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Research Methods in Early Childhood: An Introductory Guide

Student resources, multiple choice quiz.

Test your understanding of each chapter by taking the quiz below. Click anywhere on the question to reveal the answer. Good luck!

1. What is an abstract?

• A short footnote in the text of your work
• A chance to acknowledge those who have helped you in your research project, placed at the beginning of the written-up project
• A brief resume of the study to entice the reader to read more
• An introduction to the research

2. What should always be included in an introduction?

• Detail of your research findings
• Your interview schedule (or detail of any other research instruments)
• A rationale for conducting the study and key research questions
• Recommendations for early childhood practice in detail

3. What is a literature review?

• A place to provide autobiographic detail
• A place to outline all the reading you have done in your studies
• A place to link your reading to your research findings
• A place to discuss literature which helps to frame your study

4. Where is a literature review typically found in written-up research?

• Before the methodology chapter
• After the findings chapter
• In the appendices
• Integrated into the data analysis

5. What would you expect to find in a methodology chapter in a piece of empirical research?

• Detail of the methodological approach taken
• Detail of the methods employed
• Detail of ethical considerations linked to the research project
• All of the above

6. Should data and discussion of data be presented as two separate chapters?

• Never. They are inappropriate for early childhood research
• Always. Students tend to undertake qualitative research projects
• Possibly, depending on the kind of research undertaken and tutor advice
• Possibly, depending if there is time to complete two chapters as opposed to one larger chapter

7. What should a conclusion chapter contain?

• A sense of the research story
• A summary of the key findings
• Reflection on what these findings mean
• Discussion of possible implications for practice or future research

8. Having read the chapter, what do Mukherji and Albon advise in relation to using ‘I’ when writing up research?

• You should always use the personal pronoun when writing up research as it reflects that it is a personal piece of work
• Writing seems far too ‘chatty’ if you use ‘I’ when writing. In order to write academically use of ‘I’ should always be avoided
• If talking about the decisions you made in research and your own viewpoint, it is hard to avoid use of ‘I’ and it does not necessarily mean lack of academic tone if used judiciously (but do ask your tutor!)
• You could be in danger of failing a module if you use the personal pronoun in your work. You will never see academic journal articles using ‘I’

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How to Write a Research Question

What is a research question? A research question is the question around which you center your research. It should be:

• clear : it provides enough specifics that one’s audience can easily understand its purpose without needing additional explanation.
• focused : it is narrow enough that it can be answered thoroughly in the space the writing task allows.
• concise : it is expressed in the fewest possible words.
• complex : it is not answerable with a simple “yes” or “no,” but rather requires synthesis and analysis of ideas and sources prior to composition of an answer.
• arguable : its potential answers are open to debate rather than accepted facts.

You should ask a question about an issue that you are genuinely curious and/or passionate about.

The question you ask should be developed for the discipline you are studying. A question appropriate for Biology, for instance, is different from an appropriate one in Political Science or Sociology. If you are developing your question for a course other than first-year composition, you may want to discuss your ideas for a research question with your professor.

Why is a research question essential to the research process? Research questions help writers focus their research by providing a path through the research and writing process. The specificity of a well-developed research question helps writers avoid the “all-about” paper and work toward supporting a specific, arguable thesis.

Steps to developing a research question:

• Choose an interesting general topic. Most professional researchers focus on topics they are genuinely interested in studying. Writers should choose a broad topic about which they genuinely would like to know more. An example of a general topic might be “Slavery in the American South” or “Films of the 1930s.”
• Do some preliminary research on your general topic. Do a few quick searches in current periodicals and journals on your topic to see what’s already been done and to help you narrow your focus. What issues are scholars and researchers discussing, when it comes to your topic? What questions occur to you as you read these articles?
• Consider your audience. For most college papers, your audience will be academic, but always keep your audience in mind when narrowing your topic and developing your question. Would that particular audience be interested in the question you are developing?
• Start asking questions. Taking into consideration all of the above, start asking yourself open-ended “how” and “why” questions about your general topic. For example, “Why were slave narratives effective tools in working toward the abolishment of slavery?” or “How did the films of the 1930s reflect or respond to the conditions of the Great Depression?”
• Is your research question clear? With so much research available on any given topic, research questions must be as clear as possible in order to be effective in helping the writer direct his or her research.
• Is your research question focused? Research questions must be specific enough to be well covered in the space available.
• Is your research question complex? Research questions should not be answerable with a simple “yes” or “no” or by easily-found facts.  They should, instead, require both research and analysis on the part of the writer. They often begin with “How” or “Why.”
• Begin your research . After you’ve come up with a question, think about the possible paths your research could take. What sources should you consult as you seek answers to your question? What research process will ensure that you find a variety of perspectives and responses to your question?

Sample Research Questions

Unclear: How should social networking sites address the harm they cause? Clear: What action should social networking sites like MySpace and Facebook take to protect users’ personal information and privacy? The unclear version of this question doesn’t specify which social networking sites or suggest what kind of harm the sites might be causing. It also assumes that this “harm” is proven and/or accepted. The clearer version specifies sites (MySpace and Facebook), the type of potential harm (privacy issues), and who may be experiencing that harm (users). A strong research question should never leave room for ambiguity or interpretation. Unfocused: What is the effect on the environment from global warming? Focused: What is the most significant effect of glacial melting on the lives of penguins in Antarctica?

