feel apprehensive and ill-at-ease.”). Second, studies had to measure an outcome relevant to our article, that is, aspects of teacher-student interaction or student outcomes. Third, it was necessary to report the statistical significance of bivariate correlations or another statistic convertible to a bivariate correlation. However, we retained studies that reported that an effect was not statistically significant without providing the exact size of the effect. Fourth, results had to be based on a sample of at least ten teachers. Regular and special education teachers of all grade levels were included (i.e., preschool to tertiary education). Importantly, even though teachers demonstrate different behaviors to realize high-quality teacher-student interactions, the three overarching domains of emotional support, classroom management, and instructional support remain relevant from preschool to tertiary education, making the inclusion of a broad range of education levels possible (Langenbach & Aagaard, 1990 ; Pianta & Hamre, 2009 ; Schneider & Preckel, 2017 ). Fifth, we only retained the study that provided the most information if multiple articles were based on the same sample and variables.

Based on these criteria and as illustrated in the PRISMA diagram (Page et al., 2021 ) in Figure 2 , 768 records were excluded after pre-screening the abstracts of the 931 records obtained through database searching. Pre-screening the abstracts of the 134 records from citation searching and footnote chasing left 61 potentially relevant records. In total, we could not retrieve a full text for six records. Thus, we proceeded screening the full-texts of the remaining 160 records from database searching and 58 records from citation searching and footnote chasing for eligibility. These steps were conducted by the first author, and in addition, the second author read 25% of the records to verify the inter-rater reliability. Cohen’s κ was .81, and we agreed in 98% of the articles regarding the questions of whether none versus any of the exclusion criteria were met. Considering reasons for exclusion via the multiple search strategies jointly, twelve did not include a relevant outcome and 13 were excluded for other reasons (e.g., eight articles did not present quantitative results and one article was based on a duplicate sample). In contrast, a comparably large number of 95 articles did not include a relevant predictor. Most often, this was due to emotional intelligence instruments not including empathy-related subscales (e.g., Trait Meta-Mood Scale, Salovey et al., 1995 ; Emotional Quotient Inventory: Short Form; Bar-On, 2002 ). Similarly, we would have needed to exclude 58 articles because they assessed relevant variables but did not report bivariate correlations or other statistics to estimate the relationship of teacher empathy with the quality of teacher-student relationships and student outcomes. Most often these studies used an emotional intelligence instrument including empathy-related subscales (e.g., Trait Emotional Intelligence Qustionnaire, Petrides & Furnham, 2003 ; MSCEIT, Mayer et al., 2002 ), but the analyses were conducted based on the total emotional intelligence scores. Due to the large number of studies that were relevant for our synthesis but that did not report the necessary statistics, we decided to contact the authors and ask for the correlation coefficients if we considered the study particularly informative for our research questions (i.e., the independent or dependent variable was measured with instruments going beyond teacher self-report). We contacted 15 authors, six responded, and one was able to provide the information we requested. Thus, 57 articles were excluded because no relevant analyses were available. Finally, 31 articles remained after full-text reading and citation searching and footnote chasing yielded ten additional records.

PRISMA diagram of the literature search process

Processing of Search Results

For the final set of records, we extracted information on the authors, the year and type of publication, and the sample (i.e., sample size, teachers’ gender, age, and years of job experience, school level, and country). Regarding our independent variable, teacher empathy, we retrieved information on (1) the components of empathy (i.e., affective, cognitive, composite); (2) the instrument; (3) whether a teacher self-report questionnaire, an objective assessment, or other approaches were used; and (4) whether the instrument took a general, a profession-specific, or a situation-specific perspective. For our dependent variables, teacher-student interactions, and student outcomes, we retrieved information on (1) the components of teacher-student interaction (i.e., emotional support, classroom management, instructional support) and student outcomes (i.e., cognitive, psychosocial) and (2) whether a teacher self-report questionnaire, student questionnaires, student achievement tests, classroom observations, or other measurements were conducted. Again, the first author performed these steps and the second author coded 20% of the records to estimate the inter-rater reliability regarding the coding of the components of empathy and the outcome categories. Both assigned the same category to 89% of the predictor and outcome variables. Finally, we retrieved correlation coefficients and information on statistical significance. To answer our research questions, we primarily relied on vote-counting and determined the number of effects that were statistically significant at α < .05. However, we also wanted to give the reader an impression of the size of the effects. Thus, in the few cases where effect sizes other than correlations were reported, we converted them to allow for between-study comparisons. More specifically, we used the formulas provided by Thalheimer and Cook ( 2002 ) to convert F -statistics and t -statistics to Cohen’s d and the formulas provided by Borenstein ( 2009 ) to convert odds ratios to Cohen’s d and to convert Cohen’s d to r . In addition, we recoded the correlations between empathy and negative qualities of teacher-student interactions and maladaptive student outcomes to facilitate the interpretation of the correlation coefficients. Thus, positive correlation coefficients can now be interpreted as indicative of effects in line with our heuristic working model (Figure 1 ). Tables 1 , 2 , 3 , and 4 provide a summary of the reviewed articles organized depending on the methodological approach that was used. The data and the review protocol are available at PsychArchives (Aldrup et al., 2021 ).

In the following, we will first describe general characteristics of the records included in this article and will then provide details about the methodological approaches used. The main part of this section is dedicated to outlining results from prior research on the relationship of teacher empathy with teacher-student interactions and student outcomes. Table 5 gives a summary of the statistically significant effects and the effect sizes for each dependent variable, and Figure 3 provides an overview of the effect sizes depending on the methodological type of study and the dependent variable.

Overview of all effects depending on the methodological type of study and the dependent variables

General Study Characteristics

This research synthesis is based on 23 journal articles, 15 theses, two proceedings papers, and one book chapter, which were published between 2004 and 2020 ( Md = 2014, M = 2014, SD = 3.92).The 41 included records reported results from 42 independent samples from 12 different countries—mostly the USA ( n = 22), followed by Australia and China ( n = 4). The teacher samples comprised between 11 and 467 teachers ( M = 119.02, SD = 103.10). On average, the teachers were M = 36.12 years old and 76.8% were female. The majority of studies included only in-service teachers ( n = 35), who had M = 9.08 years of job experience on average. Most samples were composed either of only secondary school teachers ( n = 16) or a combination of secondary school, elementary school, and, in some cases, early childhood teachers ( n = 8). Each five to six samples included exclusively early childhood teachers, elementary school teachers, or educators at the tertiary level. Only 14 studies provided information on the school subject the participants taught: seven samples included teachers from different subject domains, three assessed English, two mathematics, one physical education, and one law teachers.

The majority of studies (93%) reported only cross-sectional analyses regarding the link between teacher empathy and teacher-student interactions or student outcomes. However, Franklin ( 2014 ) measured empathy at one time point but included two waves of student outcomes and Aldrup et al., ( 2020 ) used longitudinal data across three time points. We only considered the within-wave correlations to make results from these studies comparable to the majority of articles that were cross-sectional. Finally, using a randomized pre-post-control group design, Okonofua et al. ( 2016 ) investigated the effects of an empathic mindset intervention.

Aspects of Empathy and Measurement

In most samples, the focus was on the cognitive ( n = 28) as opposed to the affective component ( n = 8) of empathy. In five samples, both cognitive and affective empathy were assessed and in one sample, a composite measure was used. In terms of measurement instruments, self-report questionnaires were predominant ( n = 29 samples/studies). In the following, we will list the self-report tools that were used in more than one study. The Interpersonal Reactivity Index (Davis, 1980 ) was applied ten times followed by the Wong and Law Emotional Intelligence Scale (Wong & Law, 2002 ), which was used four times. Three other studies measured the ability to perceive emotions in others as well, but based on the Self-Rated Emotional Intelligence Scale (Brackett et al., 2006 ). Three studies used the BarOn Emotional Quotient-Inventory , which measures the ability to understand and respect other people’s feelings (Bar-On, 1997 ). In contrast to these questionnaires designed for use in the general population, only one study applied a profession-specific instrument asking teachers, for example, “I am happy for students if they enjoy happy moments” (Wu et al., 2019 ). Likewise, the Bullying Attitudes Questionnaire (Craig et al., 2000 ; Yoon, 2004 ), which was employed in seven studies, measures teachers’ self-reported empathic concern for student victims of bullying and is therefore situated in the professional context as well.

Nine studies used approaches based on objective criteria to discriminate between more and less empathic teachers rather than using teacher questionnaires. Four studies employed the MSCEIT (Mayer et al., 2002 ). Similar tests—the Amsterdam Emotion Recognition Test (van der Schalk et al., 2011 ) , the Situational Test of Emotional Understanding (MacCann & Roberts, 2008 ), and the Test of Emotional Intelligence (Śmieja et al., 2014 )—were each used in one study. Friedman ( 2014 ) pursued a slightly different strategy and applied the newly developed Teacher Emotional Intelligence Measure , which asks teachers about their likely response to a hypothetical disciplinary incident in class in an open format. A coding manual is used to determine the teacher’s ability to perceive and understand the disputant’s emotions and to identify how other students in class would feel . Zinsser et al. ( 2015 ) conducted teacher focus groups on the role of emotions in classrooms. Based on teachers’ responses to semi-structured questions, trained coders detected the teachers’ emotion knowledge, that is, their ability to recognize and understand emotions in their students. Moreover, two studies asked students to report on their teachers’ empathy (Aldrup et al.,  2020 ; Latchaw, 2017 ). Thus, like in the studies by Friedman ( 2014 ) and Zinsser et al. ( 2015 ), the focus was on teachers’ empathy in the professional context and even more specifically in the respective subject domain. Finally, one article including two samples (Okonofua et al., 2016 ) reported results from an intervention aimed to induce an empathic mindset in their teacher-student interactions. However, the intervention study did not include a treatment check so it remains unknown whether it actually changed teacher empathy.

Effects on Teacher-Student Interactions

We identified 33 studies (34 samples) investigating the role of empathy in teacher-student interactions: 28 studies measured aspects of emotional support, ten measured classroom management, and six measured instructional support. Five studies applied measures of teacher-student interaction that we could not clearly assign to one of the interaction domains.

General Teacher-Student Interaction

Three out of five studies measuring blended aspects of teacher-student interactions found statistically significant associations (57% of the investigated effects were significant and positive; see Table 5 ). Secondary school teachers who rated their own ability to perceive other’s emotions higher evaluated their teaching performance ( r = .26, p < .001) more positively (Wu et al., 2019 ). In addition, in two studies with English as a foreign language teachers at high schools and private language institutes (Ghanizadeh & Moafian, 2010 ; Khodadady, 2012 ), teachers’ self-reported empathy was linked to their students’ ratings of teacher qualification (i.e., knowledge, self-confidence, comprehensibility; r = .10, p < .01) and students’ overall ratings of instruction ( r = .26, p < .05). In contrast, Corcoran and Tormey ( 2013 ) found no, or even counterintuitive associations of teachers’ test scores in perceiving ( r = –.15, p < .01) and understanding emotions ( r = .07, p > .05) with student teachers’ practicum performance evaluations, for example, the use of appropriate pedagogic strategies and material or the quality of teacher-student relationships. Petsos and Gorizidis ( 2019 ) did not find a relationship between secondary school teachers’ self-reported perception of other’s emotions and the extent to which students felt their teacher assigned students responsibility ( r = .08, p > .05).

Emotional Support

The number of studies finding a statistically significantly positive association between teachers’ empathy and their emotional support for students ( n = 15) slightly outweighed the number of studies not supporting this link ( n = 11) or finding mixed evidence ( n = 2). Because a substantial number of studies focused on teachers’ reactions to bullying among students as one specific aspect of emotional support, we will summarize results from this line of research separately after describing the findings for emotional support.

Six studies found statistically significant positive associations with teachers’ empathy but eleven found mixed or no evidence (25% of the investigated effects were significant and positive, 73% were not significant; see Table 5 ). Abacioglu et al. ( 2020 ) revealed that primary school teachers evaluating their perspective taking more positively reported using more culturally ( r = .33, p < .01) and socially sensitive teaching practices ( r = .24, p < .01). Similarly, teachers reporting a greater ability to perceive others’ emotions considered their attention to students needs as more pronounced ( r = .24, p < .01) (Nizielski et al., 2012 ). Furthermore, the theses by Gottesman ( 2016 ) and Metaxas ( 2018 ) showed that teachers reporting more empathy were more likely to choose emotionally supportive strategies in response to a hypothetical student exhibiting challenging behavior ( r = .36 and r = .24, p < .01). In these studies, teachers from different grade levels participated spanning pre- to high school. Finally, there were two studies using not only teacher self-report questionnaires and finding a relationship between empathy and emotional support. Khodadady ( 2012 ) found that high school students perceived better rapport with their teacher ( r = .10, p < .01) and greater teacher fairness ( r = .11, p < .01) when teachers reported greater empathy. Moreover, secondary school students reported more positive teacher-student relationships if their teacher attained higher test scores in perceiving ( r = .50, p = .02) and understanding emotions ( r = .45, p = .04) (Barłożek, 2015 ). However, neither Khodadady ( 2012 ) nor Barłożek ( 2015 ) accounted for the nesting of students in classrooms, which is associated with a higher risk of false positive findings (Snijders & Bosker, 2012 ).

Notably, eleven other studies that were not exclusively using teacher self-report questionnaires provided evidence that was less clear. Hu et al. ( 2018 ) assessed preschool teachers’ self-evaluations of their ability to perceive other’s emotions and asked both teachers and external observers to evaluate the quality of emotional support. Emotional perception was statistically significantly related only to teachers’ self-reported emotional support ( r = .31, p < .001). Swartz and McElwain ( 2012 ) asked pre-service early childhood teachers about their perspective taking and observed their responses to children’s emotional displays. Teachers’ perspective taking was unrelated to their strategies when dealing with positive emotions, but when children displayed anger or sadness, empathic teachers were more likely to show supportive ( r = .52, p < .01) rather than non-supportive behavior ( r = –.44, p < .05). Friedman ( 2014 ) also conducted classroom observations to assess the quality of emotional support. Middle and high school teachers with higher scores in a newly developed emotional intelligence test regarding their awareness, perception, and understanding of students’ emotions did not establish a more positive climate and did not show more sensitivity or regard for students’ perspectives. In addition, preschool teachers demonstrating superior emotion knowledge in a focus group were not observed to show more emotional support in the study by Zinsser et al. ( 2015 ). In a similar vein, Heckathorn ( 2013 ) did not find a statistically significant positive and even one negative correlation between teachers’ perception and understanding of emotions as assessed with the MSCEIT (Mayer et al., 2002 ) and the degree to that nontraditional evening graduate adult master’s level students perceived affiliation among learners, opportunities to influence lessons, and teacher support in terms of sensitivity and encouragement. Furthermore, high school teachers’ tests scores in emotion understanding were unrelated to their self-reported quality of teacher-student relationships (O’Shea, 2019 ) and participation in an empathic mindset intervention did not make middle school students feel more respected by their teacher—however, the intervention had an effect for students with a history of suspension (Okonofua et al., 2016 ). In the thesis by Fults ( 2019 ), there was no association between middle school teachers’ self-reported empathy and students’ perception of proximity and Wen ( 2020 ) did not establish a link between college teachers’ self-reported ability to recognize other people’s emotions and student-reported receptivity and liking of the teacher. Likewise, Petsos and Gorizidis ( 2019 ) found no statistically significant correlation between junior high school teachers’ self-reported emotion perception of others and students’ perceptions of their teachers’ helpful and friendly behavior and their understanding of students as opposed to displaying dissatisfaction and admonishing students. Finally, middle school teachers reporting greater empathy with victims of bullying or general perspective taking and empathic concern were not more likely to perceive their teacher-student relationship as close and free of conflict (Hammel, 2013 ; only empathic concern and closeness: r = .27, p < .05). To summarize, teachers who perceived themselves as empathic reported providing more emotional support. However, this impression was rarely evident in students’ and observers’ perspectives. Furthermore, higher test scores in empathy were unrelated to the quality of emotional support.

