report vs assignment

Reports and essays: key differences

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Know what to expect

Explore the main differences between reports and essays and how to write for your assignments

You'll complete assignments with different requirements throughout your degree, so it's important to understand what you need to do for each of them. Here we explore the key differences between reports and essays.

This page describes general features of academic reports and essays. Depending on your subject you may use all of these features, a selection of them, or you may have additional requirements.

There is no single right way to write a report or essay, but they are different assignments. At a glance:

Reports depend heavily on your subject and the type of report.
Essays usually have specific content and a planned structure with a focus on sense and flow. You subject might need different types of information in your introduction – some disciplines include a short background and context here, while others begin their discussion, discuss their resources or briefly signpost the topic.

Differences between reports and essays

This table compares reports and essays and provides an outline of the standard structure for each. Your assignment will also depend on your discipline, the purpose of your work, and your audience – so you should check what you need to do in your course and module handbooks, instructions from your lecturer, and your subject conventions.

Table adapted from Cottrell, 2003, p. 209.

The structure of reports

Most reports use an IMRaD structure: Introduction, Methods, Results and Discussion.

Below are some common sections that also appear in reports. Some sections include alternative headings.

1. Table of contents

Your contents shows the number of each report section, its title, page number and any sub-sections. Sub-section numbers and details start under the section title, not the margin or the number.

2. Abstract or Executive summary

This brief summary of the report is usually the last thing you write.

3. Introduction

Your introduction describes the purpose of the report, explains why it necessary or useful, and sets out its precise aims and objectives.

4. Literature review

This describes current research and thinking about the problem or research question, and is often incorporated into the introduction.

5. Methods or Methodology

This describes and justifies the methods or processes used to collect your data.

6. Results or Findings

This section presents the results (or processed data) from the research and may consist of mainly tables, charts and or diagrams.

7. Discussion, or Analysis, or Interpretation

This section analyses the results and evaluates the research carried out.

8. Conclusion

The conclusion summarises the report and usually revisits the aims and objectives.

9. Recommendations

In this section the writer uses the results and conclusions from the report to make practical suggestions about a problem or issue. This may not be required.

10. Appendices

You can include raw data or materials that your report refers to in the appendix, if you need to. The data is often presented as charts, diagrams and tables. Each item should be numbered : for example, write Table 1 and its title; Table 2 and its title, and so on as needed.

Structure of essays

Introduction.

Your essay introduction contextualises and gives background information about the topic or questions being discussed, and sets out what the essay is going to cover.

Your essay body is divided into paragraphs. These paragraphs help make a continuous, flowing text.

The conclusion summarises the main points made in the essay. Avoid introducing new information in your conclusion.

Bibliography or Reference list

This is a list of the resources you've used in your essay. This is usually presented alphabetically by authors’ surname.

Reference for the Table of Distinctions above:

Cottrell, S. (2003). The Study Skills Handbook (2nd ed.). Basingstoke: Palgrave.

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A report is a specific form of writing that is organised around concisely identifying and examining issues, events, or findings that have happened in a physical sense, such as events that have occurred within an organisation, or findings from a research investigation.

These events can also pertain to events or issues identified within a body of literature. A report informs the reader simply and objectively about all relevant issues. There are three features that characterise report writing at a very basic level: a pre-defined structure, independent sections, and reaching unbiased conclusions.

Pre-defined structure

Report structures vary widely. So, check your guidelines to ensure that you are following the structure that has been specified.

At a very basic level, a report can be distinguished from an essay by headings which are used to organise information.

Headings typically indicate sections within a report, such as an introduction, discussion, and conclusion.

Within the discussion section, which usually makes up the main body of a report, you can often add sub-sections according to the literature you have sourced, your development of ideas, and the assigned task. The difference between main sections and sub-sections may be indicated through numbering and/or heading font style. You will need to check the assignment instructions to see whether this is appropriate.

1. Introduction 2. Discussion 2.1 Technological benefits 2.1.1 Efficiency 2.1.2 Access to monitoring 2.2 Technological weaknesses 2.2.1 Disconnections 2.2.2 Lack of face-to-face support 3. Conclusion 4. References

You may find that you do not need linking sentences as the headings provide a link between sections, although including a linking sentence from time-to-time may assist the reader's understanding.

Overall, a report is a highly structured piece of work and typically, the course co-ordinator or lecturer identifies the main sections required or indicates that you should follow a standard structure (such as a business report structure ). You are often given more guidance on how to write the assignment, with respect to its structure and section, compared to an essay where you decide the order of information in the essay body.

While you may have more freedom in structuring an essay, it may be more difficult to decide how to order information within your essay. In contrast, a report provides you with that structure before you begin to answer the question, while still allowing you some flexibility and freedom in deciding on the organisation of sub-sections.

Unbiased conclusions

Another element of report writing (in fact, all academic writing ) is that it is an unbiased and objective form of writing.

However, while essays put forward a particular position or argument at the very beginning, summarised in the thesis statement and then backed up in the body, a report's focus is slightly different.

A report sways more towards the process of identifying and reviewing the range of issues in the body of the report, and then reaching an objective conclusion or position at the end, sometimes with recommendations based on the discussion and conclusions.

Of course, you can always have in mind a particular point of view when you begin your report, but try to give the impression that you have come to your conclusion via an objective and methodical review of the issues involved.

Sometimes you will need to briefly summarise the report's findings in your introduction. Alternatively, sometimes you might need to provide an overview of your report in an executive summary or abstract . Report structures vary so this is something you need to check with your assignment instructions or course coordinator. Nevertheless, try to ensure that the conclusion is where you give emphasis to your findings and the recommendations or decisions you have arrived at after a careful analysis of all the issues. It should be clear to the reader that your conclusion is reasoned logically from the discussion of the issues and the evidence you have presented in the body of the report.

Page authorised by Director - Centre for Learner Success Last updated on 11 June, 2019

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What is the Difference Between Essays and Reports?

Published by Alaxendra Bets at August 19th, 2021 , Revised On August 23, 2023

What is the difference between essays and reports? Report writing is a specialised skill that your academic tutor would like you to develop.

Whether you are writing a report in university or business, report writing skills are equally important to get your message across to the readers effectively.

Generally, your academic tutor decides what form of writing you must undertake and will provide the layout requirements in the assignment brief.

However, as you move towards university-level study, you will have the freedom of choice to decide what form of writing you must undertake to address the problem question .

This means that you will need a critical evaluation of what form of writing will be the most appropriate for you, considering a given academic assignment’s requirements.

Whether you are a student or a professional, it is important to understand the key differences between an essay and a report to work out why you should prefer one form of writing over the other.

This article lists the most notable differences between a report and an essay, so whenever you are unsure about which form of writing is the most suitable, you will know exactly what decision is right or wrong.

Difference Between Essays and Reports – Purpose

Purpose of a report.

Typically you will be asked to write a report if you must present an analysis of practical research results. All reports start with the topic background, research aim, and objectives to provide details of what your work will examine.

You may also include a hypothesis in your report if you are testing a proposition with your research. Depending on your topic’s nature and the report writing guidelines laid out by your tutor, you may also have to include a separate section for future recommendations in your report.

Purpose of an Essay

On the other hand, Essays find answers to a question using the researcher’s own critical evaluation of the existing theories. An essay does not directly include any practical research because it only uses the existing literature material.

Difference Between Essays and Reports – Content

The report starts with introducing the topic and lists the aim and objectives your practical research will address.

It quickly moves to report chronological actions such as gathering data and presenting findings from primary research activities and laboratory experiments before the writer finally provides an assessment of the results in the conclusion and recommendations for future sections.

The content of an essay depends on the essay question you need to answer. Whether your essay must be evaluative, argumentative , narrative , discursive, or descriptive will be determined by the nature of your essay question.

However, in general, all essays involve a synthesis of knowledge obtained from existing literature on the given question and the writer’s personal arguments and opinions based on the evidence collected during research.

Whether you have been asked to write an essay or a report, ResearchProspect writers can help you achieve the highest academic grade. We have a large team of academic writers who can meet every bit of your requirements regardless of your academic level and the academic subject.

Difference Between Essays and Reports – Formatting

A report and an essay format are similar as both include an introduction , main body , and conclusion sections. Reports include methodology and analysis in the main body and have a fixed structure.

It is recommended to check your school’s formatting guidelines if you are unsure how to format your report. Further, you can get our professional report writing service that will help you achieve your desired grades.

If you are writing an essay, the essay question’s critical evaluation will determine the structure you must follow in your essay.

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Difference Between Essays and Reports in a Table

Despite describing these differences, it may not be easy to distinguish between an essay and a report. For example , in some academic disciplines, essays are structured like reports, with headings separating the different parts of an essay. The best practice regarding the style and format suitable to your academic discipline would be to consult your academic tutor.

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Frequently Asked Questions

How do you differentiate between an essay or a report.

An essay is a concise piece of writing that presents an argument, opinion, or analysis with a clear introduction, body, and conclusion. A report is a structured document that conveys information, often including data, findings, and recommendations, typically with headings, sections, and sometimes visual aids.

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Academic writing

What Is Academic Writing? | Dos and Don’ts for Students

Academic writing is a formal style of writing used in universities and scholarly publications. You’ll encounter it in journal articles and books on academic topics, and you’ll be expected to write your essays , research papers , and dissertation in academic style.

Academic writing follows the same writing process as other types of texts, but it has specific conventions in terms of content, structure and style.

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Types of academic writing, academic writing is…, academic writing is not…, useful tools for academic writing, academic writing checklist.

Academics mostly write texts intended for publication, such as journal articles, reports, books, and chapters in edited collections. For students, the most common types of academic writing assignments are listed below.

Different fields of study have different priorities in terms of the writing they produce. For example, in scientific writing it’s crucial to clearly and accurately report methods and results; in the humanities, the focus is on constructing convincing arguments through the use of textual evidence. However, most academic writing shares certain key principles intended to help convey information as effectively as possible.

Whether your goal is to pass your degree, apply to graduate school , or build an academic career, effective writing is an essential skill.

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Formal and unbiased

Academic writing aims to convey information in an impartial way. The goal is to base arguments on the evidence under consideration, not the author’s preconceptions. All claims should be supported with relevant evidence, not just asserted.

To avoid bias, it’s important to represent the work of other researchers and the results of your own research fairly and accurately. This means clearly outlining your methodology and being honest about the limitations of your research.

The formal style used in academic writing ensures that research is presented consistently across different texts, so that studies can be objectively assessed and compared with other research.

Because of this, it’s important to strike the right tone with your language choices. Avoid informal language , including slang, contractions , clichés, and conversational phrases:

Also , a lot of the findings are a little unreliable.
Moreover , many of the findings are somewhat unreliable.

Clear and precise

It’s important to use clear and precise language to ensure that your reader knows exactly what you mean. This means being as specific as possible and avoiding vague language :

People have been interested in this thing for a long time .
Researchers have been interested in this phenomenon for at least 10 years .

Avoid hedging your claims with words like “perhaps,” as this can give the impression that you lack confidence in your arguments. Reflect on your word choice to ensure it accurately and directly conveys your meaning:

This could perhaps suggest that…
This suggests that…

Specialist language or jargon is common and often necessary in academic writing, which generally targets an audience of other academics in related fields.

However, jargon should be used to make your writing more concise and accurate, not to make it more complicated. A specialist term should be used when:

It conveys information more precisely than a comparable non-specialist term.
Your reader is likely to be familiar with the term.
The term is commonly used by other researchers in your field.

The best way to familiarize yourself with the kind of jargon used in your field is to read papers by other researchers and pay attention to their language.

Focused and well structured

An academic text is not just a collection of ideas about a topic—it needs to have a clear purpose. Start with a relevant research question or thesis statement , and use it to develop a focused argument. Only include information that is relevant to your overall purpose.

A coherent structure is crucial to organize your ideas. Pay attention to structure at three levels: the structure of the whole text, paragraph structure, and sentence structure.

Well sourced

Academic writing uses sources to support its claims. Sources are other texts (or media objects like photographs or films) that the author analyzes or uses as evidence. Many of your sources will be written by other academics; academic writing is collaborative and builds on previous research.

It’s important to consider which sources are credible and appropriate to use in academic writing. For example, citing Wikipedia is typically discouraged. Don’t rely on websites for information; instead, use academic databases and your university library to find credible sources.

You must always cite your sources in academic writing. This means acknowledging whenever you quote or paraphrase someone else’s work by including a citation in the text and a reference list at the end.

There are many different citation styles with different rules. The most common styles are APA , MLA , and Chicago . Make sure to consistently follow whatever style your institution requires. If you don’t cite correctly, you may get in trouble for plagiarism . A good plagiarism checker can help you catch any issues before it’s too late.

You can easily create accurate citations in APA or MLA style using our Citation Generators.

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Correct and consistent

As well as following the rules of grammar, punctuation, and citation, it’s important to consistently apply stylistic conventions regarding:

How to write numbers
Introducing abbreviations
Using verb tenses in different sections
Capitalization of terms and headings
Spelling and punctuation differences between UK and US English

In some cases there are several acceptable approaches that you can choose between—the most important thing is to apply the same rules consistently and to carefully proofread your text before you submit. If you don’t feel confident in your own proofreading abilities, you can get help from Scribbr’s professional proofreading services or Grammar Checker .

Academic writing generally tries to avoid being too personal. Information about the author may come in at some points—for example in the acknowledgements or in a personal reflection—but for the most part the text should focus on the research itself.

Always avoid addressing the reader directly with the second-person pronoun “you.” Use the impersonal pronoun “one” or an alternate phrasing instead for generalizations:

As a teacher, you must treat your students fairly.
As a teacher, one must treat one’s students fairly.
Teachers must treat their students fairly.

The use of the first-person pronoun “I” used to be similarly discouraged in academic writing, but it is increasingly accepted in many fields. If you’re unsure whether to use the first person, pay attention to conventions in your field or ask your instructor.

When you refer to yourself, it should be for good reason. You can position yourself and describe what you did during the research, but avoid arbitrarily inserting your personal thoughts and feelings:

In my opinion…
I think that…
I like/dislike…
I conducted interviews with…
I argue that…
I hope to achieve…

Long-winded

Many students think their writing isn’t academic unless it’s over-complicated and long-winded. This isn’t a good approach—instead, aim to be as concise and direct as possible.

If a term can be cut or replaced with a more straightforward one without affecting your meaning, it should be. Avoid redundant phrasings in your text, and try replacing phrasal verbs with their one-word equivalents where possible:

Interest in this phenomenon carried on in the year 2018 .
Interest in this phenomenon continued in 2018 .

