short essay on poverty alleviation

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Evaluating poverty alleviation strategies in a developing country

Pramod k. singh.

Institute of Rural Management Anand (IRMA), Anand, Gujarat, India

Harpalsinh Chudasama

Associated data.

All relevant data are within the manuscript and its Supporting Information files. The aggregated condensed matrix (social cognitive map) is given in S1 Table . One can replicate the findings of this study by analyzing this weight matrix.

A slew of participatory and community-demand-driven approaches have emerged in order to address the multi-dimensional nature of poverty in developing nations. The present study identifies critical factors responsible for poverty alleviation in India with the aid of fuzzy cognitive maps (FCMs) deployed for showcasing causal reasoning. It is through FCM-based simulations that the study evaluates the efficacy of existing poverty alleviation approaches, including community organisation based micro-financing, capability and social security, market-based and good governance. Our findings confirm, to some degree, the complementarity of various approaches to poverty alleviation that need to be implemented simultaneously for a comprehensive poverty alleviation drive. FCM-based simulations underscore the need for applying an integrated and multi-dimensional approach incorporating elements of various approaches for eradicating poverty, which happens to be a multi-dimensional phenomenon. Besides, the study offers policy implications for the design, management, and implementation of poverty eradication programmes. On the methodological front, the study enriches FCM literature in the areas of knowledge capture, sample adequacy, and robustness of the dynamic system model.

1. Introduction

1.1. poverty alleviation strategies.

Although poverty is a multi-dimensional phenomenon, poverty levels are often measured using economic dimensions based on income and consumption [ 1 ]. Amartya Sen’s capability deprivation approach for poverty measurement, on the other hand, defines poverty as not merely a matter of actual income but an inability to acquire certain minimum capabilities [ 2 ]. Contemplating this dissimilarity between individuals’ incomes and their inabilities is significant since the conversion of actual incomes into actual capabilities differs with social settings and individual beliefs [ 2 – 4 ]. The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) also emphasises the capabilities’ approach for poverty measurement as propounded by Amartya Sen [ 5 ]. “ Ending poverty in all its forms everywhere ” is the first of the 17 sustainable development goals set by the United Nations with a pledge that no one will be left behind [ 6 ]. Development projects and poverty alleviation programmes all over the world are predominantly aimed at reducing poverty of the poor and vulnerable communities through various participatory and community-demand-driven approaches [ 7 , 8 ]. Economic growth is one of the principal instruments for poverty alleviation and for pulling the poor out of poverty through productive employment [ 9 , 10 ]. Studies from Africa, Brazil, China, Costa Rica, and Indonesia show that rapid economic growth lifted a significant number of poor people out of financial poverty between 1970 and 2000 [ 11 ]. According to Bhagwati and Panagariya, economic growth generates revenues required for expanding poverty alleviation programmes while enabling governments to spend on the basic necessities of the poor including healthcare, education, and housing [ 9 ]. Poverty alleviation strategies may be categorised into four types including community organisations based micro-financing, capability and social security, market-based, and good governance.

Micro-finance, aimed at lifting the poor out of poverty, is a predominant poverty alleviation strategy. Having spread rapidly and widely over the last few decades, it is currently operational across several developing countries in Africa, Asia, and Latin America [ 12 – 21 ]. Many researchers and policy-makers believe that access to micro-finance in developing countries empowers the poor (especially women) while supporting income-generating activities, encouraging the entrepreneurial spirit, and reducing vulnerability [ 15 , 21 – 25 ]. There are fewer studies, however, that show conclusive and definite evidence regarding improvements in health, nutrition, and education attributable to micro-finance [ 21 , 22 ]. For micro-finance to be more effective, services like skill development training, technological support, and strategies related to better education, health and sanitation, including livelihood enhancement measures need to be included [ 13 , 17 , 19 ].

Economic growth and micro-finance for the poor might throw some light on the financial aspects of poverty, yet they do not reflect its cultural, social, and psychological dimensions [ 11 , 21 , 26 ]. Although economic growth is vital for enhancing the living conditions of the poor, it does not necessarily help the poor exclusively tilting in favour of the non-poor and privileged sections of society [ 4 ]. Amartya Sen cites social exclusion and capability deprivation as reasons for poverty [ 4 , 27 ]. His capabilities’ approach is intended to enhance people’s well-being and freedom of choices [ 4 , 27 ]. According to Sen, development should focus on maximising the individual’s ability to ensure more freedom of choices [ 27 , 28 ]. The capabilities approach provides a framework for the evaluation and assessment of several aspects of the individual’s well-being and social arrangements. It highlights the difference between means and ends as well as between substantive freedoms and outcomes. An example being the difference between fasting and starving [ 27 – 29 ]. Improving capabilities of the poor is critical for improving their living conditions [ 4 , 10 ]. Improving individuals’ capabilities also helps in the pooling of resources while allowing the poor to engage in activities that benefit them economically [ 4 , 30 ]. Social inclusion of vulnerable communities through the removal of social barriers is as significant as financial inclusion in poverty reduction strategies [ 31 , 32 ]. Social security is a set of public actions designed to reduce levels of vulnerability, risk, and deprivation [ 11 ]. It is an important instrument for addressing the issues of inequality and vulnerability [ 32 ]. It also induces gender parity owing to the equal sovereignty enjoyed by both men and women in the context of economic, social, and political activities [ 33 ].

The World Development Report 1990 endorsed a poverty alleviation strategy that combines enhanced economic growth with provisions of essential social services directed towards the poor while creating financial and social safety nets [ 34 , 35 ]. Numerous social safety net programmes and public spending on social protection, including social insurance schemes and social assistance payments, continue to act as tools of poverty alleviation in many of the developing countries across the world [ 35 – 39 ]. These social safety nets and protection programmes show positive impacts on the reduction of poverty, extent, vulnerability, and on a wide range of social inequalities in developing countries. One major concern dogging these programmes, however, is their long-term sustainability [ 35 ].

Agriculture and allied farm activities have been the focus of poverty alleviation strategies in rural areas. Lately, though, much of the focus has shifted to livelihood diversification on the part of researchers and policy-makers [ 15 , 40 ]. Promoting non-farm livelihoods, along with farm activities, can offer pathways for economic growth and poverty alleviation in developing countries the world over [ 40 – 44 ]. During the early 2000s, the development of comprehensive value chains and market systems emerged as viable alternatives for poverty alleviation in developing countries [ 45 ]. Multi-sectoral micro-enterprises may be deployed for enhancing productivity and profitability through value chains and market systems, they being important for income generation of the rural poor while playing a vital role in inclusive poverty eradication in developing countries [ 46 – 48 ].

Good governance relevant to poverty alleviation has gained top priority in development agendas over the past few decades [ 49 , 50 ]. Being potentially weak in the political and administrative areas of governance, developing countries have to deal with enormous challenges related to social services and security [ 49 , 51 ]. In order to receive financial aid from multinational donor agencies, a good governance approach towards poverty reduction has become a prerequisite for developing countries [ 49 , 50 ]. This calls for strengthening a participatory, transparent, and accountable form of governance if poverty has to be reduced while improving the lives of the poor and vulnerable [ 50 , 51 ]. Despite the importance of this subject, very few studies have explored the direct relationship between good governance and poverty alleviation [ 50 , 52 , 53 ]. Besides, evidence is available, both in India and other developing countries, of information and communication technology (ICT) contributing to poverty alleviation programmes [ 54 ]. Capturing, storing, processing, and transmitting various types of information with the help of ICT empowers the rural poor by increasing access to micro-finance, expanding the use of basic and advance government services, enabling the development of additional livelihood assets, and facilitating pro-poor market development [ 54 – 56 ].

1.2. Proposed contribution of the paper

Several poverty alleviation programmes around the world affirm that socio-political inclusion of the poor and vulnerable, improvement of social security, and livelihood enhancement coupled with activities including promoting opportunities for socio-economic growth, facilitating gender empowerment, improving facilities for better healthcare and education, and stepping up vulnerability reduction are central to reducing the overall poverty of poor and vulnerable communities [ 1 , 11 ]. These poverty alleviation programmes remain instruments of choice for policy-makers and development agencies even as they showcase mixed achievements in different countries and localities attributable to various economic and socio-cultural characteristics, among other things. Several poverty alleviation programmes continue to perform poorly despite significant investments [ 8 ]. The failure rate of the World Bank’s development projects was above 50% in Africa until 2000 [ 57 ]. Hence, identifying context-specific factors critical to the success of poverty alleviation programmes is vital.

Rich literature is available pertinent to the conceptual aspects of poverty alleviation. Extant literature emphasises the importance of enhancing capabilities and providing social safety, arranging high-quality community organisation based micro-financing, working on economic development, and ensuring good governance. However, the literature is scanty with regard to comparative performances of the above approaches. The paper tries to fill this gap. This study, through fuzzy cognitive mapping (FCM)-based simulations, evaluates the efficacy of these approaches while calling for an integrative approach involving actions on all dimensions to eradicate the multi-dimensional nature of poverty. Besides, the paper aims to make a two-fold contribution to the FCM literature: i) knowledge capture and sample adequacy, and ii) robustness of the dynamic system model.

The remainder of the paper proceeds as follows: We describe the methodology adopted in the study in section two. Section three illustrates key features of the FCM system in the context of poverty alleviation, FCM-based causal linkages, and policy scenarios for poverty alleviation with the aid of FCM-based simulations. We present our contribution to the extant literature relating to FCM and poverty alleviation. Finally, we conclude the paper and offer policy implications of the study.

2. Methodology

We conducted the study with the aid of the FCM-based approach introduced by Kosko in 1986 [ 58 ]. The process of data capture in the FCM approach is considered quasi-quantitative because the quantification of concepts and links may be interpreted in relative terms [ 59 ] allowing participants to debate the cause-effect relations between the qualitative concepts while generating quantitative data based on their experiences, knowledge, and perceptions of inter-relationships between concepts [ 60 – 64 , 65 – 68 ]. The FCM approach helps us visualise how interconnected factors/ variables/ concepts affect one another while representing self-loop and feedback within complex systems [ 62 , 63 , 69 ]. A cognitive map is a signed digraph with a series of feedback comprising concepts (nodes) that describe system behavior and links (edges) representing causal relationships between concepts [ 60 – 63 , 65 , 70 – 72 ]. FCMs may be created by individuals as well as by groups [ 60 , 72 , 73 ]. Individual cognitive mapping and group meeting approaches have their advantages and drawbacks [ 72 ]. FCMs allow the analysis of non-linear systems with causal relations, while their recurrent neural network behaviour [ 69 , 70 , 74 ] help in modelling complex and hard-to-model systems [ 61 – 63 ]. The FCM approach also provides the means to build multiple scenarios through system-based modelling [ 60 – 64 , 69 , 74 , 75 ].

The strengths and applications of FCM methodology, focussing on mental models, vary in terms of approach. It is important to remember, though, that (i) the FCM approach is not driven by data unavailability but is responsible for generating data [ 60 , 76 ]. Also that (ii) FCMs can model complex and ambiguous systems revealing hidden and important feedback within the systems [ 58 , 60 , 62 , 69 , 76 ] and (iii) FCMs have the ability to represent, integrate, and compare data–an example being expert opinion vis-à-vis indigenous knowledge–from multiple sources while divulging divergent viewpoints [ 60 ]. (iv) Finally, FCMs enable various policy simulations through an interactive scenario analysis [ 60 , 62 , 69 , 76 ].

The FCM methodology does have its share of weaknesses. To begin with: (i) Respondents’ misconceptions and biases tend to get encoded in the maps [ 60 , 62 ]. (ii) Possibility of susceptibility to group power dynamics in a group model-building setting cannot be ruled out; (iii) FCMs require a large amount of post-processing time [ 67 ]. (iv) The FCM-based simulations are non-real value and relative parameter estimates and lack spatial and temporal representation [ 60 , 77 , 78 ].

These drawbacks notwithstanding, we, along with many researchers, conceded that the strengths and applications of FCM methodology outweighed the former, particularly with regard to integrating data from multiple stakeholders with different viewpoints.

We adopted the multi-step FCM methodology discussed in the following sub-sections. We adopted the multi-step FCM methodology discussed in the following sub-sections. We obtained individual cognitive maps from the participants in two stages: ‘open-concept design’ approach followed by the ‘pre-concept design’ approach. We coded individual cognitive maps into adjacency matrices and aggregated individual cognitive maps to form a social cognitive map. FCM-based simulation was used to build policy scenarios for poverty alleviation using different input vectors.

2.1. Obtaining cognitive maps from the participants

A major proportion of the literature on fuzzy cognitive maps reflects an ‘open-concept design’ approach, while some studies also rely on a ‘pre-designed concept’ approach with regard to data collection.