Likelihood to Intervene in Bullying

Nine of the twelve studies in this strand of research found an effect (62% of the investigated effects were significant and positive; see Table 5 ). Seven studies, including teachers from preschool to the secondary school level, found that teachers feeling empathic concern for a hypothetical student who was a victim of bullying reported a greater likelihood of intervening in the bullying situation (Byers et al., 2011 ; Dedousis-Wallace & Shute, 2009 ; Hines, 2013 ; Huang et al., 2018 ; Sokol et al., 2016 ; VanZoeren, 2015 ; Yoon, 2004 ). In these studies, the effect sizes were moderate to large (all r s > .30; see Figure 3 ). Likewise, teachers’ self-reported general empathic concern, perspective taking, and tendency to experience the feelings of others were positively associated with their likelihood to intervene in bullying from early childhood to college education (Dedousis-Wallace & Shute, 2009 ; Fifield, 2011 ; Huang et al., 2018 ; Singh, 2014 ). One exception of this pattern was the thesis by Hammel ( 2013 ). Only when the hypothetical student was the victim of social exclusion, but not when students became victims of gossip or when friends threatened to end a relationship, was there a statistically significant correlation between middle school teachers’ empathy with the victim and their likelihood to intervene. Moreover, teachers’ general empathic concern and perspective taking were not statistically significantly related with the likelihood to intervene. Similarly, Garner et al. ( 2013 ) did not find a relationship between prospective teachers’ self-reported cognitive empathy and their likelihood to intervene in bullying scenarios. Finally, when pre-service elementary and secondary teachers did not indicate their likelihood to intervene in bullying via self-report, but when they were asked in an open-format with researchers coding their responses, there was less evidence of a relationship between teachers’ self-reported empathic concern and perspective taking with their responses to bullying (Tettegah, 2007 ; 3 of 12 statistically significant effects).

Classroom Management

In seven of ten studies spanning early childhood to tertiary education, there was no statistically significant relationship between teachers’ empathy and classroom management (Abacioglu et al., 2019 ; Friedman, 2014 ; Fults, 2019 ; Gottesman, 2016 ; Hall, 2009 ; Heckathorn, 2013 ; Petsos & Gorizidis, 2019 ). As Table 5 shows, 83% of the investigated effects were not statistically significant. Except for Gottesman ( 2016 ), these studies used other than teacher self-report measures for either empathy or classroom management. In line with the trend to find an association especially when both predictor and outcome are measured via teacher self-report, Hu et al. ( 2018 ) found no association between preschool teachers’ self-reported emotional perception and observer ratings of their classroom management ( r = .03, p > .05), but they did find a link with teachers’ own perceptions of their classroom management ( r = .38, p < .001). However, two studies revealed a positive association between empathy and classroom management. In her thesis, Metaxas ( 2018 ) showed that primary and secondary school teachers reporting being more empathic were less likely to choose punitive behavior ( r = −.22, p < .01) in response to a hypothetical challenging student. Relatedly, Okonofua et al. ( 2016 ) revealed that middle school teachers participating in an empathic mindset intervention were more likely to consider empathic disciplinary strategies ( r = .40, p < .01) rather than punitive approaches ( r = −.41, p < .01). However, these results are again based on teachers’ evaluations of hypothetical scenarios.

Instructional Support

In three of six studies, all relying not only on teacher self-report questionnaires, there was no evidence (85% of the investigated effects were not significant; see Table 5 ) for a relationship between teachers’ empathy and the levels of instructional support they provide for students in secondary school or for college students (Friedman, 2014 ; Hall, 2009 ; Wen, 2020 ). Even though Heckathorn ( 2013 ) found that adults in an evening master’s program rated those teachers who obtained higher test scores in perceiving emotions as providing more organized and clear instruction ( r = .26, p < .01), there was no statistically significant correlation with understanding emotions. Moreover, neither perceiving nor understanding emotions were associated with personal goal attainment defined as the degree to which the teacher attended to students’ individual learning needs and interests. Notably, these results are based on only N = 11 teachers. Again, Hu et al. ( 2018 ) found a link between preschool teachers’ self-reported emotional perception with their self-reported quality of instructional support ( r = .36, p < .001), but not with observers’ ratings of instructional support ( r = −.03, p > .05). Khodadady ( 2012 ) obtained a small, but statistically significant positive relationship between high school teachers’ self-reported empathy and student-reported facilitation ( r = .05, p < .05). However, the nesting of students within classes was not considered in the analyses so caution is warranted in interpreting this finding.

Effects on Student Outcomes

We identified twelve studies investigating the role of empathy in student outcomes: four studies measured cognitive student outcomes and ten measured psychosocial student outcomes including, for example, student engagement, conduct problems, or prosocial behavior.

Cognitive Student Outcomes

Two of four studies, which assessed teacher empathy via student report and a test instrument, provided less support (64% of the investigated effects were not significant; see Table 5 ) for the role of secondary school teacher empathy in students’ cognitive outcomes in terms of achievement test scores, grades, and students’ self-reported abilities in mathematics (Aldrup et al.,  2020 ; Curci et al., 2014 ). Franklin ( 2014 ) found a positive relationship between elementary school teachers’ self-reported empathic concern and students’ reading ( r = .17, p < .05), but not mathematics achievement growth ( r = .00, p > .05). Latchaw ( 2017 ) revealed that college students rating their teachers’ awareness of others’ emotions higher expected a better end-of-course grade ( r = .22, p < .01).

Psychosocial Student Outcomes

Seven of ten studies found little evidence of a relationship between teacher empathy and students’ psychosocial outcomes (72% of the investigated effects were not significant; see Table 5 ). More specifically, preschool teachers who reported a greater ability in perceiving the emotions of others neither noticed more social skills nor fewer peer problems, general anxiety, emotional problems, aggressiveness, conduct problems, or hyperactivity among their students (Poulou, 2017 ; Poulou et al., 2018 ). Contrary to expectations, students even reported more frequent bullying in middle schools employing teachers who rated their empathic concern and perspective taking higher (Underwood, 2010 ). Moreover, teachers at integrated schools who perceived themselves as more empathic did not rate their students as showing less misconduct in class (Nizielski et al., 2012 ) and students did not indicate greater receptivity and involvement in these teachers’ courses (Wen, 2020 ). Likewise, in two small studies ( N ≤ 12) with teachers at a junior high school and in an adult evening master’s program, respectively, there was no association between teachers’ ability to perceive and understand emotions as measured with the MSCEIT (Mayer et al., 2002 ) and student-reported involvement in class (Heckathorn, 2013 ), their scholastic self-esteem, metacognitive beliefs, and goal setting (Curci et al., 2014 ; one of 14 correlations was statistically significant, but all rs  < .12).

In contrast, Aldrup et al., ( 2020 ) showed that secondary school students who perceived their mathematics teacher as more sensitive reported lower mathematics anxiety and were appraised as less anxious by their parents (−.18 ≤ r ≤ −.07). Okonofua et al. ( 2016 ) found that middle school students’ suspension rates were statistically significantly lower among teachers who had participated in an empathic mindset intervention ( r = –.10, p < .001). Furthermore, Polat and Ulusoy-Oztan ( 2009 ) showed that primary school students rated their emotional intelligence higher when their teachers evaluated their own ability to perceive other people’s emotions more positively ( r = .30, p < .01).

Empathy is considered one factor determining prosocial behavior among all humans (Preston & de Waal, 2002 ) and argued to be relevant for teachers’ professional effectiveness given the high social and emotional demands inherent to daily interactions with students (Brackett & Katulak, 2007 ; Jennings & Greenberg, 2009 ). Against this background, we aimed to review the empirical evidence for these theoretical assumptions and identified 41 journal articles, theses, chapters, and conference papers providing insights to the role of teacher empathy in the quality of teacher-student interactions and student outcomes. To date, most research has accumulated on the relationship between teachers’ empathy and their emotional support for students, whereas we know much less about other domains of teacher-student interactions and student outcomes. Overall, there was limited evidence for a statistically significant positive association between empathy and any of the dependent variables considered in this research synthesis. The exception were studies relying exclusively on teacher self-report for assessing empathy and their own (likely) behavior in terms of quality of teacher-student interactions (e.g., Abacioglu et al., 2020 ). In this regard, the most consistent finding was that teachers reporting greater empathy for a bullied student in a hypothetical scenario indicated a greater likelihood to intervene in the situation (e.g., Sokol et al., 2016 ; Yoon, 2004 ). Even though these studies show that feeling concerned for students in specific situations makes teachers more motivated to help them, it remains unknown whether teachers would actually behave as intended in a real classroom situation and whether they would choose appropriate interventions. Thus, at first glance, these findings do not support the theoretical assumptions of an association of teacher empathy with the quality of teacher-student interactions and student outcomes.

One explanation might be that other social-emotional characteristics are more important for predicting the quality of teacher-student interactions, emotional support in particular, and student outcomes. For example, recent studies linked teachers’ mindfulness—a nonjudgmental awareness and acceptance of one’s present experiences (Brown & Ryan, 2003 )—to higher levels of emotional support for students (Jennings, 2015 ; Jennings et al., 2017 ). Furthermore, there is growing evidence regarding the importance of teacher well-being. Prior studies found a positive association between teachers’ work enthusiasm with emotional support, student motivation, and achievement, whereas the reverse was true for burnout symptoms (Arens & Morin, 2016 ; Klusmann et al., 2016 ; Keller et al., 2016 ; Kunter et al., 2013 ; Shen et al., 2015 ). However, it is also possible that researchers have not been able to discover a relationship between empathy, the quality of teacher-student interactions, and student outcomes because they have not attended to some key methodological and conceptual issues that we consider vital for obtaining valid results in future research.

Avenues for Future Research

Dealing with common method bias and the valid assessment of empathy.

The majority of studies we reviewed applied teacher self-report measures of empathy in combination with self-report measures of interaction quality and student outcomes. This poses the risk of common method bias, which can cause positively biased associations between predictor and outcome variables (Podsakoff et al., 2003 ). Therefore, research can only provide valid conclusions about the role of teacher empathy in the quality of teacher-student interactions and student outcomes if more studies combine different data sources. To achieve this, researchers in the field have pursued different strategies.

One approach is to treat common method bias by measuring the dependent variable via student questionnaires, classroom observations, or achievement tests (e.g., Hu et al., 2018 ). This approach enables researchers to investigate whether teacher empathy becomes manifest in teachers’ actions and whether others notice differences between teachers with higher versus lower empathy. Considering the perspectives of other raters except for the teacher appears particularly important because students and external observers often perceive interaction quality differently than the teachers themselves do (e.g., Fauth et al., 2014a ; Kunter & Baumert, 2006 ). In this review, ten studies combined teacher self-report measures with other sources for assessing the outcome. The evidence in these studies was mixed and some found at least partial support for the hypothesis that empathy is associated with effective teaching (Franklin, 2014 ; Ghanizadeh & Moafian, 2010 ; Khodadady, 2012 ; Polat & Ulusoy-Oztan, 2009 ; Swartz & McElwain, 2012 ) whereas others did not (Fults, 2019 ; Hu et al., 2018 ; Petsos & Gorizidis, 2019 ; Underwood, 2010 ; Wen, 2020 ).

One explanation for the heterogeneous results could lie in the comparably small sample sizes. Only two of the studies were based on more than 100 participants—a sample size that is required for detecting medium effects—and five included 50 or less. Small sample sizes reduce the statistical power to detect meaningful effects. Yet, there is also evidence that effect sizes are larger in small samples, perhaps, because they are less likely to be published when yielding insignificant results than expensive larger studies (Slavin & Smith, 2009 ). Thus, future studies should include a sufficient number of teachers to avoid these issues.

Another reason for the inconsistent findings could be the construct validity of self-report empathy measures. Caring for others is at the core of teachers’ professional identity so self-serving bias could cause teachers to describe themselves more positively in terms of their empathy level (O’Connor, 2008 ; Wubbels et al., 1993 ). Furthermore, the self-assessment of social-emotional abilities is now questioned as correlations with objective tools are rather small but objective tools appear more closely related to social behavior (Brackett & Mayer, 2003 , Brackett et al., 2006 ). Therefore, the use of tests rather than self-report questionnaires (e.g., Hall, 2009 ) could improve the measurement of empathy in future research. At the same time, this strategy provides the opportunity to avoid common method bias. However, the few studies that have pursued this strategy have mostly yielded insignificant results. Again, only two of nine studies included more than 100 participants and five drew on only 32 teachers or less. Thus, studies with appropriate power are needed to evaluate the potential of objective empathy assessments.

In addition, we expected the closest relationship between empathy and emotional support, but as evident in Figure 3 , many of the methodologically sophisticated studies included either other domains of teacher-student interaction quality or student outcomes (e.g., Corcoran & Tormey, 2013 ; Hall, 2009 ). Thus, it was less likely to find pronounced effects in these studies from a conceptual point of view.

Finally, except for Friedman ( 2014 ), previous work with objective assessments has relied on tools that appear rather distant from teachers’ daily work with students. For example, in one subtest of the frequently used MSCEIT (Mayer et al., 2002 ), participants see images of landscapes and artwork and evaluate the degree to which the pictures express certain emotions. Consequently, it appears necessary to use measurement instruments more closely aligned with teachers’ professional tasks.