Repetition is a part of academic writing—for example, summarizing earlier information in the conclusion—but it’s important to avoid unnecessary repetition. Make sure that none of your sentences are repeating a point you’ve already made in different words.

Emotive and grandiose

An academic text is not the same thing as a literary, journalistic, or marketing text. Though you’re still trying to be persuasive, a lot of techniques from these styles are not appropriate in an academic context. Specifically, you should avoid appeals to emotion and inflated claims.

Though you may be writing about a topic that’s sensitive or important to you, the point of academic writing is to clearly communicate ideas, information, and arguments, not to inspire an emotional response. Avoid using emotive or subjective language :

This horrible tragedy was obviously one of the worst catastrophes in construction history.
The injury and mortality rates of this accident were among the highest in construction history.

Students are sometimes tempted to make the case for their topic with exaggerated , unsupported claims and flowery language. Stick to specific, grounded arguments that you can support with evidence, and don’t overstate your point:

Charles Dickens is the greatest writer of the Victorian period, and his influence on all subsequent literature is enormous.
Charles Dickens is one of the best-known writers of the Victorian period and has had a significant influence on the development of the English novel.

There are a a lot of writing tools that will make your writing process faster and easier. We’ll highlight three of them below.

Paraphrasing tool

AI writing tools like ChatGPT and a paraphrasing tool can help you rewrite text so that your ideas are clearer, you don’t repeat yourself, and your writing has a consistent tone.

They can also help you write more clearly about sources without having to quote them directly. Be warned, though: it’s still crucial to give credit to all sources in the right way to prevent plagiarism .

Grammar checker

Writing tools that scan your text for punctuation, spelling, and grammar mistakes. When it detects a mistake the grammar checke r will give instant feedback and suggest corrections. Helping you write clearly and avoid common mistakes .

You can use a summarizer if you want to condense text into its most important and useful ideas. With a summarizer tool, you can make it easier to understand complicated sources. You can also use the tool to make your research question clearer and summarize your main argument.

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Use the checklist below to assess whether you have followed the rules of effective academic writing.

Checklist: Academic writing

I avoid informal terms and contractions .

I avoid second-person pronouns (“you”).

I avoid emotive or exaggerated language.

I avoid redundant words and phrases.

I avoid unnecessary jargon and define terms where needed.

I present information as precisely and accurately as possible.

I use appropriate transitions to show the connections between my ideas.

My text is logically organized using paragraphs .

Each paragraph is focused on a single idea, expressed in a clear topic sentence .

Every part of the text relates to my central thesis or research question .

I support my claims with evidence.

I use the appropriate verb tenses in each section.

I consistently use either UK or US English .

I format numbers consistently.

I cite my sources using a consistent citation style .

Your text follows the most important rules of academic style. Make sure it's perfect with the help of a Scribbr editor!

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Explore the Key Difference Between Essay and Report

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Meaning of Essay and Report

Advantages of essay and report in academics, difference between essay and report, how our experts can help you.

When it comes to academic writing, understanding the difference between " Essay vs Report " is crucial. These two forms may seem similar initially, but each has unique characteristics and purposes. Therefore, it is important to grasp the differences, as you'll be better equipped to decide when to use an essay or a report for your writing tasks.

In this blog, we'll delve into the critical disparities between a "report vs essay" to help you with this academic writing more effectively. We'll break down their specific features so that you have a clear understanding of how to choose between an essay and a report and meet their respective requirements. So, if you are aiming for top grades, this guide will empower you to write confidently in both styles. But before that, you should know the meaning of essay and report.

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Academic essays and academic reports are two distinct forms of academic writing that serve different purposes and have different structures. Here are the key differences between an essay vs report :

This academic writing allows you to express your opinions on a particular topic. Essays are more flexible and subjective, emphasizing critical thinking, and the use of supporting evidence to back up the writer's claims. Moreover, they are frequently used to explore complex ideas, engage in academic discourse, and develop writing skills. In case of difficulty, you can always pay for essay to experts.

These are structured and objective documents that present factual information and findings on a specific topic. Unlike essays, reports are more focused on providing information rather than presenting personal opinions or arguments. These are often based on research, investigation, or data analysis.

Understanding the meaning of both essay vs report can help you approach each type of writing appropriately and effectively.However, if you need assistance with either form, you can ask, Can you write my essay for me or report? Now, let's further check out the advantages of writing these tasks.

In school or college, when you have to write things, there are two significant ways to do it: essays and reports. They each have their good sides, and it's essential to understand the strengths of "essay vs report " in academics. In this part, we will look at the advantages of using essays and reports for your college work. Let's see why essays and reports are excellent and how they can help you improve in universities.

Advantages of Essays:

Here are the advantages of essay in academics that you need to know:

Expressiv e : Essays, in the context of essay vs report, enable writers to express their thoughts, opinions, and analyses on a topic, fostering creativity and critical thinking. They provide a platform to present arguments persuasively and engage readers.
Flexibility : Essays offer flexibility in structure and content, allowing writers to adapt their approach based on the topic and purpose, you may require essay help . This versatility enables the exploration of complex ideas and encourages individual writing styles.
Personal Development : Writing essays enhances various skills such as research, critical thinking, organization, and communication. It helps writers develop their ability to articulate ideas, analyze information, and construct logical arguments.
Academic Discourse : Essays contribute to academic discourse by facilitating discussions and debates on various subjects. They encourage scholars to engage with existing research, challenge ideas, and contribute to the body of knowledge.

Now, as you know, the advantages of writing an academic essay. Let's discuss some advantages of report writing, to know the difference between report vs essay more clearly.

Advantages of Reports:

Here are the advantages of report writing in academics that you need to learn:

Accuracy : Reports prioritize objectivity and provide accurate and reliable information. They present data, research findings, and evidence-based conclusions, making them valuable for decision-making and informing actions.
Structure Clarity : Reports follow a structured format, making them easy to navigate and comprehend, whether for professional communication or presenting research findings. It allows readers to locate specific information quickly.
Professional Communication : Reports are commonly used in professional and scientific contexts to communicate research findings, project outcomes, or business insights. They provide a concise and standardized way to present complex information.
Evidence-Based : Reports aid evidence-based decision-making by systematically presenting data and research findings. They help students assess the validity and reliability of information.

It's important to note that the advantages mentioned above, in the context of essay vs report , can offer a great help in your academics. Both essays and reports have unique strengths and serve different purposes in academia and professional settings. Let's move forward to understand the differences between the academic writing tasks.

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Remember that these distinctions can vary based on specific academic requirements or disciplines, so it's important to refer to your guidelines for precise instructions on structuring your essay vs report. However, if you are still struggling with writing any of these academic writing tasks, then it is best to seek help from experts and learn how to write a report or an essay. Check out the below section to know how our experts can help you.

At Assignment Desk, our expertise in e ssay v s r eport writing can be invaluable to individuals seeking academic or professional assistance. By leveraging our skills, you can access comprehensive, well-researched, and expertly crafted essays and reports on a wide range of topics. Our "Report Writing Services" can help clients save time, reduce stress, and achieve better grades or outcomes. Here's how we can assist:

Quality Content:

We deliver high-quality, original content tailored to your specific requirements, adhering to academic standards and guidelines for both "Essays" and "Reports."

Thorough Research:

We conduct in-depth research, compile relevant data, and cite sources properly to support arguments and claims in both essays and reports.

Structured Writing:

We ensure a clear, logical structure for essays, and appropriate headings, subheadings, and sections for reports.

Editing and Proofreading:

We review and refine content for grammar, spelling, and formatting errors, enhancing the overall clarity and coherence of the work in both essay vs report.

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Our experts tailor each piece to individual needs, respecting specific guidelines, formats, and deadlines for both essays and reports.

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Report Assignment vs Essay Assignment: What’s the Difference?

Introduction.

Report assignments and essay assignments are both common types of assessments that you may encounter while studying. Although they have some similarities, there are key differences between them. It is important to know these key differences because doing one instead of the other will affect your grade. The easiest way to find out the required one is from the assignment brief or question.

It will either mention an essay or a report. What’s the difference though? Some of the key differences are the structure, purpose and presentation. This article will show you the general differences so that you don’t mistakenly do one instead of the other when asked. For specific requirements, the assignment brief or lecturer is your best bet. Check out level-specific assignment requirements here .

The Purpose of a Report

A report assignment provides information about a specific topic or issue. This is normally broken down into the key elements that apply to the assignment question. Sometimes, because of the report assignment question, only specific parts of the topic are required. The goal of an assignment report is to inform an audience. Even though the marker knows about the topic, the report should be written as though he doesn’t.

The Purpose of an Essay

Because the purpose of an essay assignment varies, ensure that you are clear about it from the brief or lecturer. In general, an essay expresses a viewpoint or an argument. Some essays would require you to explore a topic in-depth and interpret information. However, an essay assignment in business and management studies can be quite different from that of other areas such as journalism and psychology. More details are below.

Language Differences

Within business and management studies, the language of both can be similar. This is because the same academic writing style is required for both. This is not the same in all areas of study. Your lecturer or instructor will inform you when you ask. In general, reports are typically written in a more formal and objective style, with a focus on presenting factual information.

Essays can allow some subjectivity such as personal opinions or perspectives. However, this depends on a number of factors which include the field of study, the assignment question, the location of study and the level. Some essays within business and management studies do not allow subjectivity. They are written in an objective academic style.

Essay Assignment Structure

An essay assignment typically has a basic structure that includes an introduction, body paragraphs, and a conclusion. The specific format of an essay assignment may vary depending on the lecturer’s guidelines or the requirements of the assignment. The following is a general structure of a typical essay assignment:

Essay Introduction: The introduction is the first paragraph of the essay. It should include an attention-grabbing opening statement, background information about the topic, and a statement that outlines the main argument or point of the essay.

Body Paragraphs : The body paragraphs make up the main section of the essay. They should provide supporting evidence to back up the main statement. Each body paragraph should have a clear topic sentence, supporting evidence or examples, and a concluding sentence that links back to the thesis statement. Use the PEA (point, evidence, analysis) technique to efficiently structure your paragraphs.

Essay Conclusion : The conclusion is the final paragraph of the essay. It should summarise the main points of the essay and restate the main statement in a new way. Also, it should provide a closing statement that leaves a lasting impression on the reader. See more tips on writing academic essays from Harvard University here .

report Assignment Structure

Specifically, the assignment requirements and lecturer’s guidelines will tell you the expected structure. Reports are structured with headings and subheadings to organize information in a clear and logical way. Generally, a report assignment structure will include the following sections:

Title Page : The title page should include the title of the report, the name of the author or authors, the date, and any other relevant information such as the name of the department or institution.

Table of Contents: The table of contents lists the major sections, subsections, and the corresponding page numbers of the report.

Executive Summary : The executive summary is a brief overview of the main findings and conclusions of the report. It should be concise and provide an overview of the entire report.

Abstract: In some reports, especially research articles and dissertations, an abstract is included. It concisely summarises the entire work. This includes the purpose of the research, the methods used, the findings and the conclusions.

Introduction: The introduction provides background information on the topic of the report. This includes any relevant history or context. It should also include the purpose of the report and the scope of the research.

Methodology : The methodology section explains the methods used to gather data and conduct research. This section may include details on the sample size, data collection tools and techniques, and data analysis methods. Some reports do not require a methodology section due to the report requirements. In others, this is embedded within the discussion section.

Results : The results section presents the findings of the research in a clear and organised way. This section may include tables, graphs, and other visual aids to help illustrate the data. In some reports, the results and visual aids are embedded in the discussion.

Discussion : The discussion section provides an analysis and interpretation of the results. This section should explain the significance of the findings and relate them back to the purpose of the report.

Conclusion : Here, the main findings and conclusions of the report are summarised. It should also include any recommendations for future action or research.

References : The references section lists all sources cited in the report, including books, articles, and other materials.

Bibliography : Where other sources have been read but not cited in the report, a bibliography is ideal. This is because it includes the sources that are not cited to the ones cited.

Appendices : The appendices section includes any additional information that supports the report, such as raw data, surveys, or detailed calculations.

Using the right structure suitable for the assignment question shows a good understanding of what’s required. It also contributes to the grade because of the professional presentation requirement in business and management assignments. However, using the wrong structure shows a lack of understanding which may affect the grade.

Ultimately, carefully review the assignment instructions and follow any specific guidelines provided by the lecturer. This is because the requirements for reports and essays are sometimes different from the norm. This is how you think like a Lecturer when doing your assignments.

Drop your questions (and thoughts) in the comment box below.

What Am I Expected To Do In My Assignment? Consider The University Requirements!

What Am I Required To Do In My Assignment? Consider The University Requirements.

Knowing the expectations for assignments and exams at your level of study helps you prepare better before any assessment. You can make the best of the time spent on lessons, workshops, tutorials, studying and general discussions with lecturers and peers. That is, you can get involved in discussions, and activities and ask questions that will help you better meet the…

What Should I Do In My Assignment? Think Like a Lecturer: Dissect the Command Words!

Would you rather think like the lecturer that set your assignment question while answering it, instead of going by your own interpretation? How can you think like the lecturer when you don’t have the superpower to read minds? Actually, you can read the part of the lecturer’s mind that matters for your answer.

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Reports vs essays

Students are sometimes unclear about different genres of assessment tasks.

Students often ask the question "What is the difference between a report and an essay?" This short video explains what a report is in academic writing, how it is used in different situations, and the structure of a report including executive summary, introduction, findings and conclusion.

What is a report?

A report is a piece of writing that tells you about some experience, event, or situation. This could include just doing research on some topic, a practical experiment, some issue that has arisen in a company/organisation, or a system, or even a piece of equipment, maybe.

Reports are often problem-based, but not always. It describes what you have found out, and it goes deeper - it explains and analyses what you have found out. Reports are very structured and there is an expected format. They always have sections and headings.

Have a look at this report outline:

“The aim of this report was to investigate Unilab staff attitudes to the use of mobile phones in staff and team meetings. A staff survey and policies on mobile phone use from a number of similar companies were analysed. There was significant support for a clear company policy on mobile phone use, including their banning in certain situations. The results of this research reflected the findings from similar studies. The report concluded that personal mobile phones should not be turned on during all staff meeting times.”

Most reports have executive summaries. In some disciplines, we call it an “abstract”. They are not the same as the introduction. An executive summary summarises the whole report. That means that there will be a sentence or two representing each section of the report. You always write it after you have completed the full report. Have a look at how the writer summarises each main section in one sentence (refer to executive summary above). As you can see, it’s got a very definite structure drawn from the larger report. It is very different to the introduction which just talks about the broad context, the purpose of the report, and what is going to be covered in the following sections. It gives the reader an idea of what is ahead – it does not give the overview like the executive summary.

