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Ethical Considerations in Research | Types & Examples

Ethical Considerations in Research | Types & Examples

Published on October 18, 2021 by Pritha Bhandari . Revised on June 22, 2023.

Ethical considerations in research are a set of principles that guide your research designs and practices. Scientists and researchers must always adhere to a certain code of conduct when collecting data from people.

The goals of human research often include understanding real-life phenomena, studying effective treatments, investigating behaviors, and improving lives in other ways. What you decide to research and how you conduct that research involve key ethical considerations.

These considerations work to

protect the rights of research participants
enhance research validity
maintain scientific or academic integrity

Why do research ethics matter, getting ethical approval for your study, types of ethical issues, voluntary participation, informed consent, confidentiality, potential for harm, results communication, examples of ethical failures, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about research ethics.

Research ethics matter for scientific integrity, human rights and dignity, and collaboration between science and society. These principles make sure that participation in studies is voluntary, informed, and safe for research subjects.

You’ll balance pursuing important research objectives with using ethical research methods and procedures. It’s always necessary to prevent permanent or excessive harm to participants, whether inadvertent or not.

Defying research ethics will also lower the credibility of your research because it’s hard for others to trust your data if your methods are morally questionable.

Even if a research idea is valuable to society, it doesn’t justify violating the human rights or dignity of your study participants.

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Before you start any study involving data collection with people, you’ll submit your research proposal to an institutional review board (IRB) .

An IRB is a committee that checks whether your research aims and research design are ethically acceptable and follow your institution’s code of conduct. They check that your research materials and procedures are up to code.

If successful, you’ll receive IRB approval, and you can begin collecting data according to the approved procedures. If you want to make any changes to your procedures or materials, you’ll need to submit a modification application to the IRB for approval.

If unsuccessful, you may be asked to re-submit with modifications or your research proposal may receive a rejection. To get IRB approval, it’s important to explicitly note how you’ll tackle each of the ethical issues that may arise in your study.

There are several ethical issues you should always pay attention to in your research design, and these issues can overlap with each other.

You’ll usually outline ways you’ll deal with each issue in your research proposal if you plan to collect data from participants.

Voluntary participation means that all research subjects are free to choose to participate without any pressure or coercion.

All participants are able to withdraw from, or leave, the study at any point without feeling an obligation to continue. Your participants don’t need to provide a reason for leaving the study.

It’s important to make it clear to participants that there are no negative consequences or repercussions to their refusal to participate. After all, they’re taking the time to help you in the research process , so you should respect their decisions without trying to change their minds.

Voluntary participation is an ethical principle protected by international law and many scientific codes of conduct.

Take special care to ensure there’s no pressure on participants when you’re working with vulnerable groups of people who may find it hard to stop the study even when they want to.

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Informed consent refers to a situation in which all potential participants receive and understand all the information they need to decide whether they want to participate. This includes information about the study’s benefits, risks, funding, and institutional approval.

You make sure to provide all potential participants with all the relevant information about

what the study is about
the risks and benefits of taking part
how long the study will take
your supervisor’s contact information and the institution’s approval number

Usually, you’ll provide participants with a text for them to read and ask them if they have any questions. If they agree to participate, they can sign or initial the consent form. Note that this may not be sufficient for informed consent when you work with particularly vulnerable groups of people.

If you’re collecting data from people with low literacy, make sure to verbally explain the consent form to them before they agree to participate.

For participants with very limited English proficiency, you should always translate the study materials or work with an interpreter so they have all the information in their first language.

In research with children, you’ll often need informed permission for their participation from their parents or guardians. Although children cannot give informed consent, it’s best to also ask for their assent (agreement) to participate, depending on their age and maturity level.

Anonymity means that you don’t know who the participants are and you can’t link any individual participant to their data.

You can only guarantee anonymity by not collecting any personally identifying information—for example, names, phone numbers, email addresses, IP addresses, physical characteristics, photos, and videos.

In many cases, it may be impossible to truly anonymize data collection . For example, data collected in person or by phone cannot be considered fully anonymous because some personal identifiers (demographic information or phone numbers) are impossible to hide.

You’ll also need to collect some identifying information if you give your participants the option to withdraw their data at a later stage.

Data pseudonymization is an alternative method where you replace identifying information about participants with pseudonymous, or fake, identifiers. The data can still be linked to participants but it’s harder to do so because you separate personal information from the study data.

Confidentiality means that you know who the participants are, but you remove all identifying information from your report.

All participants have a right to privacy, so you should protect their personal data for as long as you store or use it. Even when you can’t collect data anonymously, you should secure confidentiality whenever you can.

Some research designs aren’t conducive to confidentiality, but it’s important to make all attempts and inform participants of the risks involved.

As a researcher, you have to consider all possible sources of harm to participants. Harm can come in many different forms.

Psychological harm: Sensitive questions or tasks may trigger negative emotions such as shame or anxiety.
Social harm: Participation can involve social risks, public embarrassment, or stigma.
Physical harm: Pain or injury can result from the study procedures.
Legal harm: Reporting sensitive data could lead to legal risks or a breach of privacy.

It’s best to consider every possible source of harm in your study as well as concrete ways to mitigate them. Involve your supervisor to discuss steps for harm reduction.

Make sure to disclose all possible risks of harm to participants before the study to get informed consent. If there is a risk of harm, prepare to provide participants with resources or counseling or medical services if needed.

Some of these questions may bring up negative emotions, so you inform participants about the sensitive nature of the survey and assure them that their responses will be confidential.

The way you communicate your research results can sometimes involve ethical issues. Good science communication is honest, reliable, and credible. It’s best to make your results as transparent as possible.

Take steps to actively avoid plagiarism and research misconduct wherever possible.

Plagiarism means submitting others’ works as your own. Although it can be unintentional, copying someone else’s work without proper credit amounts to stealing. It’s an ethical problem in research communication because you may benefit by harming other researchers.

Self-plagiarism is when you republish or re-submit parts of your own papers or reports without properly citing your original work.

This is problematic because you may benefit from presenting your ideas as new and original even though they’ve already been published elsewhere in the past. You may also be infringing on your previous publisher’s copyright, violating an ethical code, or wasting time and resources by doing so.

In extreme cases of self-plagiarism, entire datasets or papers are sometimes duplicated. These are major ethical violations because they can skew research findings if taken as original data.

You notice that two published studies have similar characteristics even though they are from different years. Their sample sizes, locations, treatments, and results are highly similar, and the studies share one author in common.

Research misconduct

Research misconduct means making up or falsifying data, manipulating data analyses, or misrepresenting results in research reports. It’s a form of academic fraud.

These actions are committed intentionally and can have serious consequences; research misconduct is not a simple mistake or a point of disagreement about data analyses.

Research misconduct is a serious ethical issue because it can undermine academic integrity and institutional credibility. It leads to a waste of funding and resources that could have been used for alternative research.

Later investigations revealed that they fabricated and manipulated their data to show a nonexistent link between vaccines and autism. Wakefield also neglected to disclose important conflicts of interest, and his medical license was taken away.

This fraudulent work sparked vaccine hesitancy among parents and caregivers. The rate of MMR vaccinations in children fell sharply, and measles outbreaks became more common due to a lack of herd immunity.

Research scandals with ethical failures are littered throughout history, but some took place not that long ago.

Some scientists in positions of power have historically mistreated or even abused research participants to investigate research problems at any cost. These participants were prisoners, under their care, or otherwise trusted them to treat them with dignity.

To demonstrate the importance of research ethics, we’ll briefly review two research studies that violated human rights in modern history.

These experiments were inhumane and resulted in trauma, permanent disabilities, or death in many cases.

After some Nazi doctors were put on trial for their crimes, the Nuremberg Code of research ethics for human experimentation was developed in 1947 to establish a new standard for human experimentation in medical research.

In reality, the actual goal was to study the effects of the disease when left untreated, and the researchers never informed participants about their diagnoses or the research aims.

Although participants experienced severe health problems, including blindness and other complications, the researchers only pretended to provide medical care.

When treatment became possible in 1943, 11 years after the study began, none of the participants were offered it, despite their health conditions and high risk of death.

Ethical failures like these resulted in severe harm to participants, wasted resources, and lower trust in science and scientists. This is why all research institutions have strict ethical guidelines for performing research.

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

Normal distribution
Measures of central tendency
Chi square tests
Confidence interval
Quartiles & Quantiles
Cluster sampling
Stratified sampling
Thematic analysis
Cohort study
Peer review
Ethnography

Research bias

Implicit bias
Cognitive bias
Conformity bias
Hawthorne effect
Availability heuristic
Attrition bias
Social desirability bias

Ethical considerations in research are a set of principles that guide your research designs and practices. These principles include voluntary participation, informed consent, anonymity, confidentiality, potential for harm, and results communication.

Scientists and researchers must always adhere to a certain code of conduct when collecting data from others .

These considerations protect the rights of research participants, enhance research validity , and maintain scientific integrity.

Anonymity means you don’t know who the participants are, while confidentiality means you know who they are but remove identifying information from your research report. Both are important ethical considerations .

You can keep data confidential by using aggregate information in your research report, so that you only refer to groups of participants rather than individuals.

These actions are committed intentionally and can have serious consequences; research misconduct is not a simple mistake or a point of disagreement but a serious ethical failure.

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Addressing ethical issues in your research proposal

This article explores the ethical issues that may arise in your proposed study during your doctoral research degree.

What ethical principles apply when planning and conducting research?

Research ethics are the moral principles that govern how researchers conduct their studies (Wellcome Trust, 2014). As there are elements of uncertainty and risk involved in any study, every researcher has to consider how they can uphold these ethical principles and conduct the research in a way that protects the interests and welfare of participants and other stakeholders (such as organisations).

You will need to consider the ethical issues that might arise in your proposed study. Consideration of the fundamental ethical principles that underpin all research will help you to identify the key issues and how these could be addressed. As you are probably a practitioner who wants to undertake research within your workplace, consider how your role as an ‘insider’ influences how you will conduct your study. Think about the ethical issues that might arise when you become an insider researcher (for example, relating to trust, confidentiality and anonymity).

What key ethical principles do you think will be important when planning or conducting your research, particularly as an insider? Principles that come to mind might include autonomy, respect, dignity, privacy, informed consent and confidentiality. You may also have identified principles such as competence, integrity, wellbeing, justice and non-discrimination.

Key ethical issues that you will address as an insider researcher include:

Gaining trust
Avoiding coercion when recruiting colleagues or other participants (such as students or service users)
Practical challenges relating to ensuring the confidentiality and anonymity of organisations and staff or other participants.

(Heslop et al, 2018)

A fuller discussion of ethical principles is available from the British Psychological Society’s Code of Human Research Ethics (BPS, 2021).

You can also refer to guidance from the British Educational Research Association and the British Association for Applied Linguistics .

Ethical principles are essential for protecting the interests of research participants, including maximising the benefits and minimising any risks associated with taking part in a study. These principles describe ethical conduct which reflects the integrity of the researcher, promotes the wellbeing of participants and ensures high-quality research is conducted (Health Research Authority, 2022).

Research ethics is therefore not simply about gaining ethical approval for your study to be conducted. Research ethics relates to your moral conduct as a doctoral researcher and will apply throughout your study from design to dissemination (British Psychological Society, 2021). When you apply to undertake a doctorate, you will need to clearly indicate in your proposal that you understand these ethical principles and are committed to upholding them.