A Profession-Specific Perspective on Teacher Empathy

As the findings from our review showed, studies investigating the relationship between empathy with victims of bullying and the likelihood to intervene yielded the most robust and substantial correlations. In addition to the fact that both were assessed from the teacher perspective, one explanation for the close association could be that independent and dependent variable refer to the same situation. Another finding supporting the value of a profession-specific approach is that among the few studies of this kind, which either asked students about their teachers’ sensitivity for their emotions or intervened in teachers’ empathy with students (Aldrup et al., 2020 ; Okonofua et al., 2016 ), found statistically significant associations with interaction quality and student outcomes. However, only a few researchers have adapted and developed empathy questionnaires and tests that explicitly ask teachers to refer to the professional context; hence, more instruments of this kind are needed (Friedman, 2014 ; Wu et al., 2019 ; Zinsser et al., 2015 ). To go beyond paper-pencil formats and for a realistic assessment of cognitive empathy, the dyadic interaction paradigm (Ickes, 2001 ), which is frequently applied in empathic accuracy research, could serve as a guideline. Here, a dyad’s interaction is videotaped and each participant individually writes down their thoughts and feelings during specific episodes. Then, the partner’s task is to indicate what their counterpart experienced. In researching teachers’ empathy, one could videotape teacher-student interactions. Furthermore, teachers’ affective empathy has been only assessed via questionnaires thus far, which appears reasonable because it reflects a person’s subjective experiences. Nonetheless, one could also consider using teachers’ facial expressions in response to students’ emotions as an indicator of their affective empathy (e.g., Marx et al., 2019 ).

Moreover, in developing profession-specific instruments, considering different levels of specificity would allow us to gain additional insights about the degree to which teacher empathy is context-dependent. One option would be a situation-specific assessment as was done in bullying research (e.g., Yoon, 2004 ). Likewise, Friedman ( 2014 ) developed a tool for measuring teachers’ ability to perceive and understand students’ emotions during a hypothetical disciplinary incident in class. Another option would be a class-specific assessment. At the secondary school level in particular, teachers see different groups of students each day and it may be easier for them to empathize with some than with others, for example, depending on the students’ age or the number of lessons they see each other per week. Furthermore, Frenzel et al. ( 2015 ) showed that teachers’ emotions largely depend on the class they teach. Being in a class that elicits enjoyment rather than anger or anxiety could facilitate cognitive empathy because positive emotions promote cognitive processes (e.g., broaden-and-build theory, Fredrickson, 2001 ). Of course, one could think of several other relevant specific situations such as empathy with students struggling with content or with students from specific backgrounds who are at risk of adverse developmental trajectories. For example, Warren ( 2015 ) developed a scale measuring teacher empathy for African American males.

Importantly, when using situation- or class-specific assessments, we suggest aligning the specificity of the empathy measure and the dependent variable of interest. We will give an example to illustrate this point: The instrument developed by Friedman ( 2014 ) measures empathy in a very specific situation, but does not tell us about the teachers’ ability to recognize their students’ emotions and take their perspectives in other contexts. Hence, finding an association with dependent variables closely connected to the specific situation of the empathy measure is most likely, whereas a relationship with broader variables appears less probable. Finding no relationship between Friedman’s ( 2014 ) measure of empathy and classroom observations of teacher-student interactions is in line with this idea. Inversely, this means that one should refrain from using situation- or class-specific instruments when the research interest is in explaining teaching effectiveness more broadly.

Interplay with Other Teacher Characteristics and Students’ Prerequisites

In addition to methodological challenges, our unexpected finding could be because teacher empathy alone is not sufficient to achieve high-quality teacher-student interactions and positive student outcomes. First, a hierarchical organization of social-emotional competence is hypothesized with empathy being a precursor of more advanced abilities such as emotion and relationship management (Joseph & Newman, 2010 ; Mayer & Salovey, 1997 ). From this perspective, it can be argued that teacher empathy can only be effective in combination with knowledge and skills about effective behavior in social situations. In line with this, Aldrup, Carstensen et al. ( 2020 ) showed that teachers with greater knowledge about relationship management reported providing more emotional support and perceived their relationships with students more positively.

Second, it is possible that teacher empathy only shows when teachers are motivated to act accordingly. In other words, they may not always display their full empathic potential. Considering the finding that teachers’ emotions largely depend on the group of students they teach (Frenzel et al., 2015 ), one could speculate that teachers will be more motivated to demonstrate empathic behavior in a class they like, making a class-specific assessment of empathy particularly interesting in this line of research. Further aspects, such as emotional stability, pro-sociality, or self-efficacy, have been suggested as relevant determinants of the degree to which people perform empathic behavior (Cavell, 1990 ; DuBois & Felner, 2003 ; Rose-Krasnor, 1997 ). Furthermore, teacher empathy may interact with their well-being such that burnout and the lack of emotional resources impair teachers’ empathy (Trauernicht et al., 2021 ). Likewise, other teacher characteristics may mask their empathy. For instance, the belief that strict discipline is needed because children are naturally rebellious and lazy could lead teacher to suppress empathic tendencies (c.f., Rimm-Kaufman et al., 2006 ).

Third, empathy may not always be beneficial as is evident in the phenomenon of compassion fatigue. Compassion fatigue denotes a loss of interest in empathizing with others and a lack of energy, which can result from self-giving work with people who are in pressing need for help (Adams et al., 2006 ; Knobloch Coetzee & Klopper, 2010 ). In other words, excessive empathy puts people at risk of suffering themselves. For example, teachers with greater empathy for victims of bullying also feel angrier and sadder when witnessing bullying incidents (Sokol et al., 2016 ). To alleviate negative feelings and protect one’s emotional resources, teachers may eventually distance themselves from their students (for a similar line of reasoning, also see Maslach et al., 2001 ). In line with this, prior research showed that people who feel distressed by seeing other people suffering avoid the situation or even show aggressive reactions (Eisenberg & Fabes, 1990 ). Hence, both low and extremely high levels of teacher empathy might be problematic potentially causing a nonlinear relationship with the quality of teacher-student interactions and student outcomes. Considering this, teachers may only benefit from extremely high levels of empathy if they are able to distance themselves from the emotional demands of their work. Potentially interesting moderators of the empathy-outcome relationship include emotion regulation and mindfulness. Prior research shows that they reduce negative emotions so they could be a protective resource for highly empathic teachers (Klingbeil & Renshaw, 2018 ; Lee et al., 2016 ).

In addition to investigating the interplay between empathy and other social-emotional teacher characteristics, we suggest considering whether students’ prerequisite moderate the role of empathy in the quality of teacher-student interactions and student outcomes. For example, prior research shows that teachers play a more prominent role in the development of students at risk of adverse educational trajectories (Hamre & Pianta, 2005 ; Klusmann et al., 2016 ). Hence, teacher empathy might be particularly relevant for students with a low socioeconomic status or with cognitive or social-emotional difficulties. Another important aspect might be students’ age. On the one hand, one could assume that teacher empathy is particularly relevant for young students, for example, because they are still more dependent on adult support to regulate their emotions (Calkins & Hill, 2009 ). On the other hand, student disengagement represents a particular challenge during adolescence and teachers often struggle to meet adolescents’ developmental needs (Eccles & Midgley, 1989 ; Wang & Eccles, 2012 ). Thus, teachers who consider adolescents’ perspectives and care for their feelings might be particularly important during this phase. In line with this assumption, meta-analytic evidence shows that the association between the teacher-student relationship and student engagement and achievement gets closer for older students (Roorda et al., 2017 ).

Limitations

In this article, we aimed to provide the first comprehensive overview of prior research on the relationship between teacher empathy, teacher-student interactions, and student outcomes. Therefore, we included studies from different lines of research that diverge in their operationalization of empathy. For example and as outlined in the Results section, even though both the Interpersonal Reactivity Index (Davis, 1980 ) and the MSCEIT (Mayer et al., 2002 ) were designed to measure whether one is able to consider other’s perspectives, the types of questions/tasks differ substantially. Thus, it is unclear whether all studies actually measured the same underlying construct. A similar problem applies to our dependent variables where there was large heterogeneity in terms of the instruments.

Furthermore, we decided to consider theses, proceedings papers, and book chapters in addition to studies from peer-reviewed journals. Almost half of the studies were not from journal articles. Thus, our approach allowed for a more exhaustive overview of the field and helped to reduce the risk of publication bias. The large number of studies with insignificant results let us conclude that our strategy for reducing publication bias was successful. However, it may have reduced the quality of the included studies. Even though follow-up analyses revealed no differences between the publication types in terms of sample size or the avoidance of common method bias, we cannot rule out other potential limitations such as lower quality of data collection, preparation, and analyses in studies from sources other than journals.

In addition, a large number of studies assessed constructs relevant for our review without reporting correlation analyses. Due to our concerns about the reliance on teacher self-report measures for assessing the independent and dependent variables, we decided to contact the authors only when they had pursued a different methodological approach. Because studies that included only teacher questionnaires typically found closer associations, we should note that our decision might have reduced the number of statistically significant results.

Finally, a meta-analytical analysis would have been ideal to investigate the extent to which methodological study characteristics moderate the size of effects (Borenstein, 2009 ). Nonetheless, we decided against this approach as we identified only a relatively small number of relevant studies for most dependent variables. In addition, we had the impression that computing an overall effect size was not appropriate because of the huge heterogeneity in the research field. The different methodological approaches are not equally valid for assessing empathy and sophisticated studies typically included small samples reducing their weight in meta-analyses.

Theoretical models (e.g., Jennings & Greenberg, 2009 ) emphasize the relevance of teachers’ empathy for high-quality teacher-student interactions and positive student outcomes, but to date, only limited evidence supports this claim. Nonetheless, rather than abandoning the idea that teacher empathy is a relevant construct, we call for methodologically sophisticated studies that go beyond teacher self-report and allow for robust conclusions. Perhaps, we would otherwise overlook an important social-emotional teacher characteristic, where there is an urgent need for action given that teachers frequently struggle to recognize student emotions (Karing et al., 2013 ; Spinath, 2005 ).

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Aldrup, K., Carstensen, B. & Klusmann, U. Is Empathy the Key to Effective Teaching? A Systematic Review of Its Association with Teacher-Student Interactions and Student Outcomes. Educ Psychol Rev 34 , 1177–1216 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-021-09649-y

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How To Lead With Empathy

Six ways to build a school culture that prioritizes understanding the experiences and perspectives of others.

Empathetic leadership, born from an authentic understanding of teachers’ needs, is an essential component of expert school leadership. It’s a mindset that principals and teachers say should inform decision-making and help establish a schoolwide culture of purpose and respect.

When Darcy Bakkegard’s assistant principal delivered especially insightful feedback during a mid-year class evaluation, “it was a transformative moment. I had no idea I was especially good at something as a teacher,” Bakkegard recalls . “She not only forced me to reflect on what I had done, but also helped me become even more strategic about what I’d always done on instinct. She helped me to believe in myself as an educator.”

At the Friends School of Baltimore, principal Steve McManus hones his empathy skills by teaching one class each semester, writes Elizabeth Heubeck in an article for Education Week . It’s a practice that, while tough to fit into his administrative schedule, allows McManus to keep his “practical teaching skills sharp,” connect with students, and “build trusting and empathetic relationships with teaching staff,” Heubeck writes. It’s also a rich source of information for the leadership decisions McManus makes throughout the school year.

For many principals, of course, taking on a class each year may not work but you might consider teaching a class every few years. Meanwhile, there are other ways to build the skills of empathetic leadership. We scoured the Edutopia archives and found an inspiring set of ideas.

1. Increase Your Visibility: As an administrator, simply making yourself more visible introduces spontaneous opportunities to forge relationships in the school building. “Roaming the halls gives you a chance to be there for staff at the moment they need it,” writes educational consultant Adrienne Waller . “You will likely hear, ‘Oh yeah, I was going to ask…’ or ‘Glad I bumped into you…’ or ‘Do you have a couple of minutes?’”

Greeting staff as they enter the school building every morning, as well as periodically visiting areas where staff congregate—like the teachers’ lounge, for example—communicates that you are present and available. “Casual moments with your community are as important as scheduled time,” Waller says.

2. Schedule Listening Tours: Consider scheduling short meetings with every staff member, writes Adam Drummond for the International Center for Leadership in Education , and let them know that your goal is to better understand their needs. During the meetings, focus on listening intently, rather than speaking or offering solutions. While they can be scheduled throughout the year, Drummond, a former principal, prefers to complete the meetings in the first 90 days of the school year. “This gives you an opportunity to analyze the responses of your stakeholders, so you know what they are most proud of, and what keeps them up at night as they work toward the school’s vision and mission,” he says.

Asking each teacher the same set of questions , Drummond suggests, allows you to compare and contrast answers, find overlap, and tease out larger concerns. Questions might include “What is the most frustrating aspect of being a staff member in this school?” or “Where do you want our school to be in five years?”

3. Normalize Classroom Visits: Elementary school principal Michele Snoke uses daily classroom walk-throughs as a time to engage with students and support educators as an occasional guest co-teacher. “Ask students questions about the assignment, or jump into working with a small group,” she says. “After spending time in a classroom informally, follow up your visit with a brief note of encouragement or gratitude for the teacher.”

To keep informal check-ins feeling supportive and not evaluative , supervisor of instructional practice Ross Cooper visits classrooms empty-handed. A principal’s presence can feel daunting if “an administrator sits behind a computer (supposedly taking notes that pick apart each and every aspect of a lesson),” so he leaves his laptop and notebook in his office. Cooper also keeps track of time he spends in each classroom, ensuring that he’s spreading his attention equally among teachers throughout the school year.

4. Build a Culture of Feedback: While constructive criticism isn’t always easy to digest, providing opportunities for staff to deliver feedback—via anonymous surveys, scheduled individual conferences, or regular faculty meetings—demonstrates leaders’ willingness to listen, learn, and address conflicts as soon as they emerge.

In order for the feedback loop to be effective, it’s important to acknowledge receiving feedback—you might even discuss it as a group, says high school principal Mike Woodlock. Keep in mind that not all feedback will or should require immediate action. Be judicious and consider selecting a manageable list of high-impact changes that you can reasonably implement. “Taking action to improve your leadership based on such feedback demonstrates your confidence and validation of others’ voices,” says Woodlock.

5. Encourage and Model Wellness: To help teachers and staff manage stress during the pandemic, school leaders at Arcadia High School, outside of Los Angeles, checked in with them via an online survey focused on wellness—and then they “listened when they told us what they needed,” writes assistant principal, Michelle Lew .

As a result, the school set up a help line where school staff can dial in for “mini check-in therapy sessions.” They organized a series of 30-minute lessons on topics teachers identified in the survey as being of interest, such as mindfulness, positive psychology, and self-care strategies. And instead of telling teachers to try yoga, the school hired a local certified yoga instructor to offer staff virtual yoga classes each week, and to lead mindfulness and breathing exercises at the beginning of staff meetings.

6. Think Small: Sometimes, leading with empathy can be quite simple: when you can, offer to cover a classroom while a teacher takes a quick break, or gets a cup of coffee—small ways to offer support and acknowledge just how demanding teaching can be. “Encourage teachers to take breaks and to set boundaries—and do so yourself as well,” says Katy Farber, a professional development coordinator . “Consider who on your staff might be experiencing significant stressors, and make it clear to them that you value their wellness and would like to help them develop a strategy to cope.” 

Building Empathy in Classrooms and Schools

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Empathy is a complex concept and a difficult skill. It’s time for educators to recognize the strength it takes to create, balance, and sustain an empathic mindset in a culture that doesn’t always value it.

