type of research instrument

Research Methodologies: Research Instruments

• Research Methodology Basics
• Research Instruments
• Types of Research Methodologies

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Types of Research Instruments

A research instrument is a tool you will use to help you collect, measure and analyze the data you use as part of your research.  The choice of research instrument will usually be yours to make as the researcher and will be whichever best suits your methodology. 

There are many different research instruments you can use in collecting data for your research:

• Interviews  (either as a group or one-on-one). You can carry out interviews in many different ways. For example, your interview can be structured, semi-structured, or unstructured. The difference between them is how formal the set of questions is that is asked of the interviewee. In a group interview, you may choose to ask the interviewees to give you their opinions or perceptions on certain topics.
• Surveys  (online or in-person). In survey research, you are posing questions in which you ask for a response from the person taking the survey. You may wish to have either free-answer questions such as essay style questions, or you may wish to use closed questions such as multiple choice. You may even wish to make the survey a mixture of both.
• Focus Groups.  Similar to the group interview above, you may wish to ask a focus group to discuss a particular topic or opinion while you make a note of the answers given.
• Observations.  This is a good research instrument to use if you are looking into human behaviors. Different ways of researching this include studying the spontaneous behavior of participants in their everyday life, or something more structured. A structured observation is research conducted at a set time and place where researchers observe behavior as planned and agreed upon with participants.

These are the most common ways of carrying out research, but it is really dependent on your needs as a researcher and what approach you think is best to take. It is also possible to combine a number of research instruments if this is necessary and appropriate in answering your research problem.

Data Collection

How to Collect Data for Your Research   This article covers different ways of collecting data in preparation for writing a thesis.

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Research Instruments

• Resources for Identifying Instruments
• Assessing Instruments
• Obtaining the Full Instrument
• Getting Help

What are Research Instruments?

A research instrument is a tool used to collect, measure, and analyze data related to  your subject.

Research instruments can  be tests , surveys , scales ,  questionnaires , or even checklists .

To assure the strength of your study, it is important to use previously validated instruments!

Getting Started

Already know the full name of the instrument you're looking for? 

• Start here!

Finding a research instrument can be very time-consuming!

This process involves three concrete steps:

It is common that sources will not provide the full instrument, but they will provide a citation with the publisher. In some cases, you may have to contact the publisher to obtain the full text.

Research Tip :  Talk to your departmental faculty. Many of them have expertise in working with research instruments and can help you with this process.

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What is a Research Instrument?

• By DiscoverPhDs
• October 9, 2020

The term research instrument refers to any tool that you may use to collect or obtain data, measure data and analyse data that is relevant to the subject of your research.

Research instruments are often used in the fields of social sciences and health sciences. These tools can also be found within education that relates to patients, staff, teachers and students.

The format of a research instrument may consist of questionnaires, surveys, interviews, checklists or simple tests. The choice of which specific research instrument tool to use will be decided on the by the researcher. It will also be strongly related to the actual methods that will be used in the specific study.

What Makes a Good Research Instrument?

A good research instrument is one that has been validated and has proven reliability. It should be one that can collect data in a way that’s appropriate to the research question being asked.

The research instrument must be able to assist in answering the research aims , objectives and research questions, as well as prove or disprove the hypothesis of the study.

It should not have any bias in the way that data is collect and it should be clear as to how the research instrument should be used appropriately.

What are the Different Types of Interview Research Instruments?

The general format of an interview is where the interviewer asks the interviewee to answer a set of questions which are normally asked and answered verbally. There are several different types of interview research instruments that may exist.

• A structural interview may be used in which there are a specific number of questions that are formally asked of the interviewee and their responses recorded using a systematic and standard methodology.
• An unstructured interview on the other hand may still be based on the same general theme of questions but here the person asking the questions (the interviewer) may change the order the questions are asked in and the specific way in which they’re asked.
• A focus interview is one in which the interviewer will adapt their line or content of questioning based on the responses from the interviewee.
• A focus group interview is one in which a group of volunteers or interviewees are asked questions to understand their opinion or thoughts on a specific subject.
• A non-directive interview is one in which there are no specific questions agreed upon but instead the format is open-ended and more reactionary in the discussion between interviewer and interviewee.

What are the Different Types of Observation Research Instruments?

An observation research instrument is one in which a researcher makes observations and records of the behaviour of individuals. There are several different types.

Structured observations occur when the study is performed at a predetermined location and time, in which the volunteers or study participants are observed used standardised methods.

Naturalistic observations are focused on volunteers or participants being in more natural environments in which their reactions and behaviour are also more natural or spontaneous.

A participant observation occurs when the person conducting the research actively becomes part of the group of volunteers or participants that he or she is researching.

Final Comments

The types of research instruments will depend on the format of the research study being performed: qualitative, quantitative or a mixed methodology. You may for example utilise questionnaires when a study is more qualitative or use a scoring scale in more quantitative studies.