Where can I find ethical guidance and resources?

Professional bodies, learned societies, health and social care authorities, academic publications, Research Ethics Committees and research organisations provide a range of ethical guidance and resources. International codes such as the Universal Declaration of Human Rights underpin ethical frameworks (United Nations, 1948).

You may be aware of key legislation in your own country or the country where you plan to undertake the research, including laws relating to consent, data protection and decision-making capacity, for example, the Data Protection Act, 2018 (UK). If you want to find out more about becoming an ethical researcher, check out this Open University short course: Becoming an ethical researcher: Introduction and guidance: What is a badged course? - OpenLearn - Open University

You should be able to justify the research decisions you make. Utilising these resources will guide your ethical judgements when writing your proposal and ultimately when designing and conducting your research study. The Ethical Guidelines for Educational Research (British Educational Research Association, 2018) identifies the key responsibilities you will have when you conduct your research, including the range of stakeholders that you will have responsibilities to, as follows:

to your participants (e.g. to appropriately inform them, facilitate their participation and support them)
clients, stakeholders and sponsors
the community of educational or health and social care researchers
for publication and dissemination
your wellbeing and development

The National Institute for Health and Care Research (no date) has emphasised the need to promote equality, diversity and inclusion when undertaking research, particularly to address long-standing social and health inequalities. Research should be informed by the diversity of people’s experiences and insights, so that it will lead to the development of practice that addresses genuine need. A commitment to equality, diversity and inclusion aims to eradicate prejudice and discrimination on the basis of an individual or group of individuals' protected characteristics such as sex (gender), disability, race, sexual orientation, in line with the Equality Act 2010.

The NIHR has produced guidance for enhancing the inclusion of ‘under-served groups’ when designing a research study (2020). Although the guidance refers to clinical research it is relevant to research more broadly.

You should consider how you will promote equality and diversity in your planned study, including through aspects such as your research topic or question, the methodology you will use, the participants you plan to recruit and how you will analyse and interpret your data.

What ethical issues do I need to consider when writing my research proposal?

Camera equipment set up filming a man talking

You might be planning to undertake research in a health, social care, educational or other setting, including observations and interviews. The following prompts should help you to identify key ethical issues that you need to bear in mind when undertaking research in such settings.

1. Imagine you are a potential participant. Think about the questions and concerns that you might have:

How would you feel if a researcher sat in your space and took notes, completed a checklist, or made an audio or film recording?
What harm might a researcher cause by observing or interviewing you and others?
What would you want to know about the researcher and ask them about the study before giving consent?
When imagining you are the participant, how could the researcher make you feel more comfortable to be observed or interviewed?

2. Having considered the perspective of your potential participant, how would you take account of concerns such as privacy, consent, wellbeing and power in your research proposal?

[Adapted from OpenLearn course: Becoming an ethical researcher, Week 2 Activity 3: Becoming an ethical researcher - OpenLearn - Open University ]

The ethical issues to be considered will vary depending on your organisational context/role, the types of participants you plan to recruit (for example, children, adults with mental health problems), the research methods you will use, and the types of data you will collect. You will need to decide how to recruit your participants so you do not inappropriately exclude anyone. Consider what methods may be necessary to facilitate their voice and how you can obtain their consent to taking part or ensure that consent is obtained from someone else as necessary, for example, a parent in the case of a child.

You should also think about how to avoid imposing an unnecessary burden or costs on your participants. For example, by minimising the length of time they will have to commit to the study and by providing travel or other expenses. Identify the measures that you will take to store your participants’ data safely and maintain their confidentiality and anonymity when you report your findings. You could do this by storing interview and video recordings in a secure server and anonymising their names and those of their organisations using pseudonyms.

Professional codes such as the Code of Human Research Ethics (BPS, 2021) provide guidance on undertaking research with children. Being an ‘insider’ researching within your own organisation has advantages. However, you should also consider how this might impact on your research, such as power dynamics, consent, potential bias and any conflict of interest between your professional and researcher roles (Sapiro and Matthews, 2020).

How have other researchers addressed any ethical challenges?

The literature provides researchers’ accounts explaining how they addressed ethical challenges when undertaking studies. For example, Turcotte-Tremblay and McSween-Cadieux (2018) discuss strategies for protecting participants’ confidentiality when disseminating findings locally, such as undertaking fieldwork in multiple sites and providing findings in a generalised form. In addition, professional guidance includes case studies illustrating how ethical issues can be addressed, including when researching online forums (British Sociological Association, no date).

Watch the videos below and consider what insights the postgraduate researcher and supervisor provide regarding issues such as being an ‘insider researcher’, power relations, avoiding intrusion, maintaining participant anonymity and complying with research ethics and professional standards. How might their experiences inform the design and conduct of your own study?

Postgraduate researcher and supervisor talk about ethical considerations

Your thoughtful consideration of the ethical issues that might arise and how you would address these should enable you to propose an ethically informed study and conduct it in a responsible, fair and sensitive manner.

British Educational Research Association (2018) Ethical Guidelines for Educational Research. Available at: https://www.bera.ac.uk/publication/ethical-guidelines-for-educational-research-2018 (Accessed: 9 June 2023).

British Psychological Society (2021) Code of Human Research Ethics . Available at: https://cms.bps.org.uk/sites/default/files/2022-06/BPS%20Code%20of%20Human%20Research%20Ethics%20%281%29.pdf (Accessed: 9 June 2023).

British Sociological Association (2016) Researching online forums . Available at: https://www.britsoc.co.uk/media/24834/j000208_researching_online_forums_-cs1-_v3.pdf (Accessed: 9 June 2023).

Health Research Authority (2022) UK Policy Framework for Health and Social Care Research . Available at: https://www.hra.nhs.uk/planning-and-improving-research/policies-standards-legislation/uk-policy-framework-health-social-care-research/uk-policy-framework-health-and-social-care-research/#chiefinvestigators (Accessed: 9 June 2023).

Heslop, C., Burns, S., Lobo, R. (2018) ‘Managing qualitative research as insider-research in small rural communities’, Rural and Remote Health , 18: pp. 4576.

Equality Act 2010, c. 15. Available at: https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2010/15/introduction (Accessed: 9 June 2023).

National Institute for Health and Care Research (no date) Equality, Diversity and Inclusion (EDI) . Available at: https://arc-kss.nihr.ac.uk/public-and-community-involvement/pcie-guide/how-to-do-pcie/equality-diversity-and-inclusion-edi (Accessed: 9 June 2023).

National Institute for Health and Care Research (2020) Improving inclusion of under-served groups in clinical research: Guidance from INCLUDE project. Available at: https://www.nihr.ac.uk/documents/improving-inclusion-of-under-served-groups-in-clinical-research-guidance-from-include-project/25435 (Accessed: 9 June 2023).

Sapiro, B. and Matthews, E. (2020) ‘Both Insider and Outsider. On Conducting Social Work Research in Mental Health Settings’, Advances in Social Work , 20(3). Available at: https://doi.org/10.18060/23926

Turcotte-Tremblay, A. and McSween-Cadieux, E. (2018) ‘A reflection on the challenge of protecting confidentiality of participants when disseminating research results locally’, BMC Medical Ethics, 19(supplement 1), no. 45. Available at: https://bmcmedethics.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12910-018-0279-0

United Nations General Assembly (1948) The Universal Declaration of Human Rights . Resolution A/RES/217/A. Available at: https://www.un.org/en/about-us/universal-declaration-of-human-rights#:~:text=Drafted%20by%20representatives%20with%20different,all%20peoples%20and%20all%20nations . (Accessed: 9 June 2023).

Wellcome Trust (2014) Ensuring your research is ethical: A guide for Extended Project Qualification students . Available at: https://wellcome.org/sites/default/files/wtp057673_0.pdf (Accessed: 9 June 2023).

Writing your research proposal

A doctoral research degree is the highest academic qualification that a student can achieve. The guidance provided in these articles will help you apply for one of the two main types of research degree offered by The Open University.

Level: 1 Introductory

Defining your research methodology

Your research methodology is the approach you will take to guide your research process and explain why you use particular methods. This article explains more.

Writing your proposal and preparing for your interview

The final article looks at writing your research proposal - from the introduction through to citations and referencing - as well as preparing for your interview.

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Research Paper Guide

Ethical Research Paper Topics

200+ Ethical Research Paper Topics to Begin With (2024)

16 min read

Ethical Topics for Students

If you're starting to explore ethical paper topics, check out this list for some interesting topics. These ideas will help you with your research while keeping your work fair and ethical.

Ethics Topics for College Students

Academic Integrity and Plagiarism
The Ethical Implications of Social Media Use
Impact of Job Automation on Employment
Ethical Challenges in Group Projects
Academic Honesty in the Digital Age
The Intersection of Ethics and Student Mental Health
Ethical Dilemmas in Research Involving Student Participants
Cheating Prevention Strategies: Balancing Security and Trust
Ethical Decision-Making in Internships and Work Placements
Addressing Bias and Diversity in Academic Settings
Euthanasia pros and cons and its ethical considerations

Ethical Hacking Research Paper Topics

Evolution of Ethical Hacking: Past, Present, and Future Trends
Ethical Hacking vs. Cybersecurity: Exploring the Intersections and Distinctions
Ethical Hacking in Critical Infrastructure Protection
Penetration Testing: Ethical Hacking in Corporate Environments
The Role of Ethical Hacking in National Security
Ethical Hacking in Cloud Computing Environments
Challenges and Ethical Considerations in Bug Bounty Programs
Ethical Hacking in Healthcare: Safeguarding Patient Data
The Human Element in Ethical Hacking: Social Engineering and Awareness
Should tech companies need ethics boards?
Analyze the ethics behind cryptocurrency and hacking

Ethical Leadership Research Paper Topics

The Impact of Ethical Leadership on Organizational Culture
Ethical Decision-Making in Leadership: Models and Approaches
The Role of Emotional Intelligence in Ethical Leadership
Cross-Cultural Perspectives on Ethical Leadership
Ethical Leadership in Times of Crisis: Lessons from Case Studies
The Influence of Ethical Leadership on Employee Morale and Productivity
Ethical Leadership and Corporate Social Responsibility
The Relationship Between Ethical Leadership and Employee Well-being
Leadership Integrity: Building Trust through Ethical Behavior
Gender and Ethical Leadership: Analyzing Disparities and Opportunities

Ethical Issue Research Paper Topics

The Ethics of Animal Testing in Scientific Research
Social Media and Ethical Considerations: From Privacy to Online Harassment
Ethical Challenges in Human Cloning and Reproductive Technologies
Corporate Social Responsibility: Examining Business Ethics
Ethical Dilemmas in Autonomous Vehicles and Technology
Cybersecurity Ethics: Defending Against Threats Responsibly
Surveillance and Civil Liberties: Ethical Perspectives
The Morality of Capital Punishment: An Ongoing Debate
Bioethics: Ethical Issues in Healthcare and Medical Research
Ethical Considerations in Artificial Intelligence and Education

Business Ethics Research Paper Topics

Ethical Considerations in Marketing and Advertising Practices
The Role of Business Ethics in Supply Chain Management
Fair Trade Practices: Balancing Profitability and Ethical Standards
The Influence of Organizational Culture on Business Ethics
Corporate Governance: Ethics in Decision-Making and Accountability
Ethics in the Digital Economy: Privacy, Data, and E-Commerce
Diversity and Inclusion: Ethical Imperatives in the Workplace
Ethics of Outsourcing: Examining Global Business Practices
The Intersection of Technology and Business Ethics
Ethical Challenges in International Business: Cultural Perspectives