The other important sections are the Findings and Discussion. This is where you would describe and then analyse your findings. Your findings will be reporting what you have discovered during your research, or your experiment, or an observation you have made. In the discussion section, you must delve deeper: you have to analyse and make sense of these findings and not just state what they are.

Finally, in the conclusion, you summarise your findings or use your findings or to come out with a more unified understanding or outcome. In some disciplines like business, you might be asked to give solutions or recommendations to overcome a problem that you have noticed. Recommendations might have their own section or be included in the conclusion, too.

For more information about reports, try the tutorials. Thanks for watching!

The table below shows the main differences between reports and essays.

Provides objective information: Can be constructed collaboratively.
Highly structured into sections identified using headings.
Sections can be read in isolation of the most of the text: the reader can dip in and out.
Objective report and analysis of facts.
Grounded in practice but often links to theory.
For a specific audience.
Includes tables, graphs and diagrams.
Dot points used for conciseness.
Presents a particular writer's claim or argument.
Structured by paragraphing with key points identified in topic sentences.
Paragraphs are read in the context of the whole: the reader starts at the beginning and reads the entire text.
Subjective argument or interpretation.
Grounded in theory but sometimes linked to practice.
For a generalised audience.
Meaning is conveyed through text.
Meaning constructed through sentences.
Purpose of reports and sources to use
Overall structure of a report
Sample report structures

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Report writing An overview and comparison with essays

There are many forms of writing which you may have to undertake at university, from reflective journals to extended researched assignments. The two most common forms of writing are reports and essays . This page describes what a report is , outlines the main types of report you may need to write, and summarises the differences between reports and essays .

What is a report?

For another look at the same content, check out the video on YouTube (also available on Youku ).

A report is a clearly structured form of writing which presents and analyses information clearly and briefly for a particular audience. The information is usually the result of an experiment, investigation, or some other form of primary research such as a questionnaire or survey. It will contain headings and sub-headings, as well as graphics such as graphs, charts and tables. Reports often use the information they contain to present recommendations for future action. They are common not only at university, but also in industry and government. For more information on what a report is, see the section below which compares reports to essays .

Types of report

There are many different types of reports which can be written, though the type you will write at university depends very much on your course of study. Each report will have a different format and writing conventions, though the structure and language used are broadly similar for all reports. The following are some of the main reports written at university.

Laboratory report . This type of report explains and analyses the results of an experiment. It may also be called lab report , experimental report , or science report .
Business report . This analyses a situation and uses business theory to provide solutions or recommendations. It includes many types, e.g. market research report , marketing report , and financial report .
Case study report . This examines a real-world situation (the 'case') and analyses it using appropriate theory (the 'study').
project report . This reports on project work which has been conducted.
Research report . This gives the results of research which has been conducted, for example through surveys (via questionnaires or interviews).
progress report . This informs a supervisor about progress on a project over a certain period of time.
Design report . This report describes and evaluates a design used to solve a particular problem.
Field report . This combines theory and practice by describing an observed person, place or event and analysing the observation.

Other types of report are possible, such as a systems analysis report , a maths report , a feasibility study and a client case work report . Some disciplines, especially business, may require you to write an essay with headings. This is not a report, since all the other features, aside from the headings, are the same as a conventional essay.

Reports vs. essays

Although many of the writing skills required for essays also apply to reports, such as use of topic sentences , cohesion and citations , reports are quite unlike essays in several regards. The table below summarises the main differences. These are divided into three categories: general areas, structure, and content.

Charles Darwin University (2013) Report . Available from http://learnline.cdu.edu.au/studyskills/studyskills/reports.html (Access date 19 July, 2015).

Massey University (2012) Business Report . Available from http://owll.massey.ac.nz/assignment-types/business-report.php (Access date 20 July, 2015).

Monash University (2015) Report Writing . Available from http://www.monash.edu.au/lls/llonline/writing/general/report/index.xml (Access date 20 July, 2015).

Purdue University (2015) Purposes and Types of Report Format . Available from https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/726/02/ (Access date 20 July, 2015).

Queensland University of Technology (2014) Writing a report Available from http://www.citewrite.qut.edu.au/write/report.jsp (Access date 19 July, 2015).

RMIT University (2007) Differences between Essays, Reports and Journals . Available from https://www.dlsweb.rmit.edu.au/lsu/content/2_assessmenttasks/assess_pdf/diffbet_reportsessays.pdf (Access date 19 July, 2015).

Unilearning (2000) Comparison: reports and essays . Available from http://unilearning.uow.edu.au/report/1b.html (Access date 19 July, 2015).

University of Queensland (2015) Types of assignment . Available from http://www.uq.edu.au/student-services/learning/types-of-assignments (Access date 20 July, 2015).

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Author: Sheldon Smith ‖ Last modified: 01 February 2022.

Sheldon Smith is the founder and editor of EAPFoundation.com. He has been teaching English for Academic Purposes since 2004. Find out more about him in the about section and connect with him on Twitter , Facebook and LinkedIn .

Compare & contrast essays examine the similarities of two or more objects, and the differences.

Cause & effect essays consider the reasons (or causes) for something, then discuss the results (or effects).

Discussion essays require you to examine both sides of a situation and to conclude by saying which side you favour.

Problem-solution essays are a sub-type of SPSE essays (Situation, Problem, Solution, Evaluation).

Transition signals are useful in achieving good cohesion and coherence in your writing.

Reporting verbs are used to link your in-text citations to the information cited.

8.5 Writing Process: Creating an Analytical Report

Learning outcomes.

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

Identify the elements of the rhetorical situation for your report.
Find and focus a topic to write about.
Gather and analyze information from appropriate sources.
Distinguish among different kinds of evidence.
Draft a thesis and create an organizational plan.
Compose a report that develops ideas and integrates evidence from sources.
Give and act on productive feedback to works in progress.

You might think that writing comes easily to experienced writers—that they draft stories and college papers all at once, sitting down at the computer and having sentences flow from their fingers like water from a faucet. In reality, most writers engage in a recursive process, pushing forward, stepping back, and repeating steps multiple times as their ideas develop and change. In broad strokes, the steps most writers go through are these:

Planning and Organization . You will have an easier time drafting if you devote time at the beginning to consider the rhetorical situation for your report, understand your assignment, gather ideas and information, draft a thesis statement, and create an organizational plan.
Drafting . When you have an idea of what you want to say and the order in which you want to say it, you’re ready to draft. As much as possible, keep going until you have a complete first draft of your report, resisting the urge to go back and rewrite. Save that for after you have completed a first draft.
Review . Now is the time to get feedback from others, whether from your instructor, your classmates, a tutor in the writing center, your roommate, someone in your family, or someone else you trust to read your writing critically and give you honest feedback.
Revising . With feedback on your draft, you are ready to revise. You may need to return to an earlier step and make large-scale revisions that involve planning, organizing, and rewriting, or you may need to work mostly on ensuring that your sentences are clear and correct.

Considering the Rhetorical Situation

Like other kinds of writing projects, a report starts with assessing the rhetorical situation —the circumstance in which a writer communicates with an audience of readers about a subject. As the writer of a report, you make choices based on the purpose of your writing, the audience who will read it, the genre of the report, and the expectations of the community and culture in which you are working. A graphic organizer like Table 8.1 can help you begin.

Summary of Assignment

Write an analytical report on a topic that interests you and that you want to know more about. The topic can be contemporary or historical, but it must be one that you can analyze and support with evidence from sources.

The following questions can help you think about a topic suitable for analysis:

Why or how did ________ happen?
What are the results or effects of ________?
Is ________ a problem? If so, why?
What are examples of ________ or reasons for ________?
How does ________ compare to or contrast with other issues, concerns, or things?

Consult and cite three to five reliable sources. The sources do not have to be scholarly for this assignment, but they must be credible, trustworthy, and unbiased. Possible sources include academic journals, newspapers, magazines, reputable websites, government publications or agency websites, and visual sources such as TED Talks. You may also use the results of an experiment or survey, and you may want to conduct interviews.

Consider whether visuals and media will enhance your report. Can you present data you collect visually? Would a map, photograph, chart, or other graphic provide interesting and relevant support? Would video or audio allow you to present evidence that you would otherwise need to describe in words?

Another Lens. To gain another analytic view on the topic of your report, consider different people affected by it. Say, for example, that you have decided to report on recent high school graduates and the effect of the COVID-19 pandemic on the final months of their senior year. If you are a recent high school graduate, you might naturally gravitate toward writing about yourself and your peers. But you might also consider the adults in the lives of recent high school graduates—for example, teachers, parents, or grandparents—and how they view the same period. Or you might consider the same topic from the perspective of a college admissions department looking at their incoming freshman class.

Quick Launch: Finding and Focusing a Topic

Coming up with a topic for a report can be daunting because you can report on nearly anything. The topic can easily get too broad, trapping you in the realm of generalizations. The trick is to find a topic that interests you and focus on an angle you can analyze in order to say something significant about it. You can use a graphic organizer to generate ideas, or you can use a concept map similar to the one featured in Writing Process: Thinking Critically About a “Text.”

Asking the Journalist’s Questions

One way to generate ideas about a topic is to ask the five W (and one H) questions, also called the journalist’s questions : Who? What? When? Where? Why? How? Try answering the following questions to explore a topic:

Who was or is involved in ________?

What happened/is happening with ________? What were/are the results of ________?

When did ________ happen? Is ________ happening now?

Where did ________ happen, or where is ________ happening?

Why did ________ happen, or why is ________ happening now?

How did ________ happen?

For example, imagine that you have decided to write your analytical report on the effect of the COVID-19 shutdown on high-school students by interviewing students on your college campus. Your questions and answers might look something like those in Table 8.2 :

Asking Focused Questions

Another way to find a topic is to ask focused questions about it. For example, you might ask the following questions about the effect of the 2020 pandemic shutdown on recent high school graduates:

How did the shutdown change students’ feelings about their senior year?
How did the shutdown affect their decisions about post-graduation plans, such as work or going to college?
How did the shutdown affect their academic performance in high school or in college?
How did/do they feel about continuing their education?
How did the shutdown affect their social relationships?

Any of these questions might be developed into a thesis for an analytical report. Table 8.3 shows more examples of broad topics and focusing questions.

Gathering Information

Because they are based on information and evidence, most analytical reports require you to do at least some research. Depending on your assignment, you may be able to find reliable information online, or you may need to do primary research by conducting an experiment, a survey, or interviews. For example, if you live among students in their late teens and early twenties, consider what they can tell you about their lives that you might be able to analyze. Returning to or graduating from high school, starting college, or returning to college in the midst of a global pandemic has provided them, for better or worse, with educational and social experiences that are shared widely by people their age and very different from the experiences older adults had at the same age.

Some report assignments will require you to do formal research, an activity that involves finding sources and evaluating them for reliability, reading them carefully, taking notes, and citing all words you quote and ideas you borrow. See Research Process: Accessing and Recording Information and Annotated Bibliography: Gathering, Evaluating, and Documenting Sources for detailed instruction on conducting research.

Whether you conduct in-depth research or not, keep track of the ideas that come to you and the information you learn. You can write or dictate notes using an app on your phone or computer, or you can jot notes in a journal if you prefer pen and paper. Then, when you are ready to begin organizing your report, you will have a record of your thoughts and information. Always track the sources of information you gather, whether from printed or digital material or from a person you interviewed, so that you can return to the sources if you need more information. And always credit the sources in your report.

Kinds of Evidence

Depending on your assignment and the topic of your report, certain kinds of evidence may be more effective than others. Other kinds of evidence may even be required. As a general rule, choose evidence that is rooted in verifiable facts and experience. In addition, select the evidence that best supports the topic and your approach to the topic, be sure the evidence meets your instructor’s requirements, and cite any evidence you use that comes from a source. The following list contains different kinds of frequently used evidence and an example of each.

Definition : An explanation of a key word, idea, or concept.

The U.S. Census Bureau refers to a “young adult” as a person between 18 and 34 years old.

Example : An illustration of an idea or concept.

The college experience in the fall of 2020 was starkly different from that of previous years. Students who lived in residence halls were assigned to small pods. On-campus dining services were limited. Classes were small and physically distanced or conducted online. Parties were banned.

Expert opinion : A statement by a professional in the field whose opinion is respected.

According to Louise Aronson, MD, geriatrician and author of Elderhood , people over the age of 65 are the happiest of any age group, reporting “less stress, depression, worry, and anger, and more enjoyment, happiness, and satisfaction” (255).

Fact : Information that can be proven correct or accurate.

According to data collected by the NCAA, the academic success of Division I college athletes between 2015 and 2019 was consistently high (Hosick).

Interview : An in-person, phone, or remote conversation that involves an interviewer posing questions to another person or people.

During our interview, I asked Betty about living without a cell phone during the pandemic. She said that before the pandemic, she hadn’t needed a cell phone in her daily activities, but she soon realized that she, and people like her, were increasingly at a disadvantage.

Quotation : The exact words of an author or a speaker.

In response to whether she thought she needed a cell phone, Betty said, “I got along just fine without a cell phone when I could go everywhere in person. The shift to needing a phone came suddenly, and I don’t have extra money in my budget to get one.”

Statistics : A numerical fact or item of data.

The Pew Research Center reported that approximately 25 percent of Hispanic Americans and 17 percent of Black Americans relied on smartphones for online access, compared with 12 percent of White people.

Survey : A structured interview in which respondents (the people who answer the survey questions) are all asked the same questions, either in person or through print or electronic means, and their answers tabulated and interpreted. Surveys discover attitudes, beliefs, or habits of the general public or segments of the population.

A survey of 3,000 mobile phone users in October 2020 showed that 54 percent of respondents used their phones for messaging, while 40 percent used their phones for calls (Steele).

Visuals : Graphs, figures, tables, photographs and other images, diagrams, charts, maps, videos, and audio recordings, among others.

Thesis and Organization

Drafting a thesis.

When you have a grasp of your topic, move on to the next phase: drafting a thesis. The thesis is the central idea that you will explore and support in your report; all paragraphs in your report should relate to it. In an essay-style analytical report, you will likely express this main idea in a thesis statement of one or two sentences toward the end of the introduction.

For example, if you found that the academic performance of student athletes was higher than that of non-athletes, you might write the following thesis statement:

student sample text Although a common stereotype is that college athletes barely pass their classes, an analysis of athletes’ academic performance indicates that athletes drop fewer classes, earn higher grades, and are more likely to be on track to graduate in four years when compared with their non-athlete peers. end student sample text

The thesis statement often previews the organization of your writing. For example, in his report on the U.S. response to the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, Trevor Garcia wrote the following thesis statement, which detailed the central idea of his report:

student sample text An examination of the U.S. response shows that a reduction of experts in key positions and programs, inaction that led to equipment shortages, and inconsistent policies were three major causes of the spread of the virus and the resulting deaths. end student sample text

After you draft a thesis statement, ask these questions, and examine your thesis as you answer them. Revise your draft as needed.