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Research Instruments 

Educational research results in evidence based practices, put into action by the educational community.

Instruments allow programs to collect relevant data  related to a research problem, designed for  measuring their intended outcomes.  Various types of instruments may include surveys, tests, questionnaires, achievement / aptitude tests, observation forms, tally sheets, etc…

Use these following pages to guide you in locating

• Instrument(s) by name or acronym
• Test reviews and various forms of validity and / or reliability
• Instruments used to test a specific variable

Also useful:

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What are Research Instruments

A research instrument is a survey, questionnaire, test, scale, rating, or tool designed to measure the variable(s), characteristic(s), or information of interest, often a behavioral or psychological characteristic. Research instruments can be helpful tools to your research study.

"Careful planning for data collection can help with setting realistic goals. Data collection instrumentation, such as surveys, physiologic measures (blood pressure or temperature), or interview guides, must be identified and described. Using previously validated collection instruments can save time and increase the study's credibility. Once the data collection procedure has been determined, a time line for completion should be established." (Pierce, 2009, p. 159)

• Pierce, L.L. (2009). Twelve steps for success in the nursing research journey. Journal of Continuing Education in Nursing 40(4), 154-162.

A research instrument is developed as a method of data generation by researchers and information about the research instrument is shared in order to establish the credibility and validity of the method. Whether other researchers may use the research instrument is the decision of the original author-researchers. They may make it publicly available for free or for a price or they may not share it at all. Sources about research instruments have a purpose of describing the instrument to inform. Sources may or may not provide the instrument itself or the contact information of the author-researcher. The onus is on the reader-researcher to try to find the instrument itself or to contact the author-researcher to request permission for its use, if necessary.

How to choose the right one?

Are you trying to find background information about a research instrument? Or are you trying to find and obtain an actual copy of the instrument?

If you need information about a research instrument, what kind of information do you need? Do you need information on the structure of the instrument, its content, its development, its psychometric reliability or validity? What do you need?

If you plan to obtain an actual copy of the instrument to use in research, you need to be concerned not only with obtaining the instrument, but also obtaining permission to use the instrument. Research instruments may be copyrighted. To obtain permission, contact the copyright holder in writing (print or email).

If someone posts a published test or instrument without the permission of the copyright holder, they may be violating copyright and could be legally liable. 

What are you trying to measure? For example, if you are studying depression, are you trying to measure the duration of depression, the intensity of depression, the change over time of the episodes, … what? The instrument must measure what you need or it is useless to you.

Factors to consider when selecting an instrument are • Well-tested factorial structure, validity & reliability • Availability of supportive materials and technology for entering, analyzing and interpreting results • Availability of normative data as a reference for evaluating, interpreting, or placing in context individual test scores • Applicable to wide range of participants • Can also be used as personal development tool/exercise • User-friendliness & administrative ease • Availability; can you obtain it? • Does it require permission from the owner to use it? • Financial cost • Amount of time required

Check the validity and reliability of tests and instruments. Do they really measure what they claim to measure? Do they measure consistently over time, with different research subjects and ethnic groups, and after repeated use? Research articles that used the test will often include reliability and validity data.

How Locate Instrument

Realize that searching for an instrument may take a lot of time. They may be published in a book or article on a particular subject. They be published and described in a dissertation. They may posted on the Internet and freely available. A specific instrument may be found in multiple publications and have been used for a long time. Or it may be new and only described in a few places. It may only be available by contacting the person who developed it, who may or may not respond to your inquiry in a timely manner.

There are a variety of sources that may used to search for research instruments. They include books, databases, Internet search engines, Web sites, journal articles, and dissertations.

A few key sources and search tips are listed in this guide.

Permission to Use the Test

If you plan to obtain an actual copy of the instrument to use in research, you need to be concerned not only with obtaining the instrument, but also obtaining permission to use the instrument. Research instruments are copyrighted. To obtain permission, contact the copyright holder to obtain permission in writing (print or email). Written permission is a record that you obtained permission.

It is a good idea to have them state in wiritng that they are indeed the copyright holder and that they grant you permission to use the instrument. If you wish to publish the actual instrument in your paper, get permission for that, too. You may write about the instrument without obtaining permission. (But remember to cite it!)

If someone posts a published test or instrument without the permission of the copyright holder, they are violating copyright and could be legally liable. 

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Tests, Instruments & Measurement Tools

Researching a tool, accessing a tool, permissions for a tool.

What are Tests or Instruments? How are they used for research? And how can you find them in order to use them for your own research?

Test and Instruments are types of Measurement tools, and they are used by researchers and practitioners to aid in the assessment or evaluation of research participants, clients, or patients. The tools are used to measure or collect data on a variety of variables, depending on the research questions. Measurement tools include scales, indexes, surveys, interviews, observations, and more.