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Medical Ethics Research Paper Topics

The Role of Ethics in Clinical Trials and Experimental Treatments
Allocation of Scarce Medical Resources: Ethical Decision-Making
Patient Autonomy and Decision-Making: Striking a Balance in Healthcare
Cultural Competence in Healthcare: Ethical Considerations
Medical Research Involving Vulnerable Populations: Ethical Guidelines
Ethics of Stem Cell Research: Balancing Potential and Moral Concerns
Access to Healthcare: Ethical Issues in Global Health Disparities
The Impact of Emerging Technologies on Medical Ethics
Conflicts of Interest in Medical Practice: Transparency and Accountability
The Role of Ethics Committees in Healthcare Institutions

Accounting Ethics Research Paper Topics

Ethical Issues in Taxation: Balancing Compliance and Strategic Planning
Corporate Social Responsibility Reporting: Ethical Perspectives
The Impact of Technology on Accounting Ethics: Privacy and Security Concerns
Ethics in Forensic Accounting: Investigating Financial Irregularities
Environmental Accounting: Ethical Dimensions in Sustainability Reporting
Earnings Management and Ethics: Manipulating Financial Statements
Insider Trading: Unraveling Ethical Issues in Capital Markets
Ethical Considerations in Nonprofit Accounting and Financial Reporting
International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) and Ethical Decision-Making
Accounting for Social Justice: Ethical Implications in Resource Allocation

Legal Ethics Research Paper Topics

Legal Ethics and Access to Justice: Addressing Disparities
The Role of Ethics in Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR)
Whistleblowing in the Legal Profession: Challenges and Protections
Ethics of Legal Advertising: Balancing Professionalism and Marketing
The Intersection of Legal Ethics and Diversity in Law Firms
Confidentiality and Social Media: Ethical Implications for Lawyers
Judicial Ethics: Impartiality and Independence in the Legal System
Ethical Challenges in International Law Practice
Legal Ethics and Pro Bono Service: Serving the Public Interest
Corporate Lawyers and Ethical Decision-Making: Balancing Duties

Environmental Ethics Research Paper Topics

Biodiversity Conservation: Ethical Dilemmas in Species Preservation
Ecofeminism and Environmental Ethics: Exploring Intersections
Sustainable Development and Environmental Ethics
Land Ethics: Balancing Human Needs and Ecological Integrity
Animal Rights and Environmental Ethics: The Moral Status of Non-Human Entities
The Ethics of Environmental Restoration and Rehabilitation
Environmental Virtue Ethics: Fostering Ecological Virtues
Corporate Environmental Responsibility: Ethical Considerations in Business Practices
Ethical Dimensions of Wilderness Preservation and Management
Environmental Education: Fostering Ethical Relationships with Nature

Bioethics Research Paper Topics

The Ethics of Genetic Engineering and Designer Babies
Human Cloning: Bioethical Considerations and Moral Implications
End-of-Life Decision-Making: Euthanasia and Physician-Assisted Suicide
Ethical Issues in Organ Transplantation and Donor Allocation
Research Ethics in Biomedical Studies: Balancing Innovation and Patient Safety
Animal Rights in Biomedical Research: Ethical Treatment and Alternatives
Genomic Privacy and Confidentiality: Challenges in the Genomic Era
The Ethics of Neuroenhancement and Cognitive Enhancement
Environmental Ethics in Bioethics: Sustainable Practices in Biomedical Research
Global Health Ethics: Challenges and Responsibilities in a Connected World

Research Paper Topics in Sports Ethics

Performance-Enhancing Drugs: Ethical Dilemmas in Sports
The Role of Fair Play and Sportsmanship in Competitive Sports
Ethical Issues in Sports Medicine: Player Health and Treatment
Doping in Professional Sports: Consequences and Prevention
Gender Equality and Ethical Considerations in Sports
Sports Betting and Match-Fixing: Ethical Challenges in the Industry
The Impact of Technology on Sports Ethics: Video Review, Wearable Tech, and Beyond
Youth Sports and Ethical Coaching Practices
Social Justice in Sports: Athlete Activism and Ethical Responsibilities
Sports Sponsorship and Ethical Considerations: Aligning Values with Partnerships

Criminal Justice Research Topics in Ethics

Police Ethics: Use of Force, Racial Profiling, and Accountability
Ethical Issues in Criminal Investigations: Privacy, Surveillance, and Informants
Capital Punishment: Morality and Legality in the Criminal Justice System
The Ethics of Plea Bargaining: Balancing Justice and Expediency
Juvenile Justice: Ethical Considerations in the Treatment of Youth Offenders
Ethics of Criminal Defense: Zealous Representation vs. Ethical Boundaries
Corrections Ethics: Rehabilitation, Punishment, and Inmate Rights
Criminal Justice and Mental Health: Ethical Approaches to Offenders with Mental Illness
Community Policing and Ethical Engagement with Communities
Corruption in Law Enforcement: Causes, Effects, and Ethical Solutions

Research Paper Topics About Ethical Behavior

The Influence of Organizational Culture on Ethical Behavior
The Role of Ethics Training in Promoting Ethical Behavior in the Workplace
Cultural Variations in Ethical Behavior: A Cross-Cultural Analysis
The Impact of Technology on Ethical Behavior in Business
Professional Codes of Ethics: A Comparative Analysis Across Industries
The Relationship Between Personal Values and Ethical Behavior
Ethical Behavior in Healthcare: Patient-Centered Approaches
Ethics in Research: Ensuring Ethical Behavior in Scientific Inquiry
The Effectiveness of Ethics Hotlines in Encouraging Ethical Reporting
Ethical Behavior in Education: Fostering Integrity in Academic Settings

Research Paper Topics Related To Ethics And Values

The Intersection of Cultural Values and Ethical Decision-Making
Religious Perspectives on Ethical Issues: A Comparative Analysis
Moral Development Theories: Understanding the Formation of Values
The Impact of Family Values on Ethical Behavior in Individuals
Corporate Values Statements: Alignment with Ethical Business Practices
The Role of Education in Instilling Ethical Values in Students
Ethics and Values in the Digital Age: Challenges and Opportunities
Professional Ethics Codes: Examining Values Across Professions
Environmental Ethics: Values-Based Approaches to Conservation
The Influence of Personal Values on Career Choices and Workplace Behavior

Research Project Topics On Ethics And Morality

Ethics of Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning: Challenges and Solutions
Moral Dilemmas in Healthcare: Balancing Patient Autonomy and Beneficence
Moral Psychology: Understanding the Cognitive Basis of Ethical Decision-Making
The Morality of Capital Punishment: Examining Ethical Arguments
Ethics in Global Governance: Addressing Moral Issues in International Relations
Environmental Ethics: Moral Considerations in Conservation and Sustainability
Morality in Business: Corporate Social Responsibility and Ethical Practices
The Impact of Religion on Moral Values: A Comparative Study
Ethics of Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology: A Moral Inquiry
Morality and Technology Addiction: Exploring the Ethical Dimensions

Research Paper Topics about Health Care Ethics

Ethical Issues in Organ Transplantation and Allocation
Medical Research Ethics: Ensuring the Welfare of Research Participants
The Ethics of Genetic Testing and Counseling in Healthcare
Equity in Healthcare: Addressing Disparities and Access Issues
The Impact of Technology on Healthcare Ethics: Telemedicine, AI, and Data Security
Healthcare and Social Media: Ethical Considerations for Professionals
Explore the Grounds of Surrogacy. Is it Ethical?
Ethical Considerations in Prenatal Invasive Testing
Health Information Exchange: Ethical Concerns in Electronic Health Records
The Role of Healthcare Ethics Committees in Decision-Making

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Biomedical Ethics Research Paper Topics

Autonomy in Medical Decision-Making: Examining Patient Rights
Informed Consent: Ethical Considerations in Medical Research and Treatment
The Morality of Human Genetic Editing: Implications and Limits
End-of-Life Care Ethics: Euthanasia, Palliative Care, and Assisted Suicide
Clinical Trials and Research Ethics: Balancing Innovation and Patient Welfare
Organ Transplantation Ethics: Allocation, Donor Rights, and Fair Practices
Ethics of Human Cloning: Scientific Advances and Moral Dilemmas
Healthcare Access and Equity: Addressing Disparities in Medical Treatment
Ethical Implications of Precision Medicine and Personalized Healthcare
Neuroethics: Ethical Considerations in Brain Research and Neurological Interventions

Ethical Egoism Research Paper Topics

Foundations of Ethical Egoism: A Comprehensive Analysis
Psychological Egoism vs. Ethical Egoism: Distinguishing Self-Interest Theories
Ethical Egoism and Altruism: Examining the Tension between Self-Interest and Concern for Others
The Role of Rationality in Ethical Egoism: A Philosophical Inquiry
Ethical Egoism in Business: Balancing Individual Interests and Corporate Ethics
Criticisms and Challenges to Ethical Egoism: Addressing Counter Arguments
Egoism and Morality: Exploring the Compatibility of Self-Interest with Moral Principles
Personal Responsibility and Ethical Egoism: Individual Accountability in Decision-Making
Ethical Egoism in Professional Ethics: Implications for Various Professions
Ethical Egoism and Social Contracts: Assessing the Role of Self-Interest in Social Cooperation

Controversial Ethical Research Topics

Climate Change Policies: Ethical Dilemmas in Balancing Economic Growth and Environmental Conservation
Gene Editing and Designer Babies: Ethical Boundaries in Genetic Modification
End-of-life Decision-making: Examining the Ethics of Euthanasia and Physician-Assisted Suicide
Bioethics and stem cell research and its legality
Can war be ethical? What are its after-effects?
Surveillance Capitalism: Balancing Corporate Interests with User Privacy Rights
Data Privacy in the Digital Age: Analyzing the Ethical Dimensions of Big Data Collection
Criminal Justice and Racial Profiling: Unraveling Ethical Issues in Law Enforcement
Ethics of Human Cloning: Examining the Moral and Scientific Frontiers

Social Responsibility Ethics Topics

Corporate Social Responsibility: Integrating Ethics into Business Practices
Sustainable Business Practices: Balancing Profitability and Social Impact
Ethics in Philanthropy: Ensuring Transparency and Accountability
Socially Responsible Investing: Aligning Financial Goals with Ethical Values
Community Engagement and Ethical Responsibility of Businesses
The Role of Government in Promoting Social Responsibility
Environmental Ethics in Corporate Decision-Making: Green Initiatives and Sustainability
Ethics in Supply Chain Management: Ensuring Fair Labor Practices
Measuring and Reporting Social Impact: Ethical Standards in Evaluation
Ethics of Animal Testing: Scientific Advancements vs. Animal Welfare

Ethical Conflicts Topics

Ethical Dilemmas in Healthcare: Balancing Patient Autonomy and Beneficence
The Tension Between Freedom of Speech and Hate Speech: Ethical Considerations
Military Ethics: Navigating Conflicts Between Duty and Morality
Ethics of Whistleblowing: Balancing Loyalty and Accountability
Religious Freedom vs. LGBTQ+ Rights: Ethical Debates and Legal Conflicts
Surveillance Ethics: Individual Privacy vs. National Security
The Ethics of Artificial Intelligence: Addressing Bias and Autonomy
Political Ethics: Balancing Public Service and Personal Interests
The Right to Die: Ethical Debates Surrounding Assisted Suicide
Ethics of Journalism: Objectivity, Sensationalism, and Media Integrity

How to Select the Best Ethical Research Paper Topics?