Empathy in education is often deemed a “soft skill.” Sometimes we equate empathy to coddling, weakness, or even label it as a gender-specific trait. It is none of these things. We’re neither born with it, predisposed to it, or incapable of it. Empathy doesn’t happen because we do a few icebreakers in the beginning of the school year.

As educators, many of us begin each school year by celebrating individuals’ uniqueness, striving to understand differences, and setting goals for embracing the cultures of all learners. Then, the academic rush starts. Lesson plans are due. Grades pile up. Parent conferences begin. Student behavior disrupts our lessons and strains our patience. IEP, PLC, and faculty meetings fill our calendars.

With a full plate every day, what do we often dismiss first? Empathy—for our students, our colleagues, and ourselves. But without empathy, we cannot understand the diverse students and communities we serve. That lack of understanding may limit our focus to generalizations and assumptions. A mindset without intentional empathy narrows focus, and prevents us from accurately identifying the barriers to learning for our students. In turn, students come to be viewed as academic producers rather than social-emotional beings.

Content knowledge and concrete skills can be assessed with answer keys and rubrics, yet empathy can be difficult to measure. Despite all of this, empathy should and must remain a priority in our classrooms and in our schools, even if additional programs and initiatives are secondary or eliminated.

So what does empathy in a classroom look like? And how can teachers cultivate it? Here are some ideas.

Modeling Empathy: It’s Difficult, But Essential

Teachers’ own behaviors and actions are the culture and the climate control in the room once the bell rings. This means if we treat students as respected co-learners, we are modeling our belief about how all people should be treated. If, or when, that modeling is not reciprocated by a student, that’s a second opportunity for us to model and reaffirm a positive, empathic response for all students. The more often we remain consistent in our pro-actions and reactions, the more times we are reaffirming to our students ‘this is who I am.’ This creates the accepting atmosphere that embraces all our learners, regardless of the baggage they (or we) bring in each day.

When a student seems upset, teachers should take the time, no matter how inconvenient, to demonstrate empathy by making eye contact, taking the student aside to speak privately, and maintaining respect in words and actions during conversation. In working with a student who is in an emotional state, we should remember that as adults, we usually have the coping mechanisms and experience to recognize and handle these emotions. Students may not, and we cannot expect that from them unless we expressly teach them these strategies.

Sustaining this mindset can be difficult. Teachers pour hours into creative lessons and activities; it is hard to not take it personally when a student behaves rudely or disrupts a lesson or activity. However, educators’ empathic responses need to be as intentional as lesson-planning time, not as impulsive as student behavior. When a student is upset, disengaged, or reactive, we as teachers should remember that he or she may now be battling a similar internal strife as we once endured as younger students. The response we would have wanted when we were in this emotional place is the same one we should embody to students.

That response will look different depending on student age, student-teacher comfort level, specific knowledge of student need, and the level and type of disruption. However, in every case, an empathic response does NOT seek to embarrass, belittle, or punish the student. Instead, an empathic response seeks to protect the learning environment at all times for all students, and address the disruption with attention to the context and the emotions of individual students.

Owning our mistakes publicly, especially the more educationally embarrassing ones, demonstrates to students that it’s OK for them to take risks, too. When we call attention to, or are corrected by a student for a spelling mistake or other careless error, how we respond sets the tone for the empathic culture we’re trying to create. Defusing with humor and humility reminds students that empathy also means accepting yourself, flaws and all.

Putting Empathy in the Curriculum

Take a poll in your classroom tomorrow: How many students can define “empathy?” How many can provide an example of empathy? You may be surprised by the lack of knowledge students have about empathy as an idea, a skill, or a mindset. If educators believe empathy is important, we need to find ways to explicitly discuss it with students. In the pressure-cooker of curriculum maps, testing regimes, and pacing guides, adding one more thing can feel overwhelming. To diffuse that feeling, here are a few ways empathy can pair with and deepen lessons or skills teachers already teach in the classroom:

• Language Arts: Define empathy as a class. Then ask students to identify characters in stories, novels, or plays that demonstrated empathy or could be described as empathic. Compare and contrast empathic levels across characters or thematic units.
• STEM classes: Introduce the design-thinking model for approaching a problem. Ask students to identify the “user” of the problem or product. Then, ask them to empathize with that user by identifying their thoughts, feelings, values, and worries. (See this resource and this one for a start!)
• Public Speaking: Any time you require a presentation, ask students to spend time empathizing with their audience. Who are they? What interests them? Then, ask students to use their skill of empathizing with the audience as they strategize the presentation, and develop the introductory hook to connect the topic to the audience.
• Behavior Management: When introducing behavioral expectations to students at the beginning of the year, define empathy and ask students to role-play different scenarios that can occur in the classroom. Ask them to brainstorm how empathy could change or shape those hypothetical scenarios to sustain a culture of caring, respect, and significance in the classroom.

Take Action, Be Intentional

The ultimate goal is to create the atmosphere that enables teachers to meet the needs of all students. If teachers don’t take time to know students, how can we expect to reach them? If a student comes in hungry or tired from a challenging day-to-day environment, he or she may not be in the best position to succeed. How we act and react will determine whether we reach that student and their peers who may need a safe space. If teachers create that environment and personify that culture, we will reduce the empathic mindset gap that currently exists between teachers and students.

To build an empathic mindset, here are a few concrete actions every teacher can take:

• Read stories from the perspective of characters similar to your students. Ask your students to share their favorite literature, whether it aligns to the current curriculum, or not. This can remind teachers of the thoughts, perspectives, and worries influencing students every day. Middle and high school teachers: Read Young Adult literature. Elementary teachers: Read the books your students love from the classroom library. Be intentional about choosing diverse literature that reflects the diversity of your classroom.
• Follow a student schedule for a day. Or, if administration isn’t supportive of this, simply ask a student to list all the assignments they’ve completed before arriving in your classroom and what his or her schedule looks like after school. We must keep in mind that this applies to all students. Students in 2nd grade can be overwhelmed just as readily as high school students. Read what one adult learned when she dared to take this challenge.
• Survey students frequently. These surveys can use technology or not. Post-it notes and exit slips can be as informative as their digitized counterparts, Padlet and Google Forms. One of the most powerful questions a teacher can ask a student is this: “What’s one thing teachers should know about students?” or “What’s the most important thing I should know about you?” Either question can provide data to drive instruction with an empathic mindset. Whether we use high-tech or low-tech, other questions to survey students may include: What are your passions? What brings you anxiety in school? Whom do you admire? Teachers, keep these answers on file to reference when having a particularly trying time with students. Keep these answers private (unless the answers wander into mandated reporter territory), but reference them to help adopt a mindset of empathy for students. Here’s an example of a Google Forms survey for high school students at the beginning of the year.

Empathy Includes Our Adult Interactions

Students watch teachers constantly, and our actions can unintentionally model unempathetic behavior. An eye-roll after a fellow teacher makes a comment, or dismissing what a peer says in earshot of students models a mindset that lacks empathy. In doing so, teachers are tacitly demonstrating these behaviors as acceptable. If teachers don’t want students to make a face, roll their eyes, or respond sarcastically to a serious comment, then they must model how to respond differently when interacting with other adults.

By modeling the citizenship we want students to embody we can create the culture and climate that validates all, excludes none. This can be modeled by offering a solutions-based perspective, instead of joining in or validating complaints students have about other teachers. Ask students how they can think about the situation empathetically: “What do you think that teacher is trying to show you with that assignment? How could you approach him with a question that may provide your perspective, but also show you want to understand?”

In our educational roles, it is vitally important that we model how empathy has power to influence a variety of contexts and interactions. Investing in the well-being of both our students and our colleagues promotes a positive, empathic culture that makes classrooms and school a safe haven. If we want to make a lasting impact on our students and prepare them to for success in college, career, and citizenship, we must prioritize empathy as an essential mindset.

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5 ways to teach empathy and create 'schools of belonging'.

Providing students with the ability to understand each other’s experiences can reduce behavior problems, improve attendance, create excitement for school and learning, reduce bullying, and boost academic success

As young people grapple with higher levels of social isolation and anxiety related to the COVID-19 pandemic, parents and teachers are concerned about students’ emotional wellbeing.

According to a recent Education Week survey , 44% of students reported that their level of social anxiety had increased since the pandemic and 43% percent reported a higher level of loneliness. Fewer than half of the students who participated in the survey reported that their school provided them with enough help to do a better job with making responsible decisions, handling challenging situations well, or learning to recognize and manage emotions. Less than a third said that their school provided sufficient support to help them handle conflict and understand others’ perspectives. 

Recognizing the impact that students’ emotional health can have on their classroom experience and their ability to learn, many teachers are hoping to help their students feel more connected and find a greater sense of wellbeing. With a growing emphasis on social-emotional learning, more educators are focusing on how to teach empathy in order to create more supportive, inclusive and safe classrooms.

“There are many studies that show how critical it is to build positive relationships in a community and in the classroom,” says Patricia Crain de Galarce , Director of the Center for Inclusive and Special Education at Lesley’s Graduate School of Education. “Students who learn social and emotional skills including empathy have fewer behavior problems, better attendance, more excitement to come to school, more excitement to learn, more ability to take risks, and better test scores, if that’s your indicator.”

Using everything from music and community-building tools, there are a variety of resources and techniques educators can utilize.

1. Teach empathy as an intention.

Empathy is defined as the ability to understand or feel what another person is experiencing, thinking, or feeling. Educator David Levine ’84 describes it differently.

“Empathy is an intention,” he says. “People always think it’s walking a mile in someone else’s shoes. That's the common definition. For me, it’s an intention of being present with someone, stopping everything and absorbing where they are. And that leads to the skill of compassion, which is about listening.”

Levine is the Director of the Teaching Empathy Institute in New York’s Hudson Valley. For over 35 years, he has been working with educators and students in schools across the country to create what he calls “schools of belonging,” using music and the community-building tools he first learned during his Lesley internships and his own years as a teacher.

He recalls one of his earliest teaching experiences in Woodstock, New York, with a new classroom composed of kids who other teachers considered “difficult.”

“I had this group of fourth graders sitting in rows and they weren’t engaged, couldn't focus on the lesson. So I used what I had learned through my student teaching—I put them in a circle and I asked them ‘how do you feel about this new class?’ No one said anything. So I said, ‘Well, what’s something you like about school?’ The only thing they could think of was the pizza. I had my guitar with me and we wrote a song to the tune of ‘Good Lovin’ by the Animals, only it was ‘Good Pizza.’ Before I knew it, I had built community.”

2. Use empathy to combat bias.

Helping young children form strong emotional ties at school helps them understand that they are connected to other people, even when they’re faced with differences, according to pre-kindergarten teacher Dana Frantz Bentley , who is an Assistant Professor of Early Childhood Education at Lesley.

Kids enter school, Dr. Bentley explains, asking questions about how the world works and what their place in it might be.

“The answer is that we are all deeply connected through being human. We all have families; our families are all different. We all love to play, we like to play different things. The empathy piece, this sense of connectedness, is something that you start building at the very beginning of a school year with small things. And once you build that community, it makes space for difference.”

Bentley believes that making space for kids to engage in discussion with people who have different backgrounds or beliefs helps them engage with questions around differences and diversity later in life.

“When you’re five, it’s ‘you love spaghetti, and I hate spaghetti—how can you be my friend?’ And it really evolves, even on a pre-K level, into ‘wait—I believe in God and you say there’s no God.’ These are the things that happen at the lunch table.”

The structure of that conversation can apply to a wide range of topics, she observes.

“Sometimes we’re having conversations about gender and pronouns and sometimes it’s about whether it’s really okay to put water in the sand table.”

3. How music and literature can help you teach empathy.

How can classroom educators teach empathy?

“It can be as simple as picking the right piece of literature to read aloud to students and talking about the characters and what they might have been thinking or feeling at that moment,” says Patricia Crain de Galarce. “‘If you were the mouse in the story, how would you have felt?’ You’re just asking kids to step outside of their own experience and take in a perspective other than their own.”

During his years of consulting and working with educators, the most powerful tool David Levine found was a song called “Howard Gray,” written by musician Lee Domann . The lyrics describe Domann’s memories of a childhood classmate who was being bullied, and his own lifelong remorse at having joined in. Levine found that performing the song with a classroom of children opened up conversations like nothing else—about bullying and being bullied, about being an uneasy bystander or wanting to do better.

“The song was the magic. I would walk into a classroom and all I knew was that I was going to sing the song and let the kids drive the experience. One day I wanted to take a deeper dive and I said ‘Who’s ever felt this way? Who’s got a story to tell?’ And they all wanted to tell their story. It became a bias awareness session; it became a diversity session; it became empathy.”

4. Create a more democratic school environment.

For Dana Frantz Bentley, empathy is a crucial element in creating what she calls “a democratic classroom” where children feel empowered to engage with each other rather than rely on the teacher to set rules.

“You start with smaller things, like the sand table or who gets the double bikes on the playground,” she says. “And then over time, that practice holds the bigger issues like gender or race.”

Young children, she explains, depend upon routines to feel safe, and to feel strong and empowered in the classroom. Creating structures of critical conversation and listening is essential.

“The empathy piece is so important, because the kids can’t take risks if they don’t feel safe. We use the language ‘This is his idea, and this is your idea. He has a different idea than your idea. What do you guys think?’ But for kids to really bring that to the table to bring themselves and their ideas to the table, they have to feel safe, to be vulnerable. And that means there has to be empathy.”

5. Give students the skills to hear everyone’s story.

In a time when many people are feeling distanced, disconnected, and divided, helping students develop empathy and relationship-building skills may be more important than ever. And it leads to better learning.

“In the U.S., schooling tends to be very focused on having the right answer and moving on to the next thing. But that’s not where change happens. That’s not where innovation happens,” says Dr. Bentley. “Innovation happens in having a flexibility of thought, and a willingness to hear and be changed by what somebody else has said. And combine that with what you were thinking to make something more. We’re really working with children from the very beginning to say that the most powerful thing is to share your idea, to hear the ideas of other people, and then to come up with a new idea.”

Levine hopes to provide educators with the skills to put empathy into practice so that they and their students can see each other with a new level of understanding.

“Every one of us has a story we’re living, a life story,” he says. “We don’t know what page came yesterday, and you never know what’s coming tomorrow. But today, we can write a page together.”

Find more information and resources on teaching empathy

Student and Teacher Views of Social-Emotional Learning: Results of a National Survey , Education Week

Beyond Academic Learning: First Results from the Survey of Social and Emotional Skills , Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD)

Social And Emotional Learning (SEL) and Student Benefits , Institute of Education Sciences

Outcome Measurement of School-Based SEL Intervention Follow-Up Studies , Sage Journals

Teaching Empathy Institute

Anti-Bias Education

6 Ways Educators Can Prevent Bullying

Sending social-emotional learning home

Why Teaching Empathy in School is More Important Than Ever

Nearly everyone agrees that K-12 schools should teach math, reading, writing, history, and science. In our increasingly computer-based post-pandemic world, many educators are interested in teaching another set of skills: social-emotional learning, which starts with empathy. 