Below are steps to get you started with finding, obtaining, and using measurement tools in your own research. This list is by no means exhaustive, and should you have more specific questions, you will want to reach out to your liaison librarian. Not sure who that is? Use the link below to find out which librarian works with your program.

• Who's my Librarian?

*This guide has reused material, with permission, from the University of Washington, Health Sciences Library Measurements Tools/Research Instruments guide: https://guides.lib.uw.edu/hsl/measure, maintained by Ann Madhavan.

Researching and Selecting Measurement Tools

• Databases: Lavery Library has a number of databases that specialize in measurement tools. In the Databases section of this guide, you will be introduced to these resources and see example searches.
• Books: Lavery Library has books in our Collection where you can find reviews of measurement tools, and also full versions of measurement tools. In the Books section of this guide, you will see a list of these titles, and examples of what types of tools are available from these resources.
• K-12 Resource Center: The K-12 Resource Center has a selection of Formal Assessments available, these can be checked out for one week. In the K-12 Resource Center section you will learn how to search for these educational test kits.
• Learn more about where you can search for measurement tools.

Obtaining and Accessing Measurement Tools

There's no one way to retrieve a measurement tool, sometimes the Library will have full versions available in our collection (in-print or online); sometimes you might need to request a copy through Interlibrary Loan, and sometimes using Google (gasp) is the best method.

• Online: Sometimes tools will be available as an appendix to an article or dissertation, printed in a book with other tools, or even available freely online. Having the creator and title of a measurement tool in hand before searching for full versions will always make it easier.
• Interlibrary Loan: You can always submit an ILL request for a measurement tool, and we will do our best to try and find a copy for you. Sometimes we need extra information from you to complete these requests, so make sure you respond promptly to emails asking for additional information.
• K-12 Resource Center: Look for Formal Assessment kits in the K-12 Resource Center's collection.
• Learn how to find full versions of measurement tools.

Permissions for Measurement Tools

Similar to how you would cite someone when referring to their research in your own, there are typically permissions that need to be given before using any measurement tool for your own purposes.

• Copyright and obtaining permissions
• Learn about how to use a measurement tool ethically.
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What Are the 4 Types of Research Instruments?

Last updated: March 5, 2022

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What Are The 4 Types Of Research Instruments?

There are different types of research instruments. For example, a focus interview uses a set of questions and responds to each one in a specific way. A focus group interview uses a set of predetermined questions and responds to each one. A non-directive interview, on the other hand, uses observation as the primary method of data collection. These interviews are more reactionary and do not involve a predetermined line of questioning.

Quantitative data collection methods use structured data collection instruments that fit diverse experiences into predetermined response categories. These methods are very effective in presenting results and can easily be compared and generalized. These studies use data that has been validated to ensure the accuracy and strength of the results. Researchers may also randomly assign participants to different treatments. They may collect data on participant characteristics and situational factors. These techniques are best for quantitative research.

In addition to these four types of research instruments, there are other types of data collection tools. Some of these are observational, while others are experimental or simulation. Either type of data collection tool is useful for the research. As long as it is reliable, it will be an invaluable part of the project. In addition, it will provide insight into how the study is performed. You can find a variety of different tools to collect data.

Among the four main types of data collection, questionnaires and surveys are the most common. They can be structured or unstructured. They need to be person-to-person. Tests and experiments are the most popular quantitative tools. However, they vary in their validity, which is the degree of measurement. It is important to choose the right instrument for your research project. A qualitative research study, on the other hand, relies on quantitative methods.

Validity is the degree to which a research instrument measures the intended data. In general, instruments are never 100 percent valid, but they are generally measured in degrees. During the validation process, the researchers collect and analyze data in order to test the instrument’s accuracy. To assess the validity of a questionnaire, they must conduct a pilot test. Then, they need to collect and analyze the data from the participants.

Qualitative data collection methods rely on systematic methods that require a large number of participants. Often, the data collected by qualitative researchers is difficult to replicate, and quantitative research methods often depend on this fact. Moreover, they are more expensive than qualitative data collection, which is why they are rarely used. A survey, for example, can take several days to gather and analyze. The best method to use for this purpose is to get a random sample of the population.

Research instruments are the tools used for collecting data. These tools can be in the form of surveys, questionnaires, or tests. The primary goal of a study is to gain insight into a particular topic. The data obtained through these methods will help scientists make informed decisions. This will lead to more useful findings. In addition, these tools are necessary to collect data. If the research is conducted using one of these methods, the results will also be useful to other researchers.

Besides primary and secondary data collection, scientists can also use secondary data. In this type of research, data are collected from existing sources, thereby avoiding the costs of gathering data from the population. In contrast, quantitative data collection methods are more costly and time-consuming, while secondary data collection methods are easier to do. These data are important to make informed decisions, which are essential for the validity of the results. You can also use these types of instruments to track their usage and keep records.