Selecting the best ethical research paper topics requires thoughtful consideration and a strategic approach.

Here are some guidelines to help you choose the most suitable and engaging research paper topics :

1. Identify Your Interests

Start by reflecting on your personal interests and passions. Choosing a topic that genuinely intrigues you will make the research process more enjoyable and rewarding.

2. Consider the Assignment Guidelines

Review any guidelines or requirements provided by your instructor. Ensure that your chosen topic aligns with the scope and objectives of the assignment.

3. Explore Current Issues

Stay updated on current events and trends in the field of ethics. Selecting a topic that addresses contemporary ethical issues can make your research more relevant and impactful.

4. Research Existing Literature

Conduct a preliminary review of existing literature in the chosen area. This will help you identify gaps, controversies, and potential research questions that can guide your exploration.

5. Consider Multiple Perspectives

Choose a topic that allows you to explore different perspectives and viewpoints. Ethical issues are often complex, and a well-rounded analysis can provide a more comprehensive understanding.

6. Ethical Considerations

Ensure that your chosen topic aligns with ethical standards. If your research involves human subjects or sensitive issues, be mindful of ethical guidelines and obtain any necessary approvals.

In conclusion, this blog consists of a wide range of ethical research paper topics for researchers and scholars. It helps you understand and choose ethical topics for your research.

So, as you start your own research, remember that ethical questions can lead to important discoveries and a better understanding of the world around us.

And if you feel overwhelmed choosing the topic or writing your research paper, let the experts at MyPerfetWords.com handle it professionally!

Our writing team will help you write your research papers as well as its parts, let alone! So, do not waste any time! Hire our expert essay writing service today!

Frequently Asked Questions

What are some ethical research questions examples.

How does social media usage impact individual privacy, and what ethical concerns arise?
What are the ethical implications of AI in healthcare decision-making for patient treatment?
How can businesses balance profitability with environmental sustainability, and what ethical challenges does this pose?
In what ways do cultural differences influence ethical decisions in multinational corporations?
What ethical considerations surround the use of CRISPR technology in human genetic editing?
How does social media contribute to online harassment, and what ethical safeguards can be implemented?
What are the ethical dilemmas associated with autonomous vehicles and technology in transportation?
How can organizations ensure fair and unbiased AI algorithms, addressing ethical concerns in technology?
In healthcare, how do we navigate the ethical challenges of gene editing and its potential consequences?
What ethical considerations arise in the use of big data analytics, particularly in terms of individual privacy and consent?

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Formidable Ethical Research Paper Topics For You!

Students in every course highly seek ethical research paper topics. Why may you ask? It is because every class, or rather, every career requires a particular set of ethical standards.

However, coming across some easy ethical research paper topics may not be that easy after all. Lucky for you, this splendid and reputable post will solve that in a moment.

Before that, how do you write an ethical research paper?

How To Write an Ethical Research Paper (Simply)

The following quick guidelines will give you an overview of how such a paper resembles and what you should do.

Choose a captivating topic on ethics
Formulate an outline
Start writing with a hook introduction
Proceed on with a descriptive body
Finish with a momentous conclusion
Proofread the final copy

Nothing more or less of that, and you will have your perfect ethical research paper. In this post, we will show some great moral issue research paper topics that you can choose from later.

Stay with me now as we explore these great ideas together. Remember to remain hawk-eyed lest you miss out on this once in a lifetime opportunity.

Prerequisite Steps to Choosing a Topic for an Ethics Research Paper

Before arriving at your topic, the following ideas will be useful:

Have a look at the available materials
Do critical thinking on the possible ideas
Choose one out of the many

It is vital to ensure that your topic is original to avoid running into plagiarism claims. Furthermore, a brief problem will attract readers at first sight. The word length of the topic matters. Very great topics are a huge turn off to most readers; therefore, keep it short and to the point.

50 Ethical Issues Topics for a Research Paper

We shall tackle them according to subcategories so that you do not get confused along the way. Here we go then.

Ethical Hacking Research Paper Topics

Goals of security in ethical hacking
World’s most significant data breaches
Viruses and malware to watch out for in 2023
Assessing an organization’s vulnerability to cyber attacks
How much time should an organization perform a backup every day?
A case study of the qualitative risk assessment methods
Disadvantages of black-box testing
Does ethical hacking exist?
How did ethical hacking come to be?
Ethical hacking: Is it worth it?

Ethical Leadership Research Paper Topics

Ethical leadership: The barriers to successful leadership
The place of moral leadership in corrupt countries
Rethinking ethical leadership in the 21st century
Impact of Leadership courses on ethical leading
How a teacher’s ethical behavior impacts students
Is ethical leadership practiced in universities?
Ethical leadership and employee relationships
A case study of companies practicing ethical leadership and their performance
Leadership lessons from Nelson Mandela: A case study
A review of the relationship between moral and relational leadership

Ethical Egoism Research Paper Topics

A comparison between ethical Egoism versus virtue ethics
Ethical Egoism: A philosophical position
Crime and Ethical Egoism
Contrast between Ethical Egoism and Psychological Egoism
Impact of ethical Egoism in business
Thoughtful commentary on ethical Egoism
Ethics and morality compared
What is Ethical Egoism and What it Is Not
A study of ethical egoism theories
Contribution of a song to ethical egoism theory

Controversial Ethical Topics for Research Paper

Is plastic surgery ethical?
The impact of capital punishment on primary human rights
Why genetic cloning is not to be pursued in the future
Is abortion legal or illegal?
Is human trafficking justified in any law?
How safe is animal testing for humans?
Is genetic cloning interfering with Mother Nature?
Impact of ethnic adoption on a child’s development
Are pills doing us more harm than good?
Is a person justified to take his or her life?

Interesting Ethical Issues Topics for Research Paper

What is the ethical impact of organ donation?
The view of Catholicism on homosexuality
Should we help strangers anywhere whenever we meet them?
Should there be rich and poor people in the same country?
Should newspapers and televisions show pictures of caskets?
Should people leave their contact information at entrances?
Who is responsible for the moral ethics of children: Parents or teachers?
Should you report a close family friend involved in crime?
Are politicians free to make campaigns in church?
Is assisted suicide not the same as murder?

Ethics focuses on the shades of gray rather than black and white. Students should choose a research topic bearing in mind the implications carefully. The language used in an ethical research paper should also be prudent enough to prevent lawsuits.

Ethics Research Topics Are Here!

Ethical issues are all around us, and we cannot be ignorant of them. However, good ethical topics for a research paper require a keen eye on the student’s part. Haphazardness is not entertained in such an essay as it would amount to gross misconduct.

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Writing Ethical Papers: Top Tips to Ace Your Assignment

17 August, 2021

13 minutes read

Author: Kate Smith

Writing a complex essay paper can be a tough task for any student, especially for those who do not have their skills developed well or do not have enough time for lengthy assignments. At the same time, the majority of college students need to keep their grades high to maintain their right to receive merit-based scholarships and continue their studies the next year. To help you with your ethical papers writing, we created this guide. Below, you will find out what an ethical paper is, how to structure it and write it efficiently.

What is an Ethical Paper?

An ethics paper is a type of an argumentative assignment that deals with a certain ethical problem that a student has to describe and solve. Also, it can be an essay where a certain controversial event or concept is elaborated through an ethical lens (e.g. moral rules and principles), or a certain ethical dilemma is explained. Since ethics is connected to moral concepts and choices, a student needs to have a fair knowledge of philosophy and get ready to answer questions related to relationships, justice, professional and social duties, the origin of good and evil, etc., to write a quality paper. Also, writing an ethics paper implies that a student should process a great amount of information regarding their topic and analyze it according to paper terms.

General Aspects of Writing an Ethics Paper

Understanding the ethical papers’ features.

Every essay has differences and features that make it unique. Writing ethical papers implies that a student will use their knowledge of morality and philosophy to resolve a certain ethical dilemma or solve a situation. It can also be a paper in which a student needs to provide their reasoning on ethical or legal circumstances that follow a social issue. Finally, it can be an assignment in which an ethical concept and its application are described. On the contrary, a history essay deals with events that took place somewhen earlier, while a narrative essay is a paper where students demonstrate their storytelling skills, etc.

Defining What Type of Essay Should Be Written

Most of the time, ethical paper topics imply that a student will write an argumentative essay; however, ethics essays can also be descriptive and expository. Each of these essay types has different guidelines for writing, so be sure you know them before you start writing your papers on ethics. In case you missed this step in your ethical paper preparation stage, you would end up writing a paper that misses many important points.

Studying the Ethical Paper Guidelines

Once you get your ethical paper assignment, look through the guidelines that your instructor provided to you. If you receive them during the class, don’t hesitate to pose any questions immediately to remove any misunderstanding before writing an ethics paper outline, or ask for references that you need to use. When you are about to write your first draft, don’t rush: read the paper instructions once again to make sure you understand what is needed from you.

Paying Attention to the Paper Topic

The next thing you need to pay attention to is the ethical paper topic: once you are given one, make sure it falls into the scope of your educational course. After that, consider what additional knowledge may be needed to elaborate on your topic and think about what courses of your program could be helpful for it. Once you are done, read through your topic again to recheck whether you understand your assignment right.

Understanding the Notions of Ethical Arguments, Ethical and Legal Implications, and Ethical Dilemma

Last but not least, another important factor is that a student has to understand the basic terms of the assignment to write a high-quality paper. Ethical arguments are a set of moral rules that are used to defend your position on an ethical issue stated in your essay topic. We refer to ethical versus legal implications when we think about the compensation for certain ethical dilemma outcomes and whether it should be a moral punishment or legal judgment. An ethical dilemma itself refers to a problem or situation which makes an individual doubt what position to take: e.g, abortion, bribery, corruption, etc.

Writing Outline and Structure of an Ethics Paper

Every essay has a structure that makes it a solid piece of writing with straight reasoning and argumentation, and an ethics paper is not an exclusion. This paper has an introduction, body paragraphs, and conclusion. Below, we will describe how each part of ethical papers should be organized and what information they should contain.

First comes the introduction. It is the opening part of your paper which helps a reader to get familiar with your topic and understand what your paper will be about. Therefore, it should contain some information on your ethics paper topics and a thesis statement, which is a central statement of your paper.

The essay body is the most substantive part of your essay where all the reasoning and arguments should be presented. Each paragraph should contain an argument that supports or contradicts your thesis statement and pieces of evidence to support your position. Pick at least three arguments to make your position clear in your essay, and then your paper will be considered well-structured.

The third part of an ethics paper outline is a conclusion, which is a finishing essay part. Its goal is to wrap up the whole essay and make the author’s position clear for the last time. The thoughtful formulation in this essay part should be especially clear and concise to demonstrate the writer’s ability to make conclusions and persuade readers.

Also, don’t forget to include the works cited page after your writing. It should mention all the reference materials that you used in your paper in the order of appearance or in the alphabetical one. This page should be formatted according to the assigned formatting style. Most often, the most frequently used format for ethical papers is APA.