In the case of the ‘open-concept design’ approach, concepts are determined entirely by participants and are unrestricted [ 59 , 60 , 62 , 63 , 65 – 67 , 79 , 80 ]. While the researcher determines the context of the model by specifying the system being modelled, including the boundaries of the system, participants are allowed to decide what concepts will be included. This approach provides very little restriction in the knowledge capture from participants and can be extremely beneficial especially if there is insufficient knowledge regarding the system being modelled.

In the case of the ‘pre-designed concept’ approach, concepts are pre-determined either by experts or by researchers using available literature [ 64 , 69 , 74 , 81 , 82 ]. In this approach, the researcher is able to exercise a higher degree of control over how the system is defined. The ‘pre-designed concept’ approach is likely to be more efficient compared to the ‘open-concept design’ in the context of time required for model building. However, it restricts the diversity of knowledge captured from participants and is able to influence more heavily the way in which this knowledge is contextualised based on input and interpretation.

We have adopted a ‘mixed-concept design’ approach for this study involving data collection in two stages:

2.1.1. Stage one: ‘Open-concept design’ approach

During the first stage, we engaged with the experts and national-level policy-makers who designed the Deendayal Antyodaya Yojana -National Rural Livelihoods Mission (DAY-NRLM), a centrally sponsored programme in India. The DAY-NRLM aims at abolishing rural poverty by promoting multiple livelihoods for the rural poor and vulnerable households. The programme is focussed on organising the rural poor and vulnerable communities into self-help groups (SHGs) while equipping them with means of self-employment. The four critical components of the programme viz ., (i) universal social mobilisation and institution building, (ii) financial inclusion, (iii) convergence and social development, and (iv) livelihood enhancement are designed to address the exclusions of these communities, eliminate their poverty, and bring them within the ambit of mainstream economic and social systems. Participants comprising three experts from the World Bank, nine experts from the National Mission Management Unit of the DAY-NRLM, and 25 monitoring and evaluation experts from 25 states of India created 37 FCMs. A sample map of FCMs obtained from these participants is provided in S1 Fig . We demonstrated the construction of fuzzy cognitive maps with the aid of a map from a neutral problem domain referring to direct and consequential impacts of deforestation, which had been approved by the ‘Research Ethics Committee’ of our Institute.

A group discussion was held with the participants regarding the issues under investigation subsumed under the title “critical factors required to ensure that people come out of poverty on a sustainable basis”. It prompted them to identify major concepts pertaining to the above. These were listed down on a whiteboard by the researchers. Once the participants had understood the process of drawing a fuzzy cognitive map and identified major concepts responsible for poverty alleviation, they were asked to draw a fuzzy cognitive map individually. The participants used the concepts listed on the whiteboard to draw fuzzy cognitive maps. Many participants added new concepts while drawing the maps. They then connected all the concepts through various links based on their personal understanding. The links, represented by arrows in between concepts, show the direction of influence between them.

The participants assigned weights to each link on a scale of 1–10 to describe the relationship strength between two concepts [ 60 ]. Ten denoted the highest strength and one the lowest; the numbers 1–3 signified relationships with low strength, 4–6 signified relationships with medium strength, and 7–10 signified relationships with high strength. After constructing the FCMs each participant made a presentation, which was video-recorded, explaining their map to the researchers. The researchers, based on causal relationships between the concepts, assigned positive and negative polarities to the weights of the links [ 59 , 60 , 62 – 64 , 66 – 68 , 72 ].

2.1.2. Stage two: ‘Pre-designed concept’ approach

During the second stage, an instrument depicting 95 concepts under 22 concept categories was prepared based on the FCMs obtained from participants during the first stage ( S2 Fig ). The instrument also contained links between the 22 concept categories. ‘Research Ethics Committee’ of our Institute approved this instrument as well. We used this instrument during the second stage to obtain FCMs. We obtained 123 additional FCMs, of which 20 FCMs were obtained from the Chief Executive Officers along with experts from livelihood, enterprise, and community development domains belonging to the National Mission Management Unit in the states of Bihar, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, and Maharashtra. The remaining 103 FCMs were obtained from 103 district project coordinators, who had agreed to participate in the study. Unlike most FCM-based studies, which usually rely upon 30 to 50 participants, this study involved 174 experts and project implementers. Most participants produced FCMs individually and some in pairs. The 174 participants produced 160 FCMs.

The participants were given the instrument and were instructed to assign weights to each concept, wherever applicable, and leave other cells blank. These weights were assigned based on the concepts’ significance regarding poverty alleviation in India. The instrument was designed to allow participants to add new concepts and/or remove existing ones from the instrument based on their understanding and perceptions. Later, the participants were asked to assign weights to all pre-established links between the 22 concept categories. The instrument also allowed participants to draw new linkages between the categories and/or discard the existing relationships based on their understanding and perceptions. After constructing the FCMs each participant made a presentation to the researchers, which was video-recorded. During the process, participants added 55 new concepts within the pre-classified 22 concept categories. Five new concepts were added under a new category. The final data comprised 23 concept categories and 155 concepts ( S3 Fig ).

2.2. Coding individual cognitive maps into adjacency matrices

The individual FCMs were coded into separate excel sheets, with concepts listed in vertical and horizontal axes, forming an N x N adjacency matrix. The weights of the links, on a scale of 1−10, were normalised in the −1 to +1 range [ 62 , 63 ]. The values were then coded into a square adjacency matrix whenever a connection existed between any two concepts [ 60 , 62 – 64 , 66 ].

2.3. Aggregation of individual cognitive maps

There are various methods of aggregating individual FCMs; each method has advantages and disadvantages [ 83 ]. We aggregated individual adjacency matrices obtained by normalising each adjacency matrix element according to its decisional weight, w i , and the number of participants, k , who supported it. The following equation illustrates the augmentation of individual adjacency matrices:

M FCM is the aggregated adjacency matrix, where, k represents the number of participants interviewed; w i is the decisional weight of the expert i , where, ∑ i = 1 k w i = 1 ; and m i is the adjacency matrix written by the participant i .

This aggregation approach has been adopted by many researchers [ 59 , 60 , 63 – 67 , 74 , 79 , 84 – 87 ]. A large number of concepts in an aggregated (social/ group) fuzzy cognitive map with many interconnections and feedback form a complex system. Aggregation of all the 160 individual cognitive maps produced a social cognitive map ( S1 Table ). This shows the cumulative strength of the system.

2.4. Structural analysis of the system

Structural analysis of the final condensed social cognitive map was undertaken using the FCMapper software. The graph theory of a cognitive map provides a way of characterising FCM structures employing several indices in addition to the number of concepts (C) and links (W) such as in-degree, out-degree, centrality, complexity index, and density index [ 60 ].

The in-degree is the column sum of absolute values of a concept in the adjacency matrix. It shows the cumulative strength of links entering the concept ( w ji ). Where n = the total number of concepts:

The out-degree is the row sum of absolute values of a concept in the adjacency matrix. It shows the cumulative strengths of links exiting the concept ( w ij ). Where n = the total number of concepts:

The degree centrality of a concept is the summation of its in-degree and out-degree. The higher the value, the greater is the importance of a concept in the overall model [ 60 ].

Transmitter concepts (T) depict positive out-degree and zero in-degree. Receiver concepts (R) represent positive in-degree and zero out-degree. Ordinary concepts (O) have both a non-zero in-degree and out-degree [ 60 ].

The complexity index of a cognitive map is the ratio of receiver concepts (R) to transmitter concepts (T). Higher complexity indicates more complex systems thinking [ 60 ]:

The density index of a cognitive map is an index of connectivity showing how connected or sparse the maps are. It is a product of the number of concepts (C) and the number of links (W). Here the number of existing links is compared to the number of all possible links. Higher the density, greater the existence of potential management policies [ 60 ]:

2.5. Fuzzy cognitive maps-based simulations

The scenarios formed through FCM-based simulations can serve to guide managers and policy-makers during the decision-making process [ 62 – 64 , 66 , 69 , 82 , 88 – 90 ]. An FCM is formed out of the adjacency matrix and a state vector, representing the values of the connections between the concepts and the values of the system concepts [ 62 , 63 , 69 ]. The weighted adjacency matrix of an FCM forms a recurrent neural network, including concepts and interconnections for processing the information and feedback loops [ 88 , 91 ]. These have been used to analyse system behavior by running FCM-based simulations in order to determine possible future scenarios.

In order to understand FCM-based simulations, let us understand the FCM as a quadruple, i.e. M = (C n , W , A , f) , where, n is the set of all concepts ( C ) in the map, W : ( C i , C j ) → w ij is a function which defines the causal weight matrix, W M × M , A : ( C i ) → A ( t ) i is a function that computes the activation degree of each concept C i at the discrete-time step t ( t = 1, 2, …, T ), and f (.) is the transfer function [ 63 , 71 , 92 , 93 ]. Knowledge and experience of stakeholders regarding the system determine the type and number of concepts as well as the weights of the links in FCMs. The value A i of a concept C i , expresses the quantity of its corresponding value. With values assigned to the concepts and weights, the FCM converges to an equilibrium point [ 71 , 91 ]. At each step, the value A i of a concept is calculated, following an activation rule, which computes the influence of other concepts to a specific concept.

We have used an increasingly popular activation rule [ 61 – 64 , 90 , 91 ] introduced by Stylios [ 94 ], which is as follows:

Where, n is the total number of concepts, A i ( t +1) is the value of concept C i at simulation step t +1, A i ( t ) is the value of concept C i at simulation step t , A j ( t ) is the value of concept C j at simulation step t , w ji is the weight of the interconnection between concept C j and concept C i , and f is the transformation function [ 64 , 90 ]. The restriction i ≠ j is used when self-causation is assumed to be impossible [ 91 ].

The simulation outcomes also depend on the type of transformation function used. The most frequently used transformation functions (ƒ) are sigmoid and hyperbolic tangent functions [ 90 – 93 ]. When the values of concepts can only be positive, i.e. in the range of (0,1), the most common unipolar sigmoid transformation function is used [ 64 , 91 – 93 ]. Following is the mathematical equation of the sigmoid transformation function:

Where, 𝛌 is a real positive number (𝛌 > 0) and a constant value that determines the slope steepness factor, while, x is the value of concept A i ( t ) on the equilibrium point [ 64 , 93 ]. Higher values of 𝛌 increase the steepness and make it more sensitive to the changes of x . Hence, the derivative δ f δ x becomes higher when increasing the activation value [ 95 ].

2.5.1. Development of input vectors for policy scenarios

Identifying pivotal concepts is a traditional approach in scenario planning that helps linking storylines to the quantitative model [ 96 ]. In the FCM-based scenario analysis, recognition of such pivotal concepts, termed as input vectors, mainly relies upon participants’ perceptions along with the characteristics of the model. We identified four input vectors for four poverty alleviation policy scenarios based on existing literature on poverty alleviation strategies. The fifth input vector is based on the concepts with the highest weights identified by the participants. In the sixth input vector, the concept representing entrepreneurship is replaced by the concept representing livelihood diversification considering its importance based on existing literature [ 15 , 40 ]. All six scenarios are explained below:

Scenario 1 : High-quality community organisation based micro-financing —Input vector 1: C2, C3, C4, C5, C11, and C12 (strong institutions of the poor, community heroes driving the programme, capacity building of the community organisations, mainstream financial institutions supporting community organisations, need-based finance, and developing repayment culture). This scenario tries to examine how high-quality community organisation based micro-finance could alleviate poverty.

Scenario 2 : Capabilities and social security —Input vector 2: C19, C20, C21, C22, and C23 (affordable and approachable education and healthcare, social inclusion, building personal assets, adequate knowledge base, and vulnerability reduction). This scenario tries to estimate how improving the capabilities of the poor and providing them social security would help alleviate poverty.

Scenario 3 : Market-based approach —Input vector 3: C13, C14, C15, C16, and C17 (livelihood diversification, entrepreneurship, multi-sectoral collective enterprise, value addition by collectives, and market linkages). This scenario tries to evaluate how a market-based approach could alleviate poverty.

Scenario 4 : Good governance approach —Input vector 4: C6, C7, C8, C9, and C10 (good governance systems and processes, robust monitoring mechanisms, implementation process, linkages/ convergence/ partnerships, and enabling policy & political will). This scenario tries to evaluate how good governance is crucial for poverty alleviation.

Scenario 5 : Integrative approach 1 —Input vector 5: C2, C3, C6, C9, C10, C14, and C19 (strong institutions of the poor, community heroes driving the programme, sound governance systems and processes, enabling policy & political will, linkages/ convergence/ partnerships, entrepreneurship, and affordable and approachable education and healthcare). This scenario tries to assess how the most critical concepts, identified by the participants, are crucial for poverty alleviation.