By teaching empathy , schools can help the next generation grow into caring, kind and collaborative members of their communities.

What Is Empathy?

Empathy is the ability to sense and feel other people’s emotions. It requires the willingness to imagine another person’s situation and experiences, feel distress about their pain, and act with compassion.

There are two main types of empathy: affective empathy and cognitive empathy. Affective empathy is the ability to share another’s emotions and offer help to people in need, while cognitive empathy is the ability to understand and be curious about another’s thoughts, behaviors, and situation. Both kinds of empathy can be strengthened with training and practice.

8 Reasons to Teach Empathy in K-12 Schools

1. teaching empathy helps students learn acceptance of others..

Empathy allows us to understand what other people who are different from us may be feeling. By teaching students empathy, you can encourage the next generation to understand and accept each other better.

2. Teaching empathy may reduce bullying and conflict.

When students can empathize with each other, they may be less likely to engage in bullying behaviors and more likely to resolve or avoid conflict. Students are more likely to treat each other the way they want to be treated.

3. Teaching empathy helps students learn to build stronger relationships with other students.

Empathy enables students to connect with each other even when they are experiencing different emotions and challenges. Students can comfort one another when they are sad and celebrate each other’s successes.

4. Teaching empathy helps students learn to build stronger relationships with their teachers and other adults.

Empathy doesn’t have to end with same-age peers. With empathy, students can learn to understand others’ perspectives, interact in more positive ways, and ultimately enjoy closer relationships with people of all ages.

5. Children are likely to feel more secure in an empathetic classroom.

When a classroom is full of empathetic students who treat each other well, each individual child can feel more secure. Students will know they are respected and be able to form positive relationships with their peers.

6. Empathy is an important skill for success throughout a student’s lifetime.

Empathy is a key skill for successfully working together, not only in school but also in the workplace and community. By teaching students empathy, you can help students succeed in their future educational pursuits and grow into peaceful and productive adults.

7. Empathy will help students understand others later on, including future coworkers and customers.

Today’s students will someday be adults, and they will need to deal with conflicts at work. If they can empathize with their coworkers and customers and understand their perspectives, the next generation will be able to resolve problems in ways that work for everyone.

8. Empathy will help tomorrow’s leaders be more effective in their roles.

Great leadership requires understanding everyone’s perspectives, not just your own. Empathy will enable the leaders of the future to come up with better solutions for all members of their communities and create a more peaceful, just world.

How to Teach Empathy in School

There are many ways to help your students develop empathy . Some of the most effective ways include:

• Be a living example. Kids often learn by observing the adults around them, so teachers can encourage students to practice empathy by modeling it themselves. We encourage teachers to demonstrate active listening, validate students’ feelings, and show curiosity for students’ experiences.
• Encourage students to identify characters’ emotions in literature, pictures, and films. Learning to name and understand emotions in fiction can help students better understand emotions in real life, including their own emotions. 
• Practice reflective journaling. Journaling encourages students to document their reflections, beliefs, and feelings about their experiences or the things they learn. As students develop more awareness of their own emotions and experiences, they will become better equipped to relate to others’ emotions and experiences. 
• Teach and use mindfulness techniques. Mindfulness is the practice of focusing on present-moment thoughts, feelings, sensations, and the environment around us while maintaining a kind and open attitude. Practicing mindfulness helps students develop more compassionate self-awareness and emotional regulation skills, which help a lot with practicing empathy.

For more information on how you can teach empathy and incorporate mindfulness in your classroom, sign up for our newsletter or explore our professional development trainings .  

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Essays About Empathy: Top 5 Examples Plus Prompts

If you’re writing essays about empathy, check out our essay examples and prompts to get started. 

Empathy is the ability to understand and share other people’s emotions. It is the very notion which To Kill a Mockingbird character Atticus Finch was driving at when he advised his daughter Scout to “climb inside [other people’s] skin and walk around in it.” 

Being able to feel the joy and sorrow of others and see the world from their perspective are extraordinary human capabilities that shape our social landscape. But beyond its effect on personal and professional relationships, empathy motivates kind actions that can trickle positive change across society. 

If you are writing an article about empathy, here are five insightful essay examples to inspire you: 

1. Do Art and Literature Cultivate Empathy? by Nick Haslam

2. empathy: overrated by spencer kornhaber, 3. in our pandemic era, why we must teach our children compassion by rebecca roland, 4. why empathy is a must-have business strategy by belinda parmar, 5. the evolution of empathy by frans de waal, 1. teaching empathy in the classroom., 2. how can companies nurture empathy in the workplace, 3. how can we develop empathy, 4. how do you know if someone is empathetic, 5. does empathy spark helpful behavior , 6. empathy vs. sympathy., 7. empathy as a winning strategy in sports. , 8. is there a decline in human empathy, 9. is digital media affecting human empathy, 10. your personal story of empathy..

“Exposure to literature and the sorts of movies that do not involve car chases might nurture our capacity to get inside the skins of other people. Alternatively, people who already have well-developed empathic abilities might simply find the arts more engaging…”

Haslam, a psychology professor, laid down several studies to present his thoughts and analysis on the connection between empathy and art. While one study has shown that literary fiction can help develop empathy, there’s still lacking evidence to show that more exposure to art and literature can help one be more empathetic. You can also check out these essays about character .

“Empathy doesn’t even necessarily make day-to-day life more pleasant, they contend, citing research that shows a person’s empathy level has little or no correlation with kindness or giving to charity.”

This article takes off from a talk of psychology experts on a crusade against empathy. The experts argue that empathy could be “innumerate, parochial, bigoted” as it zooms one to focus on an individual’s emotions and fail to see the larger picture. This problem with empathy can motivate aggression and wars and, as such, must be replaced with a much more innate trait among humans: compassion.

“Showing empathy can be especially hard for kids… Especially in times of stress and upset, they may retreat to focusing more on themselves — as do we adults.”

Roland encourages fellow parents to teach their kids empathy, especially amid the pandemic, where kindness is needed the most. She advises parents to seize everyday opportunities by ensuring “quality conversations” and reinforcing their kids to view situations through other people’s lenses. 

“Mental health, stress and burnout are now perceived as responsibilities of the organization. The failure to deploy empathy means less innovation, lower engagement and reduced loyalty, as well as diluting your diversity agenda.”

The spike in anxiety disorders and mental health illnesses brought by the COVID-19 pandemic has given organizations a more considerable responsibility: to listen to employees’ needs sincerely. Parmar underscores how crucial it is for a leader to take empathy as a fundamental business strategy and provides tips on how businesses can adjust to the new norm. 

“The evolution of empathy runs from shared emotions and intentions between individuals to a greater self/other distinction—that is, an “unblurring” of the lines between individuals.”

The author traces the evolutionary roots of empathy back to our primate heritage — ultimately stemming from the parental instinct common to mammals. Ultimately, the author encourages readers to conquer “tribal differences” and continue turning to their emotions and empathy when making moral decisions.

10 Interesting Writing prompts on Essays About Empathy

Check out below our list of exciting prompts to help you buckle down to your writing:

This essay discuss teaching empathy in the classroom. Is this an essential skill that we should learn in school? Research how schools cultivate children’s innate empathy and compassion. Then, based on these schools’ experiences, provide tips on how other schools can follow suit. 

An empathetic leader is said to help boost positive communication with employees, retain indispensable talent and create positive long-term outcomes. This is an interesting topic to research, and there are plenty of studies on this topic online with data that you can use in your essay. So, pick these best practices to promote workplace empathy and discuss their effectiveness.

Write down a list of deeds and activities people can take as their first steps to developing empathy. These activities can range from volunteering in their communities to reaching out to a friend in need simply. Then, explain how each of these acts can foster empathy and kindness. 

Based on studies, list the most common traits, preferences, and behaviour of an empathetic person. For example, one study has shown that empathetic people prefer non-violent movies. Expound on this list with the support of existing studies. You can support or challenge these findings in this essay for a compelling argumentative essay. Make sure to conduct your research and cite all the sources used. 

Empathy is a buzzword closely associated with being kind and helpful. However, many experts in recent years have been opining that it takes more than empathy to propel an act of kindness and that misplaced empathy can even lead to apathy. Gather what psychologists and emotional experts have been saying on this debate and input your analysis. 

Empathy and sympathy have been used synonymously, even as these words differ in meaning. Enlighten your readers on the differences and provide situations that clearly show the contrast between empathy and sympathy. You may also add your take on which trait is better to cultivate.

Empathy has been deemed vital in building cooperation. A member who empathizes with the team can be better in tune with the team’s goals, cooperate effectively and help drive success. You may research how athletic teams foster a culture of empathy beyond the sports fields. Write about how coaches are integrating empathy into their coaching strategy. 

Several studies have warned that empathy has been on a downward trend over the years. Dive deep into studies that investigate this decline. Summarize each and find common points. Then, cite the significant causes and recommendations in this study. You can also provide insights on whether this should cause alarm and how societies should address the problem. 

There is a broad sentiment that social media has been driving people to live in a bubble and be less empathetic — more narcissistic. However, some point out that intensifying competition and increasing economic pressures are more to blame for reducing our empathetic feelings. Research and write about what experts have to say and provide a personal touch by adding your experience. 

Acts of kindness abound every day. But sometimes, we fail to capture or take them for granted. Write about your unforgettable encounters with empathetic people. Then, create a storytelling essay to convey your personal view on empathy. This activity can help you appreciate better the little good things in life. 

Check out our general resource of essay writing topics and stimulate your creative mind! 

See our round-up of the best essay checkers to ensure your writing is error-free.

Yna Lim is a communications specialist currently focused on policy advocacy. In her eight years of writing, she has been exposed to a variety of topics, including cryptocurrency, web hosting, agriculture, marketing, intellectual property, data privacy and international trade. A former journalist in one of the top business papers in the Philippines, Yna is currently pursuing her master's degree in economics and business.

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Teaching (with) empathy and compassion in schools

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Home — Essay Samples — Life — Emotions & Feelings — Empathy

Empathy Essays

Hook examples for empathy essays, anecdotal hook.

"As I witnessed a stranger's act of kindness towards a struggling neighbor, I couldn't help but reflect on the profound impact of empathy—the ability to connect with others on a deeply human level."

Rhetorical Question Hook

"What does it mean to truly understand and share in the feelings of another person? The concept of empathy prompts us to explore the complexities of human connection."

Startling Statistic Hook

"Studies show that empathy plays a crucial role in building strong relationships, fostering teamwork, and reducing conflicts. How does empathy contribute to personal and societal well-being?"

"'Empathy is seeing with the eyes of another, listening with the ears of another, and feeling with the heart of another.' This profound quote encapsulates the essence of empathy and its significance in human interactions."

Historical Hook

"From ancient philosophies to modern psychology, empathy has been a recurring theme in human thought. Exploring the historical roots of empathy provides deeper insights into its importance."

Narrative Hook

"Join me on a journey through personal stories of empathy, where individuals bridge cultural, social, and emotional divides. This narrative captures the essence of empathy in action."

Psychological Impact Hook

"How does empathy impact mental health, emotional well-being, and interpersonal relationships? Analyzing the psychological aspects of empathy adds depth to our understanding."

Social Empathy Hook

"In a world marked by diversity and societal challenges, empathy plays a crucial role in promoting understanding and social cohesion. Delving into the role of empathy in society offers important insights."

Empathy in Literature and Arts Hook

"How has empathy been depicted in literature, art, and media throughout history? Exploring its representation in the creative arts reveals its enduring significance in culture."

Teaching Empathy Hook

"What are effective ways to teach empathy to individuals of all ages? Examining strategies for nurturing empathy offers valuable insights for education and personal growth."

The Choice of Compassion: Cultivating Empathy

Humility and values, made-to-order essay as fast as you need it.

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Characteristics of an Ideal Mother

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The Importance of Promoting Empathy in Children

Steps for developing empathy in social situations, the impacts of digital media on empathy, the contributions of technology to the decline of human empathy, get a personalized essay in under 3 hours.

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The Role of Empathy in Justice System

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Empathy is the capacity to understand or feel what another person is experiencing from within their frame of reference, that is, the capacity to place oneself in another's position.

Types of empathy include cognitive empathy, emotional (or affective) empathy, somatic empathy, and spiritual empathy.

Empathy-based socialization differs from inhibition of egoistic impulses through shaping, modeling, and internalized guilt. Empathetic feelings might enable individuals to develop more satisfactory interpersonal relations, especially in the long-term. Empathy-induced altruism can improve attitudes toward stigmatized groups, and to improve racial attitudes, and actions toward people with AIDS, the homeless, and convicts. It also increases cooperation in competitive situations.

Empathetic people are quick to help others. Painkillers reduce one’s capacity for empathy. Anxiety levels influence empathy. Meditation and reading may heighten empathy.

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Preventing Bullying Using Empathy

While it may be easy to cast those who bully as villains, it is far too simplistic to consider bullying behavior in terms of good versus bad. Research suggests that children who bully often have legitimate deficiencies in their social and emotional development that hinder their ability to effectively navigate social interactions and solve problems without using aggression (Warden & Mackinnon, 2003). Efforts to bullyproof classrooms may require a more nuanced approach that considers the needs of both the child who bullies and the one who is being bullied.

Most children will bully another child at one time or another, and most won’t do it repeatedly (Milsom & Gallo, 2006). Children will bully others for a variety of reasons. Some children may suffer from a lack of self-confidence or self-control, and the aggressive behaviors they display may be attempts to seek help or attention. Some of the students who bully may have undiagnosed mental and emotional health issues that present themselves as antisocial behaviors (Kumpulainen & Rasanen, 2000).

Students who display bullying behavior may be experiencing abuse at home or elsewhere, and they have learned to use aggressive behavior as a way to control their environment. Children who grow up without stable parental influences or in homes experiencing domestic strife or violence are particularly vulnerable to toxic stress. In such an environment, standards of conduct can be difficult for a child to discern (Pepler, Craig, & O’Connell, 1999).

What Are the Implications of Bullying Among Students?

A study of nearly 1,000 sixth-graders found significant incidences of poor adjustment among those who bullied and those who were bullied in the classroom when compared with those who did not have experiences with bullying (Melander, Sittner Hartshorn, & Whitbeck, 2013).

Children who bully and those being bullied can become trapped in a cycle of aggression and powerlessness that is difficult to escape, leading to feelings of helplessness and despair (Pepler, Craig, & O’Connell, 1999). Both are also at higher risk for future negative outcomes such as delinquency, substance abuse, and failure to graduate (Kaiser & Rasminsky, 2003). And both are more likely to be depressed than students who are not impacted by bullying, often leading to self-destructive behaviors as well as poor academic and interpersonal performance (Seals & Young, 2003).