Is it interesting? A thesis for a report should answer a question that is worth asking and piques curiosity.
Is it precise and specific? If you are interested in reducing pollution in a nearby lake, explain how to stop the zebra mussel infestation or reduce the frequent algae blooms.
Is it manageable? Try to split the difference between having too much information and not having enough.

Organizing Your Ideas

As a next step, organize the points you want to make in your report and the evidence to support them. Use an outline, a diagram, or another organizational tool, such as Table 8.4 .

Drafting an Analytical Report

With a tentative thesis, an organization plan, and evidence, you are ready to begin drafting. For this assignment, you will report information, analyze it, and draw conclusions about the cause of something, the effect of something, or the similarities and differences between two different things.

Introduction

Some students write the introduction first; others save it for last. Whenever you choose to write the introduction, use it to draw readers into your report. Make the topic of your report clear, and be concise and sincere. End the introduction with your thesis statement. Depending on your topic and the type of report, you can write an effective introduction in several ways. Opening a report with an overview is a tried-and-true strategy, as shown in the following example on the U.S. response to COVID-19 by Trevor Garcia. Notice how he opens the introduction with statistics and a comparison and follows it with a question that leads to the thesis statement (underlined).

student sample text With more than 83 million cases and 1.8 million deaths at the end of 2020, COVID-19 has turned the world upside down. By the end of 2020, the United States led the world in the number of cases, at more than 20 million infections and nearly 350,000 deaths. In comparison, the second-highest number of cases was in India, which at the end of 2020 had less than half the number of COVID-19 cases despite having a population four times greater than the U.S. (“COVID-19 Coronavirus Pandemic,” 2021). How did the United States come to have the world’s worst record in this pandemic? underline An examination of the U.S. response shows that a reduction of experts in key positions and programs, inaction that led to equipment shortages, and inconsistent policies were three major causes of the spread of the virus and the resulting deaths end underline . end student sample text

For a less formal report, you might want to open with a question, quotation, or brief story. The following example opens with an anecdote that leads to the thesis statement (underlined).

student sample text Betty stood outside the salon, wondering how to get in. It was June of 2020, and the door was locked. A sign posted on the door provided a phone number for her to call to be let in, but at 81, Betty had lived her life without a cell phone. Betty’s day-to-day life had been hard during the pandemic, but she had planned for this haircut and was looking forward to it; she had a mask on and hand sanitizer in her car. Now she couldn’t get in the door, and she was discouraged. In that moment, Betty realized how much Americans’ dependence on cell phones had grown in the months since the pandemic began. underline Betty and thousands of other senior citizens who could not afford cell phones or did not have the technological skills and support they needed were being left behind in a society that was increasingly reliant on technology end underline . end student sample text

Body Paragraphs: Point, Evidence, Analysis

Use the body paragraphs of your report to present evidence that supports your thesis. A reliable pattern to keep in mind for developing the body paragraphs of a report is point , evidence , and analysis :

The point is the central idea of the paragraph, usually given in a topic sentence stated in your own words at or toward the beginning of the paragraph. Each topic sentence should relate to the thesis.
The evidence you provide develops the paragraph and supports the point made in the topic sentence. Include details, examples, quotations, paraphrases, and summaries from sources if you conducted formal research. Synthesize the evidence you include by showing in your sentences the connections between sources.
The analysis comes at the end of the paragraph. In your own words, draw a conclusion about the evidence you have provided and how it relates to the topic sentence.

The paragraph below illustrates the point, evidence, and analysis pattern. Drawn from a report about concussions among football players, the paragraph opens with a topic sentence about the NCAA and NFL and their responses to studies about concussions. The paragraph is developed with evidence from three sources. It concludes with a statement about helmets and players’ safety.

student sample text The NCAA and NFL have taken steps forward and backward to respond to studies about the danger of concussions among players. Responding to the deaths of athletes, documented brain damage, lawsuits, and public outcry (Buckley et al., 2017), the NCAA instituted protocols to reduce potentially dangerous hits during football games and to diagnose traumatic head injuries more quickly and effectively. Still, it has allowed players to wear more than one style of helmet during a season, raising the risk of injury because of imperfect fit. At the professional level, the NFL developed a helmet-rating system in 2011 in an effort to reduce concussions, but it continued to allow players to wear helmets with a wide range of safety ratings. The NFL’s decision created an opportunity for researchers to look at the relationship between helmet safety ratings and concussions. Cocello et al. (2016) reported that players who wore helmets with a lower safety rating had more concussions than players who wore helmets with a higher safety rating, and they concluded that safer helmets are a key factor in reducing concussions. end student sample text

Developing Paragraph Content

In the body paragraphs of your report, you will likely use examples, draw comparisons, show contrasts, or analyze causes and effects to develop your topic.

Paragraphs developed with Example are common in reports. The paragraph below, adapted from a report by student John Zwick on the mental health of soldiers deployed during wartime, draws examples from three sources.

student sample text Throughout the Vietnam War, military leaders claimed that the mental health of soldiers was stable and that men who suffered from combat fatigue, now known as PTSD, were getting the help they needed. For example, the New York Times (1966) quoted military leaders who claimed that mental fatigue among enlisted men had “virtually ceased to be a problem,” occurring at a rate far below that of World War II. Ayres (1969) reported that Brigadier General Spurgeon Neel, chief American medical officer in Vietnam, explained that soldiers experiencing combat fatigue were admitted to the psychiatric ward, sedated for up to 36 hours, and given a counseling session with a doctor who reassured them that the rest was well deserved and that they were ready to return to their units. Although experts outside the military saw profound damage to soldiers’ psyches when they returned home (Halloran, 1970), the military stayed the course, treating acute cases expediently and showing little concern for the cumulative effect of combat stress on individual soldiers. end student sample text

When you analyze causes and effects , you explain the reasons that certain things happened and/or their results. The report by Trevor Garcia on the U.S. response to the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020 is an example: his report examines the reasons the United States failed to control the coronavirus. The paragraph below, adapted from another student’s report written for an environmental policy course, explains the effect of white settlers’ views of forest management on New England.

student sample text The early colonists’ European ideas about forest management dramatically changed the New England landscape. White settlers saw the New World as virgin, unused land, even though indigenous people had been drawing on its resources for generations by using fire subtly to improve hunting, employing construction techniques that left ancient trees intact, and farming small, efficient fields that left the surrounding landscape largely unaltered. White settlers’ desire to develop wood-built and wood-burning homesteads surrounded by large farm fields led to forestry practices and techniques that resulted in the removal of old-growth trees. These practices defined the way the forests look today. end student sample text

Compare and contrast paragraphs are useful when you wish to examine similarities and differences. You can use both comparison and contrast in a single paragraph, or you can use one or the other. The paragraph below, adapted from a student report on the rise of populist politicians, compares the rhetorical styles of populist politicians Huey Long and Donald Trump.

student sample text A key similarity among populist politicians is their rejection of carefully crafted sound bites and erudite vocabulary typically associated with candidates for high office. Huey Long and Donald Trump are two examples. When he ran for president, Long captured attention through his wild gesticulations on almost every word, dramatically varying volume, and heavily accented, folksy expressions, such as “The only way to be able to feed the balance of the people is to make that man come back and bring back some of that grub that he ain’t got no business with!” In addition, Long’s down-home persona made him a credible voice to represent the common people against the country’s rich, and his buffoonish style allowed him to express his radical ideas without sounding anti-communist alarm bells. Similarly, Donald Trump chose to speak informally in his campaign appearances, but the persona he projected was that of a fast-talking, domineering salesman. His frequent use of personal anecdotes, rhetorical questions, brief asides, jokes, personal attacks, and false claims made his speeches disjointed, but they gave the feeling of a running conversation between him and his audience. For example, in a 2015 speech, Trump said, “They just built a hotel in Syria. Can you believe this? They built a hotel. When I have to build a hotel, I pay interest. They don’t have to pay interest, because they took the oil that, when we left Iraq, I said we should’ve taken” (“Our Country Needs” 2020). While very different in substance, Long and Trump adopted similar styles that positioned them as the antithesis of typical politicians and their worldviews. end student sample text

The conclusion should draw the threads of your report together and make its significance clear to readers. You may wish to review the introduction, restate the thesis, recommend a course of action, point to the future, or use some combination of these. Whichever way you approach it, the conclusion should not head in a new direction. The following example is the conclusion from a student’s report on the effect of a book about environmental movements in the United States.

student sample text Since its publication in 1949, environmental activists of various movements have found wisdom and inspiration in Aldo Leopold’s A Sand County Almanac . These audiences included Leopold’s conservationist contemporaries, environmentalists of the 1960s and 1970s, and the environmental justice activists who rose in the 1980s and continue to make their voices heard today. These audiences have read the work differently: conservationists looked to the author as a leader, environmentalists applied his wisdom to their movement, and environmental justice advocates have pointed out the flaws in Leopold’s thinking. Even so, like those before them, environmental justice activists recognize the book’s value as a testament to taking the long view and eliminating biases that may cloud an objective assessment of humanity’s interdependent relationship with the environment. end student sample text

Citing Sources

You must cite the sources of information and data included in your report. Citations must appear in both the text and a bibliography at the end of the report.

The sample paragraphs in the previous section include examples of in-text citation using APA documentation style. Trevor Garcia’s report on the U.S. response to COVID-19 in 2020 also uses APA documentation style for citations in the text of the report and the list of references at the end. Your instructor may require another documentation style, such as MLA or Chicago.

Peer Review: Getting Feedback from Readers

You will likely engage in peer review with other students in your class by sharing drafts and providing feedback to help spot strengths and weaknesses in your reports. For peer review within a class, your instructor may provide assignment-specific questions or a form for you to complete as you work together.

If you have a writing center on your campus, it is well worth your time to make an online or in-person appointment with a tutor. You’ll receive valuable feedback and improve your ability to review not only your report but your overall writing.

Another way to receive feedback on your report is to ask a friend or family member to read your draft. Provide a list of questions or a form such as the one in Table 8.5 for them to complete as they read.

Revising: Using Reviewers’ Responses to Revise your Work

When you receive comments from readers, including your instructor, read each comment carefully to understand what is being asked. Try not to get defensive, even though this response is completely natural. Remember that readers are like coaches who want you to succeed. They are looking at your writing from outside your own head, and they can identify strengths and weaknesses that you may not have noticed. Keep track of the strengths and weaknesses your readers point out. Pay special attention to those that more than one reader identifies, and use this information to improve your report and later assignments.

As you analyze each response, be open to suggestions for improvement, and be willing to make significant revisions to improve your writing. Perhaps you need to revise your thesis statement to better reflect the content of your draft. Maybe you need to return to your sources to better understand a point you’re trying to make in order to develop a paragraph more fully. Perhaps you need to rethink the organization, move paragraphs around, and add transition sentences.

Below is an early draft of part of Trevor Garcia’s report with comments from a peer reviewer:

student sample text To truly understand what happened, it’s important first to look back to the years leading up to the pandemic. Epidemiologists and public health officials had long known that a global pandemic was possible. In 2016, the U.S. National Security Council (NSC) published a 69-page document with the intimidating title Playbook for Early Response to High-Consequence Emerging Infectious Disease Threats and Biological Incidents . The document’s two sections address responses to “emerging disease threats that start or are circulating in another country but not yet confirmed within U.S. territorial borders” and to “emerging disease threats within our nation’s borders.” On 13 January 2017, the joint Obama-Trump transition teams performed a pandemic preparedness exercise; however, the playbook was never adopted by the incoming administration. end student sample text

annotated text Peer Review Comment: Do the words in quotation marks need to be a direct quotation? It seems like a paraphrase would work here. end annotated text

annotated text Peer Review Comment: I’m getting lost in the details about the playbook. What’s the Obama-Trump transition team? end annotated text

student sample text In February 2018, the administration began to cut funding for the Prevention and Public Health Fund at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; cuts to other health agencies continued throughout 2018, with funds diverted to unrelated projects such as housing for detained immigrant children. end student sample text

annotated text Peer Review Comment: This paragraph has only one sentence, and it’s more like an example. It needs a topic sentence and more development. end annotated text

student sample text Three months later, Luciana Borio, director of medical and biodefense preparedness at the NSC, spoke at a symposium marking the centennial of the 1918 influenza pandemic. “The threat of pandemic flu is the number one health security concern,” she said. “Are we ready to respond? I fear the answer is no.” end student sample text

annotated text Peer Review Comment: This paragraph is very short and a lot like the previous paragraph in that it’s a single example. It needs a topic sentence. Maybe you can combine them? end annotated text

annotated text Peer Review Comment: Be sure to cite the quotation. end annotated text

Reading these comments and those of others, Trevor decided to combine the three short paragraphs into one paragraph focusing on the fact that the United States knew a pandemic was possible but was unprepared for it. He developed the paragraph, using the short paragraphs as evidence and connecting the sentences and evidence with transitional words and phrases. Finally, he added in-text citations in APA documentation style to credit his sources. The revised paragraph is below:

student sample text Epidemiologists and public health officials in the United States had long known that a global pandemic was possible. In 2016, the National Security Council (NSC) published Playbook for Early Response to High-Consequence Emerging Infectious Disease Threats and Biological Incidents , a 69-page document on responding to diseases spreading within and outside of the United States. On January 13, 2017, the joint transition teams of outgoing president Barack Obama and then president-elect Donald Trump performed a pandemic preparedness exercise based on the playbook; however, it was never adopted by the incoming administration (Goodman & Schulkin, 2020). A year later, in February 2018, the Trump administration began to cut funding for the Prevention and Public Health Fund at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, leaving key positions unfilled. Other individuals who were fired or resigned in 2018 were the homeland security adviser, whose portfolio included global pandemics; the director for medical and biodefense preparedness; and the top official in charge of a pandemic response. None of them were replaced, leaving the White House with no senior person who had experience in public health (Goodman & Schulkin, 2020). Experts voiced concerns, among them Luciana Borio, director of medical and biodefense preparedness at the NSC, who spoke at a symposium marking the centennial of the 1918 influenza pandemic in May 2018: “The threat of pandemic flu is the number one health security concern,” she said. “Are we ready to respond? I fear the answer is no” (Sun, 2018, final para.). end student sample text

A final word on working with reviewers’ comments: as you consider your readers’ suggestions, remember, too, that you remain the author. You are free to disregard suggestions that you think will not improve your writing. If you choose to disregard comments from your instructor, consider submitting a note explaining your reasons with the final draft of your report.