There are four main types of research instruments. These are: questionnaires, interviews, focus group discussions, and tests. The questionnaire is the most common instrument used for data collection, while an interview is a more informal way of collecting information. The focus group discussion, however, is the most popular form of qualitative data collection. Ultimately, the four types of research instruments are the most important types of research. They are the most widely used forms of data collection in most fields, and the use of them largely depends on the type of study.

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Research Instruments (Tests & Scales): Descriptions of Research Instruments

• Research Instruments used in Articles
• Descriptions of Research Instruments
• Obtaining & Using Research Instruments

Mental Measurements Yearbook and Tests in Print

The Mental Measurements Yearbook   contains reviews of English-language tests and instruments that are commercially published. MMY reviews usually provide descriptive information about the test, psychometric properties, test development and norming, and a summary including recommended uses.  Carlson Library has Yearbooks 2-16.  Use the Buros Institute test finder below to identify tests included in the yearbook and which edition of the yearbook they were most recently reviewed in.

Tests in Print includes information on test purpose, test publisher, in-print status, price, test acronym, intended test population, administration times, publication date(s), and test author(s).

These resources are produced by the Buros Institute , which maintains its own website useful for identifying tests included in these book series.

CINAHL: Instrument Descriptions

CINAHL  is best known as a tool to identify articles in the nursing and allied health literature, but it can also be used to find information on instruments used in nursing and allied health research.

Beginning in 1994, CINAHL began indexing research instruments. (NOTE: The indexing is retrospective; many of the indexed instruments were developed before 1994; there don’t appear to be any new entries after 2005). Each instrument record includes

• developers' names,
• year developed,
• variables of interest,
• original population,
• question format,
• administration,
• psychometrics,
• copyright holders,
• modifications, and
• ordering address.

To identify instruments for a given condition or situation, do a search for the topic of interest, then limit the search to the publication type Research Instrument .  To see the full listing of instruments indexed in CINAHL, type PT research instrument in the Find box and hit search.  The PT (Publication Type) convention tells CINAHL to search for "research instrument" in the publication type field.

For more information about searching CINAHL, see these resources .

CINAHL Search for Instrument Descriptions

Other online resources for tests and instrument information.

• TestLink Database The Test Collection at ETS is a database of more than 25,000 tests and other measurement devices, most of which were created by authors outside ETS. With information about tests from the early 1900s to today, the collection is the largest compilation of such materials in the world. It contains tests from U.S. publishers, individual test authors and non-U.S. sources.
• Finding Information on Psychological Tests From the American Psychological Association. The APA provides detailed information about finding information about published and unpublished instruments.

Print Resources for Test and Instrument Information

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Research Instruments

This Guide provides access to databases and web based resources useful for locating a wide variety of research instruments.   

American Thoracic Society Quality of Life Resource Instruments

The goal of this website is to provide information about quality of life and functional status instruments that have been used in assessing patients with pulmonary disease or critical illness.

Cancer Prevention Research Center

Cancer Prevention Research Center provides access to copyrighted psychological measures developed at the University of Rhode Island Cancer Prevention Center. Permission is granted to use these transtheoretical model-based measures for research purposes provided the appropriate citation is referenced. All assessment inventories are available for research purposes only.

CINAHL Plus Research Instruments

CINAHL Plus provides access to research instrument records, research instrument validation records, and research instrument utilization records. These records indicate which studies have used a specific research instrument and include the purpose and variables measured, sample population, methodology, other instruments, items and questions, where the original study was mentioned, and how to obtain the actual research instrument. 

HealthMeasures

Funded by an NIH grant, HealthMeasures consists of four precise, flexible, and comprehensive measurement systems that assess physical, mental, and social health symptoms, well-being, and life satisfaction along with sensory, motor, and cognitive function: PROMIS®, NIH Toolbox®, Neuro-QoL, and ASCQ-Me. 

Medical Outcomes Trust Instruments

Medical Outcomes Trust Instruments provides a list of instruments approved by the Scientific Advisory Committee of the Medical Outcomes Trust. Records include a description of each instrument. Readers must contact the original author or source cited for each tool to obtain approval for its use.

PROQOLID™ was created in 2002 by Mapi Research Trust to extend access to Patient Centered Outcome resources to the scientific community. PROQOLID™ is supplied exponentially with new instruments throughout the year based on recommended sources such as the U.S. Food and Drug Administration, European Medicines Agency, and Research and Development scientific community.

Rehabilitation Measures Database

The Rehabilitation Measures Database was developed to help clinicians and researchers identify reliable and valid instruments used to assess patient outcomes during all phases of rehabilitation. This database provides evidence based summaries that include concise descriptions of each instrument's psychometric properties, instructions for administering and scoring each assessment as well as a representative bibliography with citations linked to PubMed abstracts. Whenever possible, we have also included a copy of the instrument for users to download or information about obtaining the instrument. This database was developed through collaboration between the Center for Rehabilitation Outcomes Research (CROR) at the Rehabilitation Institute of Chicago and the Department of Medical Social Sciences Informatics group at Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine with funding from the National Institute on Disability and Rehabilitation Research. The Rehabilitation Measures Database and its content were created by CROR.   