20 Examples of Ethical Paper Topics

Are there any issues in the 21st century that we can consider immoral and why?
What is corporate ethics?
Why is being selfish no longer an issue in 2023?
Euthanasia: pros and cons
Marijuana legalization: should it be allowed all over the world?
Is abortion an ethical issue nowadays?
Can we invent a universal religion appropriate for all?
Is the church necessary to pray to God?
Can we forgive infidelity and should we do it?
How to react if you are witnessing high school bullying?
What are the ways to respond to a family abusing individual?
How to demand your privacy protection in a digital world?
The history of the American ethical thought
Can war be ethical and what should the conflicting sides do to make it possible?
Ethical issues of keeping a zoo in 2023
Who is in charge of controlling the world’s population?
How to achieve equality in the world’s rich and poor gap?
Is science ethical?
How ethical is genetic engineering?
Why many countries refuse to go back to carrying out the death penalty?

Ethical Papers Examples

If you still have no idea about how to write an ethics paper, looking through other students’ successful examples is always a good idea. Below, you can find a relevant ethics paper example that you can skim through and see how to build your reasoning and argumentation in your own paper.

https://www.currentschoolnews.com/education-news/ethics-essay-examples/

https://sites.psu.edu/academy/2014/11/18/essay-2-personal-ethics-and-decision-making/

Ethical Papers Writing Tips

Choose a topic that falls into the ethics course program.

In case you were not given the ethics paper topic, consider choosing it yourself. To do that, brainstorm the ethical issues that fascinate you enough to do research. List all these issues on a paper sheet and then cross out those that are too broad or require expertise that you don’t have. The next step you need to take is to choose three or four ethical topics for papers from the list and try to do a quick search online to find out whether these topics are elaborated enough to find sources and reference materials on them. Last, choose one topic that you like the most and find the most relevant one in terms of available data for reference.

Do your research

Once the topic is chosen and organized, dive deeper into it to find the most credible, reliable, and trusted service. Use your university library, online scientific journals, documentaries, and other sources to get the information from. Remember to take notes while working with every new piece of reference material to not forget the ideas that you will base your argumentation on.

Follow the guidelines for a paper outline

During the preparation for your ethical paper and the process of writing it, remember to follow your professor’s instructions (e.g. font, size, spacing, citation style, etc.). If you neglect them, your grade for the paper will decrease significantly.

Write the essay body first

Do not rush to start writing your ethics papers from the very beginning; to write a good essay, you need to have your outline and thesis statement first. Then, go to writing body paragraphs to demonstrate your expertise on the issue you are writing about. Remember that one supporting idea should be covered in one paragraph and should be followed by the piece of evidence that confirms it.

Make sure your introduction and conclusion translate the same message

After your essay body is done, write a conclusion and an introduction for your paper. The main tip regarding these ethics paper parts is that you should make them interrelated: your conclusion has to restate your introduction but not repeat it. Also, a conclusion should wrap up your writing and make it credible for the audience.

Add citations

Every top-quality paper has the works cited page and citations to demonstrate that the research on the topic has been carried out. Therefore, do not omit this point when formatting your paper: add all the sources to the works cited page and pay attention to citing throughout the text. The latter should be done according to the formatting style indicated in your instructions.

Edit your paper

Last but not least is the editing and proofreading stage that you need to carry out before you submit your paper to your instructor. Consider keeping your first draft away from sight for a day or two to have a rest, and then go back to check it for errors and redundant phrases. Don’t rush to change anything immediately after finishing your writing since you are already tired and less focused, so some mistakes may be missed.

Writing Help by Handmadewriting

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177 Interesting Ethics Paper Topics For Your Thesis

Ethics is a branch of study in philosophy that studies the concept of morality—what is good or bad, what is acceptable or unacceptable. It’s a philosophical theory that looks into moral rules and codes, principles, value systems, and other related concepts.

In academia, an ethical theory is used as one of the analytical tools in drawing analysis on several socio-cultural topics. Ethics can be applied to any particular subject matter in human society. And, on this, so many compelling, controversial or interesting ethical topics for academic essays and research papers have continued to spring up.

For students writing either an essay or a research paper on ethics, there are some relevant things to note about a good essay/research topic and writing a dissertation. They include:

Brainstorm on different topics Always go for a topic you are familiar with Choose a topic that has enough “flesh”. This is important as interesting topics will help you develop your essay/research Define your subject of interest. It makes the writing easier Properly researching for topics that serve contemporary social relevance Outlining is important for your research topic

What following some of these processes does for your essay/research/thesis is that it enriches your work and affords you the ability to communicate ideas clearly to readers. Here are some topics in ethics you can use for your essay/research.

Interesting Top Level Ethics Paper Topics for All Students

Writing a paper on ethics makes for an interesting writing experience because they usually require that the writer make a case for a particular subject based on whether the subject is right or wrong. There are so many ethical topics for papers. As a student, there are several ethical questions to debate, and you can choose to model your topic using some of these samples:

Discuss what should be done concerning the rise in the ban on safe abortion
Is the right to safe abortion practice unethical?
Should abortion practice be promoted or championed for women in society?
Are humans truly the root source for the issues of climate change and global warming the world is currently experiencing?
Is it right to discriminate against the sexes?
Is there a defining difference between sexes and gender?
Is the practice of gender-based violence ethical?
Should safe sexual practices be promoted?
Sex: A Study of the growing practice of sexual relationships outside marriage
Domestic Violence and how it can be combated
Marijuana: The distinction to its health roles and health challenges it poses on individuals
Is it unethical to promote capitalism and capitalist concepts?
A Study of Racism and measures to ensure its decline
Is it ethical to be a millionaire while there are so many less privileged people?
A study of the ethical challenges that come with being in the academia
Is war an ethical practice?
Why LGBTQ+ people should not be discriminated against
What are the ways workplace ethics can address issues of homophobia and internalized sexism?
Is sexism in the workplace an ethical practice?
The issue of microaggression and how it can be addressed
A study of why workplaces need ethical conduct that monitors issues of workplace harassment
Should salaries be uneven?
How unethical are uneven salary payment structures?
Should start-up tech companies hire more men for starters?
How people can prioritize online privacy
Is bridging online privacy unethical?
Is the right to privacy unethical?

Engaging Ethical Dilemma Topics

As ethics deals with the debate on morals, one of the ways topics on ethics manifests is in the subject of dilemma. Topics like this focus on trying to find a suitable justification for one idea over another. There are several ethics topics to write about on this subject. Some of them include:

Should students be allowed to bring their phones to school?
Should parents police every social activity of their children?
Should teachers use the cane on students as a disciplinary measure?
Is flogging a good correctional practice?
Should you leave your partner if they are of opposing political views?
Should opposing religious beliefs be a deal-breaker in relationships?
Should capitalism be abolished completely?
Should a teacher maintain some level of friendship with their students?
Is there any lingering importance of capitalism to society?
Is revenge a viable option in a relationship if your partner cheats on you?
Is sharing your experiences online the same as showing off a lifestyle?
Should people from different religious beliefs and backgrounds partner?
Is checking the DNA of your children important or necessary?
Should parents enforce their children on behaviors to take up?
Can discipline properly correct the attitudes of a child?
Should eating junk foods be avoided completely?
Should Halloween Trick or Treat and Costume be prioritized over Thanksgiving Dinners?
Should children hold different religious beliefs from their parents while still young?
Does strict parenting serve as the best way to raise a child?
Is it important to reveal a secret to a friend or to keep one’s peace?
Should cooking at home be prioritized over eating out?
Is socialism a more suitable social practice than capitalism?
Is accepting financial assistance from your parents acceptable after a certain age?
Should school authorities seize phones brought to school?
Is sending a child to a mixed school better than same-sex schools?
Can afforestation alone save the world from global warming and the general climate change condition?
Does being educated equate with being intelligent?

Ethical Issues to Write about in Your College Essay

One important thing to note about ethical topics is that they touch across so many different subjects. As a college student preparing to write an essay on ethics, rest assured as there are so many ethics ideas to write about. Here are some ethical topics to write about:

Does Hiring female employees cover a company’s sexist motives?
Should Actors be paid more than teachers?
Taking medical decisions for a patient without their consent
How ethical is the interference of the judiciary by the legislative arm of government?
Is it ethical to fire someone due to their dress code?
Is it unethical to wear colored hair to work?
Is censorship ethical?
Where does media censorship draw the line?
Is it ethical for religious figureheads to meddle in state politics?
Should gender be the reason why a person is restricted access to certain social privileges?
Should sexuality be a discriminatory factor in society?
Should companies and places of work provide counseling and therapy services for their employees?
Can Children wear makeup on special occasions?
Is it unethical to make medical decisions for a patient without any recognizable relatives?
Does dress code need to affect how you are addressed?
Should implementing ethics in sports be recommended?
Is police brutality an ethical practice?
The impacts of the excessive consumption of media content?
Is the excessive use of social media healthy?
How can companies ensure paid maternal and paternal leave?
How can the inclusion of non-binary people in company policies promote growth?
Is exclusion on the grounds of sexuality ethical?
Is exclusion due to political beliefs unethical?
How to promote ethical work culture?
How can a company ensure that ethical practices are promoted in their companies?

Ethical Argument Topics to Write About

The best part about writing an ethical essay is that it is about anything that is of interest. An important aspect of the ethical argument topic is that it is supported with evidence. There are so many ethical topics to write about that fall within this category, and they include:

Is the having of ethical codes and conducts important in an organization?
Should people only implement progressive ideas to meet societal needs?
Why LGBTQ+ should not be discriminated against
Is it unethical to come to work late?
Is government-sanctioned execution an ethical practice?
Is the American incarceration system an effective corrective system?
Is corrective rape an ethical practice?
Should the issue of internalized homophobia be addressed?
Internalized patriarchy and internalized homophobia, which one births one
Should smoking weed be made legal?
Why do the less privileged need free healthcare services
A study of the effects of colonialism and internalized slavery
Must aspiring journalists only focus on journalism courses?
Addressing what it means to be of ethical behavior
Should students be given a take-home assignment?
Is there any academic relevance to assignments?
Is access to free healthcare important?
Does following the ethics code have abt social relevance?
What role should developed countries play for developing countries?
Is analysis writing an important aspect of literature?
What role does ethics play in schools
Should the address of global warming be continuous?
Is there room for possible positive developments in global warming?
Is the practice of ethics the same as moral teaching
Should schools create sex education into their education curriculum

Comprehensive Ethics Debate Topics for Anyone

Just like the argumentative ethics topic, a debate topic on ethics centers majorly on choosing a part to argue for or against. This argument also is wrapped with evidence to support it. Your ethic topics can be on any subject. You can choose moral topics or any other topic with relevance. Here are some lists of ethical debate topics anyone can write on:

Should the use of Contraceptives be promoted?
Does legalizing weed make it any healthier?
Should school children bring phones into school settings?
The health impact of excessive engagement on social media
Social relevance and importance of having ethical conducts
Do companies with ethical conduct grow ahead
Does ethics make a workplace safer?
Are there importance on why sex education should be added to student’s
Why safe abortion rights should be legalized
Why the discrimination based on sexuality is harmful
Why the practice of hedonism is important
Sexual pleasure: Is it morally good?
Is happiness dependent on an external factor?
Why Institutionalized racism is the root cause of racism and racist beliefs
Should the use of drugs be legalized?
Is there any progressive importance to having a conservative view on things?
Should social media apps allow explicit sexual content?
Should social app builders have access to individual account
Can homeschool match formal school training?
Should the government ensure censorship measures?
Is voting during elections the only form of patriotism?
Is voting a patriotic display
Are families allowed to have contradicting religious beliefs?
Should state governments have any interference with the federal government?
Should teenagers have access to contraceptives?