The goal of educators is to help all students succeed academically and to support their social and emotional development, so attention must be paid to the needs of those doing the bullying and those who are bullied (Milsom & Gallo, 2006). Utilizing empathy can be a proactive way for educators to address bullying. Here are some strategies for creating a bullyproof environment.

Schools must develop, articulate, and consistently follow anti-bullying policies. Set clear expectations for behavior in the classroom and hold students accountable consistently and equitably (Crowe, 2012). A student sometimes engages in acts of bullying due to a lack of healthy socialization. They may lack structure and discipline at home, which can lead to antisocial behaviors and a decreased ability to conform to social norms.

Establish communication with parents. Teachers cannot effectively meet the needs of students unless they get to know them as individuals. The relationship between caregivers (teachers, parents, or other adults) and children serves as a model for how those children relate to the world around them (Duncan, 2006). Looking at factors that may be contributing to a student’s antisocial behavior can help gain an understanding of why the student is bullying another.

Provide support and connect to services as needed. Some bullying behaviors begin at home. Communication with parents and other influential adults can help teachers discern when the student and/or family could benefit from additional support. School- and community-based programs are available to assist when counseling, mediation, or other types of support may be needed (Jacobsen & Bauman, 2007). An attentive, empathetic teacher can help bridge those gaps.

Build an inclusive classroom. Establishing a classroom culture that encourages communication, celebrates differences, and fosters teamwork can prevent bullying before it begins. Teachers can give children the tools to handle conflict with peers, the insight to solve problems, and the emotional vocabulary to speak up for themselves and others.

Cultivate trust between teacher and student in the classroom. If children who are being bullied do not see that adults are willing or able to help them, they will not seek help when they need it (Jacobsen & Bauman, 2007). Allowing bullying to continue unabated can lead to further harm, and teachers need to establish trust with each student so they feel comfortable speaking with the teacher and know that the teacher will take their concerns seriously.

Pay attention to the small stuff. Teachers should increase their attention and observation of peer-to-peer interactions in the classroom to catch bullying behaviors early. Empathy will help the teacher understand the potential impacts of seemingly minor, gateway behaviors that may lead to more serious acts of bullying (Crowe, 2012).

Empathy is a powerful tool for diagnosing and confronting bullying behavior. Efforts to reduce bullying in schools must pivot away from disciplinary measures and focus on identifying and meeting the social, emotional, and cognitive needs of all students. Teachers can help students learn how to make friends, handle conflict, speak up for others, and maintain healthy personal relationships (Macklem, 2003), and open communication with parents will help support this effort. A learning environment focused on developing healthy values and prosocial behaviors, using assertive communication, and showing respect for others can help to stop bullying before it begins.

Download this ready-to-use lesson for teaching your students to be aware of the impact their actions have on others.

• Crowe, C. (2012). How to bullyproof your classroom. Center for Responsive Schools, Inc.
• Duncan, A. (2006). Bullying in American schools: A social-ecological perspective on prevention and intervention, edited by Dorothy L. Espelage & Susan M. Swearer. Journal of Catholic Education, 10(2). http://dx.doi.org/10.15365/joce.1002122013
• Jacobsen, K., & Bauman, S. (2007). Bullying in schools: School counselors’ responses to three types of bullying incidents. Professional School Counseling, 11(1), 1–9. http://www.jstor.org/stable/42732732
• Kaiser, B., & Rasminsky, J. S. (2016). Challenging behavior in young children: Understanding, preventing, and responding effectively (4th edition). Pearson.
• Kumpulainen, K., & Rasanen, E. (2000). Children involved in bullying at elementary school age: Their psychiatric symptoms and deviance in adolescence. An epidemiological sample. Child Abuse and Neglect, 24(12), 1567–1577. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11197035/
• Macklem, G. L. (2003). Bullying and teasing: Social power in children’s groups. Springer.
• Melander, L. A., Sittner Hartshorn, K. J., & Whitbeck, L. B. (2013). Correlates of bullying behaviors among a sample of North American Indigenous adolescents. Journal of Adolescence, 36(4), 675–684. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2013.05.003
• Milsom, A., & Gallo, L. (2006). Bullying in middle schools: Prevention and intervention. Middle School Journal, 37(3), 12–19. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23044293
• Pepler, D. J., Craig, W., & O’Connell, P. (1999). Understanding bullying from a dynamic systems perspective. In A. Slater & D. Muir (Eds.), Developmental psychology: An advanced reader (pp.440–451). Blackwell.
• Seals, D., & Young, J. (2003). Bullying and victimization: Prevalence and relationship to gender, grade level, ethnicity, self-esteem, and depression. Adolescence, 38(152), 735–747. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307981797_Bullying_and_Victimization_Prevalence_and_Relationship_to_Gender_Grade_Level_Ethnicity_Self-Esteem_and_Depression
• Warden, D., & Mackinnon, S. (2003). Prosocial children, bullies and victims: An investigation of their sociometric status, empathy and social problem-solving strategies. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 21(3), 367–385. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1348/026151003322277757

Essay on Empathy

Students are often asked to write an essay on Empathy in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on Empathy

Understanding empathy.

Empathy is feeling what others feel. It’s like stepping into someone’s shoes and understanding their emotions. Empathy helps us connect with others.

Why is Empathy Important?

Empathy is important because it builds strong relationships. It helps us understand others better, making us kinder and compassionate.

Empathy in Everyday Life

We use empathy every day. When a friend is sad, we feel their sorrow. This understanding helps us be supportive.

Developing Empathy

We can develop empathy by listening and observing others. Remember, it’s about understanding, not agreeing. Practice empathy to grow as a person.

Also check:

• Paragraph on Empathy
• Speech on Empathy

250 Words Essay on Empathy

Empathy, a fundamental aspect of human connection, is the ability to understand and share the feelings of others. It’s a cognitive attribute, allowing us to perceive the world from another’s perspective. It’s not merely about feeling the same emotions, but comprehending the emotional state of another, without losing the distinction between self and other.

The Types of Empathy

Empathy manifests in three primary forms: cognitive, emotional, and compassionate. Cognitive empathy refers to understanding someone’s thoughts and emotions, acting as a bridge for communication. Emotional empathy, on the other hand, involves sharing the feelings of others, often leading to a deep emotional connection. Compassionate empathy, the most actionable, combines understanding and feeling to drive us to help, if possible.

Empathy and Society

Empathy plays a pivotal role in society. It fosters tolerance, understanding, and mutual respect, acting as the glue that holds diverse communities together. Without empathy, societies would struggle to function harmoniously, leading to a rise in conflict and misunderstanding.

The Neurobiology of Empathy

Recent research in neuroscience has discovered the existence of ‘mirror neurons,’ cells in the brain that activate both when we perform an action and when we observe someone else performing the same action. This discovery has provided a biological basis for empathy, highlighting its inherent role in our lives.

In conclusion, empathy is a powerful tool that allows us to connect with others on a profound level. It’s an essential trait for maintaining harmony within societies and understanding the world around us.

500 Words Essay on Empathy

Introduction to empathy.

Empathy, a complex psychological phenomenon, is a fundamental aspect of human interaction. It is the ability to understand and share the feelings of others, a bridge between self and others. Empathy allows us to perceive the world not only from our perspective but also from the viewpoint of other individuals.

The Two Dimensions of Empathy

Empathy is broadly divided into two dimensions: affective and cognitive. Affective empathy refers to the sensations and feelings we get in response to others’ emotions. It’s the ability to respond emotionally to another’s psychological state. Cognitive empathy, on the other hand, involves understanding others’ emotions from a more intellectual perspective. It’s the ability to identify and understand other people’s emotions.

The Role of Empathy in Society

Empathy plays a crucial role in society. By fostering understanding and compassion, it helps build strong and healthy relationships. It’s the foundation of effective communication, conflict resolution, and cooperation. Empathy is also a key aspect of leadership as it helps leaders understand and address the needs and concerns of their team members.

Empathy and Moral Development

Empathy is closely linked to moral development. It is the emotional response that propels us towards altruistic behavior. Empathy encourages us to act in ways that benefit others, even at a cost to ourselves. It is the driving force behind acts of kindness and compassion, shaping our moral decisions and ethical conduct.

Empathy in the Digital Age

In the digital age, empathy is more important than ever. With the rise of virtual communication, understanding and sharing the feelings of others can be challenging. However, empathy can help bridge this gap. It can help us navigate the complex digital landscape, fostering meaningful connections and promoting positive online interactions.

Empathy: A Skill to be Cultivated

Empathy is not just an innate ability; it’s a skill that can be cultivated. Through active listening, perspective-taking, and emotional intelligence training, we can enhance our empathic abilities. By fostering empathy, we can promote a more understanding, compassionate, and harmonious society.

In conclusion, empathy is a vital human capacity that enables us to understand and share the feelings of others. It plays a crucial role in our interpersonal relationships, moral development, and societal harmony. In the digital age, cultivating empathy is more important than ever. By enhancing our empathic abilities, we can foster a more understanding and compassionate society.

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Empathy in Medical Education: Its Nature and Nurture — a Qualitative Study of the Views of Students and Tutors

William f laughey.

1 Health Professions Education Unit, Hull York Medical School, York, UK

Jane Atkinson

2 School of Medical Education, Newcastle University Medical School, Tyne and Wear, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK

Alison M Craig

Laura douglas, megan el brown, jessica l scott, hugh alberti, gabrielle m finn.

3 Division of Medical Education, School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, The University of Manchester, Manchester, UK

Medical education is committed to teaching patient centred communication and empathy. However, quantitative research suggests empathy scores tend to decline as students progress through medical school. In qualitative terms, there is a need to better understand how students and tutors view the practice and teaching of clinical empathy and the phenomenon of empathic erosion.

Working within a constructivist paradigm, researchers thematically analysed the individual interview data from a purposive sample of 13 senior students and 9 tutors.

The four major themes were as follows: (1) ‘the nature of empathy’, including the concept of the innate empathy that students already possess at the beginning of medical school; (2) ‘beyond the formal curriculum’ and the central importance of role modelling; (3) ‘the formal curriculum and the tick-box influence of assessments’; and (4) the ‘durability of empathy’, including ethical erosion and resilience. A garden model of empathy development is proposed — beginning with the innate seeds of empathy that students bring to medical school, the flowering of empathy is a fragile process, subject to both enablers and barriers in the formal, informal, and hidden curricula.

This study provides insights into empathic erosion in medical school, including the problems of negative role modelling and the limitations of an assessment system that rewards ‘tick-box’ representations of empathy, rather than true acts of compassion. It also identifies factors that should enable the flowering of empathy, such as new pedagogical approaches to resilience and a role for the arts and humanities.

Introduction

Empathy is difficult to define, but the ability to empathise is key to co-existing and co-operating with others [ 1 ]. Clinical empathy requires the physician to align to the thoughts and feelings of the patient in what has been described as a moment of ‘crossing over’ [ 2 ]. Although empathy involves the ability to ‘understand and share another person’s feelings and perspective’, there is a consensus that it must also involve a ‘self-other distinction’, whereby an empathiser does not mistake someone else’s feelings for their own [ 3 ]. There is a general consensus that empathy includes cognitive, affective, action, and moral components, though researchers disagree as to the relative contributions made by each of the components [ 4 ]. These four components act as sensitising concepts for our approach in this study [ 5 ].

Given that empathy motivates feelings of compassion and increases an individual’s drive to help [ 3 ], it follows that cultivating a sense of empathy within doctors should improve patient care. Research supports this — when patients sense empathy from their physician, they report greater satisfaction with the consultation and are likely to enjoy better health outcomes [ 6 , 7 ]. Physicians too report greater satisfaction when consultations are rated as more empathic [ 8 ]

Although debate exists regarding whether empathy can be measured, there is a concerning body of research which suggests empathy declines as medical students progress through their training. Hojat et al. [ 9 ] and Newton et al. [ 10 ] report declines in mean empathy scores after the third year of medical school, whilst a recent review of studies that sought to measure empathy changes during medical school suggested that the overall trend is for empathy scores to decline [ 11 ].

Qualitative data has added depth to this picture. Tavakol et al.’s research suggests that students perceive the formal teaching of empathy to decline in the senior years of medical school [ 12 ], giving way to a curricula bias which prioritises the biomedical aspects of clinical care [ 13 ]. In addition to this, as students experience the harsh realities of working in busy healthcare settings, they come to recognise that there is minimal emotional support for frontline staff [ 14 ] and witness role models distancing themselves to cope with the hardships of the job [ 15 – 17 ] — learnings from what has been termed the ‘hidden curriculum of medical education’ [ 18 ].

Hafferty and Franks [ 18 ] argue that the process of socialising students into the cultural norms of medical practice — of which empathic communication is one example — is only partly driven by the curriculum that a medical school officially lays out through lectures and seminars, otherwise known as the formal curriculum. Instead, values are communicated to students through less structured means, particularly the setting of clinical placement. Here, teaching and learning occur mostly in the informal curriculum , within which students are exposed to subtle, hidden lessons which ‘can often be antithetical to the goals and content of the courses that are formally offered’ [ 18 ]. These latent lessons are part of the hidden curriculum , they operate at the level of stealth, and are more powerful for it [ 18 ]. In the hidden curriculum, students witness negative role-modelling and the pressure of time overriding the requirement for compassion — experiences which risk turning them away from empathy [ 19 ].

With these negative influences from the hidden curriculum and the pressures of getting through medical school, future doctors’ capacity for compassion may be fatiguing even before they qualify. Several researchers have suggested this burnout comes hand-in-hand with cynicism, a hardening of the heart, leading to ‘ethical erosion’ [ 20 – 22 ] — a phenomenon whereby medical students and doctors become less morally sensitive and ethically aware [ 23 , 24 ]. Strategies which foster a culture of empathy within medical school are, therefore, of the utmost importance.

It is generally agreed that more qualitative inquiry is needed to better understand how empathy is shaped by medical education, and the reasons for empathic decline [ 25 , 26 ]. Further, although research suggests that empathy can be taught [ 27 , 28 ], there has been relatively little research regarding the pedagogical strategies which students and faculty perceive as acceptable and valuable.

Recent research has suggested pedagogical strategies which place emphasis on the empathic statement (stock phrases such as ‘I’m sorry to hear that’) can lead students to experience ‘empathic dissonance’, defined as ‘the mental discomfort experienced by the act of making expressions of empathy that are not sincerely felt’ [ 29 ]. These same strategies can also promote ‘fake’ empathy, and are less acceptable to students than strategies which emphasise an appropriate balance of non-verbal communication [ 30 , 31 ].

Acceptance of pedagogical strategy is an important precedent to engagement [ 32 ], and so further investigation of student and tutor opinions of empathy teaching may yield valuable insight into which strategies are likely to be well-received, and which strategies will best fulfil the empathic needs of students. Further research is also necessary to discern which pedagogical approaches to countering empathic decline resonate with the needs of students and staff. As such, we asked: how do senior medical students and medical school faculty conceptualise empathy and the factors which influence it, and how do these views influence perceptions of empathic pedagogy?