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Reports are one of the most common assignment types you will come across at university. They are highly detailed, thoroughly researched and typically focused on a specific event, problem or experiment. Reports usually cover the who, what, where, when, why and how of a particular situation or issue.

Reports are different to essays in many ways, with one difference being the structure. While essays are read linearly from beginning to conclusion, reports can be broken down into independent sections that can be read as stand-alone pieces. These sections contain headings and subheadings to help the reader navigate the document.

There are a few different types of reports you may be required to write at university.

A general report - covering a specific topic or issue
A laboratory report - outlining an experiment you or your group has undertaken
A scientific report - a long-form report that outlines an experiment as well as the theory in the broader context of the chosen field.

How to write a report

Reports tend to be written objectively, containing facts and information rather than personal viewpoints. Reports often use formal language; however, unlike essays, reports may contain dot points to convey information succinctly.

To prepare a report, you first need to:

Research information and literature surrounding the topic: statistics, interviews, news articles, journals, biographies etc.
Analyse and interpret the information you find
Organise your interpretation of the topic into key findings and observations
Consider the actions you would recommend to address your findings and their implications.

Structure of a report

Test your knowledge - structure.

The structure of a report depends on the type of report that is to be written, but a typical report will include the following:

The title page will contain:

The report title, which clearly states the topic of the report
Full details of the person/s for whom the report is intended
Full details of the person/s who prepared the report
Date of the presentation of the report (or date submitted if you are not presenting it).

Abstract or executive summary

The abstract is one of the most important components of the report. It will be read by vastly more people than those who will read the whole report (if your report is published), and needs to provide enough information to invite the audience to read on. Although the audience will read this first, you should leave the writing of your abstract as the last step. This will allow you to summarise the content of your report in a concise and clear format. Depending on the length of your report, an abstract is usually no longer than 10% of the paper, or 100-200 words.

An abstract aims to:

Provide a brief overview of the whole report
Give concise, complete, specific and self-sufficient information that can be easily understood
Offer recommendations for executives and managers to base their decisions on.

Your table of contents will inform the reader of the layout of your report, and allow them to navigate to the sections that will be most relevant to them. The format of your report can take on an alphanumeric system, or a decimal system, which is the more common of the two. See the examples below of the two different styles. Both tables are divided into headings and subheadings to break up the information into sections that can be easily read out of order.

Alphanumeric

English Breakfast
1.1. Espresso
1.2. Cappuccino
2.1. Earl Grey
2.2. English Breakfast

Introduction

Your introduction will:

Provide background information on the topic
State the purpose of the report
Indicate the scope, including limitations
Outline the methods used to gather information
Clarify key terms
Inform the reader of what your report will cover
Give the reader a preview of how the information will be presented.

It will also include your literature review of any publications you have used for your report. Literature reviews are covered later in this module.

Discussion or body - the content

The content of your report will depend on its purpose. Your report should contain primary sources if possible (such as observations and interviews), as well as secondary sources to provide explanations of theory and background. Your lecturer will set guidelines on whether to use primary and/or secondary sources. You should further detail the methods of your investigation, including what you did and why, and any issues encountered in the process. In the body content you will explain the findings gathered from your research, and discuss the implications they hold. Remember to separate your key ideas and concepts into clear headings and subheadings, so that you break up your report into digestible pieces of information for the reader.

The body of your report will contain the following sections:

Method (what was done and how?)
Results and analysis (what happened? Why did it happen?)
Discussion (what are the implications of this in the broader context of the topic?)

Your conclusion will be a summary of the key points you have raised in your discussion.

In this, you will need to:

Contextualise your observations, findings, and analyses
Remind the reader of what you have informed them in the body content (i.e. what you researched, what you discovered, what implications or problems this raises)
Give a sense of completion.

Make sure you do not include any new information in the conclusion – it is a summary of what you have already told the audience.

Recommendations

Think of this as an action plan for how to resolve or improve the issue. Try to make your recommendations as realistic as possible, and identify clear paths of how these recommendations could be achieved by the responsible parties.

Appendix/appendices

This is a section where you can include further information that is relevant to your topic but did not fit in the body of your report. This can include (but is not limited to) graphs, tables, images, and raw data collected as part of your investigation.

As for all academic writing, the sources used in your report must be properly referenced. Refer to your unit outline or ask your tutor for the appropriate referencing style for your assignment. You can also refer to our Citing in your writing module for advice on how to use references within your report, and refer to the Library’s referencing guides for the different types of referencing styles and examples of how to use them.

Refer to your unit outline for specific information when writing a report. Make sure you have analysed the question you are being asked before starting your report.

Writing style

In most cases of report writing, you will write in the passive voice, particularly when writing scientific reports. This is because you are outlining the action or method performed, rather than focusing on who was completing the action.

You can learn more about active and passive sentences in the Structure and mechanics section of this module.

In some cases you will need to write the report as though the audience does not know much about the topic your report covers. For a general report you should clearly define key terms and provide sufficient background information to inform the reader of your discussion.

For more technical or scientific reports, it is wise to assume that the intended audience will have a fair idea of the methods and scientific terms of your study; therefore, technical language can be used.

Always remember to spell out abbreviations in the first instance you use them, followed by the abbreviation in brackets. For example: “The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends that…”

You should constantly keep the purpose and audience in mind throughout the stages of writing your report. This ensures the report’s information is relevant to your audience.

Test your knowledge - comparison of essays and reports

Report writing checklist.

Use this checklist, along with your assignment guide and marking rubric, to ensure you have covered the main requirements of a report.

The title includes key words
Your abstract concisely summarises the contents of your report
Your table of contents corresponds with the report content and page numbers
Your introduction provides context for your topic
The purpose and scope of your report is clearly stated
Acronyms and abbreviations have been defined
The discussion is organised logically and contains all relevant information
All facts and information are correct
You have stated the limitations and assumptions
Your results relate to the data presented
Your conclusions interpret, analyse, and evaluate the results or research
Your recommendations are appropriate and clearly explained
All in-text and end-of-text graphics are relevant
All appendices are numbered and titled (if applicable)
All sources are correctly cited with in-text references and a complete reference list
Your spelling, grammar, and punctuation is correct and consistent
Your report is clear, concise, and has been written at an appropriate level for your audience
Your report is consistent in form, font, and layout.

Types of Assignment

Starting an assignment
Academic poster
Annotated bibliography
Project Proposal
Dissertation or final year project
Literature review
Critical Assessment - Assessing Academic Journal Articles
Systematic Review (Postgraduate resource)
Presentation

Report: Things you need to know...

Reports are usually written to record the methodology, results and conclusions of an investigation (this may be as a result of primary research (often practical and undertaken by you) or secondary (analysis of current literature and evidence)

They are written for easy reading and discussion so headings, sub-headings, numbering, bullet points, images, tables and graphs can all be used. Use concise, business-like language so that the reader of your report can easily understand.

Reports can be written in a variety of ways, there is not just one correct way (check assignment guidelines). A report may consist of sections such as:

Title - be specific.
Introduction - aim(s), objectives and why this is an important area for investigation?
Methodology – what you did to investigate and/or research this subject?
Findings and discussion – what you found out and what the findings mean?
Conclusions – what conclusions you made?
Recommendations - if needed.
Title page - be specific.
Executive summary - highlights and key points from the report
Table of contents
Introduction – aim(s), objectives and why this is an important topic
The main body portion – what you found out and what the findings mean?
Conclusion – what conclusions you made?
Recommendations - if needed.
Report structure What sections to include when writing a formal academic report.

When making a report in Word it can be very useful to use the tools built into the program to assist your structuring.

How to Insert a Contents Table.

Microsoft Word Tutorial step by step Creating a table of contents page with Microsoft Word.

Step 1 Use styles. Headings should be formatted with header 1 (e.g. Chapters) and subheadings should be formatted with header 2. Step 2 Click on the “References” tab to select the option “table of contents”. Step 3 Customise your table of contents style and format by selecting “custom table of contents”. Step 4 Click "Update" to refresh the table of contents page.

To designate a section as a Heading.

Highlight the heading words and then in the ribbon select Home and then Styles.

To create the Contents Table.

On the ribbon select References and select Table of Contents.

Figures and Tables

When writing reports you will often include media (Tables and Figures) which needs to be clearly identified and labelled.

If Referencing directs the reader to external sources of information, then clearly naming your internal media gives the reader the direction they need within the report.

Tables are representations of the data and show numbers in column or rows. Figures use that data to show the information in a more visual manner, assisting the reader in their understanding. While labeling the table, the label or numbers are centered and written on the top of the tables.

Example Table:

Table 1: Title

Figures refer to any visual information including but not limited to charts, diagrams, graphs, photos, etc. which are not Tables. They can be in the main sections of the report, or if they contain supplemental material they may be contained in an appendix e.g. survey questions used in a primary research project. Figures should always be numbered in the order they appear within the document e.g. Figure 1, and always underneath the image.

Example Figure:

Figure 1: Photo of a cat

Or if from a source of information - Figure 1: Photo of a cat (Heap, 2020)

Tech: How to......

Insert a caption for a picture

Insert a table of figures

Figure Caption / Figure Legend : sometimes these terms are used interchangeably. Figure captions provide more detail to the reader ensuring they can understand the figure without having to read the main body of text. Factors to include in a good caption: Figure X: title, materials and methods, results and any supporting definitions.

An appendix comprises supplementary and extra content that is not crucial to the main body of the text, yet it can aid in offering a more comprehensive comprehension of the research problem or provide information that is too extensive to be incorporated within the main paper.

The appendix provides the reader with information needed to understand or clarify an element discussed within the main body e.g. the questions used in a survey.

Make a selected page Landscape

Need to know more...

Try doing an advanced search, for example "report writing" + business in order to find resources appropriate to your subject area..

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Key Differences

Know the Differences & Comparisons

Difference Between Essay and Report

On the other hand, an essay can be understood as a piece of writing, on a specific topic or subject, which expresses the author’s own ideas and knowledge about the subject.

The basic difference between essay and report is that while an essay is argumentative and idea-based, reports are informative and fact-based. Now, let us move further to understand some more points of differences.

Content: Essay Vs Report

Comparison chart, definition of essay.

An essay can be understood as a comprehensive literary composition, written in a narrative style and presents a particular topic, supports an argument and highlights the writer’s view or ideology. An essay is used to check a person’s outlook and understanding on specific matters and also his/her ability to describe and argue in a way which convinces the reader or informs him/her about a specific topic.

One can make use of learned materials, along with his/her own research, to write an essay effectively. It includes both narrative and subjective thoughts. Further, an essay supports a single idea at a time, for which several components need to be covered in it so as to appear logical and chronological.

It can be a learned argument, observation of day to day life, literary criticism, political manifestos, recollections, and reflections of the writer. It starts with a question and attempts to answer or give suggestions to the problem, on the basis of the existing theories or the writer’s personal opinion and assessment.

While writing an essay, it must be kept in mind that the approach used by the writer should be positive, even if the topic of argument is negative.

Definition of Report

The report implies a well structured factual document which is created and presented after conducting an independent enquiry, research or investigation on a specific subject. It serves as a basis for problem-solving and decision making.

Reports are prepared for a definite purpose and contain relevant information in a proper format, for a particular audience. It is used to identify, observe and analyse the issues, events, findings, that occurred practically, i.e. in real life.

A report is designed with the aim of informing the reader about the event, situation or issue, in a very simple and objective manner, while enabling them to get the desired information quickly and easily. It provides recommendations for future actions. Information collected from research, or from carrying out a project work is presented in a clear and concise manner, under a set of headings and subheadings, that helps the reader to get the desired information quickly and easily.

Characteristics of an Ideal Report

It must be clear and concise.
It is written in easy language which the readers can understand easily.
It has to be appropriate and accurate.
It should be well drafted and organised, with specific sections, headings and sub-headings.

A report summary can be provided orally, however detailed reports are usually in the form of written documents. It contains – Title Page, Acknowledgement, Authorization Letter, Table of Contents, Executive Summary, Introduction, Discussion, Results, Conclusion, Recommendations and References.

Moreover, Cover letter, Copyright notice, Bibliography, Glossary and Appendices may also form part of a report.

Key Differences Between Essay and Report

The difference Between report and essay is discussed here in detail:

An essay is a brief literary composition, which is used to describe, present, argue, and analyse the idea or topic. Conversely, a report is a formal and concise document consisting of findings from the practical research. It aims at investigating and exploring the problem under study.
An essay is written on the basis of subjective analysis of theories and past research, by other people and own ideas, on the concerned subject. As against, a report is objective and factual, which is based on past research, as well as present data and findings.
An essay talks about general facts and events along with the writer’s personal ideas and views, on the topic in a non-fictional manner. On the contrary, a report contains information which the reader can use to identify the facts or support in decision making or solving issues if any.
When it comes to sections, a report usually contains different sections, with catchy headings which may attract the attention of the audience. As against, an essay does not have any section, its flow is continuous. However, it is divided into cohesive paragraphs.
A report uses tables, charts, graphs, diagrams, statistics and many more for a clear and better presentation of the information. But, in the case of essays, they are not used.
The conclusion in an essay is based on the writer’s personal opinion and views on the topic itself which must be optimistic, and it does not provide any recommendations for future actions. On the other hand, a report gives an independent conclusion, but it may contain the opinion of the experts or previous researchers and recommendations are included, about how the research can be improved and extended.

In a nutshell, Essays are descriptive, subjective and evaluative, whereas, a report is descriptive, objective and analytical. Essays are mainly used in an academic context, whereas reports are preferred in the field of research.

The report is used to present the researched information in a written format, to the audience. Conversely, essays are used to identify what the writer knows about the topic and how well the writer understand the question.

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Anna H. Smith says

November 26, 2020 at 3:22 pm

Thank you for explaining this so eloquently. Excellent post, I will keep this handy and refer to it often from now on, the information is so clear and so insightful, thanks for giving a clear difference. It’s a very educative article.!

Presley Dube says

November 20, 2021 at 3:43 pm

very useful to me thank you.

Leonard says

August 8, 2022 at 2:52 pm

Thanks for sharing such nice information about this topic.

Ignatius Phiri says

March 20, 2023 at 10:39 pm

Writing Reports and Research Papers: A Comparison

Writing reports and research papers are two of the most common forms of academic writing for students. However, these types of documents differ in purpose, structure and style. This article provides an overview of how to approach each type when composing a paper or report, highlighting their similarities as well as differences between them. In addition to outlining key points on structuring both reports and research papers according to accepted academic conventions, it also focuses on developing a meaningful understanding between the two genres that will help create coherent written documents with appropriate depth for different contexts. Furthermore, this analysis offers insight into ways one can combine elements from both styles in order to meet specific communicative needs effectively within any given project’s parameters.