Good Ethical Research Papers for your Thesis or Dissertation

Writing either a thesis or a dissertation is a necessary part of academia. As a university student, you can’t graduate from only writing essays withiut writing your graduating thesis. There are so many areas your research paper about ethics can focus on. Here is a list of ethical topics:

The contemporary relevance of applied ethics
The psychological impacts of the proliferation of technology
A Case Study of the legality of weed
A multi-dimensional approach to the subject of marriage
An ethical approach to the killing of animals
A case study of the critical ethical debates on the use of contraception
An analytical study of the relevance of ethical conduct in the workplace
An investigation into the social relevance and importance of the beauty pageantry culture
A critical study of normative ethics
The role of applied ethics in the building of a healthy work culture
An overview of the barriers associated with good leadership practice
A Study of the importance of ethical practice in the healthcare system
The study of ethics in business social responsibility
An Overview on how Ethics promotes a saner working culture
A look into how ethics promotes healthy social relationships
The ethical relevance for Doctor and Patient Confidentiality
Malpractice and Negligence an ethically challenging issue within the healthcare system
The social and health relevance to access to free healthcare insurance
A Study of the social relevance of ethics
Violence: violence against animals is still abuse
A look into strategic approaches to managing cyber crimes
Ethic reasons for the separation of the church from politics
Ethical Conduct: How Organizations with practicable ethics produces a toxic work environment
A look into how Social media negatively impacts the IQ of a student
The role of self-awareness and professional responsibility impacts social ethics in the workplace

Good Ethical Questions for Discussion

Primarily, ethics asks and answers the question of wrong or good. There are so many social issues that will make for good ethical questions for discussion. Here is a list of ethical questions for students to form insights from:

How does ethics help to promote healthy workplace awareness?
Does the practice of abortion negate morality?
Is it right for a rape victim to be denied access to safe and free abortion?
How do homophobia, racism, misogyny, and ableist practices hinder social growth?
Should there be free access to condoms and contraceptive pills?
Is free access to contraceptives better than the provision of menstrual materials
How can racism be dismantled in an organization without consideration to institutionalized racism?
How does the continuous promotion of capitalist concepts hinder societal progress?
Does capitalism truly hinder social growth?
Why should there be free access to contraceptive materials especially for women?
What are the possible feasible solutions to the issue of climate change?
Is it unethical not to share the wealth?
Is engaging in warfare the right way to bring solutions?
Does the use of makeup contradict the concept of beauty?
Why are LGBTQ+ rights human rights?
Is the legalization of cannabis ethical?
Does the way you dress need to be the reason you are addressed a certain way?
Are there moral problems that come with job automation?
What can be done to combat the use of harmful substances
Why should companies stop discriminating based on sex?
What is the social relevance of providing workplace access?
Why should parents and teachers stop flogging students?
What is the distinction between discipline and strictness?
Should religious beliefs be a dealbreaker in any relationship?

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Ethical Research in Business Ethics

Editorial Essay
Published: 29 November 2022
Volume 182 , pages 1–5, ( 2023 )

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Gazi Islam 1 &
Michelle Greenwood 2

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In this editorial essay, we argue that business ethics research should be aware of the ethical implications of its own methodological choices, and that these implications include, but go beyond, mere compliance with standardized ethical norms. Methodological choices should be made specifically with reference to their effects on the world, both within and outside the academy. Awareness of these effects takes researchers beyond assuring ethics in their methods to more fully consider the ethics of their methods as knowledge practices that have broader institutional consequences. Drawing from examples in published research, we examine five ways in which authors can formulate their methodological approaches with purpose, care and reflexivity.

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Business ethicists are accustomed to confronting the “hard cases” of ethical choices in organizational life. We believe that business ethics scholarship must be equally sensitive to ethical nuances in the design and implementation of research methods in our own activities. In the complexities of research practice, ethical considerations around method and design exceed the standardized templates of methods textbooks. Where research designs begin and end and whom they implicate as protagonists, who receives voice, protection and authority, and what is rendered visible and invisible within the field of study. These are thorny questions that are not amenable to check-list style compliance guidelines, even where such guidelines also have an important role (cf., Greenwood, 2016 ).

In our exchanges with authors and within the editorial team, we have confronted a plethora of hard cases that highlight the challenges of research ethics beyond rule compliance. To what extent should the mode of data collection (such as crowdsourced data or social media platforms) answer to ethical quandaries around digital labour and online surveillance? When should organizations or individuals engaging in ethically problematic practices be named, and when must they be anonymized? To what extent should the relationships between researchers and participants be problematized within methods sections, including financial and power relationships between funders, researchers and participants? What are the respective roles of institutional ethics boards and journal editorial teams (along with other actors in the research ecosystem) in validating the ethical permissibility of a design? When should hard ethical questions lead a study to be rejected at the review stage, rather than passed along to the research community to make its own judgment? Such questions (and many, many more) have filled our days with deep reflection, and the current editorial aims to share some of these reflections with the Journal of Business Ethics community, albeit in necessarily schematic form. Specifically, we aim to both expand thinking about research ethics to include elements that are often considered outside of methods, and situate conventional methodological ethics in relation to this broader vision. The result will be a plea for a research ethics based on purpose, care and reflexivity.

Between Prescriptive and Evaluative Research Ethics

In a previous editorial essay (Islam & Greenwood, 2021 ), we borrowed a distinction by Williams ( 1985 ) between prescriptive and evaluative ethics; the former refers to what one should do, while the latter to what the world should look like. Mapped onto methods, this analytical distinction differentiates between specific methodological practices (e.g., one should design measures that fit the core constructs, one should gather informed consent) and the broader social and practical implications of research (e.g., the goals of science to innovate, educate or emancipate). We emphasize that this is an “analytical” distinction because, in practice, these aspects of ethics are deeply intertwined, and we distinguish them primarily to show how they spill into each other. Actions should be prescribed, at least in part, for the worlds they contribute to making, although in the fog of situated practice, we are often unaware of, or unable to, clearly link our actions to those future worlds.

From this distinction, it is easy to differentiate heuristically between ethics in research methods, that is, the ethical norms and practices internal to research design and execution, and the ethics of research methods, that is, whether those methods should be used in the broader evaluative sense. In many cases, these ethical levels align, with ethical practices working toward an evaluatively desirable world. Gathering informed consent is important because it is desirable to promote a world of autonomous choice (e.g., Hansson, 2006 ). Hypothesizing after the results are known is problematic because promoting false positive statistical results reduces replicability and thus scientific certainty about the world (Kerr, 1998 ). To take the previous example, however, some have argued that “HARK”ing is less ethically problematic when research is transparently exploratory (Hollenbeck & Wright, 2017 ); in this case, what is ethically problematic is not the practice per se, but the lack of transparency between a given practice and its exploratory (rather than confirmatory) intent. As for informed consent, in cases where a signed form substitutes for, rather than expresses, true participant autonomy (cf., Dubois et al, 2012 ), it can obscure rather than clarify the ethics of a research project. To begin with, the presentation of a priori formulated protocols for consent presumes that the identified participant is the only stakeholder in the research who is affected by the research in a manner that would require their consent. Moreover, this protocol may preclude collaborative models in which participants actively construct research protocols with researchers (Hansson, 2006 ). In both of these examples, a practice is justified on the basis of a deeper evaluative motive, but the mapping between the two is imperfect and situation-dependent.

Tensions may appear between prescriptive and evaluative dimensions of research methods, giving rise to ethical polemics or dilemmas. To give one example, we have had recent debates around the ethics of online data crowdsourcing from platforms such as Amazon MTurk (e.g., Newman et al., 2021 ). Much discussion has been given to best practice in terms of construct validity and similar “internal” considerations of research design as well as issues such as “bots” or fraudulent respondent activity that affect validity. However, broader considerations in terms of labour exploitation on online platforms (e.g., Shank, 2016 ) bridge internal and external research ethics, given internal norms for participant autonomy and external considerations of the public good. Less discussed are the systematic effects of widespread use of online data collection for disembodying researchers from participant communities, entrenching economies of digital labour and surveillance, and reifying a context-free individual as the object of social scientific study. These, we would argue, are methodological outcomes that may contribute to undesirable worlds, and thus are materially relevant for ethical consideration.

Other examples illustrate the opposite tension between prescriptive and evaluative research ethics. In a provocative article, Roulet et al. ( 2017 ) describe the potentials of “covert” research, where normally unacceptable practices of researcher concealment are weighed against laudable goals such as revealing workplace abuse or unethical organizational practices. In such cases, practices that are prescriptively problematic (e.g., collecting data without consent, concealing researcher identity) are defended on the grounds that the ethical goods, in terms of creating a better world, legitimate such practices. While the example of online platforms seems more defensible at the level of practice but questionable at the level of broad systemic implications, that of covert research seems more problematic at the level of practices while (possibly) defensible in terms of its ethical purposes.

More than simply a conflict between means and ends, however, such tensions reveal discrepancies between ends that are “localized” as specific practices (e.g., the goal of conducting a valid study according to current norms) and the more broad-based ends of research (e.g., creating a better world through socially reflexive knowledge production). Our challenge at the Journal of Business Ethics as editors, and our counsel to authors, reviewers and editors is to reflexively seek equilibrium between the practical ethics of research design and execution and the broader promotion of the public good that is the ultimate end of science.

Guiding Ethical Research in Business Ethics

Situating research ethics within the relationship between concrete ethical practices and evaluative goals of social improvement adds complexity to ethical decisions, forcing researchers, reviewers and editors to confront real ethical dilemmas that cannot be dissolved in mere compliance practices. We think the recognition of this complexity is salutary. It emphasizes that the review process is one moment in the broader network of evaluative practices that includes—but is not limited to—institutional ethics approval processes prior to submission, ethical and legal considerations of publishing houses and scholarly societies that administer academic production, and reception of research after publication. Each of these moments bring into light different ethical stakes, and we see our editorial role as an important but not exhaustive evaluative moment. From our perspective, our role is not to present a hurdle over which only the most flawless research can pass, but to curate a conversation with the greatest potential for scholarly generativity and progress. This makes our goal a collective one, and we judge research for its ability to promote the field, by being rigorous, by being interesting, by being reflexive, or by some combination of these epistemic virtues. From the research ethics we have outlined we derive certain guiding principles for evaluation.

Showing Links Between Methodological Design and the Broader Purpose of the Study

Business ethics scholarship should clarify its purpose through clearly articulated research questions and hypotheses, while explaining in its methods why specific research practices are important for a broader purpose, and why that purpose is itself ethically relevant. Specifically, the methods discussion should reflect how the ethics-related purpose of the study is consistent with the methodological approach adopted, both in terms of the broad design and specific practices. In short, integration of methods with the wider purpose of the study, and alignment between the two, is a mark of ethically sensitive research.

In their recent study of child labour in Indian cottonseed oil farms, D’Cruz et al. ( 2022 ) demonstrate an exemplary integration of methods and purpose to explore a topic that is notoriously difficult to study methodologically. Drawing on analyses of children’s drawings, together with detailed conversational extracts, the authors paint a powerful picture of the experience of violence in a population of working children. Rather than staying only at the level of lived experiences, however, the authors use those experiences to understand how processes of embedding and disembedding labour within society are manifested at the micro level. Thus, their visual and discursive methods become powerful tools to link everyday suffering with macro processes of economy and society.