The unfocused research question is so broad that it couldn’t be adequately answered in a book-length piece, let alone a standard college-level paper. The focused version narrows down to a specific effect of global warming (glacial melting), a specific place (Antarctica), and a specific animal that is affected (penguins). It also requires the writer to take a stance on which effect has the greatest impact on the affected animal. When in doubt, make a research question as narrow and focused as possible.

Too simple: How are doctors addressing diabetes in the U.S.? Appropriately Complex:   What main environmental, behavioral, and genetic factors predict whether Americans will develop diabetes, and how can these commonalities be used to aid the medical community in prevention of the disease?

The simple version of this question can be looked up online and answered in a few factual sentences; it leaves no room for analysis. The more complex version is written in two parts; it is thought provoking and requires both significant investigation and evaluation from the writer. As a general rule of thumb, if a quick Google search can answer a research question, it’s likely not very effective.

Last updated 8/8/2018

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Scientific Writing Quiz

Study Flashcards

30 questions, a scientific report typically consists of three main divisions: preliminary material, body, and supplementary material., the purpose of analyzing the task in writing a scientific report is to determine the word limit., the audience for a scientific report is typically the lecturer or tutor., the word limit for a scientific report usually includes the body of the report., the topic of a scientific report is always specified by the writer., developing a rough plan for a scientific report involves using section headings and clarifying the overall purpose of the report., steps 1 and 2 in writing a scientific report involve conducting research on the topic., reporting on other research or conducting personal research may be necessary for a scientific report., true or false: the research phase of producing a report usually takes the least amount of time., true or false: the literature review of a scientific report is usually longer than the literature review of a thesis., true or false: the methodology section of a scientific report is usually written in an active voice., true or false: the discussion section of a scientific report discusses the relevance of the results and how they fit with other research., true or false: the conclusion section of a scientific report can include new material., true or false: the recommendations section of a scientific report should be listed in alphabetical order., true or false: the appendix section of a scientific report must be referred to in the body of the report., true or false: a research proposal is a formal plan that outlines objectives for a research project., a research proposal typically consists of 8-12 pages., the introduction section of a research proposal provides background information on the research problem., the review of literature section in a research proposal only involves listing and cataloging related studies., the methodology section of a research proposal is considered the most important., a gantt chart is commonly included in a research proposal., the references section in a research proposal includes all sources used in the report., the apa style is recommended for in-text and reference citations in a research proposal., a well-written research proposal can help define and formulate the research question., the research proposal aims to avoid wasting time in the literature search and data collection stages of the project., match the following sections of a research proposal with their descriptions:, match the following research proposal components with their functions:, match the following sections of a research proposal with their recommended writing styles:, match the following research proposal elements with their definitions:, match the following sections of a research proposal with their recommended lengths:, description.

Test your knowledge on scientific writing with this quiz! Learn about the structure of a scientific report, how to write a research proposal, and more. Perfect for Bio 881 students at PNU taking the 5th and 6th lectures.

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• Knowledge Base
• Starting the research process
• 10 Research Question Examples to Guide Your Research Project

10 Research Question Examples to Guide your Research Project

Published on October 30, 2022 by Shona McCombes . Revised on October 19, 2023.

The research question is one of the most important parts of your research paper , thesis or dissertation . It’s important to spend some time assessing and refining your question before you get started.

The exact form of your question will depend on a few things, such as the length of your project, the type of research you’re conducting, the topic , and the research problem . However, all research questions should be focused, specific, and relevant to a timely social or scholarly issue.

Once you’ve read our guide on how to write a research question , you can use these examples to craft your own.

Note that the design of your research question can depend on what method you are pursuing. Here are a few options for qualitative, quantitative, and statistical research questions.

Other interesting articles

If you want to know more about the research process , methodology , research bias , or statistics , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

Methodology

• Sampling methods
• Simple random sampling
• Stratified sampling
• Cluster sampling
• Likert scales
• Reproducibility

 Statistics

• Null hypothesis
• Statistical power
• Probability distribution
• Effect size
• Poisson distribution

Research bias

• Optimism bias
• Cognitive bias
• Implicit bias
• Hawthorne effect
• Anchoring bias
• Explicit bias

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.

McCombes, S. (2023, October 19). 10 Research Question Examples to Guide your Research Project. Scribbr. Retrieved April 2, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/research-process/research-question-examples/

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Other students also liked, writing strong research questions | criteria & examples, how to choose a dissertation topic | 8 steps to follow, evaluating sources | methods & examples, what is your plagiarism score.

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Strong research questions

Part 2: Chapter 4

Questions to consider

A. What role does questioning play in advancing knowledge?

B. How can well-formulated questions support the development of a thesis ?

C. What are the qualities of a strong research question?

People look for information to answer implied or explicit questions every day. A research question prompts the questioner to do more than find an answer. Consider the differences between the standard  and research questions below.

Standard Question: When and where is that movie showing on Friday? Research Question: How do “sleeper” films end up having outstanding attendance figures? Standard Question: How many children in the U.S. have allergies? Research Question: How does his or her country of birth affect a child’s chances of developing asthma? Standard Question: What year was metformin approved by the U.S. Food and Drug administration? Research Question: Why are nanomedicines, such as doxorubicin, worth developing? Standard Question: Can citizens register to vote at the public library? Research Question: How do public libraries in the United States support democracy? Standard Question: What is the Whorfian Hypothesis? Research Question: Why are linguists interested in the Whorfian hypothesis?