Research Approach

We adopted a relativist ontology and constructivist epistemology, which highlight the subjectivity of reality and knowledge [ 33 – 35 ]. We reasoned that a relativist, qualitative approach is well suited to answering the how questions that characterise our inquiry, detailed above. We selected Braun and Clarke’s approach to reflexive thematic analysis to analyse our data [ 36 , 37 ] given its acknowledgement of the influence of the research team in data interpretation [ 38 ].

Setting and Participants

Data were collected at Newcastle Medical School and Hull York Medical School (HYMS), during the academic years 2018–2019 and 2019–2020, following institutional ethics board approval at both sites (6182/2018). Two centres were selected to improve transferability of results. Most researchers had clinical backgrounds (JA, AC, HA, LD, MB, BL), one was a medical student (JS), and one a non-clinical Professor of Medical Education (GF). Two authors have extensive experience and expertise in qualitative research (HA, GF). Recruitment was purposive, consisting of senior medical students (years 4 and 5) and also faculty tutors from each of the medical schools. Tutors were all qualified doctors. When recruiting students, we limited recruitment to years 4 and 5, which are the final two years of medical school in the UK. These students have more placement experience than early-stage students, and so more opportunity to observe empathy in practice. Participation was voluntary. Recruitment occurred via email, social media, and word of mouth.

Data Collection and Analysis

Researchers (JA, AC, LD, MB, WL) conducted one-to-one, semi-structured interviews with participants. Researchers followed a question stem but were open to exploring any new lines of inquiry prompted by the interview discussion. The approach was iterative, with new questions being added as data were analysed. Interviews were mainly face-to-face, or in two cases via online video or telephone (depending on participant preference). Interviews were audio recorded and transcribed verbatim by an independent professional company. Braun and Clarke’s six steps of thematic analysis were adhered to [ 1 ] Familiarisation, [ 2 ] Generating initial codes, [ 3 ] Searching for themes, [ 4 ] Reviewing themes, [ 5 ] Defining and naming themes, and [ 6 ] Producing a report [ 36 ]. Within Step 1, to enhance data familiarity, all researchers read and re-read at least one transcript, making notes in the margins of possible codes. Two researchers from each site read and re-read all transcripts from their site, fostering familiarity with local data. Anonymised data were shared across sites, and those leading analysis at each site (JA, AC, WL) also familiarised themselves with the other site’s data set. Within step 2, all researchers formally coded at least one transcript, and all transcripts were independently coded by at least two researchers, aided by the sharing of coding documents via Google Drive. Within step 3, analysis of the pooled, coded data was conducted by multiple researchers (JA, HA, LD, MB, WL, GF) and facilitated through regular online video discussions between researchers. Similar codes were collated into early sub-themes, and sub-themes reviewed alongside one another to discern connections within the data. Within step 4, team discussions facilitated review of early proposed themes and themes were defined and named as a group (step 5). WL produced a narrative report of results which was discussed by all authors synchronously and asynchronously until a final report was agreed upon (step 6).

Regular discussions also allowed researchers to judge when theoretical sufficiency occurred — the point at which the sample size was deemed sufficient to answer the study research question [ 39 ].

Reflexive Considerations

Our approach was inductive, but most researchers were already familiar with the empathy literature. Through reflexive conversations, we shared our own thoughts about empathy and compassion, agreeing on a broad view of these concepts, to include affective, cognitive, moral, and behavioural components. All of these formed the sensitising concepts [ 5 ] around which we conceived our interview questions and data analysis.

The demographics of the 22 participants are outlined in Table ​ Table1; 1 ; notably, there was a female preponderance (17 female, 5 male). We identified four major themes and 14 sub-themes from the data, as outlined in Table ​ Table2. 2 . There were very few areas where it was possible to discern significant differences in the opinions of senior students and tutors, where present these are noted in the results.

Demographics

Major themes and sub themes

The Nature of Empathy

Empathy versus compassion.

There was little agreement on the distinction between empathy and compassion. Several participants believed compassion had more of an action component to it than empathy.

…compassion takes it further because you are trying to do something that is actually a loving act. Tutor

Limits to Sharing and Understanding

Participants believed empathy was about putting yourself in someone else’s shoes. It involved emotional resonance, but ultimately it was not necessary to fully share patient emotions to adequately express empathy. Students also recognised that if empathy required an authentic understanding of patient context, then expressing empathy in situations for which they had no personal frame of reference was bound to be ‘disingenuous’.

Empathy is not necessarily sharing but understanding and recognising someone’s emotions Student So, I think it’s a bit disingenuous to say you can always have empathy for someone in the sense of really understanding their situation. Student

Innate Empathy

Participants described the notion of innate empathy. There was an awareness of a natural empathy continuum, with some individuals entering medical school with more inherent empathy.

I think it’s very evident that some people innately are able to have an extra layer of either sensitivity or, emotionally, awareness and others do lack that. Tutor

Head Versus Heart Empathy

Participants described how empathy starts in the ‘heart’ as an affective emotion. As students progress through medical training, they learn to control their emotions, noted as important to wellbeing. In doing so, they learn to balance their emotions cognitively, and their empathy is balanced or modulated by their ‘head’.

Heart empathy risks burnout

I think compassionate people tend to go into medicine and you’ve kind of got that quality you possess, that quality of compassion, and then it's about managing it and getting that balance right … I do think it starts in the heart Tutor

Sincerity was held to be important. As such, becoming more cognitive was a source of conflict for participants, who felt genuine empathy should come from the heart.

I think ideally [heart] but I would recognise there are situations where that’s not possible or it’s difficult Student

Cognitive empathy was used by some as a distancing tool to maintain professional boundaries.

…[if] it was just from the heart, it might make you make unwise decisions because there are professional boundaries and you do have to be slightly careful Tutor

The participants understanding of empathy and compassion linked closely with their perceptions of its role with professionalism as described within the next theme.

Beyond the Formal Curriculum

Professionalism.

Controlling one’s emotions was linked to professionalism. Participants were aware of the professional need to display ‘appropriate’ empathy without overstepping the mark.

I think people can empathise too much to a point they’re overstepping a boundary… Tutor

Operationalising compassion as ‘part of the job’ helped participants keep professionalism in mind.

…you’ve got to be very aware that compassion is part of our job, on a day-to-day basis Tutor

Empathy was seen as easier to give if a clinician knew a patient well: the establishment of long-standing rapport facilitated a more natural connection. Unfortunately, continuity was perceived as increasingly lacking in clinical practice.

Continuity has been eroded in every area, so you haven’t got that trust, continuity or relationship… when it does come to the moment when empathy is needed, then maybe it’s more forced because you don’t actually know them very well. Tutor

Role-modelling

Participants felt positive role-modelling was the best way to learn compassion and empathy in clinical practice.

My GP… gave her a double slot, and just stopped and just listened, and kind of just sat there not really saying anything, just letting her speak, and it just kind of really resonated how much he cared, and she obviously appreciated that as well. Student

Students also described consultations lacking in empathy and doctors speaking disparagingly about patients following a consultation. Both students and tutors reflected that these interactions could, paradoxically, strengthen the resolve to be compassionate, because students saw a kind of doctor they did not want to be. However, negative role modelling also risked leading students away from compassionate care.

You come across other people who are more senior to you that become a bit more off-hand about things, and I think we are taught a lot as medical students to copy the practice that we see, and sometimes I don’t think we are skilled enough to know what’s good practice and what’s bad practice at that moment. Student

Tutors recognised the power of positive role modelling, but felt the pressure of time and other stresses could hinder their own efforts to be such role models.

The Formal Curriculum and the ‘Tick Box’ Influence of Assessment

Tick box empathy.

Narratives detailed the unintended consequences of assessments, such as Objective Structured Clinical Examinations (OSCEs). Assessments were deemed to lead to a reductionist, or ‘tick box’ approach to empathy.

…in an OSCE, you’re just trying to tick a box, aren’t you? And you drop in a statement ‘oh that must be really hard?’ and I think there is probably quite a lot of that. But then… everyone is under a lot of stress.  Student

Alternatives to assessing empathy in OSCEs were suggested, including more continual forms of assessment during placements.

Do it as like a longitudinal thing, don’t… take a snapshot on a single day Tutor

The propensity to ‘fake’ empathy was recounted by participants. Fake empathy was particularly linked to rote statements of empathy, which can lack sincerity.

I think you have to be careful not to have stock phrases that they then stick to… I've told them that they kind of need to find what feels right for them… I suppose, heartfelt. Tutor

Simulated Teaching

Participants noted simulated patients (SPs) provided an opportunity for students to learn in a safe environment. However, it was acknowledged that role-play provides an artificial environment which could contribute to the problem of tick-box empathy. Not all students felt comfortable with the performance aspect of simulation.

It is a false situation, and it depends on how comfortable you are with acting in front of people. I’m certainly not that comfortable. Student

The Role of Arts and Humanities

Participants highlighted the potential for integrating arts and humanities into the formal curriculum. There was perceived value in utilising stories as a mechanism by which to facilitate meaningful discussion and explore the lived experiences of others.

These discussions and understanding these different experiences of…literature… is important in itself as an education for you as a person. And I think medical school misses out on that, because they are so focused on learning outcomes and content. Student

Is Empathy Teachable?

Participants questioned whether it was possible to teach empathy and compassion to students, though aspects of compassion — such as behavioural aspects — were thought to be teachable.

I think compassionate behaviour can be taught, I’m not sure compassion can…that’s what you feel. What your teaching is how to act in a compassionate manner Tutor

Students and tutors also felt that empathy was shaped by the innate characteristics and life experiences of students, as much as by any teaching that they receive. Ultimately, it is an interaction of these aspects that shapes a student’s maturing compassion as they progress through school.

we are not teaching in a vacuum, and this is the great difficulty Tutor I do think it is teachable, but then equally it comes from so many things, like it comes from life experience, it comes from how you've been brought up, so, there’s so many factors I think… and how you are with people. Yeah, you can learn, but sometimes some people are good with people, and some people just aren't Tutor

Durability of Empathy

Ethical erosion.

The general view of participants was that ethical erosion does occur, though not in all students. It was often characterised as compassion fatigue, particularly by tutors. Students cited repeat exposure of difficult circumstances, such as seeing patients with terminal illness, using expressions such as becoming desensitised, blasé and offhand when faced with suffering

I think the more you’re exposed to anything the more used to it you become… the more exposed to things like death and that kind of thing and I think that can, yeah I guess that can stop us being as compassionate Student

By contrast, tutors were more likely to link empathic erosion to high workload, long hours and the general demands of the job.

I don’t think it’s the educational system particularly, I think perhaps it’s the clinical system that they are pushed out into… if you have to see so many patients and you’ve got a 12-hour shift … I can imagine you might find it more difficult to be empathic with somebody than if you were in a system that wasn’t quite as brutal Tutor

There was a perception that participants needed to limit their empathic engagement to protect their own emotional wellbeing and get through medical school exams.

when you go to medical school, you kind of learn how to build a wall: like, it’s professional empathy, it’s a bit like a wall actually. It’s like a separator from patients… It’s like I’m parking my empathy, for now, while I concentrate on other things. Tutor

However, not all participants thought empathy declined with progression through medical school, with one arguing the change in empathy was more about maturation than erosion.

I don’t think there is an erosion of empathy, I think it matures into something that’s a bit more substantial and less introspective and more patient focused. Tutor

A variety of suggestions emerged from the interviews related to how ethical erosion could be resisted, including the need for students to be aware of the phenomenon and so guard themselves against it, and the need for students to learn how to look after their own emotional wellbeing.

Both tutors and students reported that when resilience was down then the reserves for empathy were also depleted.

I think we all probably have those times in our lives when we are the most stressed and working hardest. Compassion and empathy becomes something that instinctively goes. Tutor

There was a sense of the need to balance resilience with how much empathy could be given to patients. In this sense, keeping some emotional distance from patients was seen as a protective strategy for avoiding burnout. There was seen to be a balance between the needs of patients, who require empathic investment, and the needs of the student or clinician who require some emotional distance. Losing this balance was seen to risk negative emotional transference.

I’ve had a GP partner who was very compassionate and gave patients lots of time and was always running late and eventually burnt out. Tutor I feel like part of burnout is to do with empathy and kind of having their problems become yours, kind of taking it home with you… Student

Being able to switch off was seen as important for bolstering resilience, including taking breaks and holidays. Also helpful was the practice of talking problems through with colleagues, though the culture of not admitting weakness in medicine makes this difficult.

I have a tendency, if I’ve got a lot on, just to kind of close myself away and just keep on working. Whereas I know that actually just doesn’t work, and I need to just stop and take a break. Student There’s a lot of show and bravado in medicine, so, I don’t know that it’s… openly talked about enough. Tutor

Students reported receiving little in the way of teaching about resilience and would welcome such an initiative, including teaching focussed on the ability to deal with the strong emotions that empathic engagement can trigger.

We’ve been taught about other aspects of emotion, for example breaking bad news and things like that, but we haven’t been taught how to deal with it emotionally in yourself if you are distressed by a situation. Student

We began this research by asking how we conceptualise clinical empathy and how empathy is influenced by the teaching and practice of medicine. Our data suggest that empathy often involves finding a delicate balance between opposing concepts – for example, emotional giving and self-preservation. Given this balance can be difficult to strike, empathy is seen to be fragile, like the flower in our horticultural analogy.

Part of this question of balance is the extent to which clinical empathy should be cognitive (centred on understanding), or affective (centred on feeling). These data suggest that without a level of feeling, there is the danger that purely cognitive empathy will seem insincere, especially in the case of rote statements of empathy. This echoes the findings of other qualitative studies [ 30 , 31 ] which outline the limitations of purely cognitive empathy, suggesting rote statements can be used as insincere substitutes for authentic empathic engagement.

Although previously the model for the professional delivery of empathy centred on ‘detached concern’ [ 40 ], more recently Halpern [ 30 ] has suggested the idea that doctors can put their feelings entirely to one side is neither likely, nor desirable (Fig. ​ (Fig.1). 1 ). Instead, Halpern advocates emotional resonance and ‘compassionate curiosity’ for the patient’s circumstances, ideals which require a measure of affective empathy [ 41 ]. Our data suggest that a barrier to achieving this is the perception that any emotional investment in the patient’s predicament could be detrimental to the student or doctor. Both students and tutors report that they do not feel equipped to deal with the strong emotions linked to sincere empathic engagement and worry that this could leave them more susceptible to burnout. Whilst this concern makes intuitive sense, the evidence regarding affective empathy and the risk of burnout is contradictory. Whilst some research supports this link [ 42 , 43 ], other evidence suggests that doctors who exhibit more affective empathy are also those who are at the least risk of burning out [ 44 ]. This is an area that would benefit from further research.