Acknowledging the Web of Relationships Within Which Research Methods are Embedded

Each aspect of the research process, from protocol design to data collection to peer review, involves multiple actors who collectively construct the meaning of scholarship (Greenwood, 2016 ). While it may not be possible to make this network entirely visible, the ability to do so increases the transparency and value of a scholarly inquiry.

In his study of external funding on research freedom, Goduscheit ( 2022 ) uses qualitative interviews, program materials and observations to understand how funding bodies shape research outcomes. He shows how expectations from funding bodies can shape the types of topics studied, the ways in which research questions are answered and the forms of research output that are produced. Rather than simply deeming such influences to be unethical, he analyses the positive and negative features of the evolving relationships between researchers and funding bodies and their implications for developing scholarship.

Similarly acknowledging relationships but on a very different topic, Allen et al. ( 2019 ) describe the role of reflexivity in sustainability research, where ecological responsibility can result from acknowledging the multiple relationships between humans and the environment. Promoting an “ecocentric radical-reflexivity”, they point to how methods such as participatory action research and arts-based methods can help identify organizational actors as embedded in ecological relationships. In this example, as in the previous one, research is recognized as more than simply the execution of accepted standards. Rather, ethical research depends on developing sensibilities towards the complex economic and ecological relationships in which scholarship is situated.

Complementing Compliance with Purpose

Ethics should be explicitly discussed as an aspect of methodology, but this is best done when a focus on compliance with standards is complemented by a consideration of core ethical issues and a transparent discussion of how decisions were made in response to those issues. Doing so reveals those decisions as tailor-made for the case at hand and not imposed upon the case without regard for its specificities (Greenwood, 2016 ). In other words, compliance is not a sufficient criterion for ethical research methods, and a methodological approach focused exclusively on ethical compliance criteria may miss the “bigger picture” of the role of the methods in the broader scientific and social goals of the study.

Nielsen’s ( 2016 ) paper on ethical praxis and action research elaborates on how research involves ethical decision making and situated, pragmatic choices that go beyond simply ticking the correct ethical boxes. Describing these from an Aristotelian perspective, he elaborates how researcher-participant interactions give rise to emergent research concerns that are both knowledge-related problems and problems for practice. The ethics of action research in this context is about facing unique problems that cut across the researcher-practitioner divide and can draw upon but are not limited to pre-existing ethics templates.

Adopting an Explanatory Versus a Justificatory Orientation

Methodological descriptions of ethics often have the tone of justification claims legitimizing authorial choices in terms of sample, data collection or analysis. Such justifications are warranted, and are good practice, but we believe that value is added when authors are more forthright about their ethical difficulties and dilemmas. Specifically, we value their attempts to work out those dilemmas transparently for a scholarly audience, that is thereby given access into the workings of scientific decision-making process and not simply presented with a black box labeled “method”. There is more value in showing the path taken to an ethical judgement than simply defending that the end decision was a good one. This also implies that wrong turns, changes of track, and similar ethical revisions should be described and contribute to the value of a paper.

Litz’s and Turner’s ( 2013 ) study of unethical practices in inherited family firms provides an interesting case of how researchers can productively describe the dilemmas they face methodologically. Given the difficulty of gathering data about the unethical practices of family members, they candidly ask “how does one approach a question so laced with shame and stigma?”(p.303). Rather than presenting their method in terms of templates used to justify their choices, they recruit the readers directly into their dilemma and walk them through their choices, which involved confronting participants with dramatic scenarios that allowed them to disclose intimately held views more safely. Ultimately building this technique into a validation exercise and a quantitative analysis, the latter are given credibility by their grounding in the initial researcher dilemma that led to the methodological approach.

Transparency and Reflexivity in Writing and Link Between Methods and Results Sections

Because transparent and reflexive description of methods integrates theoretical considerations within the methods itself, such description allows the method to operate more organically within the broader argument of the paper. Doing so allows authors to establish links between the methods and discussion sections, to describe what went right or wrong, what the limitations and possibilities of the method were, and how future research could remedy possible shortcomings or harms of the given method.

For example, Bontempi et al. ( 2021 ) study of CSR reporting inspired by the case of the Ethiopian Gibe III dam is exemplary of how methods can be used to reflexively and transparently link methods and results. Engaging in a “counter reporting”, the study draws upon conceptual literature, archival and theoretical research, and activist on-the-ground engagement to build an alternative view of reported social engagement around hydroelectric dams. Alternating between inductive and deductive approaches, these authors were particularly reflexive and deeply transparent in their methodological description, including detailed and publicly available information from their codebook in the article’s supplementary materials. The result went beyond the standard critique of CSR discourses to actively create a counter-discourse that was both scholarly and activist in orientation. The resulting discursive struggle continued onto the blogosphere, with methodological debate between the authors and the company itself over methods. Footnote 1 We see such interaction and engagement as key to the social relevance of research.

Purpose, Care and Reflexivity

Research ethics have conventionally been concerned with the procedural aspects of scholarship, in particular the methods. Gold standard in this regard has been to not merely treat ethical standards as hurdles but as aspirations. In this sense an ethical researcher is one who does not only comply but who also cares. We suggest that care requires researcher to actively reflect on and take responsibility for their ethical practices and their research goals, and to situate their practices reflexively within a broader collective process of scholarly inquiry. Thus, we extend the notion of care to embrace the reflexivity of the researcher with regard to their own positionality (and privilege) and with regard to the purpose of research, treating ethics as central to the entire research endeavor. Complementing ethical theorizing that draws data from orthodox empirical methods, we encourage scholars to take up new forms of ethical empirical research in which connections between the conduct of the research and the motivation of the research are deeply and actively formed. The guiding principles we outline in this editorial are aimed at integrating organic, particularized and reflective narratives about the ethical conduct and goals of research in the methods section and throughout the manuscript. Editors, reviewers and authors can all contribute to treating research ethics more centrally in business ethics research.

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Islam, G., Greenwood, M. Ethical Research in Business Ethics. J Bus Ethics 182 , 1–5 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-022-05301-z

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Afr J Emerg Med
v.10(Suppl 2); 2020

Principles of research ethics: A research primer for low- and middle-income countries

Cindy c. bitter.

a Saint Louis University School of Medicine, Division of Emergency Medicine, St. Louis MO, USA

Annet Alenyo Ngabirano

b Aga Khan University, Kampala, Uganda

e Makerere University College of Health Sciences, Kampala, Uganda

Erin L. Simon

c Cleveland Clinic Akron General, Department of Emergency Medicine, Akron, OH, USA

f Northeast Ohio Medical University, Rootstown, OH, USA

David McD. Taylor

d University of Melbourne, Department of Medicine, Parkville, Victoria, Australia

g Austin Health, Heidelburg, Victoria, Australia

Ethical oversight in the form of review boards and research ethics committees provide protection for research subjects as well as guidance for safe conduct of studies. As the number of collaborative emergency care research studies carried out in low- and middle-income countries increases, it is crucial to have a shared understanding of how ethics should inform choice of study topic, study design, methods of obtaining consent, data management, and access to treatment after closure of the study. This paper describes the basic principles of Western research ethics – respect for persons, beneficence, and justice - and how the principles may be contextualized in different settings, by researchers of various backgrounds with different funding streams. Examples of lapses in ethical practice of research are used to highlight best practices.

African relevance

• Low and middle income countries (LMICs) have a high burden of acute illness, but insufficient research on emergency care
• Ethical barriers and lack of oversight impede emergency care research in LMICs
• Ethical clinical research in LMICs builds capacity and contributes to the evidence base for emergency care

The International Federation for Emergency Medicine global health research primer

This paper forms part 7 of a series of how to papers, commissioned by the International Federation for Emergency Medicine. This primer discusses ways to ensure that research is carried out ethically. It discusses principles for researchers from the global north involved in emergency care research projects in LMICs and provides guidance for LMIC researchers who may not have experience for navigating ethical issues in research. We have also included additional tips and pitfalls that are relevant to emergency medicine researchers.

Despite a disproportionally high burden of acute illnesses in low-and middle-income countries (LMICs), there is insufficient emergency care research. In a survey carried out through the African Federation for Emergency Medicine (AFEM), 67.3% of respondents agreed with this statement [ 1 ]. Research that targets local health challenges, such as context-specific health service delivery and drug development for diseases prevalent in LMIC, has the potential to improve population health in host countries [ [2] , [3] , [4] ].

Ethical barriers and oversight have been cited as an important barrier to research in LMIC [ 5 ]. Emanuel et al. provided a framework for conducting ethical research that stressed collaborative partnerships, social value, scientific validity, fair selection of study populations, favourable risk-benefit ratio, independent review, informed consent, and respect for recruited participants and study communities [ 6 ]. In their review of the framework, Tsoka-Gwegweni and colleagues concluded that most recurring ethical issues relating to research in LMICs were informed consent, scientific validity, fair participant selection and on-going respect for participants [ 7 ]. Research priorities are often determined outside the host country, raising concerns of outsourcing risk and exploitation of uninformed populations [ 8 ].

The value of building ethical clinical research in LMICs goes beyond the specific information collected in a study. Conducting research has substantial positive impact in a community by raising local scholarly standards and encouraging independent thinking and creativity as many LMICs work towards building evidence-based emergency care systems. Each project builds confidence and skills which allows local researchers to participate fully in the scientific process which impacts the care of their local community. This may lead to intellectual and financial resources for the community which in turn encourages local empowerment and self-sufficiency for additional research.

Bioethical principles

Review of research protocols by experts not involved with the study is one way of ensuring protection for human research subjects. In the United States of America (US), such review committees are called Institutional Review Boards (IRBs). In other countries, these committees may be called Human Research Ethics Committees (HREC) or have other titles. Several articles discuss the evolution of HRECs in sub Saharan Africa [ 9 , 10 ].

Most Western scholars agree on the main principles of autonomy, beneficence, and justice for clinical ethics, with some adjustments in how these principles are applied in the research setting. However, these principles are not universally acknowledged. Some authors argue that these principles are less relevant in populations where community rather than individual values are stressed. Others argue that local development of research ethics is crucial to ensuring buy-in and avoiding bioethical imperialism [ 11 , 12 ]. Acknowledging the past abuses that took place under the guise of research, Western ethical thought now insists on voluntary consent, with special protections for traditionally vulnerable populations such as children, women, and ethnic minorities. Emergency care research, however, introduces a unique type of vulnerability in unconscious or other otherwise mentally altered patients who do not meet criteria for giving informed consent. In some Western countries like the US and the United Kingdom (UK), such patients may still be enrolled in studies through a different process called an exemption from informed consent or waiver of consent [ [13] , [14] , [15] ]. The same principle may be applied in LMICs, however, a detailed assessment of the research components necessary to guide HRECs in order to reach decisions that protect this vulnerable group from harm or unnecessary risk.

International standards

In 1964, the World Medical Association adopted the Declaration of Helsinki. This document and subsequent revisions lay out the principles of minimizing risks, informed consent, privacy, special protections for vulnerable groups, access to beneficial treatment after trial, and dissemination [ 16 ]. The first Declaration was adopted largely in response to the unethical experiments carried out by Nazi researchers during the Holocaust, in which prisoners were exposed to infectious disease, extremes of temperature, and experimental drugs without their consent, often resulting in death [ 17 ].