Scenario 6 : Integrative approach 2 —Input vector 6: C2, C3, C6, C9, C10, C13, and C19 (strong institutions of the poor, community heroes driving the programme, good governance systems and processes, enabling policy & political will, linkages/ convergence/ partnerships, livelihood diversification, and affordable and approachable education and healthcare). This scenario tries to assess how the most important concepts, including livelihood diversification, are critical for the alleviation of poverty. Based on the relative weights, scenarios 4 to 6 also had alternative input vectors incorporating sensitive support structure (C1) without any demonstrable results.

2.5.2. Simulation process

Each concept in the system has an initial state vector A 0 that varies from 0 to |1|. which is associated with an activation vector, where 0 means ‘non-activated’ and |1| means ‘activated’ [ 65 , 80 ]. A new state of the concepts can be calculated by multiplying the adjacency matrix with the state vector [ 69 ]. When one or more concepts are ‘activated’ this activation spreads through the matrix following the weighted relationships. During the simulation process, each iteration produces a new state vector with ‘activated’ concepts and ‘non-activated’ concepts. Self-loops and feedback cause a repeated activation of concepts, introducing non-linearity to the model [ 61 , 70 , 88 ]. The activation of concepts is iterated, using a ‘squashing function’ to rescale concept values towards |1|, until the vector values stabilise and the model reaches equilibrium or steady-state [ 61 , 65 , 70 ]. The resulting concept values may be used to interpret outcomes of a particular scenario and to study the dynamics of the modeled system [ 61 – 63 , 70 ].

The simulation process is carried out with the initial state vector of the input vectors, identified in each scenario (1 to 6), clamped to 1 ( A 1 ) and the initial state vector of all the other concepts clamped to 0 ( A 0 ). We applied the activation rule proposed by Stylios [ 94 ], to run simulations because of its memory capabilities along with the sigmoid transformation function as the links have only positive values. The sensitivity of the system was analysed by clamping the concepts of each input vector to 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, and 0.9 ( S4 Fig ) to determine whether the system behaves in a similar manner in each simulation [ 62 , 63 , 72 , 89 ].

3. Results and discussions

3.1. key features of the fcm system in the context of poverty alleviation.

The social cognitive map built by combining the individual FCMs comprises 23 concepts and 51 links ( Fig 2 and S1 Table ). This FCM system has a density index of 0.088, which signifies that 8.8% links are actually made of the maximum number of links that could theoretically exist between the 24 concepts. The FCM system has a complexity index of 0.125, which showcases more utility outcomes and less controlling forcing functions. However, unless the density and complexity values of the FCM system are compared to those of other FCM systems representing a similar topic, interpretation of these figures is challenging [ 75 ].

There are some autonomous concepts virtually disengaged from the system. Some dependent concepts although have a relatively low degree of influence, exhibit strong dependence. The contribution of a concept in a cognitive map can be understood by its degree centrality, which is the summation of in-degree and out-degree. Table 1 illustrates the in-degree and out-degree and degree centrality of the FCM system. Concepts have been depicted such as C2: strong institutions of the poor, C15: multi-sectoral collective enterprise development, C13: livelihood diversification and C14: entrepreneurship have higher degree centrality. These concepts should be interpreted as the greatest strength of poverty alleviation strategies. The most influential concepts (i.e., those with the highest out-degree) affecting the poverty alleviation strategies are C6: good governance systems and processes, C19: affordable and approachable education and healthcare, C18: climate-smart production systems, C2: strong institutions of the poor, and C5: mainstream financial institutions supporting CBOs. Scenario analysis results will later help us gain a deeper understanding of the connectivity and influencing concepts of poverty alleviation.

The participants also provided the state vector values (A) of all the concepts (C) based on their understanding of the relative significance of these concepts regarding poverty alleviation in India ( Fig 1 ).

The results show that participants assigned greater significance to the following concepts- C3: community heroes driving the programme, C1: quality support structure, C19: affordable and approachable education and healthcare, C6: good governance systems and processes, C2: strong institutions of the poor, C12: developing repayment culture, and C7: robust monitoring mechanisms.

The results acknowledge that building strong institutions of the poor for a community-demand-driven and community-managed poverty alleviation programme is likely to enjoy greater success. They also confirm that developing robust monitoring mechanisms can ensure better functioning of the community-based organisations (CBOs). Robust governance systems and processes are essential for vibrant CBOs. They can empower communities to have better access to affordable education and healthcare facilities. Better access to micro-finance for these CBOs could help alleviate the economic poverty of the poor and vulnerable communities.

The results, however, fail to capture the cultural and social dimensions of poverty.

3.2. Understanding the poverty alleviation strategy

This section summarises the views of participants across the concepts based on the presentations made by them to the researcher during both the stages of knowledge capture. Fig 2 illustrates the cognitive interpretive diagram formed using the social cognitive map. The concepts, represented by each node in the diagram, are connected by several links. These links establish relationships between the concepts representing the basis of degree centrality. The central concept is people coming out of poverty, which is depicted with yellow color in Fig 2 .

Participants indicated that setting up a quality and dedicated support structures at multiple levels (national, state, district, and block) is essential for poverty alleviation ( Fig 2 : C1). The support structures should be staffed with professionally competent and dedicated human resources. The crucial role of these support structures is to build and nurture strong institutions of the poor ( Fig 2 : C2) at multiple levels and evanesce when community heroes start driving the programme. Building and sustaining strong, inclusive, self-managed, and self-reliant institutions of the poor at various levels such as self-help groups (SHGs), village organisations (VOs), and cluster-level federations (CLFs) through training, handholding, and systematic guidance are crucial to the success of a poverty alleviation programme. However, superior CBOs are required to ensure the quality of primary-level institutions and their sustainability. Adherence to the five principles (regular meetings, regular savings, regular inter-loaning, timely repayment of the loans, and up-to-date books of accounts), co-ordination, and cohesiveness between the members would go a long way in building strong institutions of the poor.

Participants emphasised the importance of community heroes in driving the poverty alleviation programme ( Fig 2 : C3). The poverty eradication programme is likely to meet with greater success if it is entirely operated and managed by the community. Involving experienced community members for social mobilisation, capacity building and scaling-up of various processes within the project will ensure effective functioning and implementation of the programme. Participants believed that the capacity building of the CBOs, community resource persons, community cadres, and community service providers ( Fig 2 : C4) are essential for poverty alleviation. Apart from training in social and financial inclusion, these community members should be provided with knowledge, skills, and tools to improve their existing livelihoods and for managing innovative livelihood collectives and micro-enterprises. Providing access to financial services to society’s most vulnerable group in a cost-effective manner through mainstream financial institutions and allowing the poor to become preferred clients of the banking system is fundamental to the financial inclusion strategy of a poverty alleviation programme ( Fig 2 : C5). The SHG-bank linkage enables an easy access to micro-finance for the SHGs. It also serves to foster their faith towards the banking system.

Good governance systems and processes are crucial to building sensitive support structures and strong institutions of the poor ( Fig 2 : C6). A well-structured process for participatory identification of the poor by the community helps identify very poor, poor, vulnerable, tribal, differently-abled, and other marginalised communities in a village. A robust process for grading the quality of SHGs and their federations could help maintain a high standard for these institutions. Strong, robust, and transparent monitoring mechanisms ( Fig 2 : C7) could ensure good governance systems and processes. The process-oriented approach of the programme needs to undergo continuous review, assessment, and course-correction from the qualitative and quantitative progress achieved at various levels. Hence, participants suggested that a robust ICT-based monitoring and evaluation system remain in place for facilitating informed decision-making at all levels. The participants also indicated the urgency of robust implementation of institutional accountability and a self-monitoring process in institutions of the poor at all levels, including peer internal review mechanisms, external social auditing, public expenditure tracking, and community scorecards, in order to build stronger institutions of the poor ( Fig 2 : C8). Transparency in the functioning of human resources at all levels aided by regular meetings, reviews, and monitoring of progress could ensure effective implementation of the programme. Maintaining equity and transparency in releasing finances and ensuring effective fund utilisation across all eligible groups could also help focus on the most vulnerable groups.

The participants believed that a poverty alleviation programme should have a strong convergence with other welfare programmes ( Fig 2 : C9). Stronger emphasis should be placed on convergence for developing synergies directly and through the institutions of the poor. Participants suggested that the programme recognise the importance of engaging with industries to set up platforms for public-private-partnerships in farm and non-farm sectors while developing various sector-specific value chains to harness the comparative advantage of the micro-enterprise sector. The political will to support and encourage CBOs, enabling policies for smooth and efficient working of the institutions of the poor, diminished political influence in the decision-making of CBOs, and timely and adequate resource allocation on the part of government institutions is critical for poverty alleviation programmes ( Fig 2 : C10).

Participants acknowledged that livelihood augmentation requires customised need-based financing for the poor and vulnerable ( Fig 2 : C11). Access to micro-finance at affordable rates of interest coupled with desired amounts and convenient repayment terms are needed for the poverty reduction of communities. Providing interest subvention for all SHG loans availed from mainstream financial institutions, based on prompt loan repayment, helps develop a healthy loan repayment culture ( Fig 2 : C12).

Participants opined that diversification of livelihoods would ensure steady incomes for households ( Fig 2 : C13). The development of micro-enterprise in farm and non-farm sectors could encourage institutions of the poor in the aggregation of produce, value-addition, and marketing of finished goods. Therefore, it is imperative that more and more sustainable enterprises be created by the poor to improve their livelihood security. The demand-driven entrepreneurship ( Fig 2 : C14) programmes could be taken up through public-private-partnerships. Provisions could be made for incubation funds and start-up funds for the development of multi-sectoral livelihood collectives ( Fig 2 : C15) to foster a collective entrepreneurship spirit. Livelihood activities, in order to be commercially viable, would require economy of scale, enabling the adoption of available technologies while providing better bargaining power, offering a more significant political clout, and influencing public policy over time. Building specialised multi-sectoral collective institutions of the poor, such as producers’ companies and co-operatives could make the latter key players in the market. These livelihood institutions could carry out participatory livelihood mapping and integrated livelihood planning as well as build robust livelihood clusters, supply chains, and value chains. They could also identify gaps in the supply and value chains, create backward and forward linkages, and tap market opportunities for intervention and collectivisation for chosen livelihood activities ( Fig 2 : C16; C17). Developing adequate and productive infrastructure for processing, storage, packaging, and transportation is crucial for value addition ( Fig 2 : C16). The demand-based value chain development is currently evident in micro-investment planning processes. Identifying non-farm activities to support enterprises in a comprehensive way could also be crucial. Adequate market linkages and support services like branding, market research, market knowledge, market infrastructure, and backward linkages would go a long way in deriving optimum returns from the chosen livelihood activities ( Fig 2 : C17).

Several eco-friendly, climate-smart, and innovative approaches in agriculture production systems will ensure the sustainability of production systems even in the context of climate change ( Fig 2 : C18). Contemporary grassroots innovations supplemented by robust scientific analysis, mainly supported by various government programmes, are likely to ensure enhanced and efficient production systems. Focus on developing adequate infrastructure for processing, storing, and transporting for value addition would serve to reduce post-harvest losses.

Participants believed that affordable and approachable quality education up to the secondary level as well as affordable and quality healthcare facilities are crucial for poverty alleviation ( Fig 2 : C19). Convergence with mid-day-meal schemes will not only encourage communities to send their children to schools but also help curb malnutrition. An affordable and approachable healthcare system is likely to help reduce health-related vulnerabilities of the poor. Crucial is an approach that identifies all needy and poor households while primarily focussing on vulnerable sections like scheduled castes, scheduled tribes, particularly vulnerable tribal groups, single women and women-headed households, disabled, landless, migrant labor, isolated communities, and those living in disturbed areas. Equally crucial is including them in institutions of the poor ( Fig 2 : C20). Customised micro-financing coupled with adequate instruments on healthcare and education could aid vulnerability reduction ( Fig 2 : C23). The social, human, and personal assets created by developing institutions of the poor are crucial for sustaining and scaling-up of the poverty alleviation programme ( Fig 2 : C21). This will also allow women to articulate their problems and improve their self-confidence, enhance their respect in society, develop leadership qualities, inspire them to speak and express their feelings unhesitatingly, and empower them economically and socially. Developing an academic understanding of the factors that support community institutions is crucial for the social infrastructure developed to facilitate the social capital building of the poor and vulnerable communities ( Fig 2 : C22).