I. Introduction

Ii. definition of a report and research paper, iii. similarities between reports and research papers, iv. differences between reports and research papers, v. structure of the two types of documents, vi. writing styles for reports and research papers, vii. conclusion.

As a form of academic writing, research papers and reports have their own distinctive features. Research papers focus on providing an analysis of the current literature in order to contribute new insight into existing knowledge. On the other hand, Reports are written for various purposes such as documenting investigation results or summarizing research findings from others.

Research Paper : A research paper is typically longer than other forms of writing and contains evidence-based arguments backed up by reliable data sources. It should also include well-structured discussion sections based upon relevant theories that support your argument.
Report : In contrast to a research paper, reports are generally shorter documents with less detailed content and limited theoretical discussion. They may be used for conveying information about specific phenomena related to business activities or experiments conducted during laboratory practice sessions.

What Are Reports and Research Papers? Reports and research papers are two distinct forms of written communication used in the academic realm. Although both can be utilized for providing information on a given subject, there are fundamental differences between the two that make them suitable for different purposes.

A report , typically structured in sections or chapters, is intended to present findings from an investigation into a specific issue. It may summarize data obtained through interviews or surveys, observations made at a certain event or location, results from laboratory experiments and much more. A report provides factual information about the topic under consideration and seeks to explain its significance without making judgements or recommendations.

Conversely, a research paper presents evidence gathered by an author during their own study of particular subject matter. Its purpose is not only to provide readers with data but also analyze it critically using various approaches such as comparison or argumentation; thereby forming conclusions about it which might suggest implications for future investigations. The content may originate partially (or wholly) from outside sources such as other works related to similar topics; however they must be appropriately referenced according too accepted standards like APA 6th Edition format .

Common Threads Reports and research papers have certain characteristics that tie them together. While reports are typically shorter than research papers, both include an introduction to the topic, a discussion of findings and ideas related to the topic, as well as a conclusion or summary section. Both documents also require thorough organization and use of sources for credibility purposes. In this way, they provide readers with an opportunity to learn more about their given subject in depth.

Distinct Characteristics However, there are still important differences between the two types of written work. Reports focus more on factual information while research papers delve deeper into analysis by synthesizing facts from multiple perspectives. Furthermore, reports usually involve fewer external sources than those used within academic writing like in a typical research paper assignment; instead relying heavily upon data collected internally such as through surveys or interviews conducted during the project process itself.

Reports: fact-focused with few external sources.
Research Papers: Analysis-driven using many outside sources.

In academic writing, reports and research papers have some distinct differences. Both types of documents require the same level of comprehensive evaluation; however, a report will present summaries in an organized fashion while a research paper is more analytical and requires further exploration.

Writing Style : Reports use formal language to provide short overviews with objective accuracy. Research papers employ creative techniques that include critical analysis.
Purpose : Reports offer factual information for decision-making purposes or to document existing conditions. Conversely, research papers address topics through evidence-based arguments.

Documents can come in many shapes and sizes. In the academic world, two of the most common types are research papers and reports. Both serve their purpose but have some distinct differences.

A research paper is an analysis of a topic that includes thorough examination of evidence from various sources to make arguments.

Style Guide When writing a report or research paper, it is essential to keep in mind the style guide that you will be following. Depending on your field of study and area of interest, there are several possible style guides to follow, such as APA (American Psychological Association) and MLA (Modern Language Association). Be sure to familiarize yourself with whichever guide you will be using before beginning your project.

Research Paper vs Report It can often be difficult for students to understand the difference between a research paper and a report when both require similar levels of critical thinking skills. A research paper focuses more heavily on gathering evidence from different sources while drawing connections among various pieces of information gathered throughout the process; reports rely more heavily on facts already present without too much interpretation or analysis. Reports tend to take an objective stance when presenting data whereas papers may delve into deeper analysis regarding how certain phenomena interact with each other over time.

In summary, this project has highlighted the differences between research papers and reports. Research papers are longer, in-depth documents that involve academic research to uncover new knowledge or provide critical analysis of existing ideas. Reports are shorter summaries used to communicate information about a specific topic.

The two document types have different purposes but both require careful consideration when constructing them. When writing a research paper you must remain objective, while when creating a report it is acceptable to give your opinion as long as it is well supported with evidence from reliable sources. No matter what type of document you’re producing though, keep an eye on accuracy and clarity throughout.

English: The comparison between writing reports and research papers has been an ongoing discussion in academic circles for many years. This article provides a useful overview of the similarities and differences between these two types of writings, as well as considerations when deciding which approach to take. Ultimately, the best approach depends on the purpose of the document and the audience it will reach. Whether creating a report or research paper, understanding both approaches is essential to effective communication within academia.

Presentation vs Report Writing: What’s the Difference?

By: Author Shrot Katewa

I was sitting at my desk today while I stumbled upon a question by one of our patrons. It got me thinking if there was ever a difference between a Presentation and Report Writing? So, I did some research, and here’s what I found out!

The main difference between a Presentation and Report Writing is that a report is usually fairly extensive and gives a detailed account of the information on a particular topic. Whereas, a presentation is mostly a synopsis which highlights the key points that are important for the audience.

Since one of the key objectives of both – a presentation and a report is to give information to its intended audience, people often tend to confuse between the two. So, let’s understand the nuances in further detail.

Key Differences between Presentation and Report Writing

In order to make sure that we don’t end up creating an incorrect document the next we are tasked with an assignment, it is important for us to understand the differences between a presentation and report writing.

As I mentioned earlier, one of the purposes of both a presentation and a report is typically to provide insights or useful information about a certain topic.

However, the purpose of creating a presentation is to share information in a short period of time; usually not more than 15-20 minutes. Thus, it ends up being a synopsis of a topic rather than giving a detailed account on a particular topic.

Report Writing on the other hand goes into the intricacies involved within a particular topic.

For a research oriented report writing, the purpose of the report is often to capture the detailed account for the research conducted including (but not limited to) purpose of the research, methodology adopted for conducting research, observations and findings, discrepancies (if any), and the conclusion.

Writing a report often scientific approach and requires a technical understand of the subject.

2. Depth of Information

Another difference between a report and a presentation is the depth of information that is shared in the two types of documents.

As mentioned in the previous point, a report goes in great depth capturing the thought behind almost every single action taken by the researcher; thereby giving an in-depth understanding on the topic.

A presentation on the other hand picks up key pieces of information and aims to provide very specific details usually in the interest of the available time of the audience.

A typical example of a report would be a corporate annual report which explains the details of actions taken by the organisation and how it performed. This information is shared across multiple paragraphs usually accompanied by a table giving the performance details. Whereas, a presentation of the annual report only summarizes the key points on the performance of the company throughout the year.

3. Information Delivery

A person giving a presentation to a large audience

Another major difference between a presentation and report writing is the mode of information delivery.

Since a presentation is a piece of summarized information, it requires a person to share additional information while delivering the presentation. A presentation mostly contains visual cues along with a few points on each slide, which is accompanied with a talk given by an individual giving the presentation.

A presentation can be given in-person to a small group of people or even to a few hundred individuals in a large auditorium. Alternatively, a presentation can also be delivered online to several thousands of people across the globe using different softwares.

A report on the other hand doesn’t necessarily require to be presented. Since it contains detailed information, it can be independently read by people at their comfort.

Reading a report can take time as it is often spread across several hundreds of pages.

4. Method of Engaging the Audience

Yet another difference between a presentation and report writing is the manner in which it engages its audience.

A presentation depends upon the skill of the presenter to engage the audience. A person giving a presentation not only needs to make the presentation visually appealing, it also requires the presenter to entertain the audience by means of story-telling and humor (as deemed necessary) while delivering the presentation.

A report on the other hand depends on the capability of an individual to command a language to engage its readers. It needs the person writing a report to have a good grasp of the language in order to describe the information accurately and as briefly as possible while holding the interest of the audience.

In a research study done in order to compare the understanding capability of science students based information consumed in the two formats – Presentation versus Report format , it was observed that students understood the topic better when it was explained through a presentation rather than a report.

Perhaps, one can conclude that presentation is usually more engaging than a detailed report.

5. Skills Needed

A cropped image of a person holding a pen while writing with a coffee mug in the background

Lastly, another difference between a presentation and report writing is the skills needed for each of the two activities.

Creating an effective presentation requires not only design skills, but also mastering the art of giving presentations! While the task of designing a presentation can often be outsourced, the knack of picking the correct topics to be covered in the presentation can’t be outsourced and is dependent on the presenter.

As a presenter, you don’t necessarily need to have great writing skills, but you surely need to know the art of story-telling, and leverage this for giving a presentation.

On the other hand, report writing requires creative (sometimes technical) writing skills. One also needs to be analytical.

How to Choose between a Presentation and a Report? Which is Better?

Choosing between creating a presentation or writing a report can be a difficult task for some. But, not being able to do so correctly can often lead to drastic (sometimes even embarrassing) circumstances.

Here are a few questions that you should ask yourself before starting creating a presentation or writing a report –

How much time do I have with my audience? If you have only about 20 to 30 minutes with you audience to share the required information, it is perhaps better to give a presentation than to write a report. A report (unless written in less than 10 pages), will usually take more than this much time to be completely understood.
Does your intended audience prefer to read or to hear/watch? People have their own preferences when it comes to consuming information. Some people like to read, while others prefer hearing or visual comprehension to gain knowledge. Be sure to ask them their preference, and make your decision accordingly.
What are you good at – Presentation or Report Writing? If the above two questions are not important or if your audience doesn’t have a preference, a good way to start would be to focus on your strengths. Ask yourself – what are you more comfortable with? Is a creating and delivering a presentation? Or, is it writing a report? Make a decision based on your capability. A little introspection can definitely go a long way in helping you choose the right direction.

How to Create an Attractive Presentation?

If you end up deciding to go down the presentation route, then we’ve got you covered.

The main objective of this site is to help you create better presentations!

Thus, be sure to check out a few other posts on this website that provide little ninja tips on how you can make your presentations attractive in a few easy steps!

A good place to start would be by reading this post –

7 EASY tips that ALWAYS make your PPT presentation attractive (even for beginners)

Don’t hesitate to reach out to us if you have any specific questions. We would love to help you create better presentations!

Final Thoughts

As we understood in this article, even though delivering a presentation and report writing have a similar objective of sharing interesting information, they both have their differences.

Knowing what mode of information sharing to choose can often be critical. Thus, I hope this post has helped you understand some of the key differences between the two and how to choose whether to create a presentation or write a report.

Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Assignments

Annotated Bibliography
Analyzing a Scholarly Journal Article
Group Presentations
Dealing with Nervousness
Using Visual Aids
Grading Someone Else's Paper
Types of Structured Group Activities
Group Project Survival Skills
Leading a Class Discussion
Multiple Book Review Essay
Reviewing Collected Works
Writing a Case Analysis Paper
Writing a Case Study
About Informed Consent
Writing Field Notes
Writing a Policy Memo
Writing a Reflective Paper
Writing a Research Proposal
Generative AI and Writing
Acknowledgments

A case study research paper examines a person, place, event, condition, phenomenon, or other type of subject of analysis in order to extrapolate key themes and results that help predict future trends, illuminate previously hidden issues that can be applied to practice, and/or provide a means for understanding an important research problem with greater clarity. A case study research paper usually examines a single subject of analysis, but case study papers can also be designed as a comparative investigation that shows relationships between two or more subjects. The methods used to study a case can rest within a quantitative, qualitative, or mixed-method investigative paradigm.

Case Studies. Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Mills, Albert J. , Gabrielle Durepos, and Eiden Wiebe, editors. Encyclopedia of Case Study Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010 ; “What is a Case Study?” In Swanborn, Peter G. Case Study Research: What, Why and How? London: SAGE, 2010.

How to Approach Writing a Case Study Research Paper

General information about how to choose a topic to investigate can be found under the " Choosing a Research Problem " tab in the Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper writing guide. Review this page because it may help you identify a subject of analysis that can be investigated using a case study design.

However, identifying a case to investigate involves more than choosing the research problem . A case study encompasses a problem contextualized around the application of in-depth analysis, interpretation, and discussion, often resulting in specific recommendations for action or for improving existing conditions. As Seawright and Gerring note, practical considerations such as time and access to information can influence case selection, but these issues should not be the sole factors used in describing the methodological justification for identifying a particular case to study. Given this, selecting a case includes considering the following:

The case represents an unusual or atypical example of a research problem that requires more in-depth analysis? Cases often represent a topic that rests on the fringes of prior investigations because the case may provide new ways of understanding the research problem. For example, if the research problem is to identify strategies to improve policies that support girl's access to secondary education in predominantly Muslim nations, you could consider using Azerbaijan as a case study rather than selecting a more obvious nation in the Middle East. Doing so may reveal important new insights into recommending how governments in other predominantly Muslim nations can formulate policies that support improved access to education for girls.
The case provides important insight or illuminate a previously hidden problem? In-depth analysis of a case can be based on the hypothesis that the case study will reveal trends or issues that have not been exposed in prior research or will reveal new and important implications for practice. For example, anecdotal evidence may suggest drug use among homeless veterans is related to their patterns of travel throughout the day. Assuming prior studies have not looked at individual travel choices as a way to study access to illicit drug use, a case study that observes a homeless veteran could reveal how issues of personal mobility choices facilitate regular access to illicit drugs. Note that it is important to conduct a thorough literature review to ensure that your assumption about the need to reveal new insights or previously hidden problems is valid and evidence-based.
The case challenges and offers a counter-point to prevailing assumptions? Over time, research on any given topic can fall into a trap of developing assumptions based on outdated studies that are still applied to new or changing conditions or the idea that something should simply be accepted as "common sense," even though the issue has not been thoroughly tested in current practice. A case study analysis may offer an opportunity to gather evidence that challenges prevailing assumptions about a research problem and provide a new set of recommendations applied to practice that have not been tested previously. For example, perhaps there has been a long practice among scholars to apply a particular theory in explaining the relationship between two subjects of analysis. Your case could challenge this assumption by applying an innovative theoretical framework [perhaps borrowed from another discipline] to explore whether this approach offers new ways of understanding the research problem. Taking a contrarian stance is one of the most important ways that new knowledge and understanding develops from existing literature.
The case provides an opportunity to pursue action leading to the resolution of a problem? Another way to think about choosing a case to study is to consider how the results from investigating a particular case may result in findings that reveal ways in which to resolve an existing or emerging problem. For example, studying the case of an unforeseen incident, such as a fatal accident at a railroad crossing, can reveal hidden issues that could be applied to preventative measures that contribute to reducing the chance of accidents in the future. In this example, a case study investigating the accident could lead to a better understanding of where to strategically locate additional signals at other railroad crossings so as to better warn drivers of an approaching train, particularly when visibility is hindered by heavy rain, fog, or at night.
The case offers a new direction in future research? A case study can be used as a tool for an exploratory investigation that highlights the need for further research about the problem. A case can be used when there are few studies that help predict an outcome or that establish a clear understanding about how best to proceed in addressing a problem. For example, after conducting a thorough literature review [very important!], you discover that little research exists showing the ways in which women contribute to promoting water conservation in rural communities of east central Africa. A case study of how women contribute to saving water in a rural village of Uganda can lay the foundation for understanding the need for more thorough research that documents how women in their roles as cooks and family caregivers think about water as a valuable resource within their community. This example of a case study could also point to the need for scholars to build new theoretical frameworks around the topic [e.g., applying feminist theories of work and family to the issue of water conservation].