Language in Action

A. Explore “motivation” in a series of standard questions.

B. Extend the questions about “motivation” to those of a research nature.

C. What factors can be added to develop compelling and meaningful research on “motivation”?

The influences of research questions Producing a research question prompts writers to

• define the scope of their interest; • evaluate the feasibility of the inquiry; • determine what sources will be of value; and • establish potential conclusions.

For academic purposes, research questions can be developed for both large and small assignments. A smaller assignment may be research for a class discussion or a blog post; larger assignments may involve conducting research and then delivering it in a lab report, poster, term paper, or article. For large projects, the research question (or questions) will define or at least heavily influence

• the topic, in that research questions effectively narrow the subject; • any hypotheses under consideration; • which information sources are relevant; and • resulting claims or conclusions.

Influence on thesis Within an essay, poster, or term paper, the thesis is the researcher’s response to the research question(s). Developing research questions is effectively specifying that thesis. While perhaps many research questions emerge from the original topic, the primary question addresses those the thesis will answer. For example, a topic that starts out as “desert symbiosis” could eventually lead to “How does the diversity of bacteria in the gut of the Sonoran Desert termite contribute to the termite’s survival?” In turn, the researcher’s thesis will answer that particular research question instead of the numerous other questions that could have come from the desert symbiosis topic. Developing research questions is part of the process establishing clear parameters.

Influence on hypothesis A study that predicts how variables are related will have at least one hypothesis . The research questions will contain the variables that later appear in the hypothesis(es). Despite the strength of their influence on the overall project, research questions do not always appear in the final products (papers or articles) of the research.

Influence on resources The research questions help divide all information sources into two groups: those that are relevant and those that are not.

Influence on research methods Research questions are vital in determining appropriate field research. For instance, when the research question relates to describing the preferences of a group, survey methods may work well. In contrast, research questions that examine a laboratory practice will guide the development of a research method.

Influence on claims or conclusions The research questions reflect whether the investigation is intended to describe a group or situation, to explain or predict outcomes, or to demonstrate cause-and-effect relationship(s) among variables. Those intentions and how comprehensive the inquiry is will determine what claims or conclusions can be made. [1]

Exercise #1

The question frames below provide a context through which to explore possible topics.  Some are more appropriate for initial rather than in-depth exploration. Choose a few that work in your field; modify and complete them to suit your topic. [2]

• What does ___ mean? (definition)
• What are the various features of ___? (description)
• What are the component parts of ___? (simple analysis)
• How is ___ made or done? (process analysis)
• How should ___ be made or done? (directional analysis)
• What is the essential function of ___? (functional analysis)
• What are the causes of ___? (causal analysis)
• What are the consequences of ___? (causal analysis)
• What are the types of ___? (classification)
• How is ___ like or unlike ___? (comparison)
• What is the present status of ___? (comparison)
• What is the significance of ___? (interpretation)
• What are the facts about ___? (reportage)
• How did ___ happen? (narration)
• What kind of person is ___? (characterization/profile)
• What is the value of ___? (evaluation)
• What are the essential major points or features of ___? (summary)
• What case can be made for or against ___? (persuasion)
• What is the relationship between_____ and the outcome of ____? (explorative)

Review and Reinforce

Research questions typically appear in standard question format and express a relationship between two or more variables; for example, how is A related to B? Research questions also imply possibilities for empirical testing; metaphysical questions are not measurable, and a variable that cannot be clearly defined cannot be tested.

Exercise #2

Identify the variables in these questions.

How does motivation affect participation in graduate level classes?

How does social isolation affect the academic performance of international graduate students?

What common demotivating factors influence the academic performance of international graduate students and how can they be mitigated?

Media Attributions

• indonesiacovid © USAID_IMAGES is licensed under a CC BY-NC (Attribution NonCommercial) license
• Adapted from Teaching & Learning, (2018). Choosing & using sources: a guide to academic research. The Ohio State University. https://ohiostate.pressbooks.pub/choosingsources/ ↵
• Adapted from Frederiksen, L., & Phelps, S. F. (2017). Literature Reviews for Education and Nursing Graduate Students. Open Textbook Library ↵

a unique, new concept, generally presented with persuasive evidence

a prediction established for testing or exploration

in research writing, supportive information deployed as evidence or extension

Sourcing, summarizing, and synthesizing:  Skills for effective research writing  Copyright © 2023 by Wendy L. McBride is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Sat / act prep online guides and tips, 113 great research paper topics.

General Education

One of the hardest parts of writing a research paper can be just finding a good topic to write about. Fortunately we've done the hard work for you and have compiled a list of 113 interesting research paper topics. They've been organized into ten categories and cover a wide range of subjects so you can easily find the best topic for you.

In addition to the list of good research topics, we've included advice on what makes a good research paper topic and how you can use your topic to start writing a great paper.

What Makes a Good Research Paper Topic?

Not all research paper topics are created equal, and you want to make sure you choose a great topic before you start writing. Below are the three most important factors to consider to make sure you choose the best research paper topics.

#1: It's Something You're Interested In

A paper is always easier to write if you're interested in the topic, and you'll be more motivated to do in-depth research and write a paper that really covers the entire subject. Even if a certain research paper topic is getting a lot of buzz right now or other people seem interested in writing about it, don't feel tempted to make it your topic unless you genuinely have some sort of interest in it as well.