3.3. FCM-based simulations

In order to evaluate critical factors responsible for poverty alleviation, we used six input vectors for FCM-based simulations. For each scenario, causal propagation occurs in each iteration until the FCM system converges [ 62 – 65 , 67 , 70 , 91 ]. This happens when no change takes place in the values of a concept after a certain point, also known as the system steady-state; the conceptual vector at that point is called the final state vector [ 62 – 65 , 67 , 70 , 91 ]. Values of the final state vectors depend on the structure of the FCM system and concepts considered for input vectors. The larger the value of the final state vectors, the better the selected policies [ 62 – 65 ]. Comparisons between the final state vectors of the alternative simulations are drawn in order to assess the extent of the desired transition by activating each set of input vectors. The initial values and final state vectors of all the concepts for every scenario are presented in Table 2 . The graphical representation of various scenarios for poverty alleviation is provided in the S5 Fig .

*O = Ordinary; T = Transmitter; R = Receiver

The first scenario highlights the effects of high-quality community organisations based micro-financing approach. If strong institutions of the poor are built and community heroes start driving the poverty alleviation programme, capacity building of the CBOs gets underway. If mainstream financial institutions start supporting CBOs while customised need-based finance and a repayment culture is developed significant efforts would still be required for putting good governance systems and processes in place along with linkages/ convergences/ partnerships along with other schemes while building capabilities of the poor. In the case of successful micro-financing, there will be opportunities for livelihood diversification, entrepreneurship, multi-sectoral collective enterprise development, value addition by collectives, and market linkages.

The second scenario highlights the effects of the capabilities approach and social security. In this case, affordable and approachable education and healthcare, social inclusion, the building of personal assets, adequate knowledge base, and vulnerability reduction are ensured. In this context, ample efforts will be required for mainstream financial institutions supporting CBOs, good governance systems and processes, and linkages/ convergences/ partnerships with other schemes. Efforts will also be required for a quality support structure and customised need-based finance. The capability and social security enhancement could have prospects for strong institutions of the poor, better implementation processes, livelihood diversification, entrepreneurship, value addition by collectives, multi-sectoral collective enterprise development, and vulnerability reduction.

The third scenario highlights the outcomes of the market-based approach. Here, livelihood diversification, entrepreneurship, multi-sectoral collective enterprise development, value addition by collectives, and market linkages are activated. In such a situation, adequate efforts will be required for mainstream financial institutions supporting CBOs, good governance systems and processes, and linkages/ convergences/ partnerships with other schemes. Efforts will also be required for continuous capacity building of the CBOs, customised need-based finance, affordable and approachable education and healthcare, and vulnerability reduction.

The fourth scenario highlights the outcomes of good governance. Here, good governance systems and processes, robust monitoring mechanisms, implementation processes, enabling policies and political will, and linkages/ convergence/ partnership with other governmental schemes are ensured. In such a situation, plentiful efforts will be required for mainstream financial institutions to lend their support to CBOs and for the building of personal assets. Efforts will also be required for developing a repayment culture, climate-smart production systems, and vulnerability reduction. Good governance is likely to ensure strong institutions of the poor, development of collective enterprises, livelihood diversification, entrepreneurship, value addition by collectives, and market linkages.

In the fifth and sixth scenarios, we activated the most important concepts identified by the participants. The sixth scenario is similar to the fifth one except that the concept C14: entrepreneurship has been replaced by the concept C13: livelihood diversification. The simulation results reveal that quality of CBOs, strong institutions of the poor, community heroes driving the programme, good governance systems and processes, convergence with other schemes/ programmes, enabling policies and political will, and livelihood diversification are very critical for poverty alleviation in a developing nation.

The participants judged a relatively higher weight for the concept C1 (sensitive support structure) ( Fig 1 ). This could be attributed to a conflict of interest on the part of the participants. Even after activating the concept C1 across policy scenarios 4 to 6, the outcome does not change. This also justifies the fact that any community-demand-driven and community-managed poverty alleviation programme has to be self-sustainable in the long-term. Therefore, while a poverty alleviation programme may make use of a support structure in its initial phase, it should persist at thriving even after the support structure has been withdrawn.

4. Contributions to FCM and poverty literature and future research directions

This section deals with contributions of the paper to FCM and poverty literature while offering a practical approach to address multi-dimensional poverty. The paper makes a two-fold contribution to FCM literature: i) knowledge capture and sample adequacy and ii) robustness of the dynamic system model. FCM sampling is often extended if additional maps keep adding new dimensions/ insights. The saturation of FCM sampling is formally measured by tracking the number of new concepts introduced in subsequent exercises and estimating an accumulation curve of concepts. When the point of saturation is reached data collection is stopped. In most studies, the saturation of FCM sampling is reported at 30–32 maps [ 60 , 62 , 63 , 66 , 72 ]. This study does demonstrate, however, that in the event of a ‘mixed-concept design’ approach when the participants gain access to concepts already identified by other sets of participant groups the latter participants continue to add new concepts, making the system much more complex and the data richer. Most FCM-based case studies published in scientific journals have taken weights of the causal interactions between the concepts. This study has not only obtained weights of the causal interactions between the concepts but also obtained weights of each concept. Results of the FCM-based simulations, by and large, match with the most critical concepts identified by participants represented by higher relative weights. This demonstrates in-depth understanding of participants of the subject matter and robustness of the system.

Scenarios are defined as ‘a plausible description of how the future may develop based on a coherent and internally consistent set of assumptions’ [ 97 ]. It also represents uncertainty as a range of plausible futures. Hence, in order to establish proper causal pathways of various poverty eradication approaches, it may be necessary to design random control trial experiments along each of the poverty eradication approaches and carry out the efficacy of each approach delineated above using the difference-in-difference micro-econometric model.

5. Conclusions

The results of our FCM-based simulations reveal that in order to eradicate poverty one needs to provide micro-finance through high-quality community organisations, enhance capabilities of the poor while providing social safety nets to the poor and vulnerable, ensure good governance within community organisations and institutions supporting them, continue to diversify livelihood options, and provide market linkages to small producers. Our findings confirm that various approaches to poverty alleviation are rather complementary and need to be implemented simultaneously for a comprehensive poverty alleviation drive. However, in relative terms, factors like good governance within community organisations and supporting institutions, high-quality community organisations based micro-financing, and enhancement of capabilities coupled with social security assurance seem to work better than a market-based approach. There is rich literature available on radical approaches like land reforms, decentralisation and poverty alleviation that have not been evaluated in this study. Nevertheless, findings of the study lead us to conclude that in order to address multi-dimensional poverty an integrated and multi-dimensional poverty alleviation approach is needed. Findings of the study are likely to help improve the design, management, and implementation of poverty eradication programmes in developing countries.

Supporting information

Acknowledgments.

We thank the World Bank team and functionaries of DAY-NRLM at national, state, and district levels for participating in the study. Indrani Talukdar is acknowledged for language editing. We thank the Academic Editor and the two anonymous reviewers for providing insightful comments and constructive suggestions.

Funding Statement

The World Bank and the Ministry of Rural Development, Government of India

Data Availability

• PLoS One. 2020; 15(1): e0227176.

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14 Nov 2019

PONE-D-19-26538

Evaluating Poverty Alleviation Strategies in a Developing Country

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Reviewer #1: The is an interesting research which identifies the critical factors for poverty alleviation in India with the aid of fuzzy cognitive maps (FCMs). This paper has many strengths and some opportunities for improvement, which I will elaborate below:

Abstract has inappropriate structure. I suggest to answer the following aspects: - general context - novelty of the work - methodology used - main results

Section 1 presents interesting information. However, it fails to set out any specific interest to a broader audience. There is nothing more than a sort of putting forward the topic. However, what about contribution to relevant literature? Which gaps do you want to fill and how?

Methodology is unclear. Initially a short resume can be proposed to explain several steps. The methodology used must be linked to the existing literature on FCM. what is its potential? its limit?

Results must be linked to the methodology. Please define the relationship and relate your finding with the relevant literature.

Finally, an extensive editing of English language and style is required.

Suggested references:

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2019.07.012

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eist.2015.06.006

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2015.10.038

Reviewer #2: The paper is accurate in the description of the methodology; however some steps can be explained better.

In 189-190 you explained that the concepts were elicited asking the participants the “critical 190 factors required to ensure that people come out of poverty on a sustainable basis”. Was this enough to prompt the contribution of the participants or did you give some other information to elicit their contribution. The quantity of information given before the participant tasks is a question that matter in FCMs building since a great quantity of information could lead to bias while very little information can lead to scanty results. How did you reach the correct trade-off?

523-524 “The 524 larger the value of the final state vectors, better the selected policies.” This means that all the concept give a desired and positive contribution to the poverty alleviation. Did all respondent give positive concept or did you declined all in a positive way to make them handy?

The paper aims also at giving a methodological contribution. I suggest some recent paper to enrich this part:

Falcone, P. M., Lopolito, A., & Sica, E. (2019). Instrument mix for energy transition: A method for policy formulation. Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 148, 119706.

Morone, P., Falcone, P. M., & Lopolito, A. (2019). How to promote a new and sustainable food consumption model: A fuzzy cognitive map study. Journal of cleaner production, 208, 563-574.

Falcone, P. M., Lopolito, A., & Sica, E. (2018). The networking dynamics of the Italian biofuel industry in time of crisis: Finding an effective instrument mix for fostering a sustainable energy transition. Energy Policy, 112, 334-348.

Falcone, P. M., Lopolito, A., & Sica, E. (2017). Policy mixes towards sustainability transition in the Italian biofuel sector: Dealing with alternative crisis scenarios. Energy research & social science, 33, 105-114.

ln 192 why do you mention only two concepts?

The diagrams of the various scenarios are hard to read. I suggest bar diagrams showing differences with the steady state values of each variable under each scenario.

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• CHINA VOICES
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Full Text: Poverty Alleviation: China's Experience and Contribution

The state council information office of the people's republic of china on tuesday released a white paper titled "poverty alleviation: china's experience and contribution.".

IV. Exploring a New Path of Poverty Alleviation

Eliminating poverty is a challenge for all countries. Each subject to different national conditions and at different stages of development, they adopt different poverty reduction criteria, methods and approaches. Bearing in mind its prevailing reality and understanding the nature of poverty and the status of poverty alleviation, China has embarked on a path of poverty alleviation and designed an approach with Chinese characteristics. In this battle, the nation has upheld the CPC leadership and the people-centered philosophy. It has taken advantage of one of the strengths of its socialist system – the ability to pool resources on major endeavors. It has adopted targeted measures and stimulated the enthusiasm, initiative, and creativity of the people in poverty. It has carried forward the great tradition of working together and offering mutual support, and it has adopted a down-to-earth and pragmatic style of work. In this approach, China has accumulated valuable experience, which belongs both to China itself and to the rest of the world, and offers enlightenment to the international community in its battle to reduce poverty.

1. People-centered Philosophy

The CPC is an ambitious party with a grand but simple goal: to ensure a happy life for the Chinese people. In the face of all the changes in the international landscape and the domestic situation over the past century, the Party has always followed a people-centered philosophy. It has borne in mind its founding mission to seek happiness for the Chinese people and national rejuvenation, and united and led the people in fighting poverty armed with firm convictions and a strong will. In the new era, the CPC has adopted a series of bold policies and measures to advance the cause, trying to ensure higher incomes and better education, healthcare, and living conditions for the poor. Taking public satisfaction as an important yardstick to judge the effectiveness of poverty elimination, the Party has concentrated its efforts on guaranteeing the basic needs of the poor. It would rather cut down on the number of major projects in favor of investment in poverty elimination; it would rather penalize short-term, partial or local interests to ensure the cause is well served and guaranteed; and it would rather slow the pace of economic growth to ensure the task of poverty alleviation is accomplished on schedule.

In the fight against poverty, officials including first Party secretaries and resident working teams, grassroots officials and Party members, and volunteers have worked with diligence and a spirit of dedication in support of the poor, fulfilling their mission and their pledge to the people. Some of them have been fighting on the front line for a long time, without time or energy to take care of their own families; some have been traveling around or braving harsh natural conditions; some have fallen sick from overwork all the year round; some have continued work even after getting injured at work. More than 1,800 Party members and officials have lost their lives in the cause of poverty alleviation.

China's poverty elimination effort in the new era is a full and vivid expression of its people-centered philosophy and the CPC's mission of serving the people wholeheartedly. Success in poverty alleviation has proven that the problem of poverty, in essence, is how the people should be treated: the people-centered philosophy is the fundamental driving force behind this cause. Only with this philosophy, can a country identify those who are poor, adopt concrete measures, and deliver genuine outcomes; only with this philosophy, can it draw on inexhaustible motivation, set a clear direction, and find the right approach.

2. Highlighting Poverty Alleviation in the Governance of China

Poor conditions for development in impoverished areas and a lack of capacity for self-improvement among the poor population determine that poverty cannot be eliminated by relying solely on the efforts of individuals, local governments, or non-governmental forces. Poverty elimination must be taken on as a responsibility of the ruling party and the country; it requires will and action at national level, and it must be elevated to a national strategy.