Eisenhardt, Kathleen M. “Building Theories from Case Study Research.” Academy of Management Review 14 (October 1989): 532-550; Emmel, Nick. Sampling and Choosing Cases in Qualitative Research: A Realist Approach . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2013; Gerring, John. “What Is a Case Study and What Is It Good for?” American Political Science Review 98 (May 2004): 341-354; Mills, Albert J. , Gabrielle Durepos, and Eiden Wiebe, editors. Encyclopedia of Case Study Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010; Seawright, Jason and John Gerring. "Case Selection Techniques in Case Study Research." Political Research Quarterly 61 (June 2008): 294-308.

Structure and Writing Style

The purpose of a paper in the social sciences designed around a case study is to thoroughly investigate a subject of analysis in order to reveal a new understanding about the research problem and, in so doing, contributing new knowledge to what is already known from previous studies. In applied social sciences disciplines [e.g., education, social work, public administration, etc.], case studies may also be used to reveal best practices, highlight key programs, or investigate interesting aspects of professional work.

In general, the structure of a case study research paper is not all that different from a standard college-level research paper. However, there are subtle differences you should be aware of. Here are the key elements to organizing and writing a case study research paper.

I. Introduction

As with any research paper, your introduction should serve as a roadmap for your readers to ascertain the scope and purpose of your study . The introduction to a case study research paper, however, should not only describe the research problem and its significance, but you should also succinctly describe why the case is being used and how it relates to addressing the problem. The two elements should be linked. With this in mind, a good introduction answers these four questions:

What is being studied? Describe the research problem and describe the subject of analysis [the case] you have chosen to address the problem. Explain how they are linked and what elements of the case will help to expand knowledge and understanding about the problem.
Why is this topic important to investigate? Describe the significance of the research problem and state why a case study design and the subject of analysis that the paper is designed around is appropriate in addressing the problem.
What did we know about this topic before I did this study? Provide background that helps lead the reader into the more in-depth literature review to follow. If applicable, summarize prior case study research applied to the research problem and why it fails to adequately address the problem. Describe why your case will be useful. If no prior case studies have been used to address the research problem, explain why you have selected this subject of analysis.
How will this study advance new knowledge or new ways of understanding? Explain why your case study will be suitable in helping to expand knowledge and understanding about the research problem.

Each of these questions should be addressed in no more than a few paragraphs. Exceptions to this can be when you are addressing a complex research problem or subject of analysis that requires more in-depth background information.

II. Literature Review

The literature review for a case study research paper is generally structured the same as it is for any college-level research paper. The difference, however, is that the literature review is focused on providing background information and enabling historical interpretation of the subject of analysis in relation to the research problem the case is intended to address . This includes synthesizing studies that help to:

Place relevant works in the context of their contribution to understanding the case study being investigated . This would involve summarizing studies that have used a similar subject of analysis to investigate the research problem. If there is literature using the same or a very similar case to study, you need to explain why duplicating past research is important [e.g., conditions have changed; prior studies were conducted long ago, etc.].
Describe the relationship each work has to the others under consideration that informs the reader why this case is applicable . Your literature review should include a description of any works that support using the case to investigate the research problem and the underlying research questions.
Identify new ways to interpret prior research using the case study . If applicable, review any research that has examined the research problem using a different research design. Explain how your use of a case study design may reveal new knowledge or a new perspective or that can redirect research in an important new direction.
Resolve conflicts amongst seemingly contradictory previous studies . This refers to synthesizing any literature that points to unresolved issues of concern about the research problem and describing how the subject of analysis that forms the case study can help resolve these existing contradictions.
Point the way in fulfilling a need for additional research . Your review should examine any literature that lays a foundation for understanding why your case study design and the subject of analysis around which you have designed your study may reveal a new way of approaching the research problem or offer a perspective that points to the need for additional research.
Expose any gaps that exist in the literature that the case study could help to fill . Summarize any literature that not only shows how your subject of analysis contributes to understanding the research problem, but how your case contributes to a new way of understanding the problem that prior research has failed to do.
Locate your own research within the context of existing literature [very important!] . Collectively, your literature review should always place your case study within the larger domain of prior research about the problem. The overarching purpose of reviewing pertinent literature in a case study paper is to demonstrate that you have thoroughly identified and synthesized prior studies in relation to explaining the relevance of the case in addressing the research problem.

III. Method

In this section, you explain why you selected a particular case [i.e., subject of analysis] and the strategy you used to identify and ultimately decide that your case was appropriate in addressing the research problem. The way you describe the methods used varies depending on the type of subject of analysis that constitutes your case study.

If your subject of analysis is an incident or event . In the social and behavioral sciences, the event or incident that represents the case to be studied is usually bounded by time and place, with a clear beginning and end and with an identifiable location or position relative to its surroundings. The subject of analysis can be a rare or critical event or it can focus on a typical or regular event. The purpose of studying a rare event is to illuminate new ways of thinking about the broader research problem or to test a hypothesis. Critical incident case studies must describe the method by which you identified the event and explain the process by which you determined the validity of this case to inform broader perspectives about the research problem or to reveal new findings. However, the event does not have to be a rare or uniquely significant to support new thinking about the research problem or to challenge an existing hypothesis. For example, Walo, Bull, and Breen conducted a case study to identify and evaluate the direct and indirect economic benefits and costs of a local sports event in the City of Lismore, New South Wales, Australia. The purpose of their study was to provide new insights from measuring the impact of a typical local sports event that prior studies could not measure well because they focused on large "mega-events." Whether the event is rare or not, the methods section should include an explanation of the following characteristics of the event: a) when did it take place; b) what were the underlying circumstances leading to the event; and, c) what were the consequences of the event in relation to the research problem.

If your subject of analysis is a person. Explain why you selected this particular individual to be studied and describe what experiences they have had that provide an opportunity to advance new understandings about the research problem. Mention any background about this person which might help the reader understand the significance of their experiences that make them worthy of study. This includes describing the relationships this person has had with other people, institutions, and/or events that support using them as the subject for a case study research paper. It is particularly important to differentiate the person as the subject of analysis from others and to succinctly explain how the person relates to examining the research problem [e.g., why is one politician in a particular local election used to show an increase in voter turnout from any other candidate running in the election]. Note that these issues apply to a specific group of people used as a case study unit of analysis [e.g., a classroom of students].

If your subject of analysis is a place. In general, a case study that investigates a place suggests a subject of analysis that is unique or special in some way and that this uniqueness can be used to build new understanding or knowledge about the research problem. A case study of a place must not only describe its various attributes relevant to the research problem [e.g., physical, social, historical, cultural, economic, political], but you must state the method by which you determined that this place will illuminate new understandings about the research problem. It is also important to articulate why a particular place as the case for study is being used if similar places also exist [i.e., if you are studying patterns of homeless encampments of veterans in open spaces, explain why you are studying Echo Park in Los Angeles rather than Griffith Park?]. If applicable, describe what type of human activity involving this place makes it a good choice to study [e.g., prior research suggests Echo Park has more homeless veterans].

If your subject of analysis is a phenomenon. A phenomenon refers to a fact, occurrence, or circumstance that can be studied or observed but with the cause or explanation to be in question. In this sense, a phenomenon that forms your subject of analysis can encompass anything that can be observed or presumed to exist but is not fully understood. In the social and behavioral sciences, the case usually focuses on human interaction within a complex physical, social, economic, cultural, or political system. For example, the phenomenon could be the observation that many vehicles used by ISIS fighters are small trucks with English language advertisements on them. The research problem could be that ISIS fighters are difficult to combat because they are highly mobile. The research questions could be how and by what means are these vehicles used by ISIS being supplied to the militants and how might supply lines to these vehicles be cut off? How might knowing the suppliers of these trucks reveal larger networks of collaborators and financial support? A case study of a phenomenon most often encompasses an in-depth analysis of a cause and effect that is grounded in an interactive relationship between people and their environment in some way.

NOTE: The choice of the case or set of cases to study cannot appear random. Evidence that supports the method by which you identified and chose your subject of analysis should clearly support investigation of the research problem and linked to key findings from your literature review. Be sure to cite any studies that helped you determine that the case you chose was appropriate for examining the problem.

IV. Discussion

The main elements of your discussion section are generally the same as any research paper, but centered around interpreting and drawing conclusions about the key findings from your analysis of the case study. Note that a general social sciences research paper may contain a separate section to report findings. However, in a paper designed around a case study, it is common to combine a description of the results with the discussion about their implications. The objectives of your discussion section should include the following:

Reiterate the Research Problem/State the Major Findings Briefly reiterate the research problem you are investigating and explain why the subject of analysis around which you designed the case study were used. You should then describe the findings revealed from your study of the case using direct, declarative, and succinct proclamation of the study results. Highlight any findings that were unexpected or especially profound.

Explain the Meaning of the Findings and Why They are Important Systematically explain the meaning of your case study findings and why you believe they are important. Begin this part of the section by repeating what you consider to be your most important or surprising finding first, then systematically review each finding. Be sure to thoroughly extrapolate what your analysis of the case can tell the reader about situations or conditions beyond the actual case that was studied while, at the same time, being careful not to misconstrue or conflate a finding that undermines the external validity of your conclusions.

Relate the Findings to Similar Studies No study in the social sciences is so novel or possesses such a restricted focus that it has absolutely no relation to previously published research. The discussion section should relate your case study results to those found in other studies, particularly if questions raised from prior studies served as the motivation for choosing your subject of analysis. This is important because comparing and contrasting the findings of other studies helps support the overall importance of your results and it highlights how and in what ways your case study design and the subject of analysis differs from prior research about the topic.

Consider Alternative Explanations of the Findings Remember that the purpose of social science research is to discover and not to prove. When writing the discussion section, you should carefully consider all possible explanations revealed by the case study results, rather than just those that fit your hypothesis or prior assumptions and biases. Be alert to what the in-depth analysis of the case may reveal about the research problem, including offering a contrarian perspective to what scholars have stated in prior research if that is how the findings can be interpreted from your case.

Acknowledge the Study's Limitations You can state the study's limitations in the conclusion section of your paper but describing the limitations of your subject of analysis in the discussion section provides an opportunity to identify the limitations and explain why they are not significant. This part of the discussion section should also note any unanswered questions or issues your case study could not address. More detailed information about how to document any limitations to your research can be found here .

Suggest Areas for Further Research Although your case study may offer important insights about the research problem, there are likely additional questions related to the problem that remain unanswered or findings that unexpectedly revealed themselves as a result of your in-depth analysis of the case. Be sure that the recommendations for further research are linked to the research problem and that you explain why your recommendations are valid in other contexts and based on the original assumptions of your study.

V. Conclusion

As with any research paper, you should summarize your conclusion in clear, simple language; emphasize how the findings from your case study differs from or supports prior research and why. Do not simply reiterate the discussion section. Provide a synthesis of key findings presented in the paper to show how these converge to address the research problem. If you haven't already done so in the discussion section, be sure to document the limitations of your case study and any need for further research.

The function of your paper's conclusion is to: 1) reiterate the main argument supported by the findings from your case study; 2) state clearly the context, background, and necessity of pursuing the research problem using a case study design in relation to an issue, controversy, or a gap found from reviewing the literature; and, 3) provide a place to persuasively and succinctly restate the significance of your research problem, given that the reader has now been presented with in-depth information about the topic.

Consider the following points to help ensure your conclusion is appropriate:

If the argument or purpose of your paper is complex, you may need to summarize these points for your reader.
If prior to your conclusion, you have not yet explained the significance of your findings or if you are proceeding inductively, use the conclusion of your paper to describe your main points and explain their significance.
Move from a detailed to a general level of consideration of the case study's findings that returns the topic to the context provided by the introduction or within a new context that emerges from your case study findings.

Note that, depending on the discipline you are writing in or the preferences of your professor, the concluding paragraph may contain your final reflections on the evidence presented as it applies to practice or on the essay's central research problem. However, the nature of being introspective about the subject of analysis you have investigated will depend on whether you are explicitly asked to express your observations in this way.

Problems to Avoid

Overgeneralization One of the goals of a case study is to lay a foundation for understanding broader trends and issues applied to similar circumstances. However, be careful when drawing conclusions from your case study. They must be evidence-based and grounded in the results of the study; otherwise, it is merely speculation. Looking at a prior example, it would be incorrect to state that a factor in improving girls access to education in Azerbaijan and the policy implications this may have for improving access in other Muslim nations is due to girls access to social media if there is no documentary evidence from your case study to indicate this. There may be anecdotal evidence that retention rates were better for girls who were engaged with social media, but this observation would only point to the need for further research and would not be a definitive finding if this was not a part of your original research agenda.

Failure to Document Limitations No case is going to reveal all that needs to be understood about a research problem. Therefore, just as you have to clearly state the limitations of a general research study , you must describe the specific limitations inherent in the subject of analysis. For example, the case of studying how women conceptualize the need for water conservation in a village in Uganda could have limited application in other cultural contexts or in areas where fresh water from rivers or lakes is plentiful and, therefore, conservation is understood more in terms of managing access rather than preserving access to a scarce resource.

Failure to Extrapolate All Possible Implications Just as you don't want to over-generalize from your case study findings, you also have to be thorough in the consideration of all possible outcomes or recommendations derived from your findings. If you do not, your reader may question the validity of your analysis, particularly if you failed to document an obvious outcome from your case study research. For example, in the case of studying the accident at the railroad crossing to evaluate where and what types of warning signals should be located, you failed to take into consideration speed limit signage as well as warning signals. When designing your case study, be sure you have thoroughly addressed all aspects of the problem and do not leave gaps in your analysis that leave the reader questioning the results.