#2: There's Enough Information to Write a Paper

Even if you come up with the absolute best research paper topic and you're so excited to write about it, you won't be able to produce a good paper if there isn't enough research about the topic. This can happen for very specific or specialized topics, as well as topics that are too new to have enough research done on them at the moment. Easy research paper topics will always be topics with enough information to write a full-length paper.

Trying to write a research paper on a topic that doesn't have much research on it is incredibly hard, so before you decide on a topic, do a bit of preliminary searching and make sure you'll have all the information you need to write your paper.

#3: It Fits Your Teacher's Guidelines

Don't get so carried away looking at lists of research paper topics that you forget any requirements or restrictions your teacher may have put on research topic ideas. If you're writing a research paper on a health-related topic, deciding to write about the impact of rap on the music scene probably won't be allowed, but there may be some sort of leeway. For example, if you're really interested in current events but your teacher wants you to write a research paper on a history topic, you may be able to choose a topic that fits both categories, like exploring the relationship between the US and North Korea. No matter what, always get your research paper topic approved by your teacher first before you begin writing.

113 Good Research Paper Topics

Below are 113 good research topics to help you get you started on your paper. We've organized them into ten categories to make it easier to find the type of research paper topics you're looking for.

Arts/Culture

• Discuss the main differences in art from the Italian Renaissance and the Northern Renaissance .
• Analyze the impact a famous artist had on the world.
• How is sexism portrayed in different types of media (music, film, video games, etc.)? Has the amount/type of sexism changed over the years?
• How has the music of slaves brought over from Africa shaped modern American music?
• How has rap music evolved in the past decade?
• How has the portrayal of minorities in the media changed?

Current Events

• What have been the impacts of China's one child policy?
• How have the goals of feminists changed over the decades?
• How has the Trump presidency changed international relations?
• Analyze the history of the relationship between the United States and North Korea.
• What factors contributed to the current decline in the rate of unemployment?
• What have been the impacts of states which have increased their minimum wage?
• How do US immigration laws compare to immigration laws of other countries?
• How have the US's immigration laws changed in the past few years/decades?
• How has the Black Lives Matter movement affected discussions and view about racism in the US?
• What impact has the Affordable Care Act had on healthcare in the US?
• What factors contributed to the UK deciding to leave the EU (Brexit)?
• What factors contributed to China becoming an economic power?
• Discuss the history of Bitcoin or other cryptocurrencies  (some of which tokenize the S&P 500 Index on the blockchain) .
• Do students in schools that eliminate grades do better in college and their careers?
• Do students from wealthier backgrounds score higher on standardized tests?
• Do students who receive free meals at school get higher grades compared to when they weren't receiving a free meal?
• Do students who attend charter schools score higher on standardized tests than students in public schools?
• Do students learn better in same-sex classrooms?
• How does giving each student access to an iPad or laptop affect their studies?
• What are the benefits and drawbacks of the Montessori Method ?
• Do children who attend preschool do better in school later on?
• What was the impact of the No Child Left Behind act?
• How does the US education system compare to education systems in other countries?
• What impact does mandatory physical education classes have on students' health?
• Which methods are most effective at reducing bullying in schools?
• Do homeschoolers who attend college do as well as students who attended traditional schools?
• Does offering tenure increase or decrease quality of teaching?
• How does college debt affect future life choices of students?
• Should graduate students be able to form unions?

• What are different ways to lower gun-related deaths in the US?
• How and why have divorce rates changed over time?
• Is affirmative action still necessary in education and/or the workplace?
• Should physician-assisted suicide be legal?
• How has stem cell research impacted the medical field?
• How can human trafficking be reduced in the United States/world?
• Should people be able to donate organs in exchange for money?
• Which types of juvenile punishment have proven most effective at preventing future crimes?
• Has the increase in US airport security made passengers safer?
• Analyze the immigration policies of certain countries and how they are similar and different from one another.
• Several states have legalized recreational marijuana. What positive and negative impacts have they experienced as a result?
• Do tariffs increase the number of domestic jobs?
• Which prison reforms have proven most effective?
• Should governments be able to censor certain information on the internet?
• Which methods/programs have been most effective at reducing teen pregnancy?
• What are the benefits and drawbacks of the Keto diet?
• How effective are different exercise regimes for losing weight and maintaining weight loss?
• How do the healthcare plans of various countries differ from each other?
• What are the most effective ways to treat depression ?
• What are the pros and cons of genetically modified foods?
• Which methods are most effective for improving memory?
• What can be done to lower healthcare costs in the US?
• What factors contributed to the current opioid crisis?
• Analyze the history and impact of the HIV/AIDS epidemic .
• Are low-carbohydrate or low-fat diets more effective for weight loss?
• How much exercise should the average adult be getting each week?
• Which methods are most effective to get parents to vaccinate their children?
• What are the pros and cons of clean needle programs?
• How does stress affect the body?
• Discuss the history of the conflict between Israel and the Palestinians.
• What were the causes and effects of the Salem Witch Trials?
• Who was responsible for the Iran-Contra situation?
• How has New Orleans and the government's response to natural disasters changed since Hurricane Katrina?
• What events led to the fall of the Roman Empire?
• What were the impacts of British rule in India ?
• Was the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki necessary?
• What were the successes and failures of the women's suffrage movement in the United States?
• What were the causes of the Civil War?
• How did Abraham Lincoln's assassination impact the country and reconstruction after the Civil War?
• Which factors contributed to the colonies winning the American Revolution?
• What caused Hitler's rise to power?
• Discuss how a specific invention impacted history.
• What led to Cleopatra's fall as ruler of Egypt?
• How has Japan changed and evolved over the centuries?
• What were the causes of the Rwandan genocide ?