Research Instruments

• First Online: 01 January 2014

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This chapter justifies the research tools used by providing a rationale for each tool, how it was designed, and what the data collection procedures were. The order of discussing these tools is consistent with the data collection sequence.

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This type of observation is given different names by different researchers. Bryman ( 2008 ) names it as structured observation, while McDonough and McDonough ( 1997 ) calls it systematizing observation.

The researcher’s reflections may concern the data collection methods used, ethical dilemmas and conflicts, and some emerging interpretations.

The modifications were in two aspects. The first modification was in wording. In items 5, 9, 18, 23, 26, 27, and 29, the word “group” was used in the original design, which was regarded as imprecise by the researcher because it was less context-specific. Therefore, “group” was altered to “collaborative learning” or “working collaboratively with peers” for the purpose of precision and this sounds more appropriate in this study. The second alteration was the description of the Likert-scales. Originally, the description for each item was from “1” = “Strongly disagree” to “5” = “Strongly agree.” These were however revised to “1” = “Not true of me at all” to “5” = “Very true of me” because the original description intended to enquire about attitudes, whereas the latter aimed to explore participants’ learning condition, and was believed to be more appropriate and reflective. Other modifications were made to change the difficult words into relatively simple ones, and changing the layout of the questionnaire to be read more easily.

Interestingly, all the 60 participants selected the Chinese version both in the pre- and post-questionnaires. But in the motivation tests, only students from Class 9 chose the Chinese version in the pre- and post-motivation tests , and 12 students from Class 10 preferred the English version in the pre-motivation test. However, all of them chose the Chinese version in the post-test.

Questions in the learning journals were developed from Denscombe ( 2010 , p. 229), “the three crucial elements of diaries ” However, these questions were sub-divided by the researcher who considered that a more detailed classification would be clearer and provide in-depth data (see Appendix 7).

This approach is borrowed from Morgan ( 1997 , p. 41). It seeks to find ways to balance “standardized” versus “unstandardized” interview and “high” versus “low” involvement of the moderator, known as the funnel strategy.

The questions in the focus group interview were generated from a very preliminary analysis of the CL questionnaire and journal writing. More in-depth questions were asked to probe for detailed information (see Appendix 8).

The focus groups were one from each class, with a group of six students from Class 9, and seven participants from Class 10.

It was found that some participants misinterpreted the term “academic benefits” and “social benefits” in Q16 and Q17 (see Appendix 8), both in the Chinese and English versions. Therefore, these terms were explained by the researcher immediately as they arose.

The original AMTB was designed with regard to attitudes toward learning French and French Canadian. However, in this study, the English version was used to suit the present context.

It was found that most students’ learning journals were written in a combination of Chinese and English. Some of the journal questions were answered in Chinese, while others were in English. It was assumed that students might have encountered language difficulties while writing their learning journals. Therefore, their L1 served as a supporting tool.

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Lin, L. (2015). Research Instruments. In: Investigating Chinese HE EFL Classrooms. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-44503-7_5

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Understanding and Evaluating Survey Research

A variety of methodologic approaches exist for individuals interested in conducting research. Selection of a research approach depends on a number of factors, including the purpose of the research, the type of research questions to be answered, and the availability of resources. The purpose of this article is to describe survey research as one approach to the conduct of research so that the reader can critically evaluate the appropriateness of the conclusions from studies employing survey research.

SURVEY RESEARCH

Survey research is defined as "the collection of information from a sample of individuals through their responses to questions" ( Check & Schutt, 2012, p. 160 ). This type of research allows for a variety of methods to recruit participants, collect data, and utilize various methods of instrumentation. Survey research can use quantitative research strategies (e.g., using questionnaires with numerically rated items), qualitative research strategies (e.g., using open-ended questions), or both strategies (i.e., mixed methods). As it is often used to describe and explore human behavior, surveys are therefore frequently used in social and psychological research ( Singleton & Straits, 2009 ).

Information has been obtained from individuals and groups through the use of survey research for decades. It can range from asking a few targeted questions of individuals on a street corner to obtain information related to behaviors and preferences, to a more rigorous study using multiple valid and reliable instruments. Common examples of less rigorous surveys include marketing or political surveys of consumer patterns and public opinion polls.

Survey research has historically included large population-based data collection. The primary purpose of this type of survey research was to obtain information describing characteristics of a large sample of individuals of interest relatively quickly. Large census surveys obtaining information reflecting demographic and personal characteristics and consumer feedback surveys are prime examples. These surveys were often provided through the mail and were intended to describe demographic characteristics of individuals or obtain opinions on which to base programs or products for a population or group.