Case Studies. Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Gerring, John. Case Study Research: Principles and Practices . New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007; Merriam, Sharan B. Qualitative Research and Case Study Applications in Education . Rev. ed. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 1998; Miller, Lisa L. “The Use of Case Studies in Law and Social Science Research.” Annual Review of Law and Social Science 14 (2018): TBD; Mills, Albert J., Gabrielle Durepos, and Eiden Wiebe, editors. Encyclopedia of Case Study Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010; Putney, LeAnn Grogan. "Case Study." In Encyclopedia of Research Design , Neil J. Salkind, editor. (Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010), pp. 116-120; Simons, Helen. Case Study Research in Practice . London: SAGE Publications, 2009; Kratochwill, Thomas R. and Joel R. Levin, editors. Single-Case Research Design and Analysis: New Development for Psychology and Education . Hilldsale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1992; Swanborn, Peter G. Case Study Research: What, Why and How? London : SAGE, 2010; Yin, Robert K. Case Study Research: Design and Methods . 6th edition. Los Angeles, CA, SAGE Publications, 2014; Walo, Maree, Adrian Bull, and Helen Breen. “Achieving Economic Benefits at Local Events: A Case Study of a Local Sports Event.” Festival Management and Event Tourism 4 (1996): 95-106.

Writing Tip

At Least Five Misconceptions about Case Study Research

Social science case studies are often perceived as limited in their ability to create new knowledge because they are not randomly selected and findings cannot be generalized to larger populations. Flyvbjerg examines five misunderstandings about case study research and systematically "corrects" each one. To quote, these are:

Misunderstanding 1 : General, theoretical [context-independent] knowledge is more valuable than concrete, practical [context-dependent] knowledge. Misunderstanding 2 : One cannot generalize on the basis of an individual case; therefore, the case study cannot contribute to scientific development. Misunderstanding 3 : The case study is most useful for generating hypotheses; that is, in the first stage of a total research process, whereas other methods are more suitable for hypotheses testing and theory building. Misunderstanding 4 : The case study contains a bias toward verification, that is, a tendency to confirm the researcher’s preconceived notions. Misunderstanding 5 : It is often difficult to summarize and develop general propositions and theories on the basis of specific case studies [p. 221].

While writing your paper, think introspectively about how you addressed these misconceptions because to do so can help you strengthen the validity and reliability of your research by clarifying issues of case selection, the testing and challenging of existing assumptions, the interpretation of key findings, and the summation of case outcomes. Think of a case study research paper as a complete, in-depth narrative about the specific properties and key characteristics of your subject of analysis applied to the research problem.

Flyvbjerg, Bent. “Five Misunderstandings About Case-Study Research.” Qualitative Inquiry 12 (April 2006): 219-245.

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Delegating vs. Assigning: What You Need to Know

Cynthia Saver and Georgia Reiner

Georgia Nursing April 2024

This article appears on page 10 of

Registered nurses (RNs) often delegate to other RNs, licensed practical nurses/vocational nurses (LPN/LVNs), and assistive personnel (AP). (In some states or jurisdictions, LPN/LVNs may be allowed to delegate, so “licensed nurses” will be used in this article.) Delegating appropriately protects patients and reduces the risk of legal liability, yet the parameters of delegation often are not fully understood.

One common area of misunderstanding is delegation vs. assignment. Knowing the differences between the two is essential to ensure you delegate appropriately. The primary difference relates to scope of practice and where the clinician learned the activities to be carried out.

Assignment According to national guidelines for nursing delegation from the National Council of State Boards of Nursing (NCSBN) and American Nurses Association (ANA), an assignment refers to the “routine care, activities, and procedures that are within the authorized scope of practice of the RN or LPN/VN or part of the routine functions of the AP.” This definition covers fundamental skills that the assignee would have learned in a basic education program. A licensed nurse is still responsible for ensuring the assignment is carried out correctly.

Delegation According to the NCSBN/ANA guideline, delegation applies when the delegatee is performing a “specific nursing activity, skill, or procedure that is beyond the delegatee’s traditional role and not routinely performed.” As opposed to work that is part of an assignment, the work associated with delegation was not learned in a basic education program. Therefore, the delegatee must have obtained additional education and have verified competence in the delegated area for which they will be responsible. The licensed nurse maintains overall accountability for the patient, but the delegatee is responsible for the delegated activity, skill, or procedure.

Licensed nurses can’t delegate activities that involve clinical reasoning, nursing judgment, or critical decision making, and the delegated responsibility has to be within the delegator’s scope of practice under the state’s or jurisdiction’s nurse practice act (NPA).

Responsibilities Organizational administrators, the delegator, and the delegatee each have responsibilities when an activity, skill, or procedure is delegated.

Professionals who work at the administrative or managerial level of the organization set the cultural tone for the nursing work environment and are responsible for managing the delegation processes. Those at the administrative level within an organization define what nursing responsibilities may be delegated, to whom, and under what set(s) of circumstances. They are also responsible for developing and maintaining policies and procedures associated with delegation, periodically evaluating the efficacy and safety of delegation processes, and training and educating staff.

The delegator is responsible for determining the needs of the patient, when delegation is appropriate, and if the delegatee is competent to complete the delegated task. Delegators must follow delegation guidelines in the NPA and relevant organizational policies and procedures. Clear communication is key, and the delegator must be available as a resource to the delegatee. Delegators also need to evaluate outcomes as they maintain overall accountability for the patient. Delegators must be prepared to step in at any point if it appears the delegatee is not handling the assignment appropriately. Any problems should be reported to nursing leadership.

The delegatee is responsible for only accepting activities that fall within their competence and that they feel comfortable completing safely. Delegatees must communicate with the delegator, particularly if the patient’s condition changes, and complete the activity correctly, including fulfilling any documentation requirements. Delegatees maintain accountability for the delegated activity and need to notify the delegator immediately if they have difficulty completing the task.

One special case NCSBN notes that in some cases, APs are taught how to perform skills that were previously thought to be exclusively RN and LPN/LVN responsibilities, such as certified medical assistants administering injections. In these cases, it’s best to consider such tasks as being delegated and, therefore, validate competency.

Keeping patients safe Knowing the differences between assigning and delegating helps protect patients and avoid legal action should an error occur. Assignments involve routine tasks learned in basic education and that fall under designated scope of practice, while delegation involves tasks that were learned through additional education and for which competency has been determined.

Good communication and an understanding of the responsibilities of delegators and delegatees is essential to avoid misunderstanding. Remember, the licensed nurse remains accountable for the patient, but the delegatee is responsible for the delegated task.

Five rights of delegation The NCSBN outlines five rights of delegation. In the case of a lawsuit, a key component would be whether you adhered to these rights:

Right task. The task needs to fall within the delegatee’s job description or is part of organizational policies and procedures.
Right circumstance. The patient must be stable.
Right person. The delegatee must have the appropriate skills and knowledge to perform the task.
Right directions and communication. Clear directions need to be given, with the delegator verifying understanding by the delegatee. Communication must be two-way, with the delegatee asking questions as needed.
Right supervision and evaluation. The delegator needs to monitor the delegated activity, including evaluating patient outcomes.

Article by: Cynthia Saver, MS, RN, President of CLS Development, Inc., in Columbia, Md and Georgia Reiner, MS, CPHRM, Risk Analyst, NSO

References National Council of State Boards of Nursing. National guidelines for nursing delegation. J Nurs Reg. 2016;7(1):5- 12.

NCSBN, ANA. National guidelines for nursing delegation. 2019.

Disclaimer: The information offered within this article reflects general principles only and does not constitute legal advice by Nurses Service Organization (NSO) or establish appropriate or acceptable standards of professional conduct. Readers should consult with an attorney if they have specific concerns. Neither Affinity Insurance Services, Inc. nor NSO assumes any liability for how this information is applied in practice or for the accuracy of this information. Please note that Internet hyperlinks cited herein are active as of the date of publication but may be subject to change or discontinuation.

This risk management information was provided by Nurses Service Organization (NSO), the nation’s largest provider of nurses’ professional liability insurance coverage for over 550,000 nurses since 1976. The individual professional liability insurance policy administered through NSO is underwritten by American Casualty Company of Reading, Pennsylvania, a CNA company. Reproduction without permission of the publisher is prohibited. For questions, send an e-mail to [email protected] or call 1-800-247-1500. www.nso.com .

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Reports And Essays: Key Differences
Essays don't usually include tables, charts, or diagrams. Reports usually include descriptions of the methods used. Essays don't usually refer to the methods you used to arrive at your conclusions. The discussion in a report often comments on how the report research could be improved and extended, and may evaluate the methods and processes used.
Essay vs Report: What are the Key Differences?
Audience: Reports are often written for a specific audience, such as stakeholders or decision-makers, while essays are typically written for academic audiences or peers. Choosing the Right Format The choice between a report and an essay depends on the nature of the assignment, the requirements of the task, and the expectations of the audience.
Essay vs Report: Similarities, Differences, and Proper Use
As you can see, the word "essay" is typically used to describe a specific type of writing assignment that requires research and analysis. It is important to use the word in a way that accurately reflects its meaning and purpose. How To Use "Report" In A Sentence. A report is a formal document that presents information in a structured ...
What is a report?
Overall, a report is a highly structured piece of work and typically, the course co-ordinator or lecturer identifies the main sections required or indicates that you should follow a standard structure (such as a business report structure).You are often given more guidance on how to write the assignment, with respect to its structure and section, compared to an essay where you decide the order ...
What is the Difference Between Essays and Reports?
Difference Between Essays and Reports in a Table. Reports. Essays. Reports are written with a specific purpose and audience in mind. Essays are written to demonstrate that the author fully understands the research question and can answer it with research. All reports start with a purpose but also include details of events/results of research.
What Is Academic Writing?
Academics mostly write texts intended for publication, such as journal articles, reports, books, and chapters in edited collections. For students, the most common types of academic writing assignments are listed below. Type of academic text Definition; Essay: A fairly short, self-contained argument, often using sources from a class in response ...
Essay vs Report: Meaning, Advantages and Differences
Evidence-Based: Reports aid evidence-based decision-making by systematically presenting data and research findings. They help students assess the validity and reliability of information. It's important to note that the advantages mentioned above, in the context of essay vs report, can offer a great help in your academics. Both essays and ...
Report Assignment vs Essay Assignment: What's the Difference?
The Purpose of a Report. A report assignment provides information about a specific topic or issue. This is normally broken down into the key elements that apply to the assignment question. Sometimes, because of the report assignment question, only specific parts of the topic are required. The goal of an assignment report is to inform an audience.
Reports vs essays
Reports are often problem-based, but not always. It describes what you have found out, and it goes deeper - it explains and analyses what you have found out. Reports are very structured and there is an expected format. They always have sections and headings. Have a look at this report outline:
Report writing
Report writing. There are many forms of writing which you may have to undertake at university, from reflective journals to extended researched assignments. The two most common forms of writing are reports and essays. This page describes what a report is, outlines the main types of report you may need to write, and summarises the differences ...
PDF Writing a Research Report
Use the section headings (outlined above) to assist with your rough plan. Write a thesis statement that clarifies the overall purpose of your report. Jot down anything you already know about the topic in the relevant sections. 3 Do the Research. Steps 1 and 2 will guide your research for this report.
8.5 Writing Process: Creating an Analytical Report
For this assignment, you will report information, analyze it, and draw conclusions about the cause of something, the effect of something, or the similarities and differences between two different things. Introduction. Some students write the introduction first; others save it for last. Whenever you choose to write the introduction, use it to ...
Reports
Writing. Reports are one of the most common assignment types you will come across at university. They are highly detailed, thoroughly researched and typically focused on a specific event, problem or experiment. Reports usually cover the who, what, where, when, why and how of a particular situation or issue. Reports are different to essays in ...
PDF What'S the Differene Etween Reports and Essays?
A report is a piece of informative writing that describes a set of actions and analyses any results in response to a specific brief. A quick definition might be: ^This is what I did and this is what it means. You may also have assignments which are not called reports but which are still pieces of informative writing; for instance, some ...
Research Paper vs Report: Breaking Down the Difference
Depending on whether a student is tasked with producing a research paper or report for their assignment, they should tailor their outlining approach accordingly. Research papers typically include more detailed information compared to reports because they explore topics from different angles and require greater analysis from the author's end ...
Report
Step 1 Use styles. Headings should be formatted with header 1 (e.g. Chapters) and subheadings should be formatted with header 2. Step 2 Click on the "References" tab to select the option "table of contents". Step 3 Customise your table of contents style and format by selecting "custom table of contents". Step 4 Click "Update" to ...
Difference Between Essay and Report (with Comparison Chart)
An essay is written on the basis of subjective analysis of theories and past research, by other people and own ideas, on the concerned subject. As against, a report is objective and factual, which is based on past research, as well as present data and findings. An essay talks about general facts and events along with the writer's personal ...
Writing Reports and Research Papers: A Comparison
Furthermore, reports usually involve fewer external sources than those used within academic writing like in a typical research paper assignment; instead relying heavily upon data collected internally such as through surveys or interviews conducted during the project process itself. Reports: fact-focused with few external sources.
PDF Guide for writing assignment reports
In that case use font Times New Roman, font size 12 pt. Set the line spacing to 1.2, left and right margins to 2.5 cm, top and bottom margins to 2.3 cm. A nice result is obtained if in the 'Page setup' a gutter of 1 cm is inserted, where this value is alternating set to the left (odd pages) and right (even pages).
Presentation vs Report Writing: What's the Difference?
The main difference between a Presentation and Report Writing is that a report is usually fairly extensive and gives a detailed account of the information on a particular topic. Whereas, a presentation is mostly a synopsis which highlights the key points that are important for the audience. Since one of the key objectives of both - a ...
Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Assignments
The purpose of a paper in the social sciences designed around a case study is to thoroughly investigate a subject of analysis in order to reveal a new understanding about the research problem and, in so doing, contributing new knowledge to what is already known from previous studies. In applied social sciences disciplines [e.g., education, social work, public administration, etc.], case ...
Assignment vs Project: Which One Is The Correct One?
Assignments can come in many forms, such as essays, reports, presentations, or problem sets. They are usually designed to test a person's knowledge, skills, or understanding of a particular topic. Assignments may be graded or evaluated based on a set of criteria, such as accuracy, completeness, creativity, or originality. Define Project
Delegating vs. Assigning: What You Need to Know
Delegating appropriately protects patients and reduces the risk of legal liability, yet the parameters of delegation often are not fully understood. One common area of misunderstanding is delegation vs. assignment. Knowing the differences between the two is essential to ensure you delegate appropriately. The primary difference relates to scope ...

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