The Declaration is a guideline of research ethics but is not legally binding. Individual countries are responsible for implementing legislation that reflects the principles. In the United States, discovery of ongoing research abuses such as the Tuskegee syphilis study in the 1970's led to adoption of the Belmont Report [ 18 ]. The Belmont Report requires that researchers uphold three basic principles: respect for persons, beneficence, and justice. Researchers in the US must have the protocol approved by an IRB prior to enrolling subjects. IRBs are charged with operationalizing the principles outlined in the Belmont Report and subsequent regulations specified in the Common Rule [ 19 ]. Certain research may be exempted from IRB review and these typically include surveys, interviews, and research using existing specimens, records or data. The concept of “minimal risk to participants” plays a key role in allowing this exemption and should be considered when conducting research in LMIC's. “Minimal risk” is defined as that “ordinarily encountered in daily life or the performance of routine physical and psychological testing.”

These previous regulations, however, were written without consideration for Emergency Care research. Therefore in 1996, the US' Food and Drug Administration recommended procedures for enrolling patients in emergency situations into research studies through exemption of informed consent [ 20 ]. Similar procedures were adopted by the United Kingdom in 2006 [ 21 ]. This concept of “waiver of consent” in emergency care research should be considered in LMICs where contextualized processes are critical for development of sustainable emergency care systems.

Guidelines intended for global adoption often lack details required for context-specific implementation and can be slow to respond to emerging realities. Barugahare uses an analogy to jurisprudence to discuss how local HRECs can guide implementation of global ethical principles within their own contexts [ 22 ]. With that in mind, we will go through the guiding principles and discuss pitfalls in implementation.

Respect for persons

Respect for persons requires that research subjects freely participate in research after informed consent. Subjects should be counselled on the known risks of the drug or treatment being examined, the expected course of illness without intervention, and any compensation or benefit they may receive from participating. This must occur in the subjects' native language. If documents require translation from the researchers' language to the local language, the documents should be translated back to the original language and reviewed to ensure consistency with the originals. Only after the subject has shown comprehension and has had any questions answered can they be considered to have given informed consent. There is some disagreement about the need for a signature on a consent form, but researchers must treat consent as an ongoing process rather than a piece of paper. Subjects must also understand they are free to withdraw from the study at any time.

Research in the global context highlights challenges to the notion of consent. In the global north, the concept of respect for persons is often supplanted by the principle of autonomy. But many cultures outside the global north stress the importance of the family unit and communitarian values over individual decisions [ 23 ]. Community leaders and heads-of-household should be involved in the process, often before approaching individual subjects [ 24 ]. This is especially critical in emergency situations where “waiver of consent” protocols require involvement of family or communities of unconscious or otherwise incapacitated patients. Consent processes may also be challenging when approaching female subjects, who may require approval of a male head of household in addition to their own consent [ [25] , [26] , [27] ]. While 18 years is considered the age of adulthood in many Western countries, other cultures may consider younger persons to have reached maturity [ 28 , 29 ]. In one qualitative study of 15–19 year old participants in HIV research in Kenya, 50% thought parental consent should be sought, 25% felt this was not necessary, and 25% had mixed feelings [ 30 ].

Lack of education, limited health literacy, poor access to medical care, and the sense of urgency that accompanies disease outbreaks also call into question the notion of voluntary, informed consent. The Pfizer meningitis trial in Nigeria reported that 100% of patients approached were enrolled in the protocol, suggesting patients were desperate to access care [ 31 ]. All participants in a clinical trial for malaria believed procedures followed solely to meet research objectives were a required part of their individual curative treatment [ 32 ]. Some participants in an Ebola vaccine trial enrolled in hopes of accessing free healthcare for other conditions [ 33 ].

Beneficence

Beneficence requires that researchers obtain scientifically valid data with useful applications, while minimizing risks within the study protocol and protecting subjects during the trial.

Although several guidelines recommend research in LMIC focus on health conditions that contribute substantially to the local burden of disease, research objectives are set by funders and do not always meet this guideline. Research on cancer therapeutics focuses on lung and breast cancer, even when trials are performed in LMIC which have a large burden of cervical, liver and gastric cancers [ 34 ]. While some risk is unavoidable when testing new drugs, research subjects should expect benefits to accrue for their population.

Use of rigorous methodology with adequate power and appropriate control groups is essential to ethical research. Underpowered research, poorly designed studies, and falsified data will not yield valid results and are inherently unethical. The use of placebo controls has been an area of contention since early studies of maternal-fetal transmission of HIV [ 35 ]. While placebo-controlled trials are optimal from a methodological standpoint, patients should be treated with their standard local regimen if effective treatment is available. Cheah et al. provide a compelling rationale for a placebo arm in their malaria trial, as use of the placebo is equivalent to current clinical practice, thus the subjects do not incur additional risk [ 36 ]. Researchers should ensure that interventions proven successful will be sustainable in their study population [ 37 ].

Unproven interventions may be utilized during emergency and disaster situations. The World Health Organization convened a panel to help guide use of novel therapies during epidemics [ 38 ]. They stress the importance rigorous data collection to assess effectiveness and safety of such interventions, and transparency and fairness in decisions regarding access to investigational treatments.

Minimizing risk means building safety into the protocol and monitoring for adverse events throughout the trial. Adverse events may require unblinding, a report to the HREC, or cessation of the trial. Dissemination of all results, regardless of the success of the trial, is crucial to ensure future study participants are not exposed to risks of unsuccessful interventions and funding can be distributed to projects more likely to result in improved health [ 39 ].

Protection of privacy is another important principle of beneficence. Data should only be accessible to the research team. Surveys and other paper documents must be kept in a locked cabinet or drawer in a secure room. Files should be password protected. Study ID numbers should be substituted for individual identifiers. Master lists that could be used to link data back to participants should be destroyed after data is cleaned. Data must be de-identified before sharing data with anyone outside the original study team. Data-sharing is important for verification of results and avoidance of duplicate efforts, but regulations and guidelines have not kept pace with emerging technologies [ 40 , 41 ]. Privacy laws vary widely between countries, with the European Union having some of the strictest protections. Although it would seem that outside researchers would adhere to the standards they must uphold to in their own settings, this is not always the case. Medical students from the US are more likely to violate patients' privacy online during international electives than during rotations at home [ 42 ].

Justice requires that the costs and benefits of research are distributed fairly within the population. Even this statement is open to interpretation, as there are no global norms of fairness [ 43 ]. Justice is a key consideration in the research framework proposed by Pratt and Loff [ 44 ].

The global distribution of harms and benefits in research is particularly problematic in the setting of clinical trials. The cost of research is significantly lower in LMIC but there is concern that pharmaceutical companies are also benefitting from lax regulatory oversight to conduct high-risk research that would not be tolerated in the global north [ 45 ]. Millions of persons participate in clinical research each year, but the number of adverse events is difficult to determine and likely underreported [ 46 , 47 ]. Deaths in clinical trials are not distributed evenly across nations, with higher rates of morbidity and mortality in LMIC. While deaths in the global north tend to be rare and highly publicized, India had 2644 deaths during clinical trials in the years 2005–12 [ 48 ]. Laws regarding compensation for injuries sustained during research are markedly different between nations, adding another layer of disparities [ 49 ].

Compensation for participation in research is another potential pitfall. Western research ethics considers whether compensation for participation is enough to exert undue influence or coercion. Paradoxically, using this standard in LMIC research would decrease the value of compensation as smaller amounts would likely constitute a larger proportion of subjects' income [ 50 ]. Participation “gifts” of nominal value, such as soap or sugar, may carry hidden meanings in the local context and should be discussed with community leaders [ 51 ]. One proposed solution would be to consider participation as work, to be compensated according to local custom [ 52 ].

A final area of justice concerns authorship of manuscripts. There is an inherent imbalance of power when outsiders approach a community to do research. Researchers should strive to build capacity in local communities and ensure all members of the study team receive appropriate credit. The International Committee of Medical Journal Editors requires the following criteria be met to be listed as an author: contributions to study design, data acquisition, or data analysis, drafting or substantial revisions to the manuscript, final approval of submission, and agreement to be accountable for integrity of the work [ 53 ]. All persons who meet these criteria should be listed. Guest authorship has been reported as common and usually involves including superiors or subject experts that did not contribute substantially to the manuscript [ 54 ]. Some authors fear that the criteria to draft/substantially revise and approve the final document discriminates against researchers from LMIC whose native language is not commonly used for international publications [ 55 ]. Determination of authorship and order of authors may cause great angst, particularly if not done early in the process.

Emerging challenges

Data security.

Collection of genetic material, even blood samples, may jeopardize anonymity. Consensus is lacking on how best to use “big data” to improve public health while protecting individual privacy concerns.

Tips on this topic

• Research in LMICs, contextualized to their local health systems, is necessary to ensure patients receive the most appropriate care.
• Researchers should ensure sound methodology and data management practices in their studies.
• Community engagement is one way of ensuring patients' values are incorporated into setting research priorities, the consent process, risk assessment, and dissemination of results.
• HRECs have a responsibility to protect human subjects but also serve to protect researchers from allegations of improper behaviour. Ethical approval for a protocol is required before researchers approach participants and is required for publication by most journals.

Pitfalls to avoid

• Failure to consider local norms in obtaining informed consent
• Failure to execute the study in exact accordance with the approved study protocol and other documentation may undermine the ethical integrity of the project and violate the ethical principles of research. Any changes to approved study protocols must be reviewed and approved by the local HREC prior to adoption.
• Inadequate procedures for confidentiality and data security

Annotated bibliography

• Biruk [ 51 ] uses the example of soap as a gift for participation in surveys to discuss ethical compensation for participants and duties of researchers.
• Das et al. [ 32 ] discuss participants' limited understanding of the overlap of clinical care and research in malaria studies.
• Emanuel et al. [ 6 ] established benchmarks for ethical research in the global setting.
• The WHO advisory panel report [ 38 ] and Ezeome and Simon [ 31 ] discuss ways of minimizing ethical pitfalls when performing research during epidemics – these articles are applicable to the discussion of experimental treatments for the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic.
• Groves et al. [ 30 ] used qualitative methods to explore adolescents' views on research requirements for parental involvement in studies of HIV in youth.
• Ochieng et al. [ 10 ] describe the development of research ethics within Uganda, starting with early regulations on protection of human subjects, through revisions to applicable statues, and training of local experts.
• Tangwa [ 8 ] critiques the lack of inclusion of African researchers in the efforts surrounding HIV vaccine trials and the response to the Ebola outbreak of 2013–16.
• World Medical Association Declaration of Helsinki [ 16 ] describes the principles that should guide research. Most recent version available at https://www.wma.net/policies-post/wma-declaration-of-helsinki-ethical-principles-for-medical-research-involving-human-subjects/ .

Academic Life in Emergency Medicine: Society for Academic Emergency Medicine Research Learning Series provides helpful guidance for junior researchers in many stages of starting a research project. In particular, episode 3 deals with IRB pitfalls and episode 8 discusses waivers from informed consent.

University of Oxford Global Health podcast has an interview with Dr. Phaik Yeong Cheah on the ethics of research in vulnerable populations (Oct 5, 2015).

Authors' contribution

Authors contributed as follow to the conception or design of the work; the acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data for the work; and drafting the work or revising it critically for important intellectual content: CB contributed 50%; AAN contributed 30%; and ES and DMT contributed 10% each. All authors approved the version to be published and agreed to be accountable for all aspects of the work.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declared no conflicts of interest.

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