More recently, survey research has developed into a rigorous approach to research, with scientifically tested strategies detailing who to include (representative sample), what and how to distribute (survey method), and when to initiate the survey and follow up with nonresponders (reducing nonresponse error), in order to ensure a high-quality research process and outcome. Currently, the term "survey" can reflect a range of research aims, sampling and recruitment strategies, data collection instruments, and methods of survey administration.

Given this range of options in the conduct of survey research, it is imperative for the consumer/reader of survey research to understand the potential for bias in survey research as well as the tested techniques for reducing bias, in order to draw appropriate conclusions about the information reported in this manner. Common types of error in research, along with the sources of error and strategies for reducing error as described throughout this article, are summarized in the Table .

Sources of Error in Survey Research and Strategies to Reduce Error

The goal of sampling strategies in survey research is to obtain a sufficient sample that is representative of the population of interest. It is often not feasible to collect data from an entire population of interest (e.g., all individuals with lung cancer); therefore, a subset of the population or sample is used to estimate the population responses (e.g., individuals with lung cancer currently receiving treatment). A large random sample increases the likelihood that the responses from the sample will accurately reflect the entire population. In order to accurately draw conclusions about the population, the sample must include individuals with characteristics similar to the population.

It is therefore necessary to correctly identify the population of interest (e.g., individuals with lung cancer currently receiving treatment vs. all individuals with lung cancer). The sample will ideally include individuals who reflect the intended population in terms of all characteristics of the population (e.g., sex, socioeconomic characteristics, symptom experience) and contain a similar distribution of individuals with those characteristics. As discussed by Mady Stovall beginning on page 162, Fujimori et al. ( 2014 ), for example, were interested in the population of oncologists. The authors obtained a sample of oncologists from two hospitals in Japan. These participants may or may not have similar characteristics to all oncologists in Japan.

Participant recruitment strategies can affect the adequacy and representativeness of the sample obtained. Using diverse recruitment strategies can help improve the size of the sample and help ensure adequate coverage of the intended population. For example, if a survey researcher intends to obtain a sample of individuals with breast cancer representative of all individuals with breast cancer in the United States, the researcher would want to use recruitment strategies that would recruit both women and men, individuals from rural and urban settings, individuals receiving and not receiving active treatment, and so on. Because of the difficulty in obtaining samples representative of a large population, researchers may focus the population of interest to a subset of individuals (e.g., women with stage III or IV breast cancer). Large census surveys require extremely large samples to adequately represent the characteristics of the population because they are intended to represent the entire population.

DATA COLLECTION METHODS

Survey research may use a variety of data collection methods with the most common being questionnaires and interviews. Questionnaires may be self-administered or administered by a professional, may be administered individually or in a group, and typically include a series of items reflecting the research aims. Questionnaires may include demographic questions in addition to valid and reliable research instruments ( Costanzo, Stawski, Ryff, Coe, & Almeida, 2012 ; DuBenske et al., 2014 ; Ponto, Ellington, Mellon, & Beck, 2010 ). It is helpful to the reader when authors describe the contents of the survey questionnaire so that the reader can interpret and evaluate the potential for errors of validity (e.g., items or instruments that do not measure what they are intended to measure) and reliability (e.g., items or instruments that do not measure a construct consistently). Helpful examples of articles that describe the survey instruments exist in the literature ( Buerhaus et al., 2012 ).

Questionnaires may be in paper form and mailed to participants, delivered in an electronic format via email or an Internet-based program such as SurveyMonkey, or a combination of both, giving the participant the option to choose which method is preferred ( Ponto et al., 2010 ). Using a combination of methods of survey administration can help to ensure better sample coverage (i.e., all individuals in the population having a chance of inclusion in the sample) therefore reducing coverage error ( Dillman, Smyth, & Christian, 2014 ; Singleton & Straits, 2009 ). For example, if a researcher were to only use an Internet-delivered questionnaire, individuals without access to a computer would be excluded from participation. Self-administered mailed, group, or Internet-based questionnaires are relatively low cost and practical for a large sample ( Check & Schutt, 2012 ).

Dillman et al. ( 2014 ) have described and tested a tailored design method for survey research. Improving the visual appeal and graphics of surveys by using a font size appropriate for the respondents, ordering items logically without creating unintended response bias, and arranging items clearly on each page can increase the response rate to electronic questionnaires. Attending to these and other issues in electronic questionnaires can help reduce measurement error (i.e., lack of validity or reliability) and help ensure a better response rate.

Conducting interviews is another approach to data collection used in survey research. Interviews may be conducted by phone, computer, or in person and have the benefit of visually identifying the nonverbal response(s) of the interviewee and subsequently being able to clarify the intended question. An interviewer can use probing comments to obtain more information about a question or topic and can request clarification of an unclear response ( Singleton & Straits, 2009 ). Interviews can be costly and time intensive, and therefore are relatively impractical for large samples.