The CPC has always regarded poverty alleviation as an important task for ensuring national peace and stability. It has highlighted poverty alleviation at national level when setting its guidelines, principles and policies, and when formulating national plans for medium- and long-term development. The Party has pooled national resources to advance this cause and motivated generations of its members to devote themselves to this cause.

Since the 18th National Congress in 2012, the CPC has prioritized poverty elimination in its governance, and planned and advanced this cause under its centralized and unified leadership. All Party members, from top leaders to the grassroots officials, are concerned about the poor and the cause of poverty alleviation, and work together towards the same goal.

China has strengthened top-level design and strategic planning. It has issued policy documents such as Decision on Winning the Battle Against Extreme Poverty and Guidelines on the Three-Year Action Plan to Win the Battle Against Extreme Poverty, setting specific aims, defining approaches and detailed measures, and carrying them out with consistent efforts. Investment has been increased by governments at all levels (Figure 4) and a multiple investment system has been established (Box 12), guaranteeing financial support for poverty alleviation. Leveraging the strength of its socialist system – the ability to pool resources on major endeavors – China has mobilized forces from all quarters to participate in poverty alleviation. Systems have been established, covering responsibilities, policies, organization, inputs, mobilization, supervision, assessment and evaluation, and many other aspects of poverty elimination, providing an institutional guarantee for the nation to advance the battle against poverty.

The success in poverty alleviation has proven that governance of a country starts with the needs of the people, and that their prosperity is the responsibility of the government. Poverty alleviation is a pioneering and arduous trek. To achieve success, it is of utmost importance that the leadership have devotion, strong will and determination, and the ruling party and government assume their responsibilities to the people, play a leading role, mobilize forces from all quarters, and ensure policies are consistent and stable.

3. Eradicating Poverty Through Development

The root cause of poverty is inadequate development. As the world's largest developing country with a population of 1.4 billion, China is aware that development is essential to solving many of its problems, including poverty. The CPC has always regarded this as the top priority in governing and rejuvenating the country. It has concentrated its efforts in particular on the economy, to address the problem of unbalanced and inadequate development. Through development, the economy has been growing rapidly and the country has enjoyed a long period of social stability. China has regarded reform as an important driving force for poverty eradication and worked constantly to remove institutional and structural causes of poverty:

• By launching land reform and establishing the socialist system after the founding of the PRC in 1949;

• By implementing the household contract responsibility system with remuneration linked to output after the launch of reform and opening up in 1978;

• By establishing the socialist market economy and rescinding all agricultural taxes;

• By separating the ownership rights, contracting rights, and management rights for contracted rural land and further reforming the rural collective property rights system since the 18th CPC National Congress in 2012.

These measures have contributed to rural development and increased farmers' incomes. In addition, China has opened wider to the world amidst economic globalization and seen sustained and rapid growth in its foreign trade, creating many employment opportunities and more sources of higher incomes for rural labor.

Since the founding of the PRC in 1949, and especially since the launch of reform and opening up in 1978, the country has witnessed rapid economic and social development, with the economy and national strength growing steadily. This has provided solid support for large-scale development-driven poverty alleviation effort.

China's experience with poverty alleviation has proven that development is the most effective way to eradicate poverty and the most reliable path towards a more prosperous life. Only development can lead to economic growth, social progress and higher living standards. Only development can better guarantee people's basic rights and meet their desire for a better life.

4. Pressing Ahead with Poverty Alleviation Based on Reality

Poverty problems, as well as their causes, are diverse and complex. China's poverty alleviation efforts are based on a realistic appraisal of the situation. China has set its poverty line and its poverty alleviation goals and strategies, and worked to create better ideas and methods based on its national conditions and stage of development, and on the changes in the demographics, distribution, and structure of the poor population. It has advanced this undertaking step by step and with a steady effort.

Immediately after its founding in 1949, the PRC addressed the problem of poverty mainly through reform of the social system and large-scale economic development. After the launch of reform and opening up in 1978, China drove poverty alleviation mainly through rural economic reform and economic growth. It adopted development-oriented measures, guiding people in impoverished areas to increase their capacity for accumulation of wealth and endogenous development by adjusting the local economic structure, tapping into local resources, and developing production in response to market demand. In the new era, China has continued previous measures, and at the same time carried out a strategy of targeted poverty alleviation. The approach has changed from generalized broad-brush policies to targeted measures based on specific conditions. Before, resources for poverty alleviation came from multiple sources and were used by scattering them among the impoverished areas; now they are concentrated and better coordinated. The model of poverty alleviation has changed from mainly relying on external support like a blood transfusion to a more sustained effort from self-motivation. The assessment system has shifted focus from regional GDP as the main indicator to the genuine result of poverty alleviation. China has gradually lifted its poverty line based on its economic and social advances and progress in the cause of poverty alleviation to share the fruits of development with more people.

The occurrence and evolution of poverty has its own features and trends. To achieve success in reducing poverty, a country must follow a path in line with its national conditions, identify and remove obstacles to poverty alleviation, find driving forces for this cause, and constantly adjust and reform its strategies and policies as circumstances and local conditions change.

5. Letting the Poor Play the Principal Role

Poor people are the main players in eliminating poverty. Poverty alleviation requires both external and internal forces to form a synergy. China fully respects the principal role of the poor and encourages them to play their part, inspires them with the motivation to fight poverty, and enhances their ability to participate in development, share the fruits of development, and achieve endogenous development. They benefit from success in the undertaking of poverty alleviation and at the same time contribute to development in China.

China has inspired its people in poverty to strive for prosperity and provided them necessary education, so that they have the ambition to emerge from poverty and the tools to succeed. People in poverty have had better access to education opportunities, such as farmers' night schools and training workshops, to improve their skills and abilities in work and business.

A significant improvement in the battle against poverty is an effective mechanism of positive incentives encouraging the poor to learn from and keep pace with each other. Through this mechanism, productive activities are rewarded and subsidized and jobs instead of grants are provided, to encourage poor people to rely on their own efforts rather than wait for external assistance.

China has promoted stories of role models who escaped poverty through their hard work. It has also carried out various activities to establish the idea that "It is better to work hard than to endure poverty." The people in poverty have followed suit and eventually shaken off poverty and backwardness.

The fight against poverty shows that the people are the creators and drivers of history, and the true heroes. As long as a country serves the people, relies on them, respects their principal status and pioneering spirit, and motivates the poor to rely on their own hard work, it is sure to defeat poverty.

6. Pooling All Resources to Create Synergy

Poverty alleviation is an arduous, complex, and systematic endeavor, requiring the active participation of all parties. In the fight against poverty, the CPC has mobilized and pooled all possible forces on the basis of its rigorous organizational system and efficient work mechanism. A large-scale poverty alleviation network has been established, with the government, society and the market working in coordination, and government-sponsored projects, sector-specific programs, and corporate and societal assistance supplementing each other. It is a framework with the full participation of multiple players from different regions, sectors, departments and businesses.

China has strengthened collaboration and paired assistance between the eastern and western regions (Box 13) at provincial, city and county levels to encourage the flow of talent, capital, and technology to poor areas so that they can complement each other and narrow the gaps between them.

Poverty alleviation assistance has been directed to designated targets. Party and government institutions, people's organizations, state-owned enterprises and public institutions, and the military have assisted poor counties or villages (Box 14).

Other political parties, federations of industry and commerce and prominent individuals without party affiliation have leveraged their strengths to contribute intellectual and material support.

Various industries have been encouraged to offer assistance with their professional advantages by launching sector-specific programs, providing technological support, improving education, cultural undertakings and healthcare, and boosting consumption.

Private enterprises have been urged to participate in development-driven poverty alleviation. Businesses skilled in resource extraction have been encouraged to enter regions with great resource potential, which benefit both the businesses and those regions (Box 15).

Social organizations and individual citizens have been mobilized to participate in poverty alleviation and related public benefit activities. China has designated a National Poverty Alleviation Day and established a national system to commend models in fighting poverty. All these measures have created an atmosphere where everyone who is interested can join in poverty alleviation.

China's experience has proven that only when a country mobilizes all sectors of society to unite with common purpose and act in unison, can poverty be finally defeated.

Under the CPC leadership, the Chinese people have created an approach to poverty alleviation with their own hard work. China's successful practice and valuable experience in eliminating extreme poverty have deepened human understanding of poverty alleviation trends, enriched and extended the theory of international poverty alleviation, and boosted the confidence of other countries, especially developing ones, in eradicating extreme poverty. They serve as reference for other countries to choose a suitable path of poverty alleviation, and offer China's approach to solving the problem of modern national governance and creating brighter prospects for social progress.

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Poverty Essay for Students and Children

500+ words essay on poverty essay.

“Poverty is the worst form of violence”. – Mahatma Gandhi.

How Poverty is Measured?

For measuring poverty United nations have devised two measures of poverty – Absolute & relative poverty.  Absolute poverty is used to measure poverty in developing countries like India. Relative poverty is used to measure poverty in developed countries like the USA. In absolute poverty, a line based on the minimum level of income has been created & is called a poverty line.  If per day income of a family is below this level, then it is poor or below the poverty line. If per day income of a family is above this level, then it is non-poor or above the poverty line. In India, the new poverty line is  Rs 32 in rural areas and Rs 47 in urban areas.

Get the huge list of more than 500 Essay Topics and Ideas

Causes of Poverty

According to the Noble prize winner South African leader, Nelson Mandela – “Poverty is not natural, it is manmade”. The above statement is true as the causes of poverty are generally man-made. There are various causes of poverty but the most important is population. Rising population is putting the burden on the resources & budget of countries. Governments are finding difficult to provide food, shelter & employment to the rising population.

The other causes are- lack of education, war, natural disaster, lack of employment, lack of infrastructure, political instability, etc. For instance- lack of employment opportunities makes a person jobless & he is not able to earn enough to fulfill the basic necessities of his family & becomes poor. Lack of education compels a person for less paying jobs & it makes him poorer. Lack of infrastructure means there are no industries, banks, etc. in a country resulting in lack of employment opportunities. Natural disasters like flood, earthquake also contribute to poverty.

In some countries, especially African countries like Somalia, a long period of civil war has made poverty widespread. This is because all the resources & money is being spent in war instead of public welfare. Countries like India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, etc. are prone to natural disasters like cyclone, etc. These disasters occur every year causing poverty to rise.

Ill Effects of Poverty

Poverty affects the life of a poor family. A poor person is not able to take proper food & nutrition &his capacity to work reduces. Reduced capacity to work further reduces his income, making him poorer. Children from poor family never get proper schooling & proper nutrition. They have to work to support their family & this destroys their childhood. Some of them may also involve in crimes like theft, murder, robbery, etc. A poor person remains uneducated & is forced to live under unhygienic conditions in slums. There are no proper sanitation & drinking water facility in slums & he falls ill often &  his health deteriorates. A poor person generally dies an early death. So, all social evils are related to poverty.

Government Schemes to Remove Poverty

The government of India also took several measures to eradicate poverty from India. Some of them are – creating employment opportunities , controlling population, etc. In India, about 60% of the population is still dependent on agriculture for its livelihood. Government has taken certain measures to promote agriculture in India. The government constructed certain dams & canals in our country to provide easy availability of water for irrigation. Government has also taken steps for the cheap availability of seeds & farming equipment to promote agriculture. Government is also promoting farming of cash crops like cotton, instead of food crops. In cities, the government is promoting industrialization to create more jobs. Government has also opened  ‘Ration shops’. Other measures include providing free & compulsory education for children up to 14 years of age, scholarship to deserving students from a poor background, providing subsidized houses to poor people, etc.

Poverty is a social evil, we can also contribute to control it. For example- we can simply donate old clothes to poor people, we can also sponsor the education of a poor child or we can utilize our free time by teaching poor students. Remember before wasting food, somebody is still sleeping hungry.

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Articles on Poverty alleviation

Displaying all articles.

South Africa is failing people who aren’t poor, but aren’t middle class either

Tinashe Mushayanyama , University of South Africa ; Adrino Mazenda , University of Pretoria ; Margaret Chitiga-Mabugu , University of Pretoria , and Mary Mangai , University of Pretoria

Ghana’s housing policy and regulation is failing - COVID proved as much

Richmond Juvenile Ehwi , University of Cambridge and Lewis Abedi Asante , Kumasi Technical University

Businesses that address social or environmental problems often struggle to survive: 3 things that can help them

Willie Tafadzwa Chinyamurindi , University of Fort Hare ; Motshedisi Mathibe , University of Pretoria , and Progress Hove-Sibanda , Nelson Mandela University

‘Polycrisis’ may be a buzzword, but it could help us tackle the world’s woes

Michael Murray Lawrence , University of Waterloo

Nine myths about Indonesian specialty coffee farmers and development

Angga Dwiartama , Institut Teknologi Bandung ; Diany Faila Sophia Hartatri , Pusat Penelitian Kopi dan Kakao Indonesia ; Jeffrey Neilson , University of Sydney , and Mark Vicol , Wageningen University

What can Indonesia learn from past policies to prevent another poverty hike during the pandemic?