• Why did Martin Luther decide to split with the Catholic Church?
• Analyze the history and impact of a well-known cult (Jonestown, Manson family, etc.)
• How did the sexual abuse scandal impact how people view the Catholic Church?
• How has the Catholic church's power changed over the past decades/centuries?
• What are the causes behind the rise in atheism/ agnosticism in the United States?
• What were the influences in Siddhartha's life resulted in him becoming the Buddha?
• How has media portrayal of Islam/Muslims changed since September 11th?

Science/Environment

• How has the earth's climate changed in the past few decades?
• How has the use and elimination of DDT affected bird populations in the US?
• Analyze how the number and severity of natural disasters have increased in the past few decades.
• Analyze deforestation rates in a certain area or globally over a period of time.
• How have past oil spills changed regulations and cleanup methods?
• How has the Flint water crisis changed water regulation safety?
• What are the pros and cons of fracking?
• What impact has the Paris Climate Agreement had so far?
• What have NASA's biggest successes and failures been?
• How can we improve access to clean water around the world?
• Does ecotourism actually have a positive impact on the environment?
• Should the US rely on nuclear energy more?
• What can be done to save amphibian species currently at risk of extinction?
• What impact has climate change had on coral reefs?
• How are black holes created?
• Are teens who spend more time on social media more likely to suffer anxiety and/or depression?
• How will the loss of net neutrality affect internet users?
• Analyze the history and progress of self-driving vehicles.
• How has the use of drones changed surveillance and warfare methods?
• Has social media made people more or less connected?
• What progress has currently been made with artificial intelligence ?
• Do smartphones increase or decrease workplace productivity?
• What are the most effective ways to use technology in the classroom?
• How is Google search affecting our intelligence?
• When is the best age for a child to begin owning a smartphone?
• Has frequent texting reduced teen literacy rates?

How to Write a Great Research Paper

Even great research paper topics won't give you a great research paper if you don't hone your topic before and during the writing process. Follow these three tips to turn good research paper topics into great papers.

#1: Figure Out Your Thesis Early

Before you start writing a single word of your paper, you first need to know what your thesis will be. Your thesis is a statement that explains what you intend to prove/show in your paper. Every sentence in your research paper will relate back to your thesis, so you don't want to start writing without it!

As some examples, if you're writing a research paper on if students learn better in same-sex classrooms, your thesis might be "Research has shown that elementary-age students in same-sex classrooms score higher on standardized tests and report feeling more comfortable in the classroom."

If you're writing a paper on the causes of the Civil War, your thesis might be "While the dispute between the North and South over slavery is the most well-known cause of the Civil War, other key causes include differences in the economies of the North and South, states' rights, and territorial expansion."

#2: Back Every Statement Up With Research

Remember, this is a research paper you're writing, so you'll need to use lots of research to make your points. Every statement you give must be backed up with research, properly cited the way your teacher requested. You're allowed to include opinions of your own, but they must also be supported by the research you give.

#3: Do Your Research Before You Begin Writing

You don't want to start writing your research paper and then learn that there isn't enough research to back up the points you're making, or, even worse, that the research contradicts the points you're trying to make!

Get most of your research on your good research topics done before you begin writing. Then use the research you've collected to create a rough outline of what your paper will cover and the key points you're going to make. This will help keep your paper clear and organized, and it'll ensure you have enough research to produce a strong paper.

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Christine graduated from Michigan State University with degrees in Environmental Biology and Geography and received her Master's from Duke University. In high school she scored in the 99th percentile on the SAT and was named a National Merit Finalist. She has taught English and biology in several countries.

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What the Data Says About Pandemic School Closures, Four Years Later

The more time students spent in remote instruction, the further they fell behind. And, experts say, extended closures did little to stop the spread of Covid.

By Sarah Mervosh ,  Claire Cain Miller and Francesca Paris

Four years ago this month, schools nationwide began to shut down, igniting one of the most polarizing and partisan debates of the pandemic.

Some schools, often in Republican-led states and rural areas, reopened by fall 2020. Others, typically in large cities and states led by Democrats, would not fully reopen for another year.

A variety of data — about children’s academic outcomes and about the spread of Covid-19 — has accumulated in the time since. Today, there is broad acknowledgment among many public health and education experts that extended school closures did not significantly stop the spread of Covid, while the academic harms for children have been large and long-lasting.

While poverty and other factors also played a role, remote learning was a key driver of academic declines during the pandemic, research shows — a finding that held true across income levels.

Source: Fahle, Kane, Patterson, Reardon, Staiger and Stuart, “ School District and Community Factors Associated With Learning Loss During the COVID-19 Pandemic .” Score changes are measured from 2019 to 2022. In-person means a district offered traditional in-person learning, even if not all students were in-person.