Some authors advocate for using mixed methods for survey research when no one method is adequate to address the planned research aims, to reduce the potential for measurement and non-response error, and to better tailor the study methods to the intended sample ( Dillman et al., 2014 ; Singleton & Straits, 2009 ). For example, a mixed methods survey research approach may begin with distributing a questionnaire and following up with telephone interviews to clarify unclear survey responses ( Singleton & Straits, 2009 ). Mixed methods might also be used when visual or auditory deficits preclude an individual from completing a questionnaire or participating in an interview.

FUJIMORI ET AL.: SURVEY RESEARCH

Fujimori et al. ( 2014 ) described the use of survey research in a study of the effect of communication skills training for oncologists on oncologist and patient outcomes (e.g., oncologist’s performance and confidence and patient’s distress, satisfaction, and trust). A sample of 30 oncologists from two hospitals was obtained and though the authors provided a power analysis concluding an adequate number of oncologist participants to detect differences between baseline and follow-up scores, the conclusions of the study may not be generalizable to a broader population of oncologists. Oncologists were randomized to either an intervention group (i.e., communication skills training) or a control group (i.e., no training).

Fujimori et al. ( 2014 ) chose a quantitative approach to collect data from oncologist and patient participants regarding the study outcome variables. Self-report numeric ratings were used to measure oncologist confidence and patient distress, satisfaction, and trust. Oncologist confidence was measured using two instruments each using 10-point Likert rating scales. The Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS) was used to measure patient distress and has demonstrated validity and reliability in a number of populations including individuals with cancer ( Bjelland, Dahl, Haug, & Neckelmann, 2002 ). Patient satisfaction and trust were measured using 0 to 10 numeric rating scales. Numeric observer ratings were used to measure oncologist performance of communication skills based on a videotaped interaction with a standardized patient. Participants completed the same questionnaires at baseline and follow-up.

The authors clearly describe what data were collected from all participants. Providing additional information about the manner in which questionnaires were distributed (i.e., electronic, mail), the setting in which data were collected (e.g., home, clinic), and the design of the survey instruments (e.g., visual appeal, format, content, arrangement of items) would assist the reader in drawing conclusions about the potential for measurement and nonresponse error. The authors describe conducting a follow-up phone call or mail inquiry for nonresponders, using the Dillman et al. ( 2014 ) tailored design for survey research follow-up may have reduced nonresponse error.

CONCLUSIONS

Survey research is a useful and legitimate approach to research that has clear benefits in helping to describe and explore variables and constructs of interest. Survey research, like all research, has the potential for a variety of sources of error, but several strategies exist to reduce the potential for error. Advanced practitioners aware of the potential sources of error and strategies to improve survey research can better determine how and whether the conclusions from a survey research study apply to practice.

The author has no potential conflicts of interest to disclose.

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Market research is a common practice used by companies to learn about customer behaviour and design suitable marketing campaigns. However, researching the market is not easy. To simplify the process, researchers can make use of research instruments. These are tools for collecting, measuring, and analysing data. Read along to learn what research instruments are used for and how they can be applied.

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Research Instrument Meaning

Research instruments are tools used for data collection and analysis. Researchers can use these tools in most fields. In business, they aid marketers in market research and customer behaviour study.

Some examples of research instruments include interviews, questionnaires, online surveys, and checklists.

Choosing the right research instrument is essential as it can reduce data collection time and provide more accurate results for the research purpose.

• A research instrument is a tool for collecting and analysing data in research.

Data in research is a form of evidence. It justifies how marketers reach a decision and apply a particular strategy to a marketing campaign.

In research, marketers often collect data from various sources to produce and validate research results.

Research Instrument Examples

There are many examples of research instruments. The most common ones are interviews, surveys, observations, and focus groups . Let's break them down one by one.

Research Instrument: Interviews

The interview is a qualitative research method that collects data by asking questions. It includes three main types: structured, unstructured, and semi-structured interviews.

Structured interviews include an ordered list of questions. These questions are often closed-ended and draw a yes, no or a short answer from the respondents. Structured interviews are easy to execute but leave little room for spontaneity.

Unstructured interviews are the opposite of structured interviews. Questions are mostly open-ended and are not arranged in order. The participants can express themselves more freely and elaborate on their answers.

Semi-structured interviews are a blend of structured and unstructured interviews. They are more organised than unstructured interviews, though not as rigid as structured interviews.

Compared to other research instruments, interviews provide more reliable results and allow the interviewers to engage and connect with the participants. However, it requires experienced interviewers to drive the best response from the interviewees.

Tools used in interviews may include:

Audio recorder (face-to-face interview)

Cam recorder & video conferencing tools (online interview)

Check out our explanation Interview in Research to learn more.

Research Instrument: Surveys

Survey research is another primary data collection method that involves asking a group of people for their opinions on a topic. However, surveys are often given out in paper form or online instead of meeting the respondents face-to-face.

An example is a feedback survey you receive from a company from which you just purchased a product.

The most common form of a survey is a questionnaire. It is a list of questions to collect opinions from a group. These questions can be close-ended, open-ended, pre-selected answers, or scale ratings. Participants can receive the same or alternate questions.

The main benefit of a survey is that it is a cheap way to collect data from a large group. Most surveys are also anonymous, making people more comfortable sharing honest opinions. However, this approach does not always guarantee a response since people tend to ignore surveys in their email inboxes or in-store.

There are many types of surveys, including paper and online surveys.

Check out our explanation of Survey Research to learn more.

Research Instrument: Observations

Observation is another research instrument for marketers to collect data. It involves an observer watching people interacting in a controlled or uncontrolled environment.

An example is watching a group of kids playing and seeing how they interact, which kid is most popular in the group, etc.

Observation is easy to execute and also provides highly accurate results. However, these results might be subjected to observer bias (the observers' opinions and prejudice) which lowers their fairness and objectivity. Also, some types of observations are not cheap.

Tools for observations can vary based on the research purpose and business resources.

Simple observations can be carried out without any tool. An example might be an observer "shopping along" with a customer to see how they choose products and which store section catches their eyes.

More complex observations can require special equipment such as eye-tracking and brain-scanning devices. Websites may also use heat maps to see which areas are most clicked by page visitors.

Check out our explanation of Observational research to learn more.

Research Instrument: Focus groups

Focus groups are similar to interviews but include more than one participant. It is also a qualitative research method which aims to understand customers' opinions on a topic.

Focus groups often consist of one moderator and a group of participants. Sometimes, there are two moderators, one directing the conversation and the other observing.

Conducting focus groups are quick, cheap, and efficient. However, the data analysis can be time-consuming. Engaging a large group of people is tricky, and many participants may be shy or unwilling to give their opinions.

If focus groups are conducted online, tools like Zoom or Google Meeting are often used.

Check out our explanation Focus Groups to learn more.

Research Instrument: Existing data

Unlike the others, existing or secondary data is an instrument for secondary research. Secondary research means using data that another researcher has collected.

Secondary data can save a lot of research time and budget. Sources are also numerous, including internal (within the company) and external (outside the company) sources.

Internal sources include company reports, customer feedback, buyer personas, etc. External sources might include newspapers, magazines, journals, surveys, reports, Internet articles, etc.

Collecting from existing data is pretty simple, though the sources need validating before use.

Check out our explanation of Secondary Market Research to learn more.

Research Instrument Design

Research instrument design means creating research instruments to obtain the most quality, reliable, and actionable results. It is an intricate process that requires a lot of time and effort from the researchers.

A few things to keep in mind when designing research instrument 1 :

Validity means how well the participants' answers match those outside the study.

Reliability means whether the research method will produce similar results multiple times.

Replicability means whether the research results can be used for other research purposes.

G eneralizability means whether the research data can be generalised or applied to the whole population.

Research instrument design best practices

Here are some good practices for creating research instruments:

Define the research objective

Good research always starts with a hypothesis. This is the proposed explanation based on the evidence that the business currently has. Further research will be needed to prove this explanation is true.

Based on the hypothesis, the researchers can determine the research objectives:

What is the research's purpose?

What result does it try to measure?

What questions to ask?

How to know the results are reliable/actionable?

Prepare carefully

"To be prepared is half the victory". Preparation means designing how researchers will carry out the research. This may include creating questions and deciding on what tools to use.

Survey research design might include creating questions that are simple to understand and do not include biased language. The researcher can also use typography, spacing, colours, and images to make the survey attractive.

Create a guideline

The person carrying out the research may not be the same as who designs it. To ensure smooth implementation, an important step is to create a guideline.

For example, when using interviews in research, the researcher can also create a document that provides a focus for the interview. This is simply a document that defines the structure of the interview - what questions to ask and in which order.

Avoid interviewer bias

Interviewer bias happens when the researcher/observer/interviewer interacts directly with the participants. Interviewer bias means letting the interviewers' viewpoints and attitudes affect the research outcome. For example, the interviewer reacts differently around different interviewees or asks leading questions.

When designing research instruments, researchers should keep this in mind and leave out questions that might lead the respondent to their favourable responses.

Test and implement

To avoid mistakes, the researcher can first test it in a small sample before applying it to a large group. This is extremely important, especially in large-scale data collection methods like questionnaires. A minor error can make the whole process futile. A good practice is to ask a team member proofread the survey questions to spot any errors or inaccuracies.

After testing, the next task is to apply it to the target group. The response rate is a crucial KPI to determine the research's reliability. The higher the response rate, the more reliable the results are. However, other factors like the depth of answers are also important.

Research Instrument in quantitative research

Quantitative research means collecting and analysing numerical data. This kind of research helps spot patterns and trends to make predictions or generalise results