The empathy garden. Empathy is represented by a flower. All students start their developmental journey with innate empathy, demonstrated by the seeds. The growth of the seeds to a flower occurs as students navigate the formal (blue) and other than formal curricula (green) and their constituent parts (the leaves). Central to how these curricula experiences intersect is the stem, depicting the hidden curriculum. Empathy is nurtured by positive relationships and role-modelling, including positive consultations with patients, continuity, and support from peers and tutors — represented by the watering can and droplets. If provided with the right tool-kit (spade), through formal teaching, positive role-modelling, and peer and tutor support, students can become more resilient (the stake). Resilience is tested by stress-inducing factors (the lightening), such as the stress of recurring examinations and NHS pressures, including long-hours and high workload. Over time, or without support, with exposure to negative contextual factors (the wind) including negative-role modelling and the cynicism that accompanies the practice of faking empathy, there is an ethical erosion and decline in empathy — symbolised by the falling petals. The growth and erosion of empathy occurs through the process of socialisation — this includes exposure to role-models, patients, tutors, or tacit and implied experiences from the hidden curriculum

While based on only two UK medical schools, our data suggest that resilience is not taught in any systematic way. Although resilience (like empathy) is difficult to measure, there is some evidence that specific educational workshops and the techniques of cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) can improve resilience [ 45 ]. Future studies could consider whether these interventions may allow for greater willingness to engage in affective empathy. Such research could help guide pedagogical strategies and the future integration of effective resilience teaching into medical school curricula. Currently, the perception that students do not feel equipped with strategies to deal with emotional aspects of patient contact, expressed clearly in our data, may be deterring students from being fully open to empathic consulting.

This study underlines of the key role played by the hidden curriculum: for example, positive role-modelling, accompanied by appropriate student reflections, were felt to be the most direct ways to enhance a student’s appreciation of empathy, and there is evidence in the wider literature to support this [ 15 – 17 ]. Tutors were aware of this, and to some extent they felt the burden of it, highlighting that stressful work environments, coupled with a lack of time, meant they could not always live up to the empathic role models they aspired to be. Therefore, whilst desirable, positive role-modelling may not always be easy to attain.

In common with previous findings [ 15 , 46 ], our data also suggest that students witness frequent examples of negative role-modelling, including hearing doctors make derogatory remarks about patients after displays of seeming empathy and witnessing doctors who communicate with minimal empathy in their consultations. Negative role modelling risks giving the impression that empathy is unimportant. It is interesting, however, that some students in this study, witnessing negative role modelling, used reflection to strengthen their resolve that they themselves would never want to practice in a way that seems so lacking in empathy. Other researchers have also reported how students can take positive reflections from negative experiences [ 46 ] and educators should consider promoting the use of reflective practice to help combat the adverse influences less than compassionate role models.

Previous research has cast doubt on the assessment of empathy, especially in OSCEs [ 30 , 31 ]. Students in this study have, once again, raised the issue of ‘tick box’ assessments, noting that simply making a rote statement of empathy, regardless of whether it was meant, is enough to secure the marks. The implied message within the hidden curriculum here is that a performance of empathy — and OSCEs of course occupy the level of ‘show’ in Miller’s Pyramid [ 47 ] — is all that is really needed. Assessing empathy in a way that rewards rote empathic statements may ultimately be to the detriment of the teaching of compassionate communication in medical education.

Limitations

The principal limitation of this study is that it is restricted to two UK medical schools. Empathy has cultural aspects, and the findings may have less relevance for schools in other settings, particularly Eastern schools. For example, research on empathic decline suggests it is a Western school phenomenon — Eastern schools do not share the same decline [ 11 ]. Furthermore, there was a preponderance of female participants in this study (17 females, 5 males), which may affect the transferability of results given there is evidence to suggest that, on average, females are more empathic than males [ 48 – 50 ].

This qualitative study outlines a number of educational factors which all have the potential to shape student empathy during their time in medical school. We have depicted empathy as a flower, emphasising its fragile nature, and its susceptibility to potential perils that reside mainly in the hidden curriculum of medical education. We have also described the perceived trade-off between empathy and resilience, that giving the former reduces the latter. This perception may or may not be correct. However, it remains significant barrier to empathic engagement and requires more research.

Based on the findings of this study, we propose a number of key points for educators (Box ​ (Box1 1 ).

Declarations

Ethical approval was gained from Newcastle Medical School Ethics Committee and reciprocal approval was gained from HYMS Ethics Committee — number 6182/2018.

Informed consent was gained from all participants. Participation was voluntary and there were no inducements to participate, financial, or otherwise.

The authors declare no competing interests.

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Creative local students win historical essay and video contests

RIDGEFIELD – Three high school students from Vancouver and Ridgefield displayed their creativity in winning first place in the Fort Vancouver Sons of The American Revolution Chapter’s 2024 Eagle Scout Essay, Knight Essay and youth video contests. Each contest challenged the high school students to research and write about or produce a video featuring a compelling person from the American Revolution. Each winner received a $100 award and certificate for their achievement at the local level and advanced to the state level for further competition.

Josephine Abbott, a Seton High School junior, wrote a descriptive essay about Cherokee Nation War Chief Dragging Canoe and his many efforts to lead his people during the American Revolution. Abbott’s entry in the SAR Arthur M. and Berdena King Eagle Scout Essay Contest earned a first-place finish at the local level. Abbott had a special connection to her essay subject as she is the eighth great-granddaughter of Chief Dragging Canoe. In addition to writing her essay, Abbott was required to prepare a four-generation family lineage chart and document her many accomplishments as an Eagle Scout.

Elizabeth Swift, a Ridgefield High School senior, also choose a Native American as the subject for her George S. and Stella M. Knight Essay Contest entry. Nicholas Cusick was a member of the Tuscarora tribe, which supported the American patriots’ cause during the Revolution. He served with French Marquis de Lafayette as an interpreter and guide, and for his service he was granted a pension after the war. Swift’s essay on Cusick also earned her second place at state this year and a $500 award.

Lincoln Swift, a sophomore at Ridgefield High School, used video to tell the story of Patrick Carr, an Irish immigrant and leather worker, who was one of the victims of the Boston Massacre. Swift choreographed Carr’s tragic story with the use of stick puppets. Swift’s three-minute video not only won accolades at the local level, it earned him first place in the Washington State SAR Society Youth Video Contest. Swift received a $1,000 award and certificate for first place.

“These three contests challenge high school students to research and document important events and people from the American Revolution,” said Fort Vancouver SAR Chapter President Paul Winter. “In fact, we have programs designed for students at the elementary school level up through high school. Each program encourages the students to be creative, have some fun, and, as in the case of our Eagle Scout this year, find personal connections to the struggle for independence.”

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Essay by UW–Madison’s Jones shares origins of ‘These Grand Places’ photography project

UW–Madison’s Tomiko Jones, an assistant professor in the School of Education’s Art Department, has written an essay about her long-form photography-based project, “These Grand Places,” for the digital magazine Edge Effects .

Jones’ photography and multidisciplinary installations explore social, cultural, and geopolitical transitions, considering the twin crises of too much and too little in the age of climate change. Running themes within her work include ecological concerns, questions of belonging, and activated cultural traditions.

In the essay, “Imagining National Belonging in American Landscapes,” Jones discusses the origins of “These Grand Places” in the road trips of her childhood and in her lived experience as a person of multiracial identity. “From elementary school to graduate studies, I often could not find myself in the history I was taught, the artwork I saw, or the archives I studied,” Jones writes. “The desire to repair the feeling of being outside official histories and search for a sense of belonging has ultimately defined my creative practice and shaped my scholarly research.”

“My project ‘These Grand Places’ arguably began during my graduate studies as an investigation into the construct of identifying land as ‘ours’,” Jones adds. “Photography, as an invention and tool, played a significant role in Manifest Destiny, in hegemonic narratives of how the nation was made, identified, and ‘conquered’.”

Jones notes the project, which got its start through a Seed Grant through the School of Education’s Grand Challenges grant program, was also informed by her participation in the First Nations Cultural Landscape Tour , led by Omar Poler.

During their walk, Jones writes, Poler asked the question: “What if we were to look at this place in a different way, through new eyes? How would that change how we acted?”

She adds that this question introduced a new philosophical idea to explore in her work: “How do we see differently?”

“These Grand Places” will premiere in a multimedia installation in Jan. 2025 as part of Jones’ mid-career exhibition.

To learn more, read Jones’ essay, “ Imagining National Belonging in American Landscapes .”

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Biden Revisits His Past in Interview With Howard Stern

The appearance allowed President Biden to tell the stories of love and loss that have defined his public image.

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By Zolan Kanno-Youngs and Katie Rogers

Sitting with Howard Stern, the nation’s best-known shock jock, President Biden on Friday replayed the deepest lows of his life story and the highs of a decades-long political career in an appearance designed to reintroduce him to an audience of millions.

In a surprise interview on “The Howard Stern Show” that lasted for more than an hour, Mr. Stern, a skilled interviewer versed in the art of oversharing, repeatedly asked Mr. Biden to revisit the stories of love and loss that have defined his public image.

So Mr. Biden spoke at length about grieving the death of his first wife, Neilia, and 13-month-old daughter, Naomi, who were killed in a car crash in 1972. He talked about meeting his second wife, Jill Biden, on a blind date, and said, as he often has, that his deceased son, Beau Biden, should be the Biden sitting in the Oval Office.

At one point, Mr. Biden — who also told Mr. Stern that he had fallen “ass over tin cup” in love with his first wife — that he had contemplated suicide after Neilia and Naomi were killed.

“I thought, let me just go to the Delaware Memorial and jump,” he said. The president then strongly encouraged those with mental health issues to seek therapy.

The appearance allowed Mr. Biden to return to some raw and emotionally vulnerable stories and highlight his capacity for compassion — in other words, he revisited for Mr. Stern’s massive audience on SiriusXM everything that had made him a compelling candidate for president in 2020. Mr. Stern’s listeners are mostly white, mostly male and mostly comfortably middle class, according to figures shared by the Howard Stern Radio Network, an advertising agency not affiliated with SiriusXM.

At another point, Mr. Biden appeared to once again stretch the truth about being arrested at a Delaware desegregation protest as a teenager. There is no evidence that he was ever arrested at a civil-rights protest.

For this, Mr. Stern, 70, lent Mr. Biden the audience he has cultivated over decades as a drive-time shock jock and lately a more ruminative interviewer on satellite radio. SiriusXM has about 34 million subscribers, many of whom tune in for Mr. Stern’s mix of empathy and vulgarity.

By hosting Mr. Biden, Mr. Stern was also slighting his old and estranged friend, former President Donald J. Trump. Mr. Trump was a frequent guest on Mr. Stern’s show in the 1990s and 2000s. During the 2016 campaign, Mr. Trump invited Mr. Stern to be a speaker at the Republican National Convention.

But Mr. Stern, whose politics have become much more left-leaning over the years, declined the offer. Now he routinely ridicules the former president on his show and criticizes his decisions, such as appointing the Supreme Court justices who voted to overturn Roe v. Wade. Mr. Trump has responded by calling his former friend “a broken weirdo.”

Mr. Stern broke little new ground with Mr. Biden, except for the president saying at one point that he would debate Mr. Trump .

Otherwise, Mr. Biden spent much of the time rehashing material from his memoirs, revisiting Mr. Trump’s actions surrounding the Capitol riot on Jan. 6, 2021, and criticizing the former president for his behavior toward military veterans.

“Here’s what bothers me most,” Mr. Biden said. “We have a fundamentally different value set.”

Mr. Biden said his predecessor had refused to visit American soldiers from World War II buried in France, during a trip there in 2018, because the fallen were “losers.” (Mr. Trump has denied saying this, though several officials in the Trump White House later said that he had.) Mr. Biden also cited Mr. Trump’s history of disparaging Senator John McCain of Arizona, who was captured and held for years during the Vietnam War. Mr. McCain died of brain cancer in 2018.

“I just I’m glad I wasn’t there because, I think I would have — my son’s one of those graves,” Mr. Biden said. “The graves back here, and not there.” Beau Biden, Mr. Biden’s son, died in 2015 of brain cancer.

When the conversation turned glancingly to policy, Mr. Stern focused on work the Biden administration has done to finalize a policy requiring airlines to automatically issue cash refunds for problems like delayed flights.

The appearance allowed Mr. Biden to strike a contrast with Mr. Trump, who went on Mr. Stern’s show many times before he was elected.

In 2004, Mr. Trump told Mr. Stern that he could refer to his daughter Ivanka with a lurid term. In 2010, he and Mr. Stern talked at length about the sexuality of the golfer Tiger Woods — definitely “not gay,” Mr. Trump said — before discussing the attractiveness of Mr. Woods’s wife at the time. In 1997, Mr. Trump appeared on the show and talked about losing his virginity at “about age 14.” Mr. Stern told The Hollywood Reporter in 2019 that he’d tried to dissuade Mr. Trump from running for the presidency, and their relationship soured during the 2016 campaign.

“It was a difficult thing because there’s a part of me that really likes Donald, but I just don’t agree politically,” Mr. Stern said. “A more self-serving person would have gone all in on Donald because I’d probably be the F.C.C. commissioner or a Supreme Court justice by now.”

At the end of Friday’s sit-down, Mr. Stern praised Mr. Biden, listing off the president’s policy wins and praising his ability to overcome tragedy.

“I know you’d be a good father to the country, and I want to thank you for providing a calming, influential and organized administration,” Mr. Stern told Mr. Biden.

Jeremy W. Peters , Reid J. Epstein and Benjamin Mullin contributed reporting.

Zolan Kanno-Youngs is a White House correspondent, covering President Biden and his administration. More about Zolan Kanno-Youngs

Katie Rogers is a White House correspondent. For much of the past decade, she has focused on features about the presidency, the first family, and life in Washington, in addition to covering a range of domestic and foreign policy issues. She is the author of a book on first ladies. More about Katie Rogers

Our Coverage of the 2024 Election

Presidential Race

The number of Trump allies facing election interference charges keeps growing, and prosecutors are sending a warning as Donald Trump and his supporters continue  to spread conspiracy theories: that disrupting elections can bear a heavy legal cost.

Trump has vowed to “cancel” President Biden’s policies for cutting pollution from fossil-fuel-burning power plants, “terminate” efforts to encourage electric vehicles , and “develop the liquid gold that is right under our feet” by promoting oil and gas.

A campaign watchdog group filed a formal complaint to the Federal Election Commission accusing Trump’s presidential campaign  and related political committees of concealing payments of $7.2 million in legal fees in violation of campaign finance law.

Other Key Races

Scott Perry, the House Freedom Caucus stalwart and 2020 election denier, is confronting a general election challenge in a central Pennsylvania  district that has grown more competitive.

With the 2024 primary season entering the homestretch — and the presidential matchup already set — hundreds of thousands of Pennsylvanians  cast their ballots  in Senate and House contests  as well as for president and local races. Here are the takeaways .

David McCormick  won an unopposed Republican primary for Senate  in Pennsylvania, securing the party’s nomination two years after former Trump torpedoed his first Senate run by backing his primary rival, the celebrity physician Dr. Mehmet Oz.