M Niaz Asadullah , University of Malaya ; Fisca Miswari Aulia , National Development Planning Agency (BAPPENAS) , and Maliki , National Development Planning Agency (BAPPENAS)

Refundable tax credits would help alleviate poverty

Wayne Simpson , University of Manitoba

How harvesting natural products can help rural people beat poverty

Deepa Pullanikkatil , University of Glasgow

Mexico wants internet access for all. Getting everyone online could reduce poverty, too

Jack J. Barry , University of Connecticut

Beating poverty needs partnerships and collaboration – not just money

Mia Perry , University of Glasgow

Why Africa’s free trade area offers so much promise

Prof. Landry Signé , Stanford University

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A newly-built community for poverty alleviation relocation in Zhaojue County, southwest China's Sichuan Province, May 13, 2020. /Xinhua

Editor's note:  Djoomart Otorbaev is the former Prime Minister of the Kyrgyz Republic, a distinguished professor of the Belt and Road School of Beijing Normal University, and a member of Nizami Ganjavi International Center. The article reflects the author's views and not necessarily those of CGTN.

For millennia, countless generations of Chinese people have dreamed of living without poverty. In the text of the great Confucius Shijing ("Book of Poems"), he presented old folk songs. Many of the songs are imbued with the hope for happiness, for a life without hunger and want. It was Confucius, the "teacher of ten thousand generations," who gave birth to the idea of ​​"xiaokang," which he interpreted as "small well-being." Deng Xiaoping proposed to reformulate "xiaokang" into the term "moderately prosperous."

In the last century, China remained the world's largest concentration of poor people in the hundreds of millions for decades. Even in 1978, the majority of the country's population lived in poverty. By 2012, there were still 99 million left. The final stage of the war on poverty began in 2013 when President Xi Jinping proposed the "Chinese Dream" and set out a specific goal of ending absolute poverty by 2021.

The "black swan" of the coronavirus pandemic should have prevented these plans' implementation. The ensuing illness of tens of thousands of people stopped the economic life of huge cities, even entire provinces of the country. Then came the global economic recession. But even such colossal challenges have failed to stop the Chinese people's strong desire to achieve their goal of poverty eradication.

It is now essential to analyze and understand how this success was achieved. What was the real "secret" of this historic victory?

Here I would like to refer to an incident that happened to me on November 10, 2018, when I attended the first China International Import Expo (CIIE). On one of its main stands, a vast digital clock displayed a countdown until the complete eradication of poverty in the country. This picture was a living illustration of the Chinese people working hard to achieve the objective.

During my trips to Gansu and Inner Mongolia, organized by the Chinese People's Institute of Foreign Affairs (CPIFA) in July 2019, I was again convinced of the people's aspiration to achieve the millennial goal.

On our way from Lanzhou to Hezuo in Gansu Province, we drove 230 kilometers on a first-class highway through a picturesque Tibetan landscape. We went through dozens of beautifully designed long tunnels. I was puzzled. Tens of billions of dollars were invested in improving the lives of fewer than a million people.

The solar power farm at the Kubuqi Desert in north China's Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, August 1, 2018. /Xinhua

At a meeting with the provincial authorities, I told them that these vast investments could not be justified from a business perspective. They agreed but emphasized that business pragmatism was not the main reason for the investments; the real goal was to reduce poverty, create jobs, achieve social justice and harmonious development in this remote area.

During the same trip, I attended the Kubuqi International Desert Forum in Ordos in Inner Mongolia. It is challenging to live and maintain a decent life and successful business in this arid area. The poverty level there has always been above the national average.

The Kubuqi Desert project has succeeded not only in containing the growth of one of the largest deserts in China but also turned a third of the desert into green landscapes, which is about 6,000 square kilometers!

I was even more surprised to learn that this colossal project was initiated and implemented not by the state with public funds but by a commercial company at its own cost. Since 1988, the privately-owned Elion company has invested billions in a greening project in the Kubuqi Desert, which has helped lift more than 100,000 local farmers and herders out of poverty.

These are just two examples. They demonstrated that all available resources were thrown into the country's fight against poverty. It became evident that the real "secret" of victory was the entire nation's aspiration to achieve the Chinese people's long-held dream.

The fact that absolute poverty in the country has been eliminated does not mean that the mission is accomplished. China will still need to continue its work on combating poverty.

There are many fundamental issues to be resolved. A lot of obsolete industries require restructuring. Many workers are part-time and precariously employed. Some enterprises are highly dependent on government support. According to various estimates, nearly two million people who have recently been lifted out of poverty are still at risk of returning to poverty; almost three million are only slightly above the poverty line.

China's impressive achievements in the fight against poverty are of immense importance to countries worldwide. Naturally, my region of Central Asia would like to learn from its neighbor as well. The Central Asian states' leaders have repeatedly expressed their wish to apply China's experience to fight poverty.

For example, in September 2020, speaking at the 75th session of the UN General Assembly, President of Uzbekistan Shavkat Mirziyoyev proposed to define the theme of combating poverty as one of the main topics on the agenda of the assembly. At the summit of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) two months later, he again raised this topic. To coordinate interaction in this area, he put forward an initiative to develop a particular program of cooperation between the SCO member states. In his opinion, the implementation of these measures should draw on China's successful experience.

As China's closest neighbors, the Central Asian countries want to fight poverty as actively as possible.

(If you want to contribute and have specific expertise, please contact us at [email protected].)

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How China Defeated Poverty

W ho wrote that the Chinese are “the wisest and best governed people in the world”? 1 That they perfected “morality” as well as “political economy” to such an extent that “in those fields we need to be their disciples”? 2

Today such comments would be presumed to come from the worst kind of “China apologist”—a “shill”—at best deluded, at worst brain­washed. But the man who wrote those words is Voltaire, one of the fathers of the Enlightenment and, as such, a little bit of a father to us all, who live in the world the Enlightenment shaped.

That part of Western history is largely forgotten or ignored nowadays, but many Enlightenment philosophers, like Voltaire, were greatly inspired by China. This was the age when Jesuit missionaries, such as Matteo Ricci, spent extended amounts of time in China and learned enough about the country to translate most Chinese classics. It was a time when Europe was dazzled by a groundbreaking realization: that, on the other side of the world, there was an age-old civilization invoking the very principles of morality and reason the new philosophers praised.

While it would be a stretch to claim that the Enlightenment finds its sources in Chinese philosophy, its influence was certainly much more important than is acknowledged today. Voltaire himself was so enam­ored of Chinese thought that he kept a picture of Confucius facing him at all times while he worked—the only such picture in his office. He wrote that Confucius “spoke only of the purest morality” 3 and that, “since his time,” no “finer rule of conduct has ever been given throughout the earth.” 4 Others like Leibniz also had a “sustained fascination with China” and thought that “Chinese meritocracy held many lessons for Europeans.” 5 As German historian Adolf Reichwein puts it in his book China and Europe , “Men discovered, to their astonishment, that more than two thousand years ago in China . . . Confucius had thought the same thoughts in the same manner, and fought the same battles. . . . Thus Confucius became the patron saint of [the] eighteenth century Enlightenment.” 6

In today’s geopolitical context, the West’s love affair with China is long gone. But perhaps the China of today can still offer some examples of reason and morality, the attributes that made Enlightenment philoso­phers so admire that civilization. In this essay, I will focus on what has arguably been the most important and ambitious initiative in recent Chinese history: the drive to eliminate extreme poverty in the country.

Poverty Alleviation: China’s Overlooked Moonshot

Surprisingly little of substance has been written in the U.S. press about China’s poverty alleviation efforts, especially considering how much focus has been dedicated to these efforts inside the country. And yet, given the persistent challenges the United States faces in its own war on poverty, a better understanding of the Chinese approach could be fruitful.

China’s anti-poverty efforts have been a top priority over the last decade. Between launching his anti-poverty initiative in 2014 and his declaration that China had “secured a comprehensive victory in the fight against poverty” 6 in February 2021, President Xi Jinping personally made fifty trips to inspect poverty alleviation progress in poorer areas of China. That works out to about one such trip every two months during that period, without a doubt many more than have been afforded to any other single initiative.

Also notable is the sheer amount of human resources dedicated to the task of poverty alleviation. According to China’s press agency, Xinhua, “more than 3 million first Party secretaries and resident working team members have been selected and dispatched to carry out targeted poverty alleviation.” 7

Funding numbers are also dizzying and illustrative of the seriousness of the effort: the Chinese government directly invested ¥1.6 trillion ($252 billion) in the poverty alleviation drive over the course of the initiative. In addition to this, it made loans of ¥9.2 trillion ($1.4 trillion) for targeted poverty alleviation purposes including, for instance, ¥450 billion ($70 billion) in guaranteed microcredit loans to impoverished women. All in all, if one adds up all the types of funding dedicated to poverty alleviation, China spent close to ¥14 trillion on this effort. 8 That’s the equivalent of about $2.2 trillion or, in a telling parallel, roughly what the Defense and State Departments jointly spent on post-9/11 military efforts.

In short, if China had a moonshot initiative this past decade, the poverty alleviation program was certainly it. Among all the projects they could have chosen, China’s leaders decided to make the complete eradication of extreme poverty their single most important program during these years.

Why Poverty Alleviation?

The anti-poverty initiative was long in the making, and didn’t start with Xi Jinping. Even though the population remained overwhelmingly poor under his leadership, Mao Zedong laid the foundations for China’s subsequent increase in wealth. Though controversial, his land reforms—the process of expropriating landlords to bring all land in China under collective ownership—played a large role in paving the way. Before the reforms, landlords—roughly 3.8 percent of Chinese households at the time—collectively owned twice as much land in China as poor farmers, even though the latter constituted 57.4 percent of households. It’s easy to see that, when the collective wealth of a nation in its agrarian phase is in so few hands, redistribution is a necessary first step to ensure future broad prosperity. In fact, it is well-documented that land reform has been a decisive factor for all the Asian economies that ultimately managed to enrich their populations. 9

Moreover, when the Communists took power, only an estimated 20 percent of the Chinese population could read, due to decades of war and chaos. But by 1982, the Chinese literacy rate had risen to 68 percent. 10 This was mostly achieved through mass literacy programs as well as efforts to modernize and simplify the Chinese language, for instance by the introduction of pinyin and simplified Chinese characters. Mao’s health reforms also were important foundations for China’s later increase in wealth. With initiatives such as the millions of “barefoot doctors,” China’s life expectancy rose from only around forty years in 1949 to sixty-five years in 1980. 11 It is well-documented in economic theory that a sufficiently high life expectancy is one of the most important conditions for a transition to sustained income growth. 12

While Mao’s reforms established an important basis for China’s subsequent enrichment, it became clear to Chinese leaders at the end of the 1970s that China’s economy required opening up in order to “develop the productive forces,” as they put it. China’s leader Deng Xiaoping famously said in a 1984 speech:

The superiority of the socialist system is demonstrated, in the final analysis, by faster and greater development of [the productive] forces than under the capitalist system. . . . One of our shortcomings after the founding of the People’s Republic was that we didn’t pay enough attention to developing the productive forces. Socialism means eliminating poverty. Pauperism is not socialism, still less communism. 13

The results speak for themselves. Between 1978 and 2017, China’s economy expanded at an average rate of 9.5 percent per year, growing in size by almost thirty-five times. 14 This led to a dramatic drop in the number of people living in extreme poverty from 770 million (80 percent of the population) in 1978 to 100 million people (7 percent of the population) in 2014. 15

Xi Jinping thus began his mandate when much of the poverty reduction work had already been completed; he simply needed to bring it across the finish line. To do so, he decided on a “mass mobilization campaign”—a governance tool used by the Communist Party of China since even before the creation of the PRC. In the West, we would likely call this a “whole-of-society” effort. It not only involved an enormous amount of human and financial resources, but also touched virtually every corner of society, asking almost every actor in China—from companies to universities—to participate.

To be sure, the poverty relief initiatives had some pragmatic motivations. Chinese leaders, like most Chinese people, are extremely keen students of their country’s long history. As such, they know that there have been two major reasons for the downfall of Chinese dynasties in the past: uprisings by a populace dissatisfied with their living condi­tions, and internal rot among elites due to corruption, whatever shape it takes. Both causes are, of course, intimately linked.