“There’s fairly good consensus that, in general, as a society, we probably kept kids out of school longer than we should have,” said Dr. Sean O’Leary, a pediatric infectious disease specialist who helped write guidance for the American Academy of Pediatrics, which recommended in June 2020 that schools reopen with safety measures in place.

There were no easy decisions at the time. Officials had to weigh the risks of an emerging virus against the academic and mental health consequences of closing schools. And even schools that reopened quickly, by the fall of 2020, have seen lasting effects.

But as experts plan for the next public health emergency, whatever it may be, a growing body of research shows that pandemic school closures came at a steep cost to students.

The longer schools were closed, the more students fell behind.

At the state level, more time spent in remote or hybrid instruction in the 2020-21 school year was associated with larger drops in test scores, according to a New York Times analysis of school closure data and results from the National Assessment of Educational Progress , an authoritative exam administered to a national sample of fourth- and eighth-grade students.

At the school district level, that finding also holds, according to an analysis of test scores from third through eighth grade in thousands of U.S. districts, led by researchers at Stanford and Harvard. In districts where students spent most of the 2020-21 school year learning remotely, they fell more than half a grade behind in math on average, while in districts that spent most of the year in person they lost just over a third of a grade.

( A separate study of nearly 10,000 schools found similar results.)

Such losses can be hard to overcome, without significant interventions. The most recent test scores, from spring 2023, show that students, overall, are not caught up from their pandemic losses , with larger gaps remaining among students that lost the most ground to begin with. Students in districts that were remote or hybrid the longest — at least 90 percent of the 2020-21 school year — still had almost double the ground to make up compared with students in districts that allowed students back for most of the year.

Some time in person was better than no time.

As districts shifted toward in-person learning as the year went on, students that were offered a hybrid schedule (a few hours or days a week in person, with the rest online) did better, on average, than those in places where school was fully remote, but worse than those in places that had school fully in person.

Students in hybrid or remote learning, 2020-21

80% of students

Some schools return online, as Covid-19 cases surge. Vaccinations start for high-priority groups.

Teachers are eligible for the Covid vaccine in more than half of states.

Most districts end the year in-person or hybrid.

Source: Burbio audit of more than 1,200 school districts representing 47 percent of U.S. K-12 enrollment. Note: Learning mode was defined based on the most in-person option available to students.

Income and family background also made a big difference.

A second factor associated with academic declines during the pandemic was a community’s poverty level. Comparing districts with similar remote learning policies, poorer districts had steeper losses.

But in-person learning still mattered: Looking at districts with similar poverty levels, remote learning was associated with greater declines.

A community’s poverty rate and the length of school closures had a “roughly equal” effect on student outcomes, said Sean F. Reardon, a professor of poverty and inequality in education at Stanford, who led a district-level analysis with Thomas J. Kane, an economist at Harvard.

Score changes are measured from 2019 to 2022. Poorest and richest are the top and bottom 20% of districts by percent of students on free/reduced lunch. Mostly in-person and mostly remote are districts that offered traditional in-person learning for more than 90 percent or less than 10 percent of the 2020-21 year.

But the combination — poverty and remote learning — was particularly harmful. For each week spent remote, students in poor districts experienced steeper losses in math than peers in richer districts.

That is notable, because poor districts were also more likely to stay remote for longer .

Some of the country’s largest poor districts are in Democratic-leaning cities that took a more cautious approach to the virus. Poor areas, and Black and Hispanic communities , also suffered higher Covid death rates, making many families and teachers in those districts hesitant to return.

“We wanted to survive,” said Sarah Carpenter, the executive director of Memphis Lift, a parent advocacy group in Memphis, where schools were closed until spring 2021 .

“But I also think, man, looking back, I wish our kids could have gone back to school much quicker,” she added, citing the academic effects.

Other things were also associated with worse student outcomes, including increased anxiety and depression among adults in children’s lives, and the overall restriction of social activity in a community, according to the Stanford and Harvard research .

Even short closures had long-term consequences for children.

While being in school was on average better for academic outcomes, it wasn’t a guarantee. Some districts that opened early, like those in Cherokee County, Ga., a suburb of Atlanta, and Hanover County, Va., lost significant learning and remain behind.

At the same time, many schools are seeing more anxiety and behavioral outbursts among students. And chronic absenteeism from school has surged across demographic groups .

These are signs, experts say, that even short-term closures, and the pandemic more broadly, had lasting effects on the culture of education.

“There was almost, in the Covid era, a sense of, ‘We give up, we’re just trying to keep body and soul together,’ and I think that was corrosive to the higher expectations of schools,” said Margaret Spellings, an education secretary under President George W. Bush who is now chief executive of the Bipartisan Policy Center.

Closing schools did not appear to significantly slow Covid’s spread.

Perhaps the biggest question that hung over school reopenings: Was it safe?

That was largely unknown in the spring of 2020, when schools first shut down. But several experts said that had changed by the fall of 2020, when there were initial signs that children were less likely to become seriously ill, and growing evidence from Europe and parts of the United States that opening schools, with safety measures, did not lead to significantly more transmission.

“Infectious disease leaders have generally agreed that school closures were not an important strategy in stemming the spread of Covid,” said Dr. Jeanne Noble, who directed the Covid response at the U.C.S.F. Parnassus emergency department.

Politically, though, there remains some disagreement about when, exactly, it was safe to reopen school.

Republican governors who pushed to open schools sooner have claimed credit for their approach, while Democrats and teachers’ unions have emphasized their commitment to safety and their investment in helping students recover.

“I do believe it was the right decision,” said Jerry T. Jordan, president of the Philadelphia Federation of Teachers, which resisted returning to school in person over concerns about the availability of vaccines and poor ventilation in school buildings. Philadelphia schools waited to partially reopen until the spring of 2021 , a decision Mr. Jordan believes saved lives.

“It doesn’t matter what is going on in the building and how much people are learning if people are getting the virus and running the potential of dying,” he said.

Pandemic school closures offer lessons for the future.

Though the next health crisis may have different particulars, with different risk calculations, the consequences of closing schools are now well established, experts say.

In the future, infectious disease experts said, they hoped decisions would be guided more by epidemiological data as it emerged, taking into account the trade-offs.

“Could we have used data to better guide our decision making? Yes,” said Dr. Uzma N. Hasan, division chief of pediatric infectious diseases at RWJBarnabas Health in Livingston, N.J. “Fear should not guide our decision making.”

Source: Fahle, Kane, Patterson, Reardon, Staiger and Stuart, “ School District and Community Factors Associated With Learning Loss During the Covid-19 Pandemic. ”

The study used estimates of learning loss from the Stanford Education Data Archive . For closure lengths, the study averaged district-level estimates of time spent in remote and hybrid learning compiled by the Covid-19 School Data Hub (C.S.D.H.) and American Enterprise Institute (A.E.I.) . The A.E.I. data defines remote status by whether there was an in-person or hybrid option, even if some students chose to remain virtual. In the C.S.D.H. data set, districts are defined as remote if “all or most” students were virtual.

An earlier version of this article misstated a job description of Dr. Jeanne Noble. She directed the Covid response at the U.C.S.F. Parnassus emergency department. She did not direct the Covid response for the University of California, San Francisco health system.

How we handle corrections

Sarah Mervosh covers education for The Times, focusing on K-12 schools. More about Sarah Mervosh

Claire Cain Miller writes about gender, families and the future of work for The Upshot. She joined The Times in 2008 and was part of a team that won a Pulitzer Prize in 2018 for public service for reporting on workplace sexual harassment issues. More about Claire Cain Miller

Francesca Paris is a Times reporter working with data and graphics for The Upshot. More about Francesca Paris

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100 Excellent Recycling Research Topics and Ideas

Table of Contents

When pursuing a course in environmental science, at the end of the semester, you will be asked to submit a research paper on any topic relevant to the field of study. Typically, environmental science deals with several strategies to protect and preserve the environment. Also, the subject addresses waste management and various issues that exist in the environment. However, when it comes to environmental science research paper writing, you can choose to work on recycling research topics.

Are you unsure what recycling research topic to consider for writing your academic paper? Don’t worry! For your convenience, in this blog, we have analyzed and prepared a list of outstanding recycling research questions, ideas, and essay titles. Additionally, we have also presented how to compose a great recycling research paper.

Continue reading this blog and get fascinating ideas for recycling research paper writing.

What is Recycling?

Recycling is the method of transforming waste materials into new objects or materials. This method mainly involves the collection of waste materials, processing them, and reusing them to manufacture new products. Recycling is beneficial to the environment in several ways. Specifically, recycling helps to preserve natural resources, reduce greenhouse gas emissions, decrease waste volumes, and save energy.

An Overview of Recycling Research Paper

A recycling research paper is a kind of academic paper that is written on any topic that is relevant to the recycling process. For waste management and environmental science assignments or academic writing, you may conduct in-depth analysis on recycling research topics and compose a great paper. Some themes you may consider for writing a recycling research paper are food recycling, plastic recycling, e-waste management, and so on.

Understand How to Write a Recycling Research Paper

If you have no idea how to create a recycling research paper, follow these steps.

• First, choose an ideal recycling research topic of your interest. However, the topic should be relevant, authentic, and researchable. Choosing a topic that you are passionate about will make your research process enjoyable.
• After selecting a topic, conduct in-depth research on that topic and gather the important details to prove your thesis statement. When performing research, read the already published scholarly articles, journals, and magazines related to your topic.
• Organize all the gathered ideas and sketch a neat and clear recycling research paper outline with key elements like the introduction, body, and conclusion. The outline that you create will act as a guide for you to cover all the essential points.
• Next, with the help of the created outline, begin writing your recycling research paper as per your university guidelines. Make sure to provide valid evidence to support your claims. Furthermore, the academic paper that you compose should be well-researched and properly cited.
• Finally, after you finish writing the paper, proofread it several times and rectify if there are any grammar or spelling errors. The recycling research paper copy that is ready for submission should be original and flawless.

List of Recycling Research Topics and Questions

Do you need the best recycling research paper topics ? Take a look at the list uploaded below. In the list, we have included 100 outstanding recycling research topics and essay ideas that are worth discussing.

Simple Recycling Essay Ideas

• Explain how to collect consumer waste.
• Write about the systems involved in curbside waste collection.
• Discuss the advantages of upholding a proper recycling stream.
• Compare plastic and paper bags.
• Explain how recycling impacts society.
• Discuss the short and long-term effects of recycling.
• Write about the usage of recycled plastics in industries.
• Discuss the process of sorting recyclates from households.
• Explain the role of 3D printers in recycling.
• Examine the economic effects of recycling raw materials.
• Discuss the value of mixed recyclables.
• Explain what changes in plastic recycling are effective.
• Discuss the challenges of recycling e-waste.
• Examine the correlation between recycling policies and renewable energy.
• Analyze the environmental impact of processing paper packages.

Also Read: 180 Best Environmental Science Research Topics

Best Recycling Research Topics

• Discuss the disadvantages and consequences of the plastic recycling policy.
• Explain how to measure recycling costs.
• Discuss the problems with recycling.
• Examine the economic benefits of recycling in pre-industrial times.
• Analyze the evolutions of recycling principles.
• Discuss the recycling issues with solar panels.
• Prepare a research paper on the history of the first recyclable electronics.
• Explain how to increase the public participation rates in recycling.
• Examine the impact of industrialization on recycling.
• Explain how to improve the success rate of recycling laws.
• Explain how to separate recyclable materials from waste.
• Write about solid waste management in the Arab World.
• Explain how to export waste for recycling.
• Discuss the role of product labeling for recycling purposes.
• Explain how to increase the recycling rate of rare metals.

Unique Recycling Research Questions

• Write about the first automated recycling facilities in Europe.
• How to create a waste supply and demand.
• Explain how to deal with poisonous materials that emit during industrial recycling.
• Discuss the legal ways to reduce the use of non-recyclable materials.
• Explain how to prevent illegal waste dumping.
• Examine how chemical recycling of polymers can extend their life.
• How to improve the recycling process of electronics.
• Explain how to regulate the cost of recyclable products through policies.
• Write about European Union laws on recycling electronic waste.
• How to increase the demand for products made from recycled materials.

Outstanding Recycling Research Topics

• Explain how to promote metal recycling among industrial refuse.
• Write about the poisonous chemicals that come from non-recycled electronics.
• Analyze the link between vehicle recycling and car prices.
• Discuss the impact of recycling on non-renewable resources.
• Evaluate the inefficiency of recycling for economic development.
• Explain how to produce valuable chemicals from plastics using pyrolysis.
• How to achieve zero pollution at production recycling facilities.
• Analyze the conflict between logistic operations and waste recycling.
• Examine the environmental impact of recycling electrical equipment.
• Analyze the impact of recycling on market value crisis.

Interesting Recycling Essay Topics

• Discuss the role and effects of lobbying in recycling.
• Explain the role of government in substandard recycling.
• Compare the recycling policies of Japan and the US.
• Write about the glass disposal system in the US.
• Prepare a research paper on water recycling.
• Discuss the benefits of food waste recycling.
• Explain how the recycling of used tires is financially and environmentally beneficial for the UAE.
• Write about the recycling practices among Latinos in the US.
• Prepare a research paper on fabric recycling.
• Analyze the environmental issues and benefits associated with paper recycling.
• Write about recycling batteries.
• Analyze Advanced Environmental Recycling Technologies.
• Prepare a research paper on waste recycling technologies in Dubai.
• Examine the future of recycling.
• Analyze the effects of recycling on the environment.

Latest Recycling Research Topics

• Explain how recycling reduces the greenhouse effect.
• Discuss the implications of implementing mandatory recycling.
• Explain how artificial intelligence can improve the recycling process.
• Suggest best methods to  increase recycling rates in cities
• Explain how to engage people in plastic recycling.
• Discuss the power of recycling and green chemistry.
• Explain how recycling material improves the agricultural business
• Evaluate the impact of recycling on landfills.
• Write about the standardization of recycling bins.
• Discuss the benefits of aluminum recycling.
• Examine the environmental impact of recycling glass.
• Explain how recycling contributes to natural habitat conservation.
• Discuss the purpose of using animal wastes as recycling material.
• Evaluate the challenges of recycling organic waste and composting.
• Write about the social and environmental implications of recycling textiles.

Top Recycling Research Ideas

• Discuss the challenges involved in paper recycling.
• Explain the limitations of greywater recycling.
• Examine the effects of improper recycling.
• Prepare a research paper on copper recycling.
• Discuss the determinants of recycling behavior in Malta.
• Discuss the influence of recycling on monopoly power.
• Suggest eco-friendly choices through recycling.
• Discuss consumer behavior towards recycling.
• Explain how to recover phosphorus for recycling.
• Discuss the supply chain implications of recycling.

Also Read: 215 Unique Economics Essay Topics and Ideas

Popular Recycling Research Paper Topics

• Explain the economic evaluation of recycling.
• Discuss the recycling issues for composite materials.
• Analyze the psychological aspects of recycling.
• How to optimize product recycling chains by control theory.
• Discuss effective recycling methods for rare metals.
• Write about incentive-based oil recycling in Kenya.
• Compare glass disposal systems in various countries.
• Discuss the reasons why recycling should not be banned.
• Examine why reducing and reusing are better than recycling.
• Write about the recycling of concrete waste.

Wrapping Up

So far, in this blog, we have looked at the different recycling research questions and essay prompts. From the above-suggested topic ideas, pick any topic of your choice and compose a brilliant academic paper. In case, you are struggling to write your recycling research paper, approach us immediately.

On our platform, we have several environmental science assignment helpers. According to your requirements, they will assist you in composing a plagiarism-free recycling research paper. Especially, by taking our environmental science research paper help online , you can finish your task before the deadline and score top grades. Furthermore, you can improve your subject knowledge by utilizing our environmental science assignment help services .

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