research paper topics in child development

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40 creative child development research paper topics.

Child development research topics are not so common as compared to others types of writing ideas. As such, students seeking such prompts have to dig deeper to find one or two that would match their specifications. However, this task is not easy, and most students would give up way before they start. That is why we have developed a professional list of child development topics for high school and college students.

What Is A Child Development Research Paper?

It is a field that specializes in exploring how children grow and change in the course of childhood. It uses theories that center on child development, such as emotional, social, and cognitive growth. Child development is considered one of the wealthiest areas of study, with quite a low number of research papers done on it.

Studying child development is necessary as it has direct implications on the long-term state of the child in the end. Some of the aspects that child development will handle include school attainment, future opportunities, and the child’s earning potential. Therefore, it would be improper to avoid taking such a subject.

How To Write Child Development Papers

Before we delve into the nitty-gritty of such a paper, it is essential to understand the importance. A child development paper will help set the foundation for the children’s lifelong health, learning, and behavior. In other words, it will help shape our understanding of early childhood stages that will impact the child in the future.

Some of the areas of development in a child will include:

Social, personal and emotional development Physical development Literacy skills Understanding the world around them Communication and language

Therefore, if you want a top-rated child development research paper, start with these simple steps:

Conduct thorough research on various aspects of child development
Brainstorm with your friends, teachers, or experts
Understand the audience you are writing for
Make sure that the writing ideas are meaningful

You can identify world-class topics for a child development paper through:

Reputable online sources,
The UNICEF website
TV shows that involve children
Talks and symposiums on child development

Through these, you will come up with unique and researchable child development topics for papers.

Are you stuck right now on where to start? Below is a list of reputable writing ideas that will offset your paper. Give them a try and see the results!

Interesting Early Childhood Education Research Paper Topics

Stages that children pass through in their early years of development
Diseases that are common to children under five years old
Key cognitive aspects of early childhood development
The impact of the environmental factors in the development of a child
How television, videos, and games shape a child during his developmental years
How children develop ego and self-centeredness in their early years of growth
Why parents should always be by the side of their children during early years
The role of caregivers in child development at early stages

Early Childhood Education Research Paper Topics For College Students

How often should a mother be close to their children in their early years?
Factors that facilitate mental development for children
How noise-induced hearing loss affects children
Essential nutrients for premature children
The impact of social interaction during early years of a child
Discuss the various development aspects during the prenatal stage
The role of early childhood life in shaping their adult life
Why play is essential during the early stages of child development

Accessible Child Psychology Research Paper Topics

The implications of a child growing in a technology environment
How the coronavirus pandemic has shaped child psychology
The role of a psychologist in the early stages of child development
The implication of the COVID-19 lockdowns and quarantine on child psychology
Why attention is necessary for children in their early development stages
Effective monitors for the psychological development of children
The role of music in child psychology development
The effects of birth disorders in child psychological development

Hot Research Topics On Child Development

The impact of bullying on child development
How to analyze behavioral child development aspects
The significant role of proper nutrition in child development
How to identify genius children from birth
How to explain the connection between a mother and a child
The impact of genes in the development of a child
How a particular community will affect a child’s development
The implication of celebrating birthdays on child development

First-Class Research Topics On Children

How to deal with childhood trauma
The effects of single families on child development
At what stage should parents start teaching core skills to their children?
The role of family doctors in child development
Toxic events that may impact a child’s development
Implications of divorce on children
How low income affects children development
Effects of graphic violence through animations on child development

Are you thinking of online writing help with child development research papers? We are here for you. Contact us today for a brilliant article!

199+ Child Development Topics [Updated]

Child development is a fascinating journey filled with countless milestones, challenges, and triumphs. As caretakers, parents, educators, and concerned individuals, it’s crucial to delve into the intricacies of child development topics to provide the best possible support for our young ones. In this comprehensive guide, we’ll explore various aspects of child development, from physical growth to cognitive leaps, emotional nuances, and the influence of the environment.

What Is Child Development?

Table of Contents

Child development encompasses the physical, cognitive, emotional, social, and moral growth of children from infancy through adolescence. It’s a dynamic process influenced by genetics, environment, and experiences.

Understanding child development topics is essential for promoting healthy growth and addressing challenges effectively.

199+ Child Development Topics: Category Wise

Physical development.

Growth milestones in the first year
Fine motor skill development
Gross motor skill milestones
The importance of tummy time
Nutritional needs for different age groups
Managing childhood obesity
Puberty: A guide for parents
Understanding adolescent growth spurts
Promoting healthy sleep habits in children
Dental care for kids: Tips for parents

Cognitive Development

Piaget’s stages of cognitive development
Language development in infants
Early literacy skills
Mathematical development in young children
Enhancing memory skills in kids
Executive function skills and their importance
Fostering creativity in children
Problem-solving activities for kids
Cognitive development in children with disabilities
Cultivating a growth mindset in children

Social and Emotional Development

Attachment theory and its implications
Building secure attachments with your child
Recognizing and managing separation anxiety
Understanding emotions: A guide for parents
Teaching empathy to children
Bullying prevention strategies
Helping children cope with stress
Friendship skills for kids
Resilience-building activities for children
Supporting LGBTQ+ youth in their development

Moral Development

Kohlberg’s stages of moral development
Teaching values to children
Promoting honesty and integrity in kids
Empathy-building exercises for children
Discussing ethical dilemmas with children
Understanding cultural influences on morality
Moral development in the digital age
Encouraging civic engagement in young people
Addressing prejudice and discrimination in children
Promoting kindness and compassion in schools

Environmental Influences on Child Development

The role of family dynamics in child development
Socioeconomic disparities and child outcomes
Cultural influences on parenting practices
Technology and screen time guidelines for kids
The impact of social media on adolescent development
Nature vs. nurture: Debating influences on development
Supporting children through family transitions (e.g., divorce)
Creating inclusive environments for all children
Community resources for supporting child development
Preventing childhood trauma and adverse experiences

Developmental Disorders and Challenges

Understanding autism spectrum disorder (ASD)
Early signs of ADHD in children
Learning disabilities: Identification and interventions
Sensory processing disorder: Strategies for support
Anxiety disorders in children: Signs and coping strategies
Depression in adolescents: Recognizing the signs
Childhood trauma and its long-term effects
Neurodiversity: Embracing differences in learning
Supporting children with intellectual disabilities
Strategies for inclusive education in schools

Parenting and Caregiving Practices

Positive parenting techniques
Effective communication with children
Setting boundaries and consequences
Balancing work and family life
Promoting independence in children
Fostering a positive body image in kids
Discipline vs. punishment: Understanding the difference
Parenting through adolescence: Tips for navigating challenges
Self-care for parents: Prioritizing your well-being
Building a support network as a parent

Educational Strategies

The importance of early childhood education
Montessori vs. traditional education: Pros and cons
Differentiated instruction for diverse learners
Incorporating technology in the classroom
Project-based learning: Engaging students in real-world tasks
Culturally responsive teaching practices
Universal design for learning (UDL) principles
Supporting English language learners (ELLs)
The benefits of outdoor education
Teaching social-emotional skills in schools

Future Trends and Research Directions

Emerging trends in child psychology
Advances in neuroscience and child development
The impact of climate change on children’s health and well-being
Addressing disparities in access to education and healthcare
The role of artificial intelligence in education
Promoting sustainability education for future generations
Ethical considerations in genetic testing for children
Trauma-informed care approaches in schools and communities
Parental leave policies and their impact on child development
Advocating for children’s rights in a changing world

Miscellaneous Topics

The role of pets in child development
Supporting siblings of children with special needs
The benefits of music education for children
Cultivating a love of reading in kids
Exploring different parenting philosophies (e.g., attachment parenting, authoritative parenting)
Teaching financial literacy to children
Promoting environmental awareness in schools
The impact of sleep on children’s behavior and learning
Teaching children about consent and boundaries
Building resilience in children facing adversity
Understanding and supporting gifted children
The role of grandparents in child development
Helping children navigate peer pressure
Teaching children conflict resolution skills
Gender identity development in children
The importance of unstructured playtime
Positive reinforcement techniques for behavior management
Strategies for teaching emotional intelligence in schools
The benefits of mindfulness practices for children
Addressing food insecurity in schools
The impact of divorce on child development
Recognizing signs of child abuse and neglect
Promoting diversity and inclusion in children’s literature
Teaching children about online safety
Supporting children with incarcerated parents
Understanding and addressing childhood trauma
Fostering creativity and imagination in children
Teaching children about consent and personal boundaries
Supporting children with anxiety disorders
The benefits of play therapy for children
Encouraging physical activity in children
Strategies for managing ADHD in the classroom
Addressing perfectionism in children
Teaching children about healthy relationships
Recognizing signs of dyslexia in children
Supporting children with sensory processing challenges
The impact of social media on adolescent mental health
Teaching children about emotional regulation
Strategies for promoting self-esteem in children
Fostering resilience in children facing adversity
Understanding and supporting children with ADHD
Teaching children about body safety and boundaries
The benefits of outdoor play for children’s development
Strategies for managing screen time for children
Supporting children with learning disabilities in the classroom
Recognizing signs of depression in children
Teaching children about consent and healthy relationships
The impact of divorce on children’s mental health
Supporting children with autism in the classroom
Teaching children about diversity and inclusion
Strategies for managing challenging behaviors in children
Promoting positive body image in children
Teaching children about emotional intelligence
Supporting children with anxiety in school
Recognizing signs of autism spectrum disorder
Teaching children about empathy and kindness
The benefits of art therapy for children
Strategies for managing ADHD behaviors in children
Promoting self-regulation skills in children
Supporting children with dyslexia in the classroom
Recognizing signs of childhood trauma
Teaching children about healthy communication
The impact of bullying on children’s mental health
Strategies for promoting positive behavior in children
Fostering emotional resilience in children
Supporting children with ADHD at home
Recognizing signs of anxiety in children
Teaching children about body positivity
The benefits of mindfulness for children’s mental health
Strategies for managing challenging behaviors in children with autism
Promoting social skills in children with ADHD
Recognizing signs of dyscalculia in children
Teaching children about emotional regulation and self-control
Supporting children with dyspraxia in the classroom
The impact of childhood trauma on brain development
Strategies for managing oppositional behavior in children
Fostering emotional intelligence in children with autism
Recognizing signs of ADHD in girls
Teaching children about conflict resolution
The benefits of animal-assisted therapy for children
Strategies for promoting executive function skills in children
Supporting children with ADHD in the classroom
Recognizing signs of selective mutism in children
Teaching children about self-care and stress management
The impact of divorce on children’s academic performance
Strategies for managing sensory processing challenges in children
Promoting self-esteem in children with learning disabilities
Recognizing signs of childhood depression
Teaching children about empathy and compassion
The benefits of play-based therapy for children
Strategies for managing ADHD impulsivity in children
Supporting children with dysgraphia in the classroom
Recognizing signs of childhood PTSD
Teaching children about emotional regulation techniques
The impact of bullying on children with ADHD
Strategies for promoting positive self-talk in children
Fostering resilience in children with autism
Recognizing signs of ADHD in toddlers
Teaching children about conflict resolution skills
The benefits of equine therapy for children
Strategies for managing ADHD hyperactivity in children
Supporting children with dyscalculia in the classroom
Recognizing signs of childhood anxiety disorders
Teaching children about mindfulness and relaxation techniques
The impact of childhood trauma on social development
Strategies for promoting self-regulation in children with ADHD
Fostering emotional intelligence in children with learning disabilities
Recognizing signs of childhood OCD
Teaching children about emotional expression and communication
The benefits of drama therapy for children

Tips To Follow For Writing Child Development Research Paper

Writing a research paper on child development requires careful planning and consideration of various factors. Here are some tips to help you successfully navigate the process:

Choose a Specific Topic: Select a narrow and focused topic within the broad field of child development. This will allow you to delve deeply into a particular aspect and provide a comprehensive analysis.
Conduct Thorough Research: Gather relevant sources such as academic journals, books, and reputable websites. Make sure to use credible sources to support your arguments and provide evidence for your claims.
Develop an Outline: Draft a framework for your research paper, encompassing sections such as the introduction, literature review, methodology, findings, discussion, and conclusion. A well-defined outline aids in structuring your ideas and maintaining focus.
Craft an Engaging Introduction: Commence your research paper with an captivating introductory segment, offering context about the subject, accentuating its importance, and introducing your research query or central thesis statement.
Review Existing Literature: Conduct a literature review to summarize and analyze existing research on your chosen topic. Identify gaps in the literature that your research aims to address and explain how your study contributes to the field.
Choose an Appropriate Methodology: Select a research methodology that is suitable for your study, whether it’s qualitative, quantitative, or mixed methods. Describe your research design, participants, procedures, and data analysis techniques in detail.
Collect and Analyze Data: If conducting empirical research, collect data according to your chosen methodology. Examine the data utilizing suitable statistical or qualitative analysis methods and interpret the outcomes concerning your research query.
Examine the consequences and proposals: Within the discussion segment, interpret your outcomes within the framework of current literature and explore their implications for theory, application, and policy. Provide suggestions for forthcoming research and actionable interventions.
Write Clearly and Concisely: Use clear and concise language to convey your ideas effectively. Avoid jargon and unnecessary technical terms, and ensure that your writing is accessible to a wide audience.
Cite Your Sources Properly: Accurately cite all sources used in your research paper according to the citation style specified by your instructor or academic institution (e.g., APA, MLA, Chicago). Pay attention to formatting guidelines and include a bibliography or reference list.
Proofread and Revise: Before submitting your research paper, carefully proofread it for spelling, grammar, and punctuation errors. Revise as needed to improve clarity, coherence, and flow of ideas.
Seek Feedback: Consider seeking feedback from peers, mentors, or professors to gain valuable insights and suggestions for improving your research paper.

By following these tips, you can effectively write a research paper on child development that contributes to our understanding of this important field and informs future research and practice.

Understanding child development topics is essential for promoting healthy growth, supporting children’s well-being, and fostering positive relationships. By delving into the complexities of physical, cognitive, social, emotional, and moral development, we can better equip ourselves to nurture the next generation of thinkers, innovators, and compassionate individuals.

Let’s continue to explore, learn, and advocate for the holistic development of every child.

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178 Original Child Development Research Paper Topics

Child development is represented by all the changes that occur in a child from the time of their birth to adulthood. The changes covered by child development include all the emotional, physical, thought and language changes.

During the process of development, a child transitions from being dependent on his parents to being an independent young adult. It is generally accepted that there are 5 main stages of child development: newborn, infant, toddler, preschool, and school-age.

If you are pursuing a bachelor of science or even a Master of Science degree, you will inevitably have to write at least one research paper about child development. The good news is that writing the paper shouldn’t be too difficult because the Internet contains plenty of information about most aspect of child development.

However, finding the right child development research paper topics for your papers can pose a problem. Don’t worry, we’ve got you covered. We have a list of 178 original topics on this page that should work great in 2023.

How Does A Good Research Paper Look Like?

OK, but what does a good research paper look like? Well, to help you out, we’ve put together a simple outline that shows you exactly what your paper should contain:

Introduction Background information on the topic Thesis statement Body #1 (first major subtopic) Statement + a little background information Supporting evidence Body #2 (second major subtopic) Statement + a little background information Supporting evidence Body #3 (third major subtopic) Statement + a little background information Supporting evidence Conclusion Restate the thesis Summarize the key points Call to action Works Cited/Bibliography Appendix

Of course, to be able to write the research paper as fast as possible, you need to find the best possible topic. Stop wasting your time scouring the Internet and choose one of these original topics:

Best Child Development Topics

We will start our list of topics with the best child development topics (or what we consider to work great in 2023). Check out this list of awesome ideas:

Discuss the Piaget theory on child development
Research the mechanisms of child development
Analyze the Toddler stage (1-3 years)
Research motor skills during child development
The socio-emotional development of children
Discuss the 5 stages of development
Talk about cognitive development
Research the Preschool stage (3-4 years)
How does development shape a person’s life?
Research the role of the environment on development
Research hands-on experience learning

Easy Child Research Topics

Next on our list we have some of the easiest topics you can find. Our easy child research topics are meant to help you write the paper faster and save time for other activities:

Discuss the Erik Erikson theory on child development
Effects of parasites on child development
A closer look at the Infant stage (3-12 months)
Effects of race on child development
The intellectual development of children
Discuss maternal drug use effects
Effects of neglect on the development of children
The 5 stages of child development
Talk about the Newborn stage
Analyze the Pre-school stage (4-5 years)

Child Development Project Topics

Are you looking to start a child development project? You certainly need a great idea if you want an A+. Here are some child development project topics you could try:

Research asynchronous development
A project on physical growth
A project on gender role
A project on language and communication
Talk about the effects of malnutrition
Postnatal depression and child development
Weight growth during child development
The speed of height growth
Analyze the mechanisms of change
A project about individual differences
Research the development of children with disabilities

Research Topics On Children

If you are looking for interesting research topics on children, you have arrived at the right place. Take a look at these ideas and choose the one you like the most:

Discuss the Behavioral theory on child development
An in-depth look at secure attachment
How do emotions change over time?
Discuss the transition from dependent to independent
The effect of family on child development
The role of movement
The effect of school on child development
The importance of playing with other children
The importance of the surroundings
The effects of the Covid-19 pandemic
Psychological changes during development
Research the effects of classroom environment

Child Development Research Topics

Of course, we have a lot of child development research topics for students of all ages. Here are some of our best, original ideas that should be excellent for 2023:

Discuss the Vygotsky theory on child development
The role played by genetics
Compare and contrast the toddler and the infant
Compare and contrast the infant and the preschool child
The importance of a psychologist
Discuss the role of caregivers
Compare and contrast the toddler and the newborn
Effects of positive social interactions
Research disorganized families
Compare and contrast the preschool and the school age child
The negative effects of divorce
The role of a good early childhood life

Research Paper Topics Children Love

In case you are looking for some research paper topics children love, we have some of the best ideas right here. Check them out and start working on your paper now:

Latest news in child development
The importance of a good school
The importance of eating breakfast
The role of the mother
The role of the father
Teaching sign language to children
The effects of bullying on children
Discuss the importance of tangible rewards
Nurturing good habits
Sports in the life of a child

Child Development Topics For High School

So what if you’re a high school student? You can write about child development too. We even have some excellent child development topics for high school student right here:

Discuss ADHD and its effects
Negative effects of social media on child development
The role of technology in child development
Research differently-abled children
Study the emotional development of children
An in-depth look at the role of good nutrition
Research the role of sport in child development
Research the occurrence of depression
The struggles of preschool children
Negative effects of smartphones on child development
Effects of mass media on school children

Child Development Psychology Topics

Interested in discuss the psychological part of child development? Have a look at our child development psychology topics; you’ll surely find something of interest:

The different stages of psychological development
What makes children intelligent?
Discuss intellectual growth from 3 to 9 years of age
What makes children put their health at risk?
Research memory in preschool children
The problem-solving capabilities of a toddler
Language learning skills at the age of 3
Do toddlers have a self-preservation instinct?
How do toddlers understand the world around them?
Discuss a school psychology topic
Research how children think

Interesting Child Development Topics For Papers

Our writers have compiled a list of the most interesting child development topics for papers. All you have to do is choose one of our ideas and start working on your research paper:

Why is playing so important?
Talk about the effects of climate change on child development
How to ensure your child develops properly?
Discuss the role of social interaction
Is social media good for child development?
How do children form their ego?
The history of child development
Are some children more intelligent than most adults?
Research the way children understand life
Discuss the role of peers on child development

Great Children Research Topics

Are you in search of some great children research topics? You are in luck because we have a long list of such topics right here:

Research a child’s social development
Discuss speech development
Gross motor skills development
How to monitor child development effectively?
How important is attention?
Birth disorders and their negative effects
Talk about behavioral child development
The importance of music in child development

Child Development Research Paper Questions

Did you know that the best way to get started on your research paper is to look at some child development research paper questions? Here are some for you:

How to identify a child genius?
How does the community affect children?
Can children overcome trauma?
How important are birthday celebrations?
How important is the mother in child development?
How does the loss of hearing affect children?
Does the child need to visit a psychologist?
How does autism influence child development?
Does Facebook negatively affect a child’s development?
What is the role of genetics?
What defines a toddler?
How important is socialization?
How much time should a parent spend with his child?
What is the sociocultural theory?

Current Child Development Topics

Talking about the latest research in child development will surely get you some bonus points. Here are some current child development topics:

Latest advancements in cognitive child development
Autistic children development
Are video games dangerous for child development?
Severe psychological problems
Teaching your child a new language
Research into deviant behavior
Best games for children to play
Effects of a poor diet
The negative effects of a lack of physical exercise
How does technology influence child development?

Advanced Child Psychology Research Topics

If you want to write about complex topics, we also have a list of advanced child psychology research topics. Choose one of them for free right now:

The effects of talking on child development
Discuss the most important development milestones
The effects of the Covid-19 pandemic lockdowns
Discuss how television affects child development
Research the diseases that can hinder child development
Analyze the connection between a toddler and his parents
Research child development in single-parent families

Child Development Topics For College

College students will surely appreciate our long list of child development topics for college. Remember, this list is updated periodically so that everyone can get fresh topics:

The effects of family violence
Innovative child development techniques
How much time should you spend with your child?
Games that stimulate mental growth
Best ways to solve a behavioral issue
Negative effects of substance abuse
Negative effects of divorce

Controversial Child Development Topics

Don’t worry, your teacher will surely appreciate your courage. You shouldn’t be afraid to talk about controversial topics in your research paper. In fact, here are some topics to help you get started:

Books that children should avoid
The need for physical punishment
How important are schools?
Should children be allowed to play video games?
The effects of poverty on child development
Discuss the effects of social insecurity
Child development in the Indian society

Child Mental Health Essay Topics

Are you interested in talking about the mental health of children? No problem, we have a great list of child mental health essay topics for you:

Best ways to develop a positive mentality
An in-depth look at anxiety in toddlers
Discuss the stages of mental development
The occurrence of depression in preschool children
Discuss the cause and effects of ADHD
Can children suffer from PTSD?
Research the oppositional defiant disorder

Early Childhood Essay Topics

If you want to cover early childhood in your research paper, you have definitely arrived at the right place. Here are some awesome early childhood essay topics:

Tourette syndrome in toddlers
Discuss eating disorders in preschool children
The effects of social media on young children
Sports that children should play
Events that can negatively impact a child’s development
Ways to ensure maximum mental growth
Discuss the 5 stages of development and make a comparison between them
Does music affect the mathematical skills of young children?

Topics Related To Child Psychology

Our experts have created a list of interesting topics related to child psychology that you can use for free. Pick one of these ideas and start writing an A+ paper today:

Talk about what makes a child intelligent
Things that negative affect a child’s psychological wellbeing
Stress in young children in the United States
Should you child see a psychologist?
Sports that curb child delinquency
Discuss the effects of watching excessive television
The effects of religious orientation on a child’s mental health

ADHD Child Development Essay Topics

Writing about child development of children suffering from the attention deficit hyperactivity disorder is not easy, we know. However, we have some great ADHD Child development essay topics for you:

How do ADHD children cope with boring situations?
Controlling the activity levels of ADHD children
Discuss ways to make ADHD children pay attention
ADHD’s effects on the ability to focus
Why do ADHD children have learning disabilities?

Get Research Help From The Best

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research paper topics in child development

Theories of Child Development and Their Impact on Early Childhood Education and Care

Published: 29 October 2021
Volume 51 , pages 15–30, ( 2023 )

Cite this article

Olivia N. Saracho ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-4108-7790 1

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Developmental theorists use their research to generate philosophies on children’s development. They organize and interpret data based on a scheme to develop their theory. A theory refers to a systematic statement of principles related to observed phenomena and their relationship to each other. A theory of child development looks at the children's growth and behavior and interprets it. It suggests elements in the child's genetic makeup and the environmental conditions that influence development and behavior and how these elements are related. Many developmental theories offer insights about how the performance of individuals is stimulated, sustained, directed, and encouraged. Psychologists have established several developmental theories. Many different competing theories exist, some dealing with only limited domains of development, and are continuously revised. This article describes the developmental theories and their founders who have had the greatest influence on the fields of child development, early childhood education, and care. The following sections discuss some influences on the individuals’ development, such as theories, theorists, theoretical conceptions, and specific principles. It focuses on five theories that have had the most impact: maturationist, constructivist, behavioral, psychoanalytic, and ecological. Each theory offers interpretations on the meaning of children's development and behavior. Although the theories are clustered collectively into schools of thought, they differ within each school.

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The author is grateful to Mary Jalongo for her expert editing and her keen eye for the smallest details.

Although Watson was the first to maintain explicitly that psychology was a natural science, behaviorism in both theory and practice had originated much earlier than 1913. Watson offered a vital incentive to behaviorism, but several others had started the process. He never stated to have created “behavioral psychology.” Some behaviorists consider him a model of the approach rather than an originator of behaviorism (Malone, 2014 ). Still, his presence has significantly influenced the status of present psychology and its development.

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Saracho, O.N. Theories of Child Development and Their Impact on Early Childhood Education and Care. Early Childhood Educ J 51 , 15–30 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10643-021-01271-5

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Parenting and Child Development: A Relational Health Perspective

A child’s development is embedded within a complex system of relationships. Among the many relationships that influence children’s growth and development, perhaps the most influential is the one that exists between parent and child. Recognition of the critical importance of early parent-child relationship quality for children’s socioemotional, cognitive, neurobiological, and health outcomes has contributed to a shift in efforts to identify relational determinants of child outcomes. Recent efforts to extend models of relational health to the field of child development highlight the role that parent, child, and contextual factors play in supporting the development and maintenance of healthy parent-child relationships. This review presents a parent-child relational health perspective on development, with an emphasis on socioemotional outcomes in early childhood, along with brief attention to obesity and eating behavior as a relationally informed health outcome. Also emphasized here is the parent–health care provider relationship as a context for supporting healthy outcomes within families as well as screening and intervention efforts to support optimal relational health within families, with the goal of improving mental and physical health within our communities.

‘Viewing development through the lens of relational health reflects recognition of the critical role that relationships play in children’s social, emotional, health, and cognitive outcomes.’

“In order to develop normally, a child requires progressively more complex joint activity with one or more adults who have an irrational emotional relationship with the child. Somebody’s got to be crazy about that kid. That’s number one. First, last and always.”—Urie Bronfenbrenner “If a community values its children it must cherish their parents.”—John Bowlby

Introduction

Bronfenbrenner recognized the critical importance of the emotional relationship between a child and an adult, whereas Bowlby’s observation underscores the responsibility of communities and practitioners in supporting healthy child development by supporting parents. The belief that we can support children directly, without supporting their parents, overlooks the complex system of relationships within which children develop. 1 Together, Bronfenbrenner and Bowlby remind us that to support healthy development, we must focus on the emotional quality of the relationships within which the child participates—as well as consider how the larger community supports those relationships.

Yet parenting is a broad topic and an exhaustive review is beyond the scope of any one article. Informed by the field of infant mental health with its explicit relational focus 2 and in an effort to contribute to our understanding of parenting as multiply determined, 3 we focus our discussion here on the construct of relational health as a tool for promoting socioemotional and physical health among young children. Relational health reflects a sense of “connectedness” with attuned others, including caregivers, family members, and other individuals within the community. 4 Such a focus is consistent with the field of lifestyle medicine—which considers the environment as a social determinant of health and well-being 5 —and research on health and social behavior, which highlights parents as significant influences on children’s health. 6 Viewing development through the lens of relational health reflects recognition of the critical role that relationships play in children’s social, emotional, health, and cognitive outcomes. 3 Accordingly, the revised Diagnostic Classification of Mental Health and Developmental Disorders of Infancy and Early Childhood (DC-05) 7 considers how characteristics of the broader caregiving environment, such as coparenting quality and other close relationships, relate to developmental and mental health diagnoses. 2

Relational Health Within Primary Care: The Parent-Provider Relationship

We suggest that the parent-provider relationship provides a potentially valuable, although far less emphasized, context for promoting relational health. We present a review of the literature surrounding relational health science and encourage the health care provider to view their patients through the relational health lens. When considered from this angle, for children and their caregivers, the relationship is the patient. As health care providers endeavor to encourage healthy lifestyle choices in the families they serve, each decision a family makes—whether to the benefit or detriment—will occur in the context of their relationships. The health care provider must learn to consider and then acknowledge the family support relationships present in the exam room, the waiting room, and at home to best engage a family’s healthy choices. When caring for patients through this approach, the provider will consider the patient’s treatment choices in their realistic and relational context, rather than as compliant versus noncompliant. Moreover, by acknowledging the provider’s own relationship to the family, the provider can become a supportive member of the treatment decision team rather than an information broker, motivational interviewer, or reticent supplier of difficult-to-follow advice.

The relational health perspective considers the practitioner as a supportive (or unsupportive) “other” in navigating the sometimes difficult, uncertain, or fear-provoking experience of parenting a child from preconception through adulthood. An awareness of relational health in pediatric and adult medicine settings may increase positive outcomes in both parents and children through increased empathy. Specifically, during challenging situations, the practitioner should assess and address relationship quality rather than judging parenting or assigning sole credit or blame to either the parent or child. The focus lies in identifying strengths and opportunities in service to the relationship. 4

Relational Health Within Families: The Parent-Child Relationship

A relational health perspective on development embodies a family systems perspective as well, which recognizes the interconnectedness of individuals and relationships within families 8 and the bidirectional, transactional nature of relationships 9 ; parents affect children and children affect parents. 10 A relational health approach to understanding parent-child relationships emphasizes the dyadic connection between parent and child. Although a multitude of factors have been explored as correlates and predictors of parenting and child outcomes, we focus here on a subset of the factors that may influence relational health, with the goal of increasing practitioners’ understanding of relationship-focused approaches to health promotion within families.

Parent-Child Attachment Relationships: Parental Sensitivity and Reflective Functioning

One of the most influential relationship-focused frameworks for understanding development is attachment theory. An extensive literature describes the early parent-child attachment relationship as an enduring, emotional bond that enables children to explore the environment, 11 yet maintain the proximity and contact necessary for healthy development. Parent-infant attachment relationships, therefore, provide the earliest contexts for children’s relational health. Secure attachment balances developmentally appropriate exploration of the world with seeking closeness and comfort from the caregiver when distressed. Secure parent-child attachment relationships are associated with a range of positive social and emotional outcomes in children. 12 , 13 Conversely, disorganized attachment, a form of insecure attachment, is a risk factor for poorer developmental outcomes 14 and has been linked to disturbed caregiving behavior. 15 - 17 Efforts aimed at increasing security within these critical early relationships remain of interest to researchers and clinicians. 18 Interventions including Attachment and Biobehavioral Catch-up (ABC), 19 , 20 Circle of Security, 21 and Video Intervention for Positive Parenting and Sensitive Discipline (VIPP-SD) 22 have been effective in promoting secure attachment and positive child outcomes (including fewer behavior problems) via creation of measurable, positive changes in parents’ sensitive and responsive behavior, a key factor in secure attachment. 23 , 24 Yet these interventions are not widely available to the public, thus limiting the ability of clinicians to offer them to their patients and families.

Perhaps the most effective mediator toward creating change in parental sensitivity and responsiveness is fostering growth in a parent’s reflective functioning (RF). RF reflects the extent to which a parent can consider the mental states (ie, thoughts, feelings, intentions) that may motivate the behavior of self and other. 25 This capacity can be described in terms of both self-focused RF and child-focused RF. 26 , 27 Interventions such as Minding the Baby 28 , 29 and Mothering from the Inside Out 30 , 31 appear effective in supporting healthy relational outcomes via a focus on growing RF. The concept of RF is also relevant for understanding how adults’ own early relational experiences may affect their parenting. 32

Recommendations for Providers

These 2 elements of parenting—sensitive, responsive caregiving and RF—support the formation of secure parent-child relationships. 24 We suggest that health care providers use thoughtful questioning that may support parental RF, as recently suggested and detailed by Ordway et al. 33 Health care providers can also demonstrate and model RF and help build this capacity in families via routine care and also in medically intensive environments. In environments such as the neonatal intensive care unit (NICU), for example, barriers to parent-neonate relational health development are prominent because of parents coping with fears of infant death and infants experiencing frequent stressors. 34 - 39 Although NICU staff recognize the critical role they play in supporting early parent-child relational health and promoting positive socioemotional outcomes among infants born prematurely, 40 this role may come secondary to the provision of direct medical support to neonates. Professionals’ engagement in reflective practice, with its focus on awareness of the mental and feeling states of self and others, 41 may be one pathway toward promoting positive infant outcomes via the provision of greater psychological support to parents of premature and medically fragile newborns. Building reflective capacity among a range of health care providers may further strengthen the foundation of early relational health within families. 33

Mothering, Fathering, and Grandparenting

Although attachment perspectives historically have emphasized the mother-child relationship, attachment theory and research has been extended to a variety of other caregiver-child relationships, including father-child relationships. 42 - 44 A family systems perspective 8 on relational health suggests that to understand development, we must consider how mother-child and father-child relationships may independently or interactively contribute to developmental outcomes.

Rigorous recent research indicates that children benefit socially and emotionally when fathers are more involved in their lives. 45 Moreover, the benefits of father involvement hold for nonresident as well as resident fathers. 46 Yet fathers’ engagement in parenting is multiply determined, 47 and individual, family, and institutional-level factors may all play important roles in predicting paternal involvement. At an individual level, a father’s identity as a parent, 48 , 49 as well as a father’s attitudes and beliefs about his role in his child’s life, 50 , 51 matter for his engagement. At the family level, evidence highlights the quality of the father’s relationship with a child’s mother. For example, mothers are more likely to be gatekeepers within families, controlling fathers’ access to children as well as the quantity and quality of fathers’ interactions with their children. 52 , 53 At a policy level, compared with countries such as Sweden where paternal leave is supported, the lack of paid paternal leave within the United States may also present barriers to fathers’ involvement with their young children as well as erode fathers’ sense of efficacy in the parental role. 54

Above and beyond these individual, family, and policy variables, mothers’ and fathers’ parenting may differ and uniquely predict developmental outcomes. For example, mothers may be the primary providers of emotional security for children via the establishment of early parent-child attachment relationships, whereas for fathers, exploration of the world may be a primary emphasis in parenting. 55 Fathers’ more stimulating play style—often involving rough-and-tumble play—may promote positive outcomes in children, including developmentally appropriate risk taking and establishment of autonomy. 56 , 57 Mothers, by contrast, are more likely to engage in object-mediated teaching interactions as well as providing structure for their children. 58 However, though mothers and fathers may have interaction styles that differ, the fact remains that many children in the United States are raised in households headed by mothers and may experience wide variability in contact with their biological fathers. 59 This fact, coupled with increasing acceptance and prevalence of families headed by same-sex parents, cautions against a return to the belief that to develop optimally, children require both fathers and mothers (known as the “essential father” hypothesis). 60

We must also recognize that nonparental primary caregivers may play a central role in the care and raising of young children. For example, the increasing number of grandparent-headed households means that more grandparents—with their own sets of strengths and challenges—are making health and wellness decisions for children and may require a unique set of supports from health care providers. 61 Even when not primary caregivers, many grandparents—especially maternal grandmothers—report being involved and influential in their grandchildren’s lives. 62 In fact, involvement of maternal grandmothers with grandchildren may buffer young children from the risks to their development posed by difficult temperament and harsh parenting by mothers. 63 A wider relational health perspective suggests that grandparents (both custodial and noncustodial) be considered as potential sources of support in children’s health and well-being.

Shifting demographics suggest that fathers, nonparental caregivers, and grandparents play an active and involved role in the lives of children. As providers, recognition of the range of relationships in which the child is embedded is critical. Examining potential biases around who is most knowledgeable or best equipped to care for children may help providers approach each adult who is involved in the child’s life as a potential partner in health promotion. 64

Coparenting Relationships

The recognition that children develop within relationships between multiple caregivers, including mothers, fathers, grandparents, and others, makes it critical to also consider the health of the relationships among these adults (ie, coparents) who share responsibility for raising particular children. 65 , 66 Whereas constructs such as marital quality or marital satisfaction focus on the intimate partner relationship, the coparenting relationship, although related, is separate and distinct. Coparenting reflects a wider range of relationship structures and processes specific to parenting. 67 , 68 For example, coparenting relationships occur among a variety of individuals who share responsibility for parenting, whether romantically involved or not, 65 , 69 such as same-sex parents, adoptive parents, divorced or never married parents, and mothers and maternal grandmothers. 70

Consistent with a family systems perspective, 8 better coparenting relationship quality is associated with children’s positive social and emotional development over and above the effects of both romantic relationship quality between parents (if present) and mothers’ and fathers’ parenting. 71 Notably, coparenting relationship quality among same-sex parents shows similar associations with children’s socioemotional development. 72 If supportive, coparenting relationships may help caregivers, especially fathers, promote children’s positive socioemotional development, 73 but undermining or conflictual coparenting relationships may have a detrimental effect on child development. For instance, although grandmother involvement may benefit children, conflict between mothers and grandmothers can be detrimental to children’s socioemotional development. 63 , 74 Thus, prevention and intervention programs have been developed to support effective relationships between coparents. 75 , 76 For example, Feinberg’s Family Foundations program targets couples expecting their first child and focuses on building strong coparenting relationships across the transition to parenthood 77 , 78 —a critical foundation for parent-child relational health.

Coparenting research highlights the role of supportive versus undermining coparenting for children’s development. Often, the extent to which coparents support or undermine one another stems from whether they share the same views on parenting goals and practices and have a similar perspective on the child’s development. Thus, when interacting with patients, we suggest inquiring about the extent of agreement versus disagreement among the adults who make decisions regarding the child’s health and development. For example, the primary custodial parent may emphasize healthy food choices and regular physical activity, whereas the nonresidential coparent may provide markedly different choices during visitation periods. Alternatively, one parent may have concerns about a child’s language or motor development, whereas a grandparent may continually emphasize that the child is “just fine.” These discrepancies in perceptions of typical versus atypical development may delay or interfere with prevention efforts, medical diagnosis, and treatment. Disagreements among multiple caregivers may create stress and tension within families, and challenges with coparenting can be addressed through prevention and intervention programs.

Parental Characteristics That Contribute to Parenting and Relational Health

Psychosocial resources and mental health.

Belsky’s early model of parenting competence suggests that multiple factors affect parenting and child outcomes, with parents’ psychosocial resources playing a prominent role. 3 Individual differences between parents in their personality characteristics affect the quality of their parenting. 79 In particular, higher openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, and agreeableness, and lower neuroticism has been related to more optimal parenting cognitions, practices, and behaviors, including parental warmth and support for autonomy. 79 - 81

For parents with common mental health issues such as anxiety and depression, the experience of parenting may be especially challenging. Maternal depression has been linked consistently with more negative and disengaged parenting behavior and lower engagement in healthy feeding and sleep practices. 82 Less research has considered fathers’ mental health in relation to their parenting, 83 although there has been a recent increase in attention to fathers’ antenatal and postnatal depression, 84 and fathers who experience postpartum depression demonstrate lower levels of developmentally appropriate positive engagement with their infant children. 83 Anxiety disorders in fathers as well as mothers have been linked with more overinvolved parenting behavior that does not foster age-appropriate independence in children. 85

Although prevalence rates suggest the importance of considering parental anxiety and depression, other mental health disorders should be considered as well. For example, for mothers diagnosed with borderline personality disorder, higher levels of negative affectivity as well as lower rates of effortful control 86 and sensitivity, and support for child autonomy 87 have been reported. Less maternal sensitivity has also been reported among mothers with obsessive compulsive disorder. 88

Screening for parental mental health concerns from pregnancy (or from pregnancy planning) throughout the child’s development is consistent with a relational health approach. Beyond screening, health care providers can become aware of evidence-based treatments that may support healthy outcomes in children by supporting maternal mental health and parenting skills. 89 For example, the attachment-based, group intervention Mom Power, which emphasizes parenting, self-care, and engagement in treatment, holds promise for supporting positive outcomes for children by supporting maternal mental health and parenting competence. 90 With increased knowledge of evidence-based treatments for fathers’ mental health and parenting, we may be able to move beyond a focus on mothers to provide all parents with a stronger support system and resource base for effective parenting.

Parental Developmental History and Adverse Experiences in Childhood

According to Belsky’s model of the determinants of parenting, a parent’s psychosocial resources stem from their developmental history. 3 The experience of adversity and toxic stress during development may affect brain architecture , 91 a term used to convey how early experiences help build the structural foundation for healthy brain development. Under conditions of sustained, persistent stress such as maltreatment or neglect, the hypothalamic pituitary adrenal axis may be affected, contributing to atypical diurnal patterns of cortisol and increased risk over the course of development. 92 As our understanding of the impact of toxic stress on children has grown, the focus on understanding patterns of intergenerational transmission of impaired parenting has grown as well. Experiences of adversity and toxic stress in one generation are linked to poorer parenting and developmental outcomes in the next generation. 93 Thus, improving the quality of the caregiving environment as early as possible may help improve stress responding in young children. 92

Foundational work on adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) as predictors of physical, relational, and behavioral health has contributed to a growing understanding of the dose-response relation between experiences of adversity in early childhood (conceptualized as exposure to abuse and household dysfunction) and well-being in adulthood 94 as well as the experience of parenting. 95 Pregnant women reporting higher levels of ACEs in early childhood, for example, exhibit more hostile parenting toward their own infants; this pattern of hostile parenting then increases the child’s risk for poorer developmental outcomes. 96

In response to growing recognition of the impact of adversity and toxic stress within families, in 2012, the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) released a policy statement recommending education for health professionals on ACEs along with 2-generational screening for ACEs within families. 97 , 98 By screening for parental and child ACEs, health providers may be able to provide referrals to trauma-informed therapeutic supports within the community that can help build or rebuild relational health.

Yet, in the face of adversity, the presence of individuals who are connected to the child, such as family members, can help mitigate its negative effects. 4 In addition to exploring multiple factors related to the experience of adversity, a relational health perspective suggests the importance of identifying and growing supportive connections. For example, the neurosequential model of therapeutics focuses on relational health and connectedness with others. 99 Results from recent work with this model highlight the importance of promoting the health, safety, and positivity of the parent-child relationship.

Although pediatric health care providers are aware of the impact of ACEs on parenting and developmental outcomes, additional research, education, and resources are necessary to support practitioners in identifying and addressing these impacts within families. 100 The limitations and potential cost-benefit analysis of screening for ACEs must also be considered because screening without provision of adequate referrals to evidence-based treatments may undermine the possible value of the screen. 101 Moreover, identification of appropriate screening tools for ACEs remains an important consideration. Focusing on the experiences of adversity as an ACE score that relates to poorer health outcomes may confuse correlation with causation; thus, to best inform policy and practice, factors such as timing of adversity, the overall pattern of stress, and the absence or availability of protective factors must be considered. 4 Yet through increased awareness of ACEs (both the parent’s and the child’s) as well as other psychosocial risk factors for impaired relational health, professionals can widen their lens of assessment when interacting with parents and children during medical visits.

Child Characteristics That Contribute to Parenting and Parent-Child Relational Health

Another set of key factors in the quality of parenting and parent-child relationships involves characteristics of the child. Recognizing the bidirectional nature of relationships between parents and children, Bornstein noted that “caregiving is a two-way street.” 102 Although early literature emphasized the parents’ impact on the child, a relational health approach to development suggests that we consider child contributions to parenting as well as to the overall parent-child relationship. Among a number of child characteristics that may affect parent-child relational health, research has focused on child temperament and age as well as children with special health care needs.

Temperament

Although early research on temperament emphasized the child’s inborn characteristics (eg, rhythmicity, mood) and temperament types such as easy, difficult, and slow to warm up, 103 our current understanding of temperament reflects the interplay between biological and environmental factors over the course of an individual’s development. 104 Definitions of temperament typically include individual differences in activity, emotionality, attention, and self-regulation. 104 However, particularly relevant to the experience of parenting is the temperamental characteristic of reactivity, defined as the extent to which the child is predisposed to experiencing strong negative and/or positive emotions, which may reflect the sensitivity of the nervous system to environmental stimuli. 105

Although difficult child temperament has long been viewed as a risk factor for poorer parent-child relational health, 106 more recent theory and research on the concept of differential susceptibility suggest that children with difficult or highly reactive temperaments may be more susceptible to both the negative and positive effects of the parenting environment. 105 , 107 For example, children with more difficult temperaments, reflecting higher levels of reactivity, may be particularly susceptible to the detrimental effects of negative parenting. 108 In contrast, for highly reactive children, the experience of more positive parenting is associated with fewer child behavior problems 109 and greater social competence. 110 Parenting intervention studies have further shown that more reactive children appear to benefit more from experimentally induced positive changes in parenting. 111 Thus, it is important for practitioners to shift their perspectives on “difficult” children from vulnerability to opportunity and support parents in adopting a similar view. Indeed, to the extent that the biological parents of a highly reactive child may share similar underlying genetic sensitivities, 112 these parents may be especially responsive to practitioners’ efforts, just as their children are particularly responsive to their parenting.

Because the demands and challenges of parenting change as a function of children’s age, parents must have opportunities to gain research-informed recommendations for supporting relational health with their children from birth throughout the life span. For example, within early childhood, toddlers’ and preschoolers’ growing autonomy and self-awareness creates new demands and opportunities for both parent and child. Thus, supporting parents in reflecting on the thoughts, feelings, and beliefs regarding their child’s increasing autonomy could be one strategy for supporting relational health as children move through the early childhood years. Moreover, the roles of various parenting practices for supporting children’s self-regulatory capabilities may differ across early childhood, with responsiveness most critical in infancy and other forms of support becoming more critical during the preschool years. 113 Research must, therefore, identify which practices are most relevant, at which age, 113 and for which outcome of interest. Doing so will help practitioners provide targeted support to families, based on parents’ concerns regarding their child’s particular social and emotional strengths and challenges.

Special Health Care Needs

Children with special health care needs represent a growing demographic, 114 and expert recommendations continue to promote early detection in primary care. 115 , 116 Just as providers should consider the parent factors contributing to relational health, the child’s contribution to parent-child relationships is paramount. Within the family context, a child with a developmental disability and/or special health care needs may require disproportionate resources and time compared with neurotypical siblings. 117 The child’s condition may translate into added health care costs and increased stress for parents along with decreased access to social support and leisure activities within the community. 118 , 119 For example, a systematic review of parenting stress in the face of chronic child illness indicated that among parents who were parenting a child with chronic illness, significantly higher levels of parenting stress were found; in turn, this stress was related to lower levels of psychological adjustment among parents and children. 120 Among parents of children with autism specture disorder (ASD), higher levels of parenting stress and psychological distress have also been reported. 121 , 122 These higher levels of parental stress and distress may, in turn, affect parental availability and sensitivity, thus affecting relational health.

In light of the evidence on child contributions to parenting and developmental outcomes, it seems important to consider the “what” and “how” of child contributions to relational health. Identifying the ways in which child characteristics influence and interact with parenting behaviors and relational health may provide practitioners with the tools and questions necessary to shift from a focus on the effects of parenting on children to also consider how parenting has been influenced by the child and how the overall health of the relationship has been shaped by both relational partners.

Contextual and Process Variables That May Affect Relational Health

Although the bidirectional nature of parent-child relationships underscores the importance of considering parent and child contributions to relational health, a family systems approach, coupled with a bioecological approach, suggests that the social and contextual contexts in which parent-child relationships are embedded should be considered as well.

Parent-Child Feeding Practices

The promising protective role of healthy parent-child relationships in the development of obesity 123 in early childhood is also evident, perhaps via links with more optimal self-regulation in young children. 124 , 125 For example, theoretical models 125 and research 126 on the development of appetite self-regulation and positive physical activity habits, 127 , 128 which are critical to weight-related health throughout the life span, highlight the important role of parenting. Parental behaviors such as permissiveness or indulgence have been associated with weight status and obesity in childhood. More specifically, allowing children too much freedom regarding food choices in society’s obesogenic food environment can increase children’s risk for obesity. 123 Similarly, unrestricted, unmonitored screen time has also been associated with unhealthy weight status. 129 Yet the question remains to what extent these cycles occur within families, whereby parents’ lack of control over their own food choices and screen time contribute to unhealthy weight status for their children and the unhealthy weight status of children contributes to parents’ continued struggles with their own food choices and activity levels. Thus, a family-level relational approach to understanding risks for obesity may be particularly advantageous.

Given that parents’ attitudes and beliefs can shape a range of parenting behaviors related to health and wellness, including feeding practices, exploring relational correlates and predictors of feeding practices beginning in infancy seems prudent. Parents’ feeding practices provide a unique window into parent-child relationship health, because from birth, feeding makes up a critical part of parents’ daily interactions with young children. Decisions regarding breastfeeding and/or bottle-feeding can cause considerable stress for parents. 130 And although children’s eating behavior emerges early and is relatively stable over time, eating is influenced more by external factors across development. 131

Mothers who use food to soothe their distressed infants or toddlers have reported lower parenting self-efficacy and higher child negativity. 132 Using food to soothe was also linked with higher weight status among children, particularly for children who were perceived as having more negative temperaments. 132 Among preschoolers, parents’ use of food for the purpose of emotion regulation was associated with children’s increased intake of sweets when not hungry, a pattern that may reflect the early origins of children’s emotional eating. 133

Eating behaviors and nutrition are important components of lifestyle medicine. In promoting healthy eating behavior and weight outcomes for children, health care professionals can consider how parents’ attitudes may shape their feeding practices—above and beyond a child’s weight status—and how dyadic and family-level interactions around food may support or undermine relational health. From birth, providers can recognize that decisions regarding feeding (eg, breast and/or formula; homemade meals versus fast food) may be multiply determined and best understood through a relational health lens, where parent and child factors are viewed as contributing to parenting practices, practices that may differ from recommended best practices for promoting child health outcomes.

The Household Environment: Family Chaos, Technology, and Social Media Use

The home environment represents an important context for parent-child relational health, including the quality of parenting as well as children’s well-being and health. 134 - 138 Recent research, focused on household chaos, has highlighted the role of disorder/disorganization 139 and instability/turbulence 140 for understanding parenting quality and family well-being. Lower levels of household chaos (evidenced by greater organization, stability, and predictability) are associated with higher-quality parenting behavior than home environments characterized as noisy, crowded, unpredictable, and disorganized. 138 Among preschoolers, recent evidence suggests that higher rates of household chaos are also associated with higher screen use. 141

In fact, parents’ and children’s increasing engagement with, and reliance on, technology and social media suggest the need for providers to consider technology and social media as interactive partners. For example, Facebook may provide new parents with an important source of social capital, 142 and parents report using the internet to gain information about pediatric health. 143 , 144 Yet parents (and grandparents) do not report universally positive effects of their technology use. For example, parents may experience a range of internal tensions surrounding their use of mobile technology, such as cognitive, emotional, and relationship tension. 145 Researchers are documenting how technology may interrupt the flow of interaction patterns between children and their parents—a concept known as technoference. 146 For example, higher levels of child internalizing and externalizing behavior problems have been reported by mothers who also reported higher levels of technoference in their interactions with their children. 146

Supporting parents in identifying, reducing, or coping with household chaos, as well as technoference, may be promising avenues for supporting relational health. Because the experience of chaos in the home environment often co-occurs with poverty 139 as well as parental mental health symptoms, 147 screening and intervention approaches aimed at identifying and addressing the multiple co-occurring factors that relate to family chaos may be warranted. Moreover, gauging the perceived impact of technology and social media use on parent-child relational health may be an important area of inquiry for health practitioners.

Cultural Context and Relational Health

Understanding relational health requires us to also consider the impact of race, ethnicity, and culture on parent-child relationships; accordingly, consideration of diversity has moved to the forefront of our current research and practice efforts. Although broad parenting goals are remarkably similar across diverse cultures, 102 the processes by which parents in varying cultural contexts seek to achieve these goals may differ. For example, some scholars have suggested that the concept of sensitivity, the primary determinant of secure attachment according to attachment theorists, may be biased toward more individualistic cultures because it is focused on meeting the child’s individual needs. 148 Moreover, the meaning of parenting constructs such as controlling behavior may vary across cultures. For example, Asian American parents may emphasize strict control of children as part of culturally embedded approaches to parenting, which are not equivalent to western notions of harsh/controlling parenting and do not appear to have negative effects on their children’s development. 149 , 150

These debates can support practitioners in reflecting on how their own beliefs about what is the “best” kind of parenting to promote relational health and positive child outcomes may be shaping their messaging for parents. For example, among immigrant families, attention to acculturation—the process of adapting to a new culture—rather than parenting behavior, per se, may provide a window into relational health. For example, acculturation may happen at different rates for children and parents, and greater discrepancies in the level of acculturation may contribute to increased parent-child conflict. 151

The roles of culture, race, and ethnicity in parenting practices are particularly apparent with respect to discipline practices. For example, higher rates of corporal punishment, including spanking, are generally reported by African American parents, in comparison to Hispanic or white parents, 152 although recent evidence suggests similar endorsement of spanking by African American and Hispanic mothers, along with longitudinal associations between endorsement of spanking and children’s later internalizing and externalizing behaviors. 153 Evidence continues to highlight the negative impact of corporal punishment on children 154 and the AAP’s 2018 statement on effective discipline emphasizes the need for positive alternatives to corporal punishment and spanking. 155 And, although many parents report spanking their young children, these same parents may also be looking for nonphysical, effective alternatives for guiding their children’s behavior. 156

Understanding how cultural beliefs and practices shape parents’ expectations and socialization goals may help us better define what relational health is, both within and across diverse families. Health care professionals can be a source of guidance and support for parents to choose discipline strategies that align with research and support parent-child relational health. When practitioners recognize the larger context in which parents’ discipline decisions are embedded, they may more readily identify the beliefs, histories, and socialization goals that underlie families’ discipline practices. Health providers can recognize parents’ concerns regarding children’s behavior and provide culturally responsive, research-informed, preventive recommendations for helping parents identify alternative strategies to the use of corporal punishment and physical discipline.

Reducing Risks to Relational Health: Screening and Referral

Given that the parent-child relationship is critical for healthy development, health providers must adopt a dyadic-level, family systemic, and culturally informed approach to screening, referring, and treating parent-child dyads to integrate research with practice. Equipping health professionals with knowledge of relational health may provide a solid foundation for supporting parent-child relational health from birth. For example, evidence from research with pediatric residents suggests that training in a parent-child relational framework was effective in supporting residents’ observational skills and knowledge of child development. 157

An emphasis on transactional associations within families further underscores the importance of screening and early intervention to support child and parental well-being and use of positive parenting practices. 10 Commonly used assessments in parent-child attachment research, such as the Strange Situation Procedure 158 Attachment Q-Set, 159 are labor-intensive and were not developed as clinically relevant screening tools. Moreover, even when insecurity in the parent-child relationship is suspected, access to attachment-based interventions (ie, VIPP-SD, ABC) may be extremely limited.

Whereas much of the research literature on early parent-child relationships (typically mother-child relationships) has focused on attachment, recent work highlights the dyadic-level construct of emotional connection for understanding early parent-child relational health. The development of the Welch Emotional Connection Screen (WECS) 160 reflects an effort to provide practitioners with a rapid and valid screening tool for parent-child relational health from birth to 5 years. The WECS considers the presence or absence of 4 mutual behaviors that may serve to promote and maintain emotional connection within a parent-child dyad: attraction, facial responsiveness, vocal responsiveness, and sensitivity/reciprocity. Based on the overall interaction, a score of EC+ (connected) or EC− (not connected) is assigned to the dyad.

The WECS developed out of work with the Family Nurture Intervention, which seeks to support the development of emotional connection and coregulation via the provision of calming sessions that focus on the sensory experiences of touch, vocal soothing, and skin-to-skin contact. 161 - 163 Results from an RCT study indicated that mothers and infants participating in the Family Nurture Intervention showed improvements in face-to-face dyadic interaction, including increased frequency and quality of mothers’ touch and for boys, infant’s vocal affect and gaze. 164

Emotional connection, as assessed by the WECS in infancy, has been associated with healthier autonomic responding among infants born prematurely 165 as well as with fewer internalizing and externalizing behavior problems in a full-term, longitudinal sample. 166 Thus, emerging evidence suggests that the WECS holds promise for screening, anticipatory guidance, and referral of early parent-child relationships that may benefit from support and intervention to promote healthy regulatory functioning and decrease risk for later child behavior problems. Efforts are under way to train a range of professionals—from pediatric residents to infant mental health practitioners and home visitors—to be reliable raters of parent-child relational health using the WECS.

In families with elevated risk for maltreatment, the automated self-report survey, the CARTS (Computerized Childhood Attachment and Relational Trauma Screen), reflects a relational approach to the assessment of trauma in childhood. 167 , 168 The CARTS considers what trauma occurred and assesses caregivers’ emotional availability, along with responses to the reported maltreatment. In contrast, the SEEK program (Safe Environment for Every Kid) focuses on risk factors related to child maltreatment, including parental depression, stress, and substance abuse. 168 , 169 Thus, the SEEK program may benefit pediatric primary care professionals through its focus on psychosocial stress within families, which if addressed early, may prevent child maltreatment.

Notably, SEEK embodies a relational health perspective by acknowledging the parent’s love for the child as a pathway to healthy outcomes for both parent and child as well as by acknowledging the relationships between health professionals and parents as protective factors for parents and children. 169 , 170 For example, part of the SEEK program is the SEEK Parent Questionnaire, which begins by empathetically validating the sometimes challenging everyday experience of being a parent while simultaneously offering support to parents dealing with concerning circumstances. SEEK also aims to support relational health through the REAP approach, which encourages health care providers to Reflect-Empathize-Assess-and Plan with parents.

Intervention approaches that incorporate mindfulness practices, such as the 9-week Mindful Parenting course tested in the Netherlands, also hold promise for supporting relational health within families. Mindful Parenting aims to increase awareness, decrease parental stress, and improve coparenting. 171 Both parents participating in the program and their children report reductions in internalizing/externalizing symptomology. The interpersonal focus of mindfulness-based interventions supports healthy parent-child relationships through increased awareness of parent-child interactions as well as positive changes in both child and parent functioning. 172

Summary and Conclusions

Beyond attachment theory, which emphasizes parental sensitivity and responsivity as a primary determinant of attachment security, a relational health science approach offers a wider lens for understanding how parent-child relationships may affect children’s development. A relational health approach recognizes both partners’ contributions to the establishment and maintenance of relational processes and highlights the potential value of the health care provider as a relational partner for parents and children. Our focus here was on socioemotional development; future work will consider how a relational health framework can be applied to a range of parent-child health decisions from vaccinations and sleep behaviors, to physical activity, and medication use.

Although we view primary care as a valuable context for supporting relational health, continued development and validation of screening tools for relational health that are suitable for clinical and applied contexts remain an important goal along with more widespread availability of effective interventions. Moreover, given the existing demands on health care providers, we recognize that a relational health perspective on development may create additional demands on providers. Perhaps a necessary first step is a shift in perspective, more than a shift in practice. By viewing the parent-child relationship as part of the “patient” and, therefore, part of health promotion, the long-term gains may be worth the initial investment.

By networking with community resources, health care providers can build a pipeline of referrals for parents as a component of pediatric and primary care. Offering parent-friendly pamphlets, information sheets, and face-to-face communication that reflects a relational health view on development may help parents see themselves as partners in relational health, rather than as the cause of their child’s mental health, behavioral, or developmental problems. Such negative attributions may contribute to feelings of shame and guilt—feelings that may undermine parenting self-efficacy and parents’ engagement in children’s wellness and treatment. The AAP’s recent call for pediatricians to partner with parents in supporting healthy outcomes through the sharing of information regarding child development and parenting 155 reflects the promise of a relational health approach.

Returning to the opening quote from Bowlby, we suggest that health care providers are in a strong position to serve children by valuing their parents and viewing child development through the lens of relational health. Perhaps by uncovering who that person is—the one who is “irrationally crazy” about the child, as Bronfenbrenner advised—professionals can help cultivate and reinforce that connection. And in its absence, we can seek to identify ways to build a web of relational health for the child and for the parent, a web that can support each partner in service to the relationship.

Acknowledgments

We are grateful to Ariana Shahinfar, Robert Ludwig, and Mark Lopez for feedback on an earlier version of this article.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests: The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding: The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Ethical Approval: Not applicable, because this article does not contain any studies with human or animal subjects.

Informed Consent: Not applicable, because this article does not contain any studies with human or animal subjects.

Trial Registration: Not applicable, because this article does not contain any clinical trials.

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100 Best Child Development Research Topics for 2023

If you need to write a research paper about child development, you probably already know that finding great child development research topics is a very difficult task. In fact, it can sometimes take you days to find a good topic to write an interesting essay on. Fortunately, we have a list of research topics in child development that will help you immensely. Remember, all our topics are free to use. You can use them as they are or reword them. To help as many students as possible, we are constantly updating the list. You can easily find fresh topics for 2022 right here.

Having Trouble Finding Topics in Child Development?

Of course, you can try to find topics in child development on various websites. The problem is that most of those topics are years old. Furthermore, most of those child development research paper topics have been used by students over and over again. Your professor is probably bored of reading the same essays every semester, don’t you think?

To make sure you get a top grade on your essay, you need to find original, highly interesting topics. You need research topics for child development that are relevant for the scientific community today. Just pick one of our topics and start writing your essay in minutes.

Easy Child Development Topics

If you are looking from some easy topics so that you don’t have to spend much time writing the essay, you might want to take a look at our awesome easy child development topics:

Describe 3 important child development theories
Define childhood development
Talk about the Vygotsky Theory.
What are childcare centers?
Are children more intelligent than adults?
Music and its benefits for child development.

Child Development Essay Topics for College

Of course, college students should pick topics that are more advanced than those picked by high school attendees. Take a look at some interesting child development essay topics for college students:

Child Abuse Prevention programs and how they work.
Discuss Children Services in relation to child development
How does a divorce affect the development of children?
Analyzing the moral development stages
Domestic violence effects on child development
Three best parenting styles and why they work
Special needs of differently-abled children

Controversial Topics Child Development

Child development is, of course, filled with controversial ideas, theories and practices. You may want to talk about some of them, so here are some controversial topics child development ideas:

The best parenting model.
Family conflict hinders proper child development.
Does obesity affect child development?
Does race affect child development?
Are siblings important at all?
Imaginary friends can be a problem.

Best Research Topics on Child Development

Nobody knows what your professor likes or dislikes better than you do. However, we believe the following list of ideas contains some of the best research topics on child development:

Coronavirus lockdown and its effects on children.
Peers’ influence on child development.
Children understand life through play.
A green environment and its effects on children.
Describe the 4 types of parenting.
Diet and its role on child development.
How important is his family for a small child?

ADHD Child Development Topics

ADHD is a disorder that affects a growing number of children worldwide. It goes without saying that picking one of our ADHD child development topics will surely surprise your professor:

What is Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)?
Discuss the main causes of ADHD.
Incidence rate of ADHD in small children.
The challenges of ADHD for parents.
Special needs of children suffering from ADHD.
In-depth analysis of therapy methods.
Can ADHD be cured in the 21st century?

Interesting Topics Related to Child Development

Are you looking for the most interesting topics related to child development? Here is the list of what our ENL writers consider to be the most intriguing things to talk about in 2022:

Games that stimulate child development
Does poverty affect the development of children?
Tech and its effects of child development.
Do imaginary friends play a role?
Child development and its effects on the person’s entire life
Why are children often more creative than adults?

Child Development Psychology Topics

But what if you want to talk about psychology? The good news is that we have several original child development psychology topics that you can choose from right now for free:

What are the five stages of psychological development?
An in-depth look at the mental development of children.
Improving mental growth: best practices.
Lack of attention and its effects.
Behavioral psychology of autistic children.
Society is changing the psychology of our children.
The effects of the COVID-19 pandemic.

Difficult Child Development Topics for Research

Are you looking for a challenge? Do you want to test your ability to write a complex academic paper on a difficult subject? Just pick one of these difficult child development topics for research and start writing:

The coronavirus pandemic and its effects on child development.
Eliminating dyslexia with novel child development techniques.
Best way to develop your child’s language skills.
Eliminating autism with novel child development techniques.
The minimum time that you should spend with your child.
3 best games for child mental growth.

Current Topics in Child Development

Of course, your professor is most interested in new and exciting research. This is why it is generally a great idea to pick a current topic to write about. Here are some of the best current topics in child development:

COVID-19 anxiety in small children.
Advancements in children cognitive development.
Latest social development techniques.
The link between psychical and physical development
What are developmental milestones?
Solving behavioral issues correctly.
Link between play and social skills.
Best methods to cure autism in 2022. Check out more autism research topics .

Child Mental Health Development Paper Ideas

Interested in writing about the mental health development of children of all ages? We have some very good news for you. We have a list of child mental health development paper ideas you will find most intriguing:

The effects of divorce on small children
The effects of the death of a parent on small children
The effects of family violence on child development
The effects of substance abuse on children
The effects of mono parental families on small children
The effects of financial insecurity on children
The effects of sleep disorders on the development of a child

Child Development Project Topics

Are you looking for an original project idea? Our team managed to create a list of 100% original child development project topics just for you:

Talking and its effects on child development.
Analyze the impact of sports on child development.
Poor dieting and its negative effects.
Technology effects on small children.
Are books important for small children?
Positive social relations and their effect on toddlers.
Is Internet exposure recommended?

Psychology Research Topics on Child Development

Researching the psychology of child development can be a very difficult thing to do. However, if you think you are up to the task, pick one of these great psychology research topics on child development:

Define the term “sociocultural theory”
The 4 stages of psychological development.
Analyzing the main psychological processes of children.
In-depth analysis of child psychology.
Does your children need to see a psychologist?
The science behind understanding child emotions.
Deviant behavior in small children.

Early Child Development Topics

Talking about infants and toddlers can be very interesting, especially if you manage to find a great topic. Choose one of these early child development topics and start writing your paper right away:

Stages of toddler mental development.
How much time should you spend with your small child?
The importance of socialization.
Games to play with your toddler.
Is play important for early child development?
Infant vs. toddler: the similarities.
When does the ego first appear?

Topics About the Stages of Childhood Development

Are you interested in talking about the various stages of childhood development? You are certainly in luck today. We have just added these topics about the stages of childhood development to our list:

What are the 5 stages of child development?
What defines a newborn?
Describe the transition between a newborn to an infant.
Child development stages: the toddler.
Preschool and school age children: key differences

Latest Child Development Paper Topics

It’s difficult to keep up with science, we know. Here are the latest child development paper topics you may want to write about:

Genetics effect on child development.
Social media effects on children.
Pollution effects on the development of children.
Social insecurity effects.
Good sleep and its benefits.
Preschool programs are improving emotional skills.
The science of childhood development.

Need More Child Development Topics for Papers?

But what if you want more than these interesting topics in child development? In case you need a list of original, well thought of topics, we have the perfect solution. Our experienced academic writers can put together a list of new child development topics for papers in no time. And the best part is that only you will get the new list. So, if you need dozens of child development research topics that nobody else thought of yet, you need our help. If you need a custom thesis , we can also help you. Don’t hesitate to get in touch, even during the night.

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As our highly regarded journals are perhaps the most public-facing element and explicitly gatekeeping mechanism of the SRCD enterprise, we must critically examine the extent to which our journals, Editors and Editorial Boards, reviewers and review standards, and Publications Committee activities implement practices and policies grounded in inclusive and anti-racist principles. Read the full statement.

Child Development (CD)

SRCD’s flagship journal, Child Development publishes peer-reviewed empirical and theoretical articles reporting research on child development, on a bimonthly basis.

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Child Development Perspectives (CDP)

Established in 2006, CDP publishes brief articles on developmental science that are written in accessible language for a wide audience, on a quarterly basis. CDP does not publish articles reporting new empirical findings.

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Monographs are extended works, focused on specialized topics, judged to make significant contributions to SRCD's mission—advancing the developmental sciences and promoting the use of developmental research to improve human lives. As of 2019, each issue of Monographs is accompanied by helpful teaching, scholarship, and outreach resources, published in the companion website, Monograph Matters .

Social Policy Report

SRCD brings the science of child development to public policy through the production of the Social Policy Report.

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Developmental Psychology Topics

Topics for research, papers, and other projects

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Emily is a board-certified science editor who has worked with top digital publishing brands like Voices for Biodiversity, Study.com, GoodTherapy, Vox, and Verywell.

Childhood Topics
Adolescence Topics
Adulthood Topics
How to Choose
Tips for Students

Are you looking for a developmental psychology topic for a psychology paper , experiment, or science fair project? Topics you might pick can range from prenatal development to health during the final stages of life.

Developmental psychology is a broad topic that involves studying how people grow and change throughout their whole lifetime. Topics don't just include physical growth but also the emotional, cognitive, and social development that people experience at different stages of their lives.

At a Glance

The following are just a few different topics that might help inspire you. Remember, these are just ideas to help you get started. You might opt to explore one of these areas, or you might think of a related question that interests you as well.

Developmental Psychology Topics on Childhood

Could packaging nutritious foods in visually appealing ways encourage children to make healthier food choices?
Do children who listen to music while studying perform better or worse on exams?
Do students who eat breakfast perform better in school than those who do not eat breakfast?
Does birth order have an impact on procrastination ? Are first-borns less likely to procrastinate? Are last-borns more likely to put off tasks until the last minute?
Does teaching infants sign language help or hinder the language acquisition process?
How do parenting styles impact a child's level of physical activity? Are children raised by parents with permissive or uninvolved parents less active than those raised by parents with authoritative or authoritarian styles?
How does bullying impact student achievement? Are bullied students more likely to have worse grades than their non-bullied peers?
Which type of reinforcement works best for getting students to complete their homework: a tangible reward (such as a piece of candy) or social reinforcement (such as offering praise when homework is completed on time)?

Developmental Psychology Topics on Adolescence

What factors tend to influence the onset of depression in teens and young adults?
How do peer relationships influence identity formation during adolescence and young adulthood?
What impact do parent-child relationships have in predicting substance use among teens and young adults?
How does early substance use during adolescence impact impulsivity and risk-taking during early adulthood?
How does technology use during adolescence influence social and emotional development?
How does social media use influence body image among teens?
What factors contribute to success during the transition from the teen years to early adulthood?
How do cultural differences impact different aspects of adolescent development?

Developmental Psychology Topics on Adulthood

Are older adults who rate high in self-efficacy more likely to have a better memory than those with low self-efficacy?
Do the limits of short-term memory change as we age? How do the limits of short-term memory compare at ages, 15, 25, 45, and 65?
Do mental games such as word searches, Sudoku, and word matching help elderly adults keep their cognitive skills sharp?
How do explanations for the behavior of others change as we age? Are younger adults more likely to blame internal factors for events and older adults more likely to blame external variables?

Choosing Developmental Psychology Topics

Developmental psychology is a huge and diverse subject, so picking a topic isn't always easy. Some tips that can help you choose a good developmental psychology topic include:

Focus on a specific topic : Make sure that your topic isn't too broad to avoid getting overwhelmed by the amount of information available
Have a clear question or hypothesis : Your research question should be focused and clearly defined
Do some background research : Spend some time reviewing the existing literature to get a better idea about what you want to cover with your topic
Consider developmental theories : You might consider analyzing your topic through the lens of a particular theory of developmental psychology
Check out recent research : Use research databases to find the most recently published research on your topic

Before you start working on any paper, experiment, or science project, the first thing you need to do is understand the rules your instructor has established for the assignment.

Also, be sure to check the official guidelines given by your teacher. If you are not sure about these guidelines, ask your instructor if there are any specific requirements before you get started on your research .

If you are going to actually conduct an experiment , you need to present your idea to your instructor to gain their permission before going forward. In some cases, you might have to also present your plan to your school's Institutional Review Board.

Tips for Researching Developmental Psychology Topics

After you have gotten to move forward with your chosen topic, the next step is to do some background research. This step is essential! If you are writing a paper, the information you find will make up your literature review.

If you are performing an experiment, it will provide background information for the introduction of your lab report . For a psychology science project, this research will help you in your presentation and can help you decide how to best approach your own experiment.

What This Means For You

Choosing a topic for a developmental psychology experiment, paper, or project can be tough! The ideas above can be a great place to start, but you might also consider questions you've had about your own life. Once you have a general idea for your topic, narrow it down, do some background research and talk to your instructor.

Nielsen M, Haun D. Why developmental psychology is incomplete without comparative and cross-cultural perspectives . Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci . 2016;371(1686):20150071. doi:10.1098/rstb.2015.0071

Leite DFB, Padilha MAS, Cecatti JG. Approaching literature review for academic purposes: The Literature Review Checklist . Clinics (Sao Paulo) . 2019;74:e1403. Published 2019 Nov 25. doi:10.6061/clinics/2019/e1403

Grady C. Institutional review boards: Purpose and challenges . Chest . 2015;148(5):1148-1155. doi:10.1378/chest.15-0706

Kim WO. Institutional review board (IRB) and ethical issues in clinical research . Korean Journal of Anesthesiology . 2012;62(1):3-12. doi:10.4097/kjae.2012.62.1.3

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

[email protected]

Psychology Research Guide

Child & adolescent development.

“Child development”, or “child and adolescent development” refers to the process of growth and maturation of the human individual from conception to adulthood. The term “adolescence” has particular connotations in particular cultural and social contexts. Child & Adolescent Psychology focuses on understanding the physical, social, psychological, and cognitive needs of young human beings. You can read more about the focus of Child & Adolescent Development on the American Psychological Association's Society of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology website This link opens in a new window . To find ideas for paper/research topics within child & adolescent development, visit these sites:

APA Psychology Topics This link opens in a new window (Try Bullying; Children; Education; Kids & the Media; Learning & Memory; Parenting; Teens)

Child & Adolescent Development Databases

Research in child & adolescent psychology utilizes core psychology resources, as well as resources in child & family development and sociology. You may find it helpful to search the following databases for your child & adolescent development topics or research questions, in addition to the core resources listed on the home page.

This resource contains full-text articles and reports from journals and magazines.

Child & Adolescent Development Subject Headings

You may find it helpful to take advantage of predefined subjects or subject headings in Shapiro Databases. These subjects are applied to articles and books by expert catalogers to help you find materials on your topic.

Learn more about Subject Searching

Consider using databases to perform subject searches, or incorporating words from applicable subjects into your keyword searches. Here are some social psychology subjects to consider:

adopted children
Attachment Theory
child abuse
child behavior
children of alcoholics
cognitive development
developmental stages
early childhood development
emotional development
family relations
middle school/junior high school/high school students
parent child relations
peer pressure
personality

Child & Adolescent Development Organization Websites

American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry (AACAP) This link opens in a new window A national professional medical association dedicated to treating and improving the quality of life for children, adolescents, and families affected by mental, behavioral, or developmental disorders.
Child & Adolescent Development course module (UNHCR) This link opens in a new window This Resource Pack published by the United Nations High Commissioner on Refugees' Action for the Rights of Children (ARC) is a training module for those working with children and teen refugees. It covers major areas of child development acknowledging that " the concept of childhood is understood differently in different cultural and social contexts."
Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health & Human Development (NICHD) This link opens in a new window NICHD’s mission is to lead research and training to understand human development, improve reproductive health, enhance the lives of children and adolescents, and optimize abilities for all.
Society of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology (APA Division) This link opens in a new window The Society of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology is Division 53 of the American Psychological Association. Its purpose is to encourage the development and advancement of clinical child and adolescent psychology through integration of its scientific and professional aspects.
Child Welfare Information Gateway - Understanding Adolescent Development This link opens in a new window United States Health & Human Services Children's Bureau Child Welfare Information Gateway has extensive resources on child & adolescent development. This link leads to their "Understanding Adolescent Development" resources page.
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315 Child Development Research Topics & Essay Examples

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African American Girl Development Psychology essay sample: Understanding the developmental processes and psychology associated with child development is crucial in elaborating the needs of children at different stages of life.
Cognitive Abilities Development of Children Psychology essay sample: The role of parents during the young stages of children has significant implications on the development of cognitive abilities and social structures.
Child Development and Learning - Developmental Psychology Psychology essay sample: This is a summary of 3 articles that go on the topics of human intellectual development, early childhood programs and developmentally appropriate academics.
Infancy and Early Childhood Development - Psychology Psychology essay sample: Infancy refers to the period when a human being is aged between 1 and 12 months. Infancy is marked by rapid physical growth, which aids an infant’s new abilities.
Children' Playing Concept - Psychology Psychology essay sample: Playing makes children active. It makes children engage their whole bodies and explore their surroundings with all senses.
Children Behavior Changes Psychology essay sample: This paper improves the understanding on family dynamics that help in understanding the model of transition and child adjustment.
The Effects of Nurseries on the Children Development Psychology essay sample: This study explores the effects of nurseries on the development of children between two and three years old. The quantitative research design was used to answer the research questions.
Personality: Attachment Theory Psychology essay sample: This paper is a comprehensive research on the developmental theory of personality specifically the attachment theory. Attachment theory is the common theory about infant and mother relationship.
How Television Can Affect Children in a Positive Way? Psychology essay sample: Many suppose that rather than watching television, children ought to focus on essential issues like studying, sports, and other activities that help in physical and intellectual growth.
Middle Childhood Cognitive Development and Learning Psychology essay sample: Explanations of the normal growth have been postulated by many theorists. Growth and development in early life is usually described in three main stages.
Infant Cognitive Development Stages Psychology essay sample: Each of four stages introduced by Piaget is characterized by the changes in the development of intellect and the mechanisms of cognition.
Educative Toys' Role in Child Development Psychology essay sample: The purpose of the study is to affirm the hypothesis that educative toys enhance child development and education. The toys should be given to children according to their age and grade.
Psychology: Middle Childhood Development Psychology essay sample: This paper focuses on highlighting some of the hereditary and environmental factors that affect physical, cognitive, and social development in the middle childhood stage.
Peers' and Parents' Role in Child's Development Psychology essay sample: This paper provides detailed information on the influence of parents, peers, and other people in the development of a child process.
Young Children’s Play and Environment Psychology essay sample: The essay proves that whereas children’s play in early childhood is free and innocent, it`s influenced by some factors that not only define and shape it but also make it complex.
Children and Adolescent Development Process Psychology essay sample: The case studies presented are for children or adolescents in school, who develop problems and need intervention. This analysis will integrate case studies and use scholarly research.
Child Observation with Piaget's and Freud's Development Theories Psychology essay sample: Jean Piaget developed his cognitive-developmental theory based on the idea that children actively construct knowledge as they explore and manipulate the world around them.
Child's Behavior and Developmental Stage Psychology essay sample: The behavior of children at any developmental stage is similar across cultures. The paper analyzes the behavior and the developmental stage of a 9-years child.
Pets for Children: Developmental Psychology Study Psychology essay sample: The study of the characteristics of child development is the area of psychology that provides for assessing various aspects, including cognitive, socio-emotional factors.
Child Development: Ages One Through Three Psychology essay sample: Babies need high amounts of glucose in order for their brains to properly develop as well as fat in order to help stimulate proper growth and development.
Childhood Stages and Development Psychology essay sample: The dynamic systems theory of motor development states that a child’s maturation is tied to the development of gross and fine motor skills.
Why Play Is Essential in Cognitive Development Psychology essay sample: The paper is aimed to prove that playing is not an inconsequential activity for children cause it has a pivotal role in their cognitive development.
Growth and Development as a Journey Children Go Through Psychology essay sample: Developmental researchers have unearthed a wealth of information on how human beings go through the life span in terms of various developmental aspects
How Does Autism Affect the Emotional Development of Children? Psychology essay sample: Discussion of emotional characteristics of autistic children, range of autistic emotional development, supporting emotional development autistic children, treatments.
Autism and Emotional Development of Children Psychology essay sample: Parents are considered as the prime carers and educators of their children as well as the major providers of special, love, care, and attention that is normally given to autistic people.
Human Cognitive Development Psychology essay sample: Human cognitive development was described in a number of theories, and one of the major contemporary issues in developmental psychology is sociocultural influences on the progress of human mind through the life span.
Child Development: The Attachment Theory Psychology essay sample: The process of child development starts with infant-mother interrelation being the background of human inner world formation.
Theory of Attachment In Adult Psychology essay sample: Attachment development is a behavioral control system that is formed over time when affective, cognitive, and learning abilities are affected by the attachment to a caregiver.
Importance of Outdoor Play on Development of Children Psychology essay sample: The research study examines the importance of outdoor play on process of learning, physical improvement, cooperative ability and many other aspects of the child’s development.
Cognitive Development Theories in Personal Example Psychology essay sample: Cognitive theories analyze the qualitative and quantitative mental capabilities that occur during cognitive development that are divided into four stages.
Play for Young Children Types and Values Psychology essay sample: This research paper will discuss the various types and values of play for young children and how they help in impacting positive values in the children.
Development of the Cognitive Process Psychology essay sample: The process of cognitive development involves various changes in the thinking process, which begin at infancy and improve progressively as an individual develops.
Human Growth and Development Psychology essay sample: This paper seeks to determine the number of principles that briefly characterize human Growth and development.
Psychology. Ecological System Theory Psychology essay sample: Literature in early childhood is on the increasing end due to the early experiences and recognition of theories supporting human development.
How Childhood Trauma Affects Health Across a Lifetime Psychology essay sample: Being a teacher requires a specific set of communication skills, and improving these skills could positively affect parent-teacher relationships.
Impact of Early Childhood Experience on the Development of the Personality Psychology essay sample: The purpose of this paper is to investigate the level of impact of early childhood on the life of a human and compare it to other youthful stages.
Professional Preparation: Promoting Child Development Psychology essay sample: The purpose of the present paper is to identify and explore one of the NAEYC early childhood professional preparation standards to enhance one’s knowledge in the field.
Childhood to Adulthood Developmental Analysis : Personal Experiences Psychology essay sample: In today's technology world, it takes longer for youths to gain adequate training, get employment, and become financially independent.
On the Formation of Prosocial Behavior in Children Psychology essay sample: This article discusses the importance of the environment in shaping prosocial behavior and the impact of the environment on interactions between children.
Physical Education Impact on Child Development Psychology essay sample: Inadequate physical activity hampers psychosocial health in children and elevates the risk of cardiometabolic disorders.
Preschool Program for Children from Birth to Eighteen Months Psychology essay sample: The main thing that infants demand during the period from birth to eighteen months is the adult's attention for emotional, social, and cognitive development.
Usage-Based Approach to Determine the Theory of Mind in Infants Psychology essay sample: Theory of mind (ToM) is the psychological explanation of the intellectual abilities that facilitate the understanding that other people have desires, plans, beliefs, and hopes.
Behavior Problems of Middle Childhood by Peterson Psychology essay sample: This document is intended to provide a critical review of a journal article, Behavior problems of middle childhood, authored by Donald Peterson of the University of Illinois.
Day Care and Child Mental Health/Cognitive Functioning Psychology essay sample: The study partially supported the hypothesis that early parental employment has a positive effect on children's development by increasing family income.
The Child Growth and Development Psychology essay sample: Children play an active role in such areas as self-understanding and self-efficacy. Childhood experiences have a significant impact on mental and social development.
Children Are Not Born With Prejudices - They Learn Them Psychology essay sample: Children tend to mimic the behavior, habits, and communication models from their caregivers, which consequently shape the child’s personal beliefs and character.
Middle and Late Childhood Developmental Needs Psychology essay sample: A child's mental, behavioral, and social developmental outcomes, as well as physical health, are determined by socioeconomic circumstances.
Early Childhood Sleep: Its Types and Consistent Routine Psychology essay sample: Sleep in early childhood begins the process of remodeling learned memories, which may be sufficient to provide short-term benefits in regulating mood and emotions.
Resilience After Trauma: From Surviving to Thriving Psychology essay sample: Resilience may be seen as minimized anguish from a stressful situation and the ability to manage a stressful ordeal with a lowered impact on a person's daily life and development.
How Culture Influences a Child’s Development Psychology essay sample: The goal of this paper is to analyze the role of culture as one of the main sources of influence on a child’s early development.
Classical Music in Children’s Development and Behavior Psychology essay sample: Western classical music, often referred to as simply classical music, is often considered highly beneficial to children’s education and associated with a variety of advantages.
The Impact of Dyslexia on Child Development Psychology essay sample: A society that views a person who has dyslexia as ordinary will also encourage the person to see themselves the same way.
Personal and Social Development of Children Psychology essay sample: Bringing up children and fostering their personal and social development is a complicated process requiring significant efforts from their parents and caregivers.
How Stress Affects Child Brain Development Psychology essay sample: Stress is an unavoidable and important part of any child’s life. Depending on how significant it is it can have a positive or negative effect on the child’s development.
Developmental Psychology: Early Childhood and Infancy Stages Psychology essay sample: The essay concerns the two stages of child and adolescent psychological development, considering the value of play, attachment, and bonding during these years.
Physical and Cognitive Development of Early Childhood Psychology essay sample: Before the age of six, the brain's growth continues, the development of the frontal lobes, which allows children to acquire the ability to control attention by school age.
Developmental Assessment of School-Aged Children Psychology essay sample: This essay discusses the physical assessment of school-aged children and typical developmental stages for children of this age.
Human Development: Preschool Children Psychology essay sample: The rate of development during the preschool years is contingent on both hereditary and environmental factors.
Analysis of Go-Go Caterpillar and Its Influence on Development Psychology essay sample: Go Caterpillar is a toy designed for toddlers aged from 9 months to approximately three years. The toy is not gender-specific, so it is equally suitable for girls and boys.
Child Birth and Development in Infancy Psychology essay sample: Physical and cognitive development in such an essential period of human life as infancy is critical to the quality of people’s lives.
Child Language Development Discussion Psychology essay sample: Language development is a course during which a child learns to communicate and understand speech during childhood.
The Analysis of the School-Aged Children’ Needs Psychology essay sample: School-aged children lack the knowledge about bodies and have limited capacity to evaluate the serious consequences of a particular illness or injury.
Developmental Psychology: The Developement of Logical Thinking at the Age of Six and Fourteen Psychology essay sample: In the paper, the author outlines the experience of trying to learn a complex physics concept at the age of six and fourteen that illustrates the development of logical thinking.
Developmental Theories for Children Psychology essay sample: Stages of development are useful in monitoring and measuring the growth of a child. This discussion aims at evaluating the best technique useful for children aged seven years.
Adolescent Risk Behaviors. Child Development Influences Psychology essay sample: Adolescence is one of the most challenging periods in the life of every individual because they go though in an understanding of life, establishing a personality.
Child Development Theories Psychology essay sample: The paper has discussed a case of a 4-year old Melissa, who is at risk due to her developmental stage, using Erikson’s and Piaget’s theories.
Development in Early Childhood and Early Adulthood Psychology essay sample: This paper aims to highlight social, emotional, physical and cognitive development in early childhood and early adulthood, as well as trends and theories of development.
Infancy to Late Childhood Development Psychology essay sample: This paper aims at reviewing information regarding the growth and development of children between birth and 11 years of age, from infancy to late childhood.
Developmental Assessment and the School-Aged Child Psychology essay sample: When conducting a medical assessment of a school-aged child, a medical professional must evaluate their cognitive, physical, social, language, and learning development.
Cognitive Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood Psychology essay sample: The cognitive development of infants and toddlers is associated with the acquisition of basic knowledge and skills that enables the child to become comparatively independent.
Play in the Lives of Young Children Psychology essay sample: Childhood games are fundamental activities that support young ones' cognitive, emotional, physical, and social development.
Infant Physical and Cognitive Development Psychology essay sample: The cognitive and physical development of infants has been an object of research since the XX century. Its conventions were set by Jean Piaget.
Teaching a Child Table Manners Through Operant Conditioning Psychology essay sample: When teaching table manners, parents should give praise to children right away instead of waiting for them to exhibit the behaviors that are expected from them.
The 10-Month-Old Child: Developmental Information Psychology essay sample: This paper discusses the observations made from the video by reviewing existing literature on developmental skills among 10 months old infants.
The Formation and Development of Empathy in Children Psychology essay sample: The paper is relevant for the research as it contains resources that will help to explain the formation and factors that influence the development of a child’s empathy.
Biopsychosocial Analysis: Behavior and Social Environment Psychology essay sample: The development of a child through various milestones is dependent on various biological, psychological, and social factors.
The Early Childhood Stage Psychology essay sample: The early childhood stage is important because it determines the effectiveness in cognitive, social, and emotional development in a child.
Naturalistic Observation of Children's Behavior Psychology essay sample: To receive more evidences related to the behavior of children, it is important to observe the definite age groups in the situation and surroundings which are typical and familiar for them.
Managing Behaviour in Young Children Psychology essay sample: The paper discusses what tools and techniques are likely or unlikely to work in a particular case study. The strategy focuses on the family and interventions.
The Factors of the Child’s Healthy Development Psychology essay sample: Social and emotional development cannot exist within the framework of the healthy functioning of an individual from a young age.
Mental Health: Case Study of S. Psychology essay sample: This paper is devoted to the case of a woman I know personally. S. is a 31-year-old single mother with a family history of anxiety disorders.
Infant Temperament: A Longitudinal Study Psychology essay sample: The New York Longitudinal Study data reveals an impressive level of stability in temperament both within and between periods of childhood.
Connection Between Screen Time and Child Development Psychology essay sample: Toddlers who spend a considerable amount of time in front of screens demonstrate “poorer performance on developmental screening tests later in childhood”.
Child Development Psychology: Pregnancy Trimesters Psychology essay sample: During prenatal development, all three trimesters are very important and any kind of psychological or medical condition the mother undergoes, the child is equally affected.
Child Development Overview Psychology essay sample: This paper details the varied factors that impact child development, including the environment, cultural differences, attachment styles, and development stages.
Developmental Milestones in Infants and Toddlers Psychology essay sample: Concerning physical activity, a child should be able to keep his head at the age of two months and move across the bed at the age of six months.
Stages of Cognitive Development in Children Psychology essay sample: This paper explains the five stages of cognitive development which begin in infancy, early childhood, middle childhood, early adolescence, and ends with late adolescence.
Growth and Development of the School-Age Child Psychology essay sample: The school-age children are aware of the human body, and they begin acceptation their own through the changes it experiences.
Child Care and Behavior Concerns Psychology essay sample: Early child care interaction is also associated with increased exposure to peers at a young age and potential effects on early peer qualifications.
Child Growth and Development: Attachment Theories Psychology essay sample: Since growth and development are a broad and rich subject, several theorists have come together to help understand why and how people learn, grow, and act.
Socioemotional Development in Infancy Psychology essay sample: The psychological formation of infants is based on interaction with others, relationships, awareness of their feelings. This paper discusses socioemotional development in infancy.
Development of the Brain at Early Childhood Psychology essay sample: In conclusion, brain development starts after conception and continues after birth. Both biological and environmental factors influence the development of the brain.
Fundamental of Psychology: Attachment Theory Psychology essay sample: The concept behind attachment theory is that a child needs to develop a strong bond with at least one primary caregiver.
Bowlby’s Attachment Theory and Its Impact on Human Life Psychology essay sample: This paper aims at analyzing Bowlby’s attachment theory and its application in childhood, adulthood, romantic life, and the choice of parenting styles.
Interview and Observation: A Case Study on Child Development Psychology essay sample: Teddy is the patient that this case targets to study. Teddy is eight years old, he has been developing physically at a regular rate, and he does not have known physical health issues
John Watson and Child Behaviorism Psychology essay sample: To prove this point, Watson turned to studying the behavior of infants and came to the conclusion that children are capable of producing a small number of simple reactions.
Child’s Living Conditions and Attachment Development Psychology essay sample: The paper states that the experience of raising a child in an orphanage can cause atypical behavior in situations of social interaction.
Aspects of Child Development Psychology essay sample: The development of the child is influenced by external factors including the neighbors and their actions, and the personality characteristics of the child.
Bowlby’s Attachment Theory Points Psychology essay sample: John Bowlby, a psychoanalyst born in 1907 believed that behavioral and mental health problems were a result of a person's early childhood.
Child Observation Assessment: Development Psychology essay sample: The interview was with the caregiver, who said that Laura is an extremely playful and jovial girl, who cries only when she is wet or hungry.
Cognitive Development During Childhood Psychology essay sample: The cognitive development of children is a key aspect of their growth, especially in their formative years. Children are born with cognitive abilities.
Children’s Oral Language Development (Preschool) Psychology essay sample: The infant’s speech develops faster and better when adults talk to them a lot, not just talk, but specifically communicate.
Cognitive Development in Early and Middle Childhood Psychology essay sample: The Early Childhood stage of development lasts from 3 to 5 years. During this period, children are already ready to master complex skills, such as riding a two-wheeled bicycle
How Childhood Development Stages Affect Adult Life Psychology essay sample: While upbringing ordeals one undergoes when growing up characterize the childhood memories, they play an important role in the later lives.
Overcoming Separation Anxiety in Children Psychology essay sample: Most children quickly stop experiencing separation stress, but if this is not the case, the caregiver can support the parent by explaining how to behave with the child.
Child Psychology: Children's Behavior and Communication Style Psychology essay sample: The methods allow for identifying a child's communication style. This helps in finding a specific approach for each kid and indicating their weak spots.
Child Development and Environmental Influences Psychology essay sample: This paper is an annotated bibliography that aims to conduct an analysis of the child development theme from several sources.
Family Survey for Development of Children Psychology essay sample: This paper contains a letter with the family survey that was created with a request for family support in the understanding and development of children.
Personal Development From Childhood Through Present Age Psychology essay sample: The personal development of an individual occurs throughout life. Personality is one of those phenomena that is rarely interpreted in the same way by two different authors.
Children’s Books in Various Therapies Psychology essay sample: The paper discusses children's books in therapy. It includes Adlerian Play Therapy, Jungian Analytical Play Therapy, Psychodynamic Play Therapy, etc.
Observed Behaviors of 10-Year Old Children and Supporting Theories Psychology essay sample: This paper explains Erikson’s psychosocial, Freud’s psychosexual, Piaget’s cognitive developmental theories, Bandura’s social learning, Kohlberg’s moral development perspectives.
Developmental Psychology in Parenting Psychology essay sample: The paper describes attachment parenting, supportive education items, and governmental and non-governmental transformative intervention in parenting.
Effects of Socioeconomic Inequalities on Child Health and Wellness Psychology essay sample: Socioeconomic inequalities have a significant impact on the children’s cognitive and social-emotional behavior, as well as health outcomes.
The Relationship Between Income and Childhood Brain Development Psychology essay sample: Dr. Noble's talk on the connection between income and cognitive development is scientifically accurate and proven.
Child Development Assessment Tools Psychology essay sample: To clarify the ideas about the development of children, I also included a conversation as a more effective method that revealed the individual characteristics of each kid.
Development. “Baby Milestones: 24–36 Months” Psychology essay sample: The investigation of behavior in this essay will provide an analysis of the development and behavior of a two to a three-year-old child based on the video “Baby Milestones”.
Piaget’s Work and Legacy in Child Development Psychology essay sample: Piaget has been very influential and effective on the topic of understanding childhood development. His researched the differences that occur in child development.
Pretend Play Importance for the Child’s Development Psychology essay sample: Pretend play is immeasurably significant for a child's development; it has a positive impact on learners' literacy, mathematical thinking, and language and scientific skills.
Colour Psychology and its Effects on the Early Years’ Learning Environment Psychology essay sample: Colour can affect a child’s perception of the environment, and this process can alter the development of personality, which includes mental development.
Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s Theories in Childhood Quantitative Cognitive Development Psychology essay sample: Lev Vygotsky and Jean Piaget largely contributed to developmental psychology and education, notably exploring children's learning styles and mental abilities.
Developmental Analysis: Personal Introduction of Childhood – Adolescence Psychology essay sample: This paper presents a personal introduction of childhood – adolescence, and theoretical perspectives of development (Freud’s, Erikson’s, Piaget’s theories).
Jean Piaget’s Infant Development Theory Psychology essay sample: The author of the paper agrees with Jean Piaget's theory of intellectual development since it focuses on cognitive processes throughout a particular period.
Importance of Play in Child’s Development Psychology essay sample: During the game process, a child’s will, emotions, cognitive processes, and interests interact and cooperate, as a result, positive changes in the personality of the child emerge.
Stages of Child Development Psychology essay sample: Egocentrism - the inability or unwillingness of a person to look at what is happening from the point of view of other people, to put himself in the place of another person.
Children’s Development Process Psychology essay sample: Parents, guardians, and professionals should incorporate children's observation programs for facilitating and enhancing children's development.
Initiative and Guilt Stage of Child’s Psychological Development Psychology essay sample: Initiative and guilt are the third stage of psychological development which happens between the ages of three to five in the child's life.
A Child's Development and Its Basic Elements Psychology essay sample: The issue of the development of a child is relevant and vital nowadays. There is a necessity to figure out all the basic elements of the process.
Jean Piaget’s Approach and Theory of Cognitive Development Psychology essay sample: Jean Piaget, is mostly famous for his multiple innovative theories and ideas on the development of cognitive functions of children in the process of growing.
How a Person Develops and the Factors That Influence the Growth Psychology essay sample: Child development is the individual progress from dependency to independence between birth and adolescence, which entails emotional and psychological changes.
Child Temperament and Life-Span Development Psychology essay sample: Temperament is a psychological term that refers to the combination of behaviors and attitudes an individual demonstrates.
Freud’s and Vygotsky's Theories of Child Development Psychology essay sample: The subject of psychoanalytic theory is human emotions and interpersonal relationships. This paper analyzes Sigmund Freud’s theory and Vygotsky's cultural-historical theory.
Temperament and Behavior in Young Children Psychology essay sample: Various factors regarding temperament and behavior in young children can affect their academic performance at an early age.
Formal Operational Stage of Cognitive Development of Children Psychology essay sample: As outlined by Jean Piaget, the formal operational stage of cognitive development considers children from the age of 12 years and above.
Analysis of Freud’s Psychosexual Stages of Development Psychology essay sample: Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic theory of personality and development states that body parts are sensitive to sexual or erotic stimulation during the childhood development phases.
Parental Stresses and Child’s Emotional Development Psychology essay sample: Raising a child as a head of a single-parent family is associated with various challenges. Firstly, a single-parent family may be struggling to afford even the basic needs.
Personal Development Due to Erikson’s Scale Psychology essay sample: Erikson’s theory of people’s psychosocial development is helpful for psychology. It helps doctors cope with their patient’s mental health issues.
Benefits of Educational Sensory Toys for Children Psychology essay sample: Educational toys assist children in attaining problem-solving skills even at a young age, which is suitable for their development.
Why Parents Matter More Than Peers in Children’s Development Psychology essay sample: This paper argues that parents' impact on their children's life surpasses peers' influence and cannot be overlooked when education issues are concerned.
Lack of Physical Development in Preschool Children Psychology essay sample: Physical development is an important aspect of growth in children and has been determined to enhance their social and language development.
The Influence of Parents on the Psychoemotional Development of Children Psychology essay sample: In the context of the influence of parents on the psychoemotional development of children, such aspects as parenting style, emotion regulation, and parental distress.
Insecure-Avoidant Attachment Style in Childhood Psychology essay sample: Childhood plays a critical role in developing personality. This paper aims to present the case of a child with an insecure-avoidant attachment style.
Child’s Development Analysis and Potential Interventions Psychology essay sample: In the case of the child described in the paper, there was a normal transition – she started studying in kindergarten and a non-normal one – she experienced her parents' divorce.
Mother’s Influence on Child’s Development Psychology essay sample: Undoubtedly, each individual has their own sources that contribute to a certain degree of intensity to the formation of a person as an individual, man or woman.
Child Maltreatment Factor of Personality Formation Psychology essay sample: This research aims to analyze the external factors involved in developing personality formation, particularly race and ethnicity.
Childhood: The Social and Cultural Concept Psychology essay sample: Childhood is neither timeless nor universal: it is not determined only by age or biological and psychological factors.
Child's Language and Literacy: The Role of Parents Psychology essay sample: Parents are children’s first teachers because they are primarily responsible for developing children’s basic literacy and language skills.
Speech Delay in a 32 Months-Old Child Psychology essay sample: Speech delay among 32 months-old children is a phenomenon that can sometimes occur in the early phases of development due to many reasons.
How Can Attachment Styles Influence Children's Development Psychology essay sample: From a psychological standpoint, it is thought that the child's attachment style has a substantial impact on his or her development.
Nature and Nurture Theories of Child Development Psychology essay sample: The paper discusses the nature and nurture theories debate. They relate to two different perceptions or approaches to child development.
Stages of Intellectual and Social Development Psychology essay sample: This work reviews the many stages of the intellectual and social development of people. It is important to understand the stages of development.
Development Through the Lifespan Psychology essay sample: Influences are felt already in early childhood, in the narrow family circle, and then among other children in kindergartens and schools.
Development of Emotions and Temperament During Infancy Psychology essay sample: The paper states that the development of emotions and temperament is a gradual process and depends on the level of development of children.
Researching of Piaget’s Four Stages of Cognitive Development Psychology essay sample: Each stage is age-specific and marked by major hallmarks that indicate the development of specific thought-processing abilities.
Parental and Psychotherapeutic Role in Development of Children With Autism Psychology essay sample: Parents have a significant role in developing and preparing an autistic child for future life, and in such cases, the work of a psychotherapist with the whole family is important.
Child Development Issue and Its Management Psychology essay sample: This paper is a case study of the development issues of a four-year-old Chinese child; essentially, the child acted more like a 2-year-old.
Cognitive Development During the First Three Years of Life Psychology essay sample: With the help of external orientation actions, the child correlates and compares the external properties of objects, highlighting permanent ones by the end of 3 years of life.
Cognitive and Psychosocial Development of a Child Psychology essay sample: In the case reviewed in the paper, the child has not formed the concept of ownership and politeness, which is not the norm for this age.
Children's Toys and Their Influence on Development Psychology essay sample: Educational toys tend to help children to develop problem-solving skills, understand the causes and impacts, and resolve conflicts.
The Real Impact Separated Siblings Have on Individual Child Development Psychology essay sample: Sibling relationships within families have received increased attention over the past few years, pointing to the potential protective role that these relationships can play.
Early Childhood Development: The Nurturing Care Psychology essay sample: The child’s changing cognitive and socio-emotional needs encourage regular nurturing-related adjustments initiated by both parents and child development professionals.
Aspects of Lifespan Development
Developmental Theories: Social Competence as a Young Child
Babies’ Early Language Development
Maria Montessori's View on Children's Education
“Exploring Lifespan Development”: Theories in the Textbook and Infant Development
Piaget’s Theory and Preoccupation Children
Effects of Kindergarten Activities on Cognitive Development
Divisive Politics and Child Development
Self-Regulation Abilities in Children
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
The Ways in Which Childhood Is Represented Within the U.K.
The Way Experience Affects the Development of the Baby’s Brain
A Unique Process of a Child’s Very Early Years
The Early Growth and Development Study
Infant's Lifespan Development: The Case Analysis
Skinner and Chomsky on Nature vs. Nurture
Cognitive Development in Children
Vygotsky's and Piaget's Views on Cognitive Development
Socioeconomic Status and Child’s Sharing Tendency
Aspects of Comprehensive Child Report
Toddler Observation and Piaget's Theory Application
The Process of Toddler Development
Piaget’s Development Stages Theory in Child Assessment
Erik Erikson’s and Sigmund Freud’s Psychological Theories Comparison
Problem-Solving Skill in Child Development
Arts and Play in Early Childhood Development
Child Development During COVID-19 Pandemic
Direct Assessment of Cognitive Development in Children
Toddler Observation and Assessment
Philosophy as a Driver of Proper Social Development
Human Development from Infancy to Death
Child’s Social and Emotional Development
Children’s Internet Use and Developmental Effects
Freud's Child Development Theory
Child Psychology: Peer and Parents Influence
Impact of Children’s Toys on Development
Parent Education and Family Life Education Fields
The Cognitive Development of a Children
My Virtual Child Examination of Child Development
Developmental Stages: The Early Childhood Developmental Stage
Developmental Stages from Piaget's Perspective
Language and Cognitive Developments in Infants
Products Promoting Infant Development
Middle Childhood Moral Dilemma Assignment
The Influence of the External Environment on Child Development
Children's Cognitive Development in Jean Piaget's Theory
Analyzing the Role of Developmental Factors in Two Families
Childhood Developmental Theories
Factors Affecting Child Development
Influences on Early Development
Children's Development Affected by Environment
Childhood Fame and Adulthood: Developmental Science
Attachment Theory and Developmental Psychology in Early Childhood
The Brain Development in Children
The Development of Siyasanda Discussion
The Infant and Toddler Development
Child Development and Social Learning Theories
Play, Social-Emotional Development and Theory of Mind: Three Important Aspects in Child Development
Child Development and Learning Gender Differences In-Play
Child Development and the Ecological Theory
Child Development and Education: Physical Exercise Human development refers to the process of growing to maturity. A child needs to have good physical activities, in order to develop to a healthy adult
The Psychological and Biological Changes of Child Development
Developmental Psychology and Child Development
Child Development and Learning Theories
Psychology and Self Esteem in Child Development.
Children’s Early Learning and Development The traditional approach to early childhood learning and development entails teachers’ typical use of themes to plan and generate the curriculum.
Personal Philosophy: Child Development and Teaching
Same-Sex Parenting and Child Development
Child Development and Maturation: Language and Cognitive
Relationship Between Paternal Absence and Child Development
Video Gaming Impact on Middle Childhood Development Previous studies found that playing computer games significantly affects a child’s cognitive development, but the results are contradictory.
Child Development and Maternal Depression
Parental Stress and Child Development
Mental Retardation and Child Development
Psychoanalytic Theory of Child Development and Social Learning
Infancy and Early Childhood Development This essay assesses different parenting styles and their impact on children in infancy and early childhood, and their impact on cognitive development.
Child Development and the Effects of Television Violence
Child Development and Sexual Behavior
Evolutionary Psychology and Child Development
Child Development and the Effects of Spanking
Biological Factors Impact on Children’s Development Biological factors that can affect a child’s growth include several elements, for example, genetic influences, the level of nutrition, exposures during the prenatal period.
Positive and Negative Impact on Child Development
Child Development Theories Within the Field of Psychology
Child Development and the Importance of First Relationship
Children’s Development and Domestic Violence The purpose of this paper is to prove that even when children are not at home, domestic violence can have significant effects on them.
The Separation Individuation Theory of Child Development
Mental Health, Abuse, and Child Development
The Personal Identity and the Psychology for the Child Development
Mental Health Around Pregnancy and Child Development From Early Childhood to Adolescence
Concrete Operational Stage of Child Development The task of parents is not only to feed and clothe children but also to educate them as independent, responsible, active, competent, and confident people in their capabilities.
Child Development and the Effects of the Internet
Developmental Differences Between Autistic Children and Normal Child Development
The Correlation Between Mental Health and Child Development
Attachment and Its Role in Child Development Rapid brain development occurs during the first three years of life, and a child’s attachment to the caregiver or parent significantly affects this domain.
Child Development and the Montessori Method
Child Development and Blended Families
The Role of Play: Child Development and the Process of Learning
Child Development and Fussy Baby at the Age of Two Months
Child Development From Birth to Three Years and the Role of Adults The period between 0 and 3 years is one of the most influential times for a child’s growth, development, and understanding of life basics.
Child Development and Early Learning: Educational Readiness
Background Influences That Affect Child Development
Attachment Theory and Child Development
Child Development and Attachment Theory
Child Development and Learning Focusing on Language Development
What Are the Major Domains of Child Development, and How Do They Interact?
Is a Father Figure Important for a Child’s Development?
What Are the Main Theories That Help Us Understand Child Development?
How Do Early Experiences Shape Child Development Outcomes?
What Are the Critical Milestones in Emotional Development During Child Development?
How Does Parent-Child Attachment Impact Child Development?
What Role Does Nature (Genetics) Play in Child Development?
How Does Child Development Research Contribute to Effective Parenting Strategies?
What Is the Most Important Stage of Child Development?
Is There a Critical Period for Language Acquisition in Child Development?
How Does Socioeconomic Status Affect Child Development Outcomes?
What Is Child Development Concept and Stages of Development?
Why Is Early Childhood Attachment Crucial for Healthy Child Development?
Does Access to Quality Early Childhood Education Influence Future Academic Success?
What Are the Best Parenting Approaches for Child Development?
How Do Children Develop Their Social Skills During Child Development?
What Are the Potential Effects of Exposure to Digital Devices on Child Development?
How Do Children Develop Their Moral and Ethical Values During Child Development?
What Is the Role of Play and Imaginative Activities in Child Development?
Are There Gender-Based Differences in Child Development Milestones?
How Does Peer Influence Contribute to Child Development Outcomes?
What Are the Core Principles of Child Development?
How Do Executive Functions Contribute to Cognitive Development in Child Development?
What Role Does Nutrition Play in Shaping Physical Development During Child Development?
How Do Children Develop Their Language Skills During Child Development?
Why Is Child Development So Important in Early Years?
How Does Autism Affect Child Development?
What Does the Cognitive Process in Early Child Development Focus On?
How Does Child Development Theory Inform Early Childhood Education Practices?
What Are the Factors That Influence Child Development?
How Can Disability Effect Child Development?
How Animals Benefit Child Development?
What Are the Significant Child Development Psychosocial Theories?
How Developmental Psychologists Think About Family Process and Child Development in Low-Income Families?
How Does Early Childhood Attachment Affect Child Development?
Are Fathers Crucial for Child Development?
How Art Affects Child Development?
Early Child Care and Child Development: For Whom It Works and Why?
How Media Impacts Child Development – Special Focus On Cartoons?
How Does Stress Affect Child Development?
How Fairy Tales Affect Child Development?
How Parenting Styles Affect Child Development?
How Families Influence Child Development?
How Personal Choices Affect Child Development?
Why Psychologists Conduct Research on Child Development?
How Has the Princess Culture Affected Child Development?
What Are the Three Stages of Child Development?
What Matter for Child Development?
How Technology Affects the Child Development?
How Post Traumatic Stress Affects Child Development?

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Q&A: New research unveils three distinct language comprehension phenotypes in autistic children

by Katherine Gianni, Boston University

According to The National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders (NIDCD), Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, can affect children's language development and communication in a variety of ways . While some children with ASD may encounter difficulties communicating verbally, others exhibit impressive vocabularies and the ability to speak on specific topic areas in detail.

A new study led by Boston University neuroscientist Dr. Andrey Vyshedskiy examines these unique pathways of language development in autistic children. Published in npj Mental Health Research , this research, encompassing data from more than 31,000 autistic individuals, stands as the most extensive of its kind on language comprehension acquisition in autism.

Dr. Vyshedskiy's study supports an idea he had more than two decades ago: that language learning for autistic individuals doesn't happen in a straight line but goes through three different stages. In this Q&A, he discusses the key takeaways from the research, and its implications for clinicians, educators, and caregivers.

Can you summarize the main insights from this study?

The common intuitive belief is that language comprehension development follows a linear trajectory: children acquire one grammatical rule at a time. Based on a neurological approach, I predicted over 20 years ago that instead of linear development, language unfolds in three steps corresponding to three language comprehension mechanisms of increasing complexity.

The new study of more than 31,000 autistic individuals, published in the journal npj Mental Health Research , validates this prediction. The implications of this discovery are important for philosophy, paleoanthropology, linguistics, clinical medicine, and for improving language therapy interventions for children with autism.

What was the traditional understanding of how children develop language, and how does this research challenge that view?

The current practice of characterizing children's communication ability only in terms of their speech (i.e., verbal, nonverbal, or minimally verbal) is insufficient and one-sided. The new results show that communication abilities can vary independent of verbal abilities. For example, nonverbal children with full syntactic language comprehension have normal ability to communicate albeit nonverbally, while verbal children lacking syntactic language comprehension do not have a normal ability to communicate by any means.

The new study demonstrates that the three identified language comprehension mechanisms are neurologically and clinically distinct from the speech ability. A combined two-dimensional language characterization in terms of both language comprehension and verbal level will result in better identification of children's communication ability and lead to more children reaching their full linguistic potential.

How many people were involved in this study? How did the research team collect and analyze information?

This is the largest study of language comprehension acquisition in autistic children. The study included over 31,000 individuals. The study was conducted by surveying parents via a language therapy app popular among families with children diagnosed with autism and other language deficits.

Based on your research findings, how might clinicians and educators adapt their approaches to assessment and intervention to better address the diverse communication abilities of autistic children?

Language comprehension in children is commonly assessed based on vocabulary. This evaluation method can grossly misrepresent the child's actual language comprehension progress. Moreover, it encourages therapists to focus on vocabulary training at the expense of exercises that build full language comprehension.

The new study provides evidence for creating new assessments evaluating the three mechanisms of language comprehension. These assessments are poised to improve language therapy interventions and enhance outcomes for individuals with language deficits.

What advice would you give to parents or caregivers based on the implications of this research for understanding and fostering language development in autistic children?

Focus all your efforts on improving your child's language comprehension. Connecting words is more important than building vocabulary. You can find language comprehension exercises in the book I wrote for parents, "This Way to Language: Four Things to Do at the First Sign of Autism."

Moving forward, what areas of research or practice do you believe warrant further exploration to better understand and help autistic children with their language development?

Our recent research demonstrates that the critical period for language acquisition is significantly shorter in autistic children compared to typical children. The shortened critical period may be the main culprit preventing autistic children from acquiring full language. These findings suggest that intensive language therapy has to start much earlier in children with suspected language deficits and encourages research into the possibility of pharmacological extension of the critical period for language acquisition.

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Resource Library

Reports & working papers.

Extreme Heat Affects Early Childhood Development and Health

This new working paper from the Early Childhood Scientific Council on Equity and the Environment (ECSCEE) summarizes the current knowledge on how heat impacts the development of biological systems. It’s the first in a series from ECSCEE focusing on the ways that environmental conditions shape young children’s development.

Topics: lifelong health , child development , extreme heat Media type: Reports & Working Papers Published: 2024 View resource Place Matters: The Environment We Create Shapes the Foundations of Healthy Development

The new working paper from the National Scientific Council on the Developing Child explores the influence of the built and natural environments on child development and lifelong health.

Topics: lifelong health , mental health , racism , child development Media type: Reports & Working Papers Published: 2023 View resource Connecting the Brain to the Rest of the Body: Early Childhood Development and Lifelong Health Are Deeply Intertwined

The rapidly advancing frontiers of 21st-century biological sciences now provide compelling evidence that the foundations of lifelong health are built early, with increasing evidence of the importance of the prenatal period and first few years after birth.

Topics: brain architecture , lifelong health , mental health Media type: Reports & Working Papers Published: 2020 View resource Understanding Motivation: Building the Brain Architecture That Supports Learning, Health, and Community Participation

A healthy, engaged community depends on people achieving to the best of their potential, contributing actively to the economy and public well-being, and helping the next generation to thrive. A complex set of intertwined social and biological factors influences people’s motivation to participate actively and productively in schools, jobs, and communities–and to persevere in the […]

Topics: executive function , resilience , adult capabilities , motivation Media type: Reports & Working Papers Published: 2018 View resource Three Principles to Improve Outcomes for Children and Families

Understanding how the experiences children have starting at birth, even prenatally, affect lifelong outcomes—combined with new knowledge about the core capabilities adults need to thrive as parents and in the workplace—provides a strong foundation upon which policymakers and civic leaders can design a shared and more effective agenda.

Topics: lifelong health , serve and return , program effectiveness , adult capabilities Media type: Reports & Working Papers Published: 2017 View resource Applying the Science of Child Development in Child Welfare Systems

This paper shows how the science of child development can be leveraged to strengthen and improve the public child welfare system so that it can better support the children, families, and communities it serves.

Topics: neglect Media type: Reports & Working Papers Published: 2016 View resource From Best Practices to Breakthrough Impacts

This report synthesizes 15 years of dramatic advances in the science of early childhood and early brain development, analyzes evidence generated by 50 years of program evaluation research, and presents a framework for driving science-based innovation in early childhood policy and practice.

Topics: toxic stress , brain architecture , executive function , resilience , neglect , lifelong health , mental health , serve and return , program effectiveness , adult capabilities Media type: Reports & Working Papers Published: 2016 View resource Building Core Capabilities for Life

This report identifies the core capabilities adults need to succeed in life and support the development of the next generation, how these capabilities develop, and what compromises them, and provides approaches for helping adults to build these core skills.

Topics: adult capabilities Media type: Reports & Working Papers Published: 2016 View resource Supportive Relationships and Active Skill-Building Strengthen the Foundations of Resilience

This working paper from the National Scientific Council on the Developing Child explains how supportive relationships with adults help children develop “ resilience ,” or the set of skills needed to respond to adversity and thrive.

Topics: resilience Media type: Reports & Working Papers Published: 2015 View resource A Decade of Science Informing Policy: The Story of the National Scientific Council on the Developing Child

This retrospective report describes the history of how the National Scientific Council on the Developing Child came to be, what its impact has been, how its members work, and why the Council has made a difference.

Topics: Media type: Reports & Working Papers Published: 2014 View resource The Science of Neglect: The Persistent Absence of Responsive Care Disrupts the Developing Brain

This working paper from the National Scientific Council on the Developing Child explains why young children who experience severe deprivation or neglect can experience a range of negative consequences.

Topics: toxic stress , neglect , serve and return Media type: Reports & Working Papers Published: 2012 View resource Building the Brain’s “Air Traffic Control” System: How Early Experiences Shape the Development of Executive Function

This working paper from the National Scientific Council on the Developing Child explains how executive function skills develop, what can disrupt their development, and how supporting them pays off in school and life.

Topics: executive function Media type: Reports & Working Papers Published: 2011 View resource The Foundations of Lifelong Health Are Built in Early Childhood

This report explains how the earliest years lay the groundwork for lifelong health .

Topics: lifelong health , mental health Media type: Reports & Working Papers Published: 2010 View resource Early Experiences Can Alter Gene Expression and Affect Long-Term Development

Early experiences can affect how and if genes are expressed . This working paper from the National Scientific Council on the Developing Child explains how children’s early environmental influences shape their developing brain architecture.

Topics: brain architecture Media type: Reports & Working Papers Published: 2010 View resource Persistent Fear and Anxiety Can Affect Young Children’s Learning and Development

This working paper from the National Scientific Council on the Developing Child explains how early exposure to circumstances that produce persistent fear and chronic anxiety can have lifelong effects on physical and mental health .

Topics: toxic stress , neglect , lifelong health , mental health Media type: Reports & Working Papers Published: 2010 View resource Maternal Depression Can Undermine the Development of Young Children

This working paper from the National Scientific Council on the Developing Child and the National Forum on Early Childhood Policy and Programs examines why addressing the consequences of serious depression in parents and caregivers could support the future prosperity and well-being of both children and society as a whole.

Topics: mental health Media type: Reports & Working Papers Published: 2009 View resource Workforce Development, Welfare Reform, and Child Well-Being

This working paper from the National Forum on Early Childhood Policy and Programs summarizes evaluations of family self-sufficiency programs to show that policies can achieve both positive economic benefits for parents and positive educational effects for their children.

Topics: program effectiveness Media type: Reports & Working Papers Published: 2008 View resource Establishing a Level Foundation for Life: Mental Health Begins in Early Childhood

This working paper from the National Scientific Council on the Developing Child explains why sound mental health is the foundation that supports all other aspects of human development—from the formation of friendships to achievement in school.

Topics: mental health Media type: Reports & Working Papers Published: 2008 View resource The Science of Early Childhood Development: Closing the Gap Between What We Know and What We Do

This report outlines seven core concepts of development, and explains their implications for policies and programs that could significantly improve children’s lives.

Topics: toxic stress , brain architecture , lifelong health Media type: Reports & Working Papers Published: 2007 View resource A Science-Based Framework for Early Childhood Policy

This report provides a framework for using evidence to improve child outcomes in learning, behavior, and health.

Topics: toxic stress , brain architecture , lifelong health , program effectiveness Media type: Reports & Working Papers Published: 2007 View resource The Timing and Quality of Early Experiences Combine to Shape Brain Architecture

This working paper from the National Scientific Council on the Developing Child explains key scientific advances in understanding why the early years matter for brain development, as well as the implications of those findings for policy.

Topics: brain architecture Media type: Reports & Working Papers Published: 2007 View resource Early Exposure to Toxic Substances Damages Brain Architecture

This working paper from the National Scientific Council on the Developing Child explains how exposure to toxins before birth or early in life can have a devastating and lifelong effect on the developing architecture of the brain .

Topics: brain architecture Media type: Reports & Working Papers Published: 2006 View resource Excessive Stress Disrupts the Architecture of the Developing Brain

This working paper from the National Scientific Council on the Developing Child defines the concept of toxic stress —what happens when children experience severe, prolonged adversity without adult support.

Topics: toxic stress Media type: Reports & Working Papers Published: 2005 View resource Children’s Emotional Development Is Built into the Architecture of Their Brains

This working paper from the National Scientific Council on the Developing Child discusses how a child’s capacity to regulate emotions develops in a complex interaction with his or her environment and ongoing mental, physical, and social development. It also discusses the implications of this research for policies affecting young children, their caregivers, and service providers.

Topics: brain architecture , mental health Media type: Reports & Working Papers Published: 2004 View resource Young Children Develop in an Environment of Relationships

This working paper from the National Scientific Council on the Developing Child explains why an environment of relationships is crucial for the development of a child’s brain architecture , which lays the foundation for later developmental outcomes.

Child Tax Benefits and Labor Supply: Evidence from California

The largest tax-based social welfare programs in the US limit their benefits to taxpayers with labor market income. Eliminating these work requirements would better target transfers to the neediest families but risks attenuating tax-based incentives to work. We study changes in labor force participation from the elimination of a work requirement in a tax credit for parents of young children, drawing on quasi-random variation in birth timing and administrative tax records. To do so, we develop and implement a novel approach for selecting an empirical specification to maximize the precision of our estimate. The unique design of the policy along with its subsequent reform allow us to isolate taxpayers' sensitivity to conditioning child tax benefits on work -- the parameter at the center of recent debates about the labor supply consequences of reforming federal tax policy for children. We estimate that eliminating the work requirement causes very few mothers to exit the labor force, with a 95% confidence interval excluding labor supply reductions of one-third of a percentage point or greater. Our results suggest expanding tax benefits for low-income children need not meaningfully reduce labor force participation.

For helpful comments and suggestions, we thank Connor Dowd, Joe Doyle, Kye Lippold, David Lee, Zhuan Pei, and seminar participants at the Upjohn Institute, the University of Wisconsin-Madison, and Rutgers University. Any taxpayer data used in this research was kept in a secured IRS data repository, and all results have been reviewed to ensure that no confidential information is disclosed. The views expressed herein are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the U.S. Treasury Department or of the National Bureau of Economic Research.

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Majority of workers who quit a job in 2021 cite low pay, no opportunities for advancement, feeling disrespected

The COVID-19 pandemic set off nearly unprecedented churn in the U.S. labor market. Widespread job losses in the early months of the pandemic gave way to tight labor markets in 2021, driven in part by what’s come to be known as the Great Resignation . The nation’s “quit rate” reached a 20-year high last November.

A bar chart showing the top reasons why U.S. workers left a job in 2021: Low pay, no advancement opportunities

A new Pew Research Center survey finds that low pay, a lack of opportunities for advancement and feeling disrespected at work are the top reasons why Americans quit their jobs last year. The survey also finds that those who quit and are now employed elsewhere are more likely than not to say their current job has better pay, more opportunities for advancement and more work-life balance and flexibility.

Majorities of workers who quit a job in 2021 say low pay (63%), no opportunities for advancement (63%) and feeling disrespected at work (57%) were reasons why they quit, according to the Feb. 7-13 survey. At least a third say each of these were major reasons why they left.

Roughly half say child care issues were a reason they quit a job (48% among those with a child younger than 18 in the household). A similar share point to a lack of flexibility to choose when they put in their hours (45%) or not having good benefits such as health insurance and paid time off (43%). Roughly a quarter say each of these was a major reason.

Pew Research Center conducted this analysis to better understand the experiences of Americans who quit a job in 2021. This analysis is based on 6,627 non-retired U.S. adults, including 965 who say they left a job by choice last year. The data was collected as a part of a larger survey conducted Feb. 7-13, 2022. Everyone who took part is a member of the Center’s American Trends Panel (ATP), an online survey panel that is recruited through national, random sampling of residential addresses. This way, nearly all U.S. adults have a chance of selection. The survey is weighted to be representative of the U.S. adult population by gender, race, ethnicity, partisan affiliation, education and other categories. Read more about the ATP’s methodology .

Here are the questions used for this analysis, along with responses, and its methodology.

About four-in-ten adults who quit a job last year (39%) say a reason was that they were working too many hours, while three-in-ten cite working too few hours. About a third (35%) cite wanting to relocate to a different area, while relatively few (18%) cite their employer requiring a COVID-19 vaccine as a reason.

When asked separately whether their reasons for quitting a job were related to the coronavirus outbreak, 31% say they were. Those without a four-year college degree (34%) are more likely than those with a bachelor’s degree or more education (21%) to say the pandemic played a role in their decision.

For the most part, men and women offer similar reasons for having quit a job in the past year. But there are significant differences by educational attainment.

A chart showing that the reasons for quitting a job in 2021 vary by education

Among adults who quit a job in 2021, those without a four-year college degree are more likely than those with at least a bachelor’s degree to point to several reasons. These include not having enough flexibility to decide when they put in their hours (49% of non-college graduates vs. 34% of college graduates), having to work too few hours (35% vs. 17%) and their employer requiring a COVID-19 vaccine (21% vs. 8%).

There are also notable differences by race and ethnicity. Non-White adults who quit a job last year are more likely than their White counterparts to say the reasons include not having enough flexibility (52% vs. 38%), wanting to relocate to a different area (41% vs. 30%), working too few hours (37% vs. 24%) or their employer requiring that they have a COVID-19 vaccine (27% vs. 10%). The non-White category includes those who identify as Black, Asian, Hispanic, some other race or multiple races. These groups could not be analyzed separately due to sample size limitations.

Many of those who switched jobs see improvements

A majority of those who quit a job in 2021 and are not retired say they are now employed, either full-time (55%) or part-time (23%). Of those, 61% say it was at least somewhat easy for them to find their current job, with 33% saying it was very easy. One-in-five say it was very or somewhat difficult, and 19% say it was neither easy nor difficult.

For the most part, workers who quit a job last year and are now employed somewhere else see their current work situation as an improvement over their most recent job. At least half of these workers say that compared with their last job, they are now earning more money (56%), have more opportunities for advancement (53%), have an easier time balancing work and family responsibilities (53%) and have more flexibility to choose when they put in their work hours (50%).

Still, sizable shares say things are either worse or unchanged in these areas compared with their last job. Fewer than half of workers who quit a job last year (42%) say they now have better benefits, such as health insurance and paid time off, while a similar share (36%) says it’s about the same. About one-in-five (22%) now say their current benefits are worse than at their last job.

A bar chart showing that college graduates who quit a job are more likely than those with less education to say they’re now earning more, have more opportunities for advancement

College graduates are more likely than those with less education to say that compared with their last job, they are now earning more (66% vs. 51%) and have more opportunities for advancement (63% vs. 49%). In turn, those with less education are more likely than college graduates to say they are earning less in their current job (27% vs. 16%) and that they have fewer opportunities for advancement (18% vs. 9%).

Employed men and women who quit a job in 2021 offer similar assessments of how their current job compares with their last one. One notable exception is when it comes to balancing work and family responsibilities: Six-in-ten men say their current job makes it easier for them to balance work and family – higher than the share of women who say the same (48%).

Some 53% of employed adults who quit a job in 2021 say they have changed their field of work or occupation at some point in the past year. Workers younger than age 30 and those without a postgraduate degree are especially likely to say they have made this type of change.

Younger adults and those with lower incomes were more likely to quit a job in 2021

A bar chart showing that about a quarter of adults with lower incomes say they quit a job in 2021

Overall, about one-in-five non-retired U.S. adults (19%) – including similar shares of men (18%) and women (20%) – say they quit a job at some point in 2021, meaning they left by choice and not because they were fired, laid off or because a temporary job had ended.

Adults younger than 30 are far more likely than older adults to have voluntarily left their job last year: 37% of young adults say they did this, compared with 17% of those ages 30 to 49, 9% of those ages 50 to 64 and 5% of those ages 65 and older.

Experiences also vary by income, education, race and ethnicity. About a quarter of adults with lower incomes (24%) say they quit a job in 2021, compared with 18% of middle-income adults and 11% of those with upper incomes.

Across educational attainment, those with a postgraduate degree are the least likely to say they quit a job at some point in 2021: 13% say this, compared with 17% of those with a bachelor’s degree, 20% of those with some college and 22% of those with a high school diploma or less education.

About a quarter of non-retired Hispanic and Asian adults (24% each) report quitting a job last year; 18% of Black adults and 17% of White adults say the same.

Note: Here are the questions used for this analysis, along with responses, and its methodology.

Business & Workplace
Coronavirus (COVID-19)
COVID-19 & the Economy
Income & Wages

Kim Parker is director of social trends research at Pew Research Center

Juliana Menasce Horowitz is an associate director of research at Pew Research Center

A look at small businesses in the U.S.

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Life goals and their changes drive success

New study indicates if you can dream it, you can be it.

"Where is my life going?" "Who do I want to be?"

As future-thinkers, adolescents spend significant time contemplating these types of questions about their life goals. A new study from the University of Houston shows that as people grow from teenagers to young adults, they tend to change the importance they place on certain life goals, but one thing is certain: The existence of high prestige and education goals, as well as their positive development, can drive success.

"Adolescents who endorsed higher levels of prestige and education goals tended to have higher educational attainment, income, occupational creativity, occupational prestige and job complexity after 12 years," reports Rodica Damian, associate professor of psychology in the Journal of Personality and Social Psychology . The paper's first author, Andreea Sutu, is a former graduate student of Damian's. Also on the team are former UH assistant professor Kevin Hoff and Sif Einarsdóttir of the University of Iceland.

No prior studies have investigated associations between life goal development and educational or occupational outcomes.

Damian and colleagues found that goals fluctuate -- some dreams and goals of youth fall away while some, related to family (like being close to your relatives), relationships (like having good friendships or a romantic partner) and community (like being involved in your neighborhood or helping others) stay strong. These goals might become even more significant as people get older.

"Life goals are expected to change over time and these changes are expected to have consequences for future life outcomes, including occupational outcomes," said Damian. "By understanding how changes in life goals relate to educational and occupational outcomes (above and beyond adolescent levels), we show how changes within individuals may also predict desired educational and occupational attainment."

The study examined how life goals developed with age and how adolescent levels of goals, and their development through young adulthood, related to educational attainment and occupational outcomes in young adulthood. The study used two nationally representative samples of Icelandic youth followed longitudinally across 12 years from late adolescence to young adulthood.

"For educational attainment, the strongest effects were found for education goals. Both initial levels and slopes of education goals were positively associated with educational attainment in both samples," said Damian. "This indicates that adolescents with higher education goals, and those who showed a more positive change pattern in education goals, had higher educational attainment in young adulthood."

Education and prestige goals emerged as the most consistent predictors of later income and that changes in these goals across time were the most consistent predictors of later occupational prestige and complexity.

"Our work highlights the importance of better understanding sources of goal development in adolescence and young adulthood. Overall, our focus on life goal development, educational attainment and occupational outcomes informs theoretical and practical understanding about the importance of life goals for real-world outcomes," said Damian.

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Story Source:

Materials provided by University of Houston . Original written by Laurie Fickman. Note: Content may be edited for style and length.

Journal Reference :

Andreea Sutu, Kevin A. Hoff, Chu Chu, Sif Einarsdóttir, James Rounds, Rodica Ioana Damian. Life goal development, educational attainment, and occupational outcomes: A 12-year, multisample longitudinal study. . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 2024; DOI: 10.1037/pspp0000499

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Theories of Child Development and Their Impact on Early Childhood Education and Care

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Parenting and Child Development: A Relational Health Perspective

Introduction

Relational Health Within Primary Care: The Parent-Provider Relationship

Relational Health Within Families: The Parent-Child Relationship

Parent-Child Attachment Relationships: Parental Sensitivity and Reflective Functioning

Recommendations for Providers

Mothering, Fathering, and Grandparenting

Coparenting Relationships

Parental Characteristics That Contribute to Parenting and Relational Health

Parental Developmental History and Adverse Experiences in Childhood

Child Characteristics That Contribute to Parenting and Parent-Child Relational Health

Temperament

Special Health Care Needs

Contextual and Process Variables That May Affect Relational Health

Parent-Child Feeding Practices

The Household Environment: Family Chaos, Technology, and Social Media Use

Cultural Context and Relational Health

Reducing Risks to Relational Health: Screening and Referral

Summary and Conclusions

Acknowledgments

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