Poverty rates are famously correlated with countless social ills like crime rates and increased health costs as well as poor economic perfor­mance indicators such as workforce productivity. 11 As such, investing in poverty alleviation is likely one of the smartest investments any country can make to improve its collective future.

Beyond pragmatic considerations, the poverty alleviation efforts are also revealing of a rather traditional Chinese vision of the proper role of government. In one of his most famous sayings about governance, Confucius is reported (he never wrote anything himself) to have said that the three requisites of government are “enough food; enough military equipment; the people having confidence in the ruler.” When asked about their relative importance, Confucius stated unequivocally that military equipment could be abandoned first, then food, but never confidence in the ruler. 16 To Confucius it is the very foundation of the state, which cannot exist without it.

This approach is echoed by Emperor Taizong (“Supreme Ancestor”) Li Shimin, the second emperor of the Tang Dynasty and one of the most revered in Chinese history. He famously compared government to a boat that could just as well be carried by water—the people—as turned over if it were steered wrongly. This story is known by every single Chinese person, and if you go visit the Summer Palace in Beijing, there is a stone boat on the lake for this very reason.

Western observers tend to mistake this view of the state for a purely self-serving agenda by the political elites. In China, however, confidence in the government is seen as critically important in Confucian governance principles, and doubtless played a significant role in the decision to prioritize the poverty alleviation efforts.

When President Xi Jinping started his mandate, the most important sources of public mistrust or resentment were corruption and the fact that many people were left behind when China got rich. From a Confucian perspective, it is therefore perfectly rational to prioritize these two above all else, since they’re the most consequential in terms of gaining public trust, itself the most important currency for a government.

One Income, Two Assurances, and Three Guarantees

China’s Targeted Poverty Alleviation program (TPA, the official name) can be summarized by the slogan “one income, two assurances, and three guarantees.” The slogan reflects the fact that the program doesn’t only understand poverty in terms of income but as a multidimensional issue. As such, to be deemed lifted from poverty, the hundred million people affected had to meet five indicators beyond income: the “two assurances” of food and clothing and the “three guarantees” of basic medical services, safe housing with drinking water and electricity, and free and compulsory education (which in China is for nine years). 17

The key word in the Targeted Poverty Alleviation program is “targeted.” This approach comes directly from President Xi during a visit to Shibadong village in Hunan Province in November 2013. To tackle poverty, Xi told local government not to “use a grenade to blast a flea” but instead to “act as an embroiderer approaching an intricate design.” 18 Concretely, what this means is that every single poor person in the country had to be individually identified, tracked, and assisted. This effort was launched in 2014 by sending eight hundred thousand party cadres to survey every household across the country. In 2015, that number increased to more than two million who were responsible for verifying the accuracy of the data classifying individuals as poor. 19

Once the identification work was completed, the actual alleviation work started. It was done by sending three million party cadres to live in poor villages, forming 255,000 teams that resided on site. 20 The concept was that every poor village had to have a resident team and every poor household an assigned cadre. Each cadre was responsible for only a handful of households so they could focus as much attention as possible on each of them. 21 They typically lived in the same areas in humble conditions for one to three years at a time. Many of them weren’t used to the harsh realities of rural life in China’s poorer areas and some fell ill as a result. China’s State Council Information Office reported that more than 1,800 party members and officials lost their lives in the fight against poverty. 22

In addition, the TPA program developed five core methods to lift people out of poverty: industry, relocation, ecological compensation, education, and social assistance. 23

Industry means, quite simply, to develop the local economy in poorer areas with tools such as access to financing (loans, subsidies, and microcredit), technical training, new equipment and infrastructure, as well as new markets for local products.

Relocation occurred when people were located in areas so remote that any infrastructure development was unthinkable. Imagine small villages deep in the Himalayas or settlements in the middle of the Taklamakan Desert, one of the most hostile natural environments on earth. In those cases, China had no choice but to relocate those entire villages or settlements if it wanted their inhabitants to have any hope of escaping poverty. In fact, as part of the initiative, some 9.6 million people were relocated in 2.66 million new housing units built for the resettled families. 24

Ecological compensation combines the anti-poverty initiative with another whole-of-society effort in China: the drive to transform the country into an “ecological civilization” in order to tackle climate change. These goals intersect mostly in China’s reforestation efforts, a tool to mitigate climate change: the country accounted for 25 percent of global growth in leaf area between 1990 and 2020. 25 Since 2013, a total of 4.97 million hectares of farmland in poor areas has been returned to forest and grassland. A total of 1.1 million poor people have become forest rangers, and 23,000 poverty alleviation afforestation cooperatives have been formed. 26

Education is a key to breaking the poverty cycle and, as such, China devoted enormous resources within the TPA to educational initiatives. Not only has China built new schools and better equipped existing ones, but it has also improved the quality of education in rural areas with a special focus on teachers. China has introduced programs such as the Special Post Program (to teach in impoverished areas upon graduation) and the National Training Program, which added an additional seven­teen million rural teachers to the less-developed central and western regions.

Lastly, social assistance encompasses a wide range of initiatives. Chief among them is the Minimum Living Guarantee System ( dibao ), which provides a rural subsistence allowance of ¥5,962 per year to those who fit the criteria (about nineteen million people). 27 Health care is also very important. After the TPA, basic medical insurance coverage of the poor is now over 99.9 percent, and all poverty-stricken populations now have access to medical services in their place of residence. The latter was achieved by sending 118,000 health workers to establish 3,700 new facilities and introduce 53,000 projects to improve health infrastructure. 28

Against Liberty?

Individual freedom has always been the main ideological contrast between China’s collectivist culture and Western liberalism, which holds individual freedom as a central value. As discussed in the introduction of this article, however, the fact that the very same Chinese culture was a source of inspiration for Enlightenment thinkers—the very fathers of liberalism—presents some irony here.

Today, it has been forgotten that this debate was already largely settled at the time of the Enlightenment. Individual liberty was never meant to take precedence over all else like it arguably does today; instead, it was meant to be “checked and balanced” by other important priorities. This is perhaps best illustrated by the French national motto of “liberté, égalité, fraternité,” invented at the time of the French Revolution. The thinking was that “liberté” should not come at the cost of “fraternité” or “égalité” and vice versa.

This irony is lost on us when we accuse the Chinese of compromising individual freedom for other priorities. The debate at this point is well rehearsed: China will do something which it judges is for the common good and the West will inevitably blame them for doing so at the cost of individual liberty.

When I first arrived in China in 2007, these arguments were primarily directed at authorities’ push to modernize the country’s cities by evacuating inhabitants from old, dilapidated areas so they could be razed in favor of modern housing. It didn’t matter to Western commentators that the vast majority of affected people (my in-laws included) were happy to leave their small, toilet-free dwellings with communal kitchens in favor of apartments with modern amenities. The focus was on the small minority that wasn’t. Not to dismiss their concerns—and more often than not, the local authorities didn’t dismiss them either—but from today’s vantage point, looking at the sparkling new Chinese cities and people’s dramatically improved living conditions, it is extremely difficult to argue that it wasn’t all for the better.

The anti-poverty initiative has similar features. An important part of the plan has included infrastructure development, not only physical infrastructure such as roads or internet access (post-initiative, 98 percent of poor villages in China had access to fiber internet 6 ) but also social fabric infrastructure like hospitals and schools. This makes sense: how can you ever expect to lift yourself out of poverty if you can’t use a car, don’t have access to the internet, or can’t send your kids to school? In concrete terms, China lifted people out of poverty first and foremost by identifying and reducing the barriers preventing people from enriching themselves, rather than merely giving handouts—in short, by following the ancient adage, “Give a man a fish and you feed him for a day. Teach a man to fish and you feed him for a lifetime.” China might not see eye to eye with the West on individual freedom, but it certainly agrees with American conservative principles of personal responsibility. The differ­ence is that, for China, the government has a large role to play in creating the material and societal preconditions that allow people to exercise that responsibility.

As we’ve seen, in some cases the root of poverty was that people were located in areas so remote that they had to be relocated if they were to have any hope for a better life. Were some mistakes made along the way? Undoubtedly—no matter their living conditions, it can’t have been easy for some people to leave their ancestral place of residence. The issue, however, is that by living there they often not only condemned themselves to a life of crushing poverty, but their children and their entire family as well. If we look at it from a moral standpoint, anyone intellectually honest should at least admit that the answer to this problem is far from obvious. China chose to answer it the way it did, but there were no easy answers. The very fact that it is undeniably a moral dilemma with arguments on both sides makes simple condemnation difficult.

Looking at proportions is also interesting. When the initiative started, roughly 7 percent of the Chinese population was living in extreme poverty. By that point, China had adopted its own version of a market economy for about thirty-five years. This indicates that the poverty was indeed deeply entrenched, because otherwise those people should have already been lifted out of poverty alongside their fellow citizens. This is confirmed by the fact that this extreme poverty rate is fairly similar to that of many other market economies.

A comparable metric in the United States is what the Census Bureau defines as “deep poverty”: those living in a household with a total income below 50 percent of the poverty threshold. 29 It consistently stands at around 6 percent of the U.S. population—almost the same as China’s rate when the anti-poverty drive started. Even in France, easily one of the most generous countries in the world in terms of social spending, there are two million people defined by France’s national statistics bureau as living in “great poverty,” 30 or roughly 3 percent of the population. Government spending accounts for over 60 percent of France’s GDP, 31 the majority of which is spent on various social benefits. 32 If one country in the world should have solved extreme poverty, it is France.

What this means is that, in most economic contexts, eradicating structural poverty can likely be done only with the types of heavy-handed policies that China adopted. It is after all the only approach we’ve seen work to date, as China has brought its rate of extreme poverty down to essentially zero.

We often ask the Chinese about the cost of their initiatives in terms of individual freedom, but rarely reflect on the costs we incur for the sake of the latter. We just uncovered one: a certain share of the population living in extreme poverty. Is it worth it? We may choose that it is, but, inversely, don’t the Chinese have a right to choose that it isn’t?

What Poverty Alleviation Says about China Today

Most religions, especially Abrahamic ones, put a very strong emphasis on helping the poor in their social doctrines. It would be highly disingenuous for the West to suggest that, because it is the Chinese who did it, somehow it isn’t commendable. Achieving zero extreme poverty in China, the most populated country in the world, which just forty years ago was as poor as the poorest countries in Africa, is an achievement on a scale the world has rarely, if ever, seen.

This transformation has even led some high-ranking Catholic figures such as Bishop Marcelo Sánchez Sorondo, the current chancellor of the Holy See’s Pontifical Academy of Social Sciences, to declare that China is “the best implementer of the social doctrine of the Church” and to describe the country as “hold[ing] the common good above all else.” 33

Sánchez Sorondo faced a barrage of criticism for this remark. First Things ran an article arguing that we shouldn’t let “defens­es of the ‘common good’ . . . slip into apologias for authoritarianism.” 34 Just like that, we were back to our familiar individual freedom versus collectivism debate.

Many people today go even further, claiming it is our duty to impose change on the Chinese so they conform to liberal values and principles. Even if the Chinese government was demonstrably the best at looking out for the interests of the Chinese as a collective, their doing so in an illiberal fashion means we see it as our duty to change their system, even if it means ending up with a government under which the Chinese are worse off. In such moments, it seems that we are the ones ready to compromise morality and reason for the sake of ideology.

Such attitudes also ignore another fundamental lesson of Chinese history. Many have tried to change Chinese culture in the past, but it typically ends up the other way around. A salient example is when the Manchus, an ethnic group distinct from the Hans with its very own culture and language, conquered China in the seventeenth century and established the Qing dynasty. Did China become Manchu? On the contrary, Manchus became so sinicized that they virtually disappeared as a distinct identity.

Even Communism didn’t make much of a dent in the culture itself. It transformed China, but the underlying culture is strongly intact. Visitors to Mao Zedong’s childhood home in Hunan province can go to the classroom where he and his peers used to study. There is a very small portrait of Mao on a shelf somewhere on the side of the classroom, but whose portrait is the center of attention, in the middle of the classroom in lieu of a blackboard? Confucius.

These considerations should provoke further reflection. Are we ready, like our Enlightenment forefathers, to respect China as it is and accept their differences? Maybe even sometimes find inspiration in how they solve problems we too face? Or do we want to insist that they become like us? The answer to these questions, probably more than any other, will shape the rest of the twenty-first century.

This article originally appeared in American Affairs Volume VI, Number 1 (Spring 2022): 137–148.

2 Voltaire, Dictionnaire philosophique (Paris: 1778).

3 T. A. Peterson, “How China Revolutionized France: The Evolution of an Idea from the Jesuit Figurists to the Enlightenment Sinophiles and the Consequences” (PhD diss., Washington State University, 2009).

4 Tae-Hyeon Song, “Voltaire’s View of Confucius” (2014).

5 Peterson, “How China Revolutionized France.”

6 John M. Hobson, The Eastern Origins of Western Civilisation (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013).

7 The State Council Information Office of the People’s Republic of China, Poverty Alleviation: China’s Experience and Contribution (2021). Wai wen chu ban she.

8 State Council Information Office.

9 Joe Studwell, How Asia Works: Success and Failure in the World’s Most Dynamic Region (London: Profile Books, 2014).

10 A. John Jowett, “Patterns of Literacy in the People’s Republic of China,” GeoJournal 18 no. 4 (1989): 417–27.

11 Aaron O’Neill, “China: Life Expectancy 1850–2020 Statistic,” Statista, September 17, 2019.

12 Matteo Cervellati and Uwe Sunde, “Life Expectancy and Economic Growth: The Role of the Demographic Transition,” Journal of Economic Growth 16, no. 2 (2011): 99–133.

13 Deng Xiaoping, “Building a Socialism with a Specifically Chinese Character,” People’s Daily , June 30, 1984.

14 John Ross, China’s Great Road: Lessons for Marxist Theory and Socialist Practices (Glasgow: Praxis Press, 2021).

15 State Council Information Office.

16 Stephen C. Angle, “Social and Political Thought in Chinese Philosophy,” Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, July 21, 2016.

17 Tricontinental: Institute for Social Research, Serve the People: The Eradication of Extreme Poverty in China , Studies on Socialist Construction 1, July 2021.

18 Serve the People .

19 New China Research/Xinhua News Agency, Chinese Poverty Alleviation Studies: A Political Economy Perspective (February 2021).

20 State Council Information Office.

21 Serve the People .

22 State Council Information Office.

23 Serve the People .

24 State Council Information Office.

25 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020: Main Report (Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2020).

26 State Council Information Office.

27 State Council Information Office.

28 State Council Information Office.

29 Center for Poverty and Inequality Research at the University of California, Davis, “What Is ‘Deep Poverty’?”

30 Julien Blasco and Sébastien Picard, Environ 2 millions de personnes en situation de grande pauvreté en France en 2018 , Institut national de la statistique et des études économiques, May 27, 2021.

31 Institut national de la statistique et des études économiques, “Dépenses et recettes publiques.”

32 IMF, Financial Access Survey .

33 “Msgr. Sanchez Sorondo: China, the Best Implementer of the Social Doctrine of the Church,” AsiaNews , July 2, 2018.

34 Matthew Schmitz, “Is China a Model of the Common Good?,” First Things , November 26, 2019.

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Essays & Paragraphs on Poverty

Poverty is a shame for the civilized world. To poor people, their lives are a burden. They can’t enjoy life. At present, the rate of education is increasing in the country, and the educated are running after jobs. But instead of running after jobs, educated youth should work in crop production. Then national production will increase and poverty will decrease. Here are a few essays and paragraphs that shed light on the scholars’ perspectives on poverty, the causes and effects of poverty, and ways to alleviate poverty.

Table of Contents

Essay on Poverty: Causes, Effects, Remedies

By: Haque , Words: 800, For higher students, 08-01-’22

Points of synopsis:

• Causes of monetary want.
• Evil effects.
• How to overcome.
• Danger of the chances of revolution.
• State’s role to alleviate poverty through socialistic adjustments.
• The Indian scene.

It is monetary want that mainly causes poverty. a poor man’s expenses generally exceed his income and he is likely to run into debt. But living beyond means is actually extravagance. continued poverty leads a man either to frustration or rebellion against the social setup.

Is poverty of men an unmixed curse? Down The ages poets, philosophers and social reformers have lifted their voice against poverty. Kalidas , the great poet of ancient India, regards poverty as a fault that nullifies (destroys) all talents. Much of the energy of a poor man is spent up in the struggle against abject poverty. A well-to-do student has thus an additional advantage over the poor one. It has been said that poverty affects (darkens) the most generous spirit; it is also the ally and breeding ground of crimes. Want corrupts habit.

But quite the opposite view has been held by another set of thinkers. Poet Nazrul Islam hails poverty with the words: “O poverty, you have made me noble.” Dr. Johnson, the leading literary light of 18th century London, says in his poem “London” – “Slow rises worth by poverty depressed”. He means that if a man has really worth, he will shine sooner or later in life, though hard-pressed by penury (poverty). For carrier today is open to talent. In spite of Adverse circumstances, a truly talented person shall come on top by perseverance and attain the height of excellence and distinction. A child born with a silver spoon in his mouth will no doubt feel no material want and yet he may be found wanting in talents when he grows up. Poverty and adversity may thus be the springboard of future success. For struggle avails and brings out the best in man-hit latent faculty.

Socialists, however, view poverty from a different angle and interpret poverty from a historical perspective. Originally wealth was owned socially; every member had a real right of enjoyment as any other or collectively. In course of time, by force and tricks, by exploiting one section that the other section enriches itself and acquires ownership. The rich, by controlling the means of production, deprive, the workers of their legitimate dues. So Prudhon, the French philosopher, boldly asserts in his Philosophy of Poverty that all property is theft. It is the unholy alliance between the Government and the ruling class that gradually more and more men are forced to wallow in poverty, while the rich become richer. So poverty develops not because of the cursed lot of a man but because of gross social injustice and inequitable distribution of property. It is his grinding poverty, that is ultimately responsible for the different revolutions of history that shook the world terribly. Nobody is destined to suffer or lead a life of cursed existence. So in 1848 Marx and Engels in their Communist Manifesto sounded the clarion call to the proletariat: “Workers of the world unite.” Rightly interpreted, poverty is the creation of an interested section of man, it is not a God-ordained curse.

In India, about forty percent of the population lives and languish below the poverty line. Authors like Sarat Chandra (Mahesh), Bibhuti Bhusan (Pather Panchali) and Munshi Premchand (Kafin-the Coffin) have painted poverty in lurid colors. Satyajit Ray has been accused of selling these Scenes of abject poverty to the outside world for winning prizes! But Victor Hugo, the eminent 18th-century French novelist, has made Jean Volgin, an extremely poor youth, the hero of his novel ‘Les Miserables’. He smashed the window of a shop and lifted bread to feed his mother and sister. But his plea of poverty was turned down by the law court and he was punished. Recently an Indian woman was found guilty of shoplifting. She confessed and in her deposition said that she had to bring up her two children alone, on a meager income. What she said in her defense is worth quoting “I thought of my children who kept saying that they were fed up with Panta.” This has brought out a historic judgment since—who steals out of necessity is not guilty of theft… Such theft is in accordance with the natural law, standing above man-made law”. Bankim Chandra also has in his famous skit (chatty essay), ‘Biral’ (the Cat) has put in the mouth of the cat the following “words”. The judge who punishes a hungry thief should remain on fast for three days prior to pronouncing his judgment.” Gandhiji thinks that the problem of poverty can be solved by putting moral pressure on the rich to earn less profit. But Amartya Sen thinks that deprivation can be removed by providing the basic needs of life—education, health, and food.

Poverty Essay, 500 Words Poverty in Bangladesh

By: Haque ; For class 9-12, 28-02-’22

Introduction: Poverty is a state when a person lacks a certain amount of money or valuable goods necessary to lead a decent life. According to the United Nations, “poverty is a denial of choices and opportunities, a violation of human dignity. It means a lack of basic capacity to participate effectively in society. It means not having enough food to feed a family, not having enough clothes to dress a family, not having a school to study, not being able to go to the clinic for treatment, not having land to grow food, not having a job to make a living, not being able to meet the conditions of the bank for taking a loan. Poverty means insecurity, powerlessness, and alienation from society. It means constant frustration and consequently stepping on the wrong path, often living in marginal or dirty environments where there is no access to clean water or sanitation. The World Bank defines poverty as: “Poverty is the deprivation of the right to good health.” It has many facets. Such as earning very little, and inability to acquire the basic goods and services needed to live comfortably and with dignity. Poverty is largely responsible for illiteracy. Poverty also plays a role in the spread of disease due to a lack of clean water and sanitation.

Absolute Poverty and Relative Poverty: Generally poverty is measured as either absolute or relative. Absolute poverty or destitution is a state when a person is unable to afford basic human needs such as clean and fresh water, nutrition, health care, education, clothing, and shelter. In the present world, about 1.7 billion people are estimated to live in absolute poverty. Relative poverty refers to the lacking of the usual or socially acceptable level of resources or income as compared with other people living in a certain society or country. According to the World Bank, a man living on less than US $1.25 is in absolute poverty and one is in relative poverty when he lives on less than US $2.00.

Poverty in Bangladesh: Bangladesh is one of the poorest countries in the world. It occupies 124th place (out of 169 countries) in the global ranking of GDP per capita by the World Bank’s World Development Indicators in the year 2011. Despite international assistance and relentless effort by the Government, Bangladesh has been unable to eliminate extreme poverty and hunger. There are tragic disparities in the quality of life in urban and rural areas of the country. Residents of urban areas, especially the capital Dhaka and major cities like Chittagong, Sylhet, Khulna, and Rajshahi enjoy a better life with access to electricity, gas, and clean water. Still, even in the major cities, a significant proportion of Bangladeshis live without any utilities or communication facilities. These Bangladeshis have limited access to good healthcare facilities or clean drinking water.

Conclusion: No progress is possible if we cannot ensure basic human rights such as food, clothing, shelter, education, medicine, etc., and make our country free of poverty. Hence we should make an all-out effort for eradicating poverty from this country.

Poverty Alleviation Paragraph, 100 Words

By: Haque , For class 6-7, 08-01-’22

Poverty means a lack of money or resources. Poor people can’t meet the basic needs of their lives. They don’t get good food, they live in huts, they can’t get good treatment when they are sick. About half of the people in our country still live below the poverty line. Their lives are very miserable. However, various efforts are being made to reduce poverty. Agriculture is being carried out in a scientific manner so that more crops can be grown. High birth rates have been reduced. New employment opportunities are being created. These initiatives should be further enhanced. The government can provide financial assistance to the villagers for poultry farming, vegetable cultivation, and handicrafts. In this way, it is possible to further alleviate poverty.

Poverty Alleviation Paragraph,150 Words

By: Haque , For class 7-10, 08-01-’22

Write a paragraph on poverty alleviation. Write the condition that can be applicable to get the country rid of poverty.

Poverty is the stage that makes a person incapable to enjoy the charms of life. Poverty can be alleviated by working hard. We know that God helps those who help themselves and where there is a will there is a way. If one tries to elevate his condition he will surely succeed. In our country many educated people and many students after the completion of their education dream of clean collar jobs. But most of them have paternal acres of land in their native village. They can go back to their villages and engage themselves in poultry, dairy, horticulture, pisciculture, and other agricultural activities. At first, they can start on a small scale. When they will be able to run those projects on a large scale, instead of seeking jobs they can provide job opportunities to others. Poverty stops the growth of the economy. So, poverty alleviation should be a must to identify our own ego and status as a strong nation.

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An assessment of the policy of poverty alleviation in continuous poverty-stricken areas: evidence from Yunnan Province, China

• Published: 11 June 2022
• Volume 25 , pages 9757–9777, ( 2023 )

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• Jiaxin Wu 1 ,
• Hongjuan Yang   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-1984-5105 1 &
• Tanveer Ahmed 1  

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Poverty eradication is the key to sustainable development. China's most principal poverty alleviation policy at present is the policy of poverty alleviation in continuous poverty-stricken areas. According to panel data containing 126 county-level districts of Yunnan Province from 2006 to 2018, assessed the consequence of the poverty alleviation policy in continuous poverty-stricken areas. The combination of the PSM and DID method is pragmatic to right the possible selection partiality as well as resolve the probable endogenic complications, and a series of robustness tests have been carried out to prove the robustness of the research conclusions. The outcomes specify that the policy meaningfully upgraded the GDP thru 11.8% in these areas. Furthermore, the policy endorses economic development through the adjustment of industrial structure, lastly providing three policy suggestions to expand the level and driving force of economic development in impoverished areas.

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This work was supported by the Natural Science Foundation of China [Grant Number 72064025] and the Ministry of Education Planning Fund [Grant Number 20XJA630002].

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Wu, J., Yang, H. & Ahmed, T. An assessment of the policy of poverty alleviation in continuous poverty-stricken areas: evidence from Yunnan Province, China. Environ Dev Sustain 25 , 9757–9777 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-022-02459-4

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Received : 18 October 2021

Accepted : 18 May 2022

Published : 11 June 2022

Issue Date : September 2023

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-022-02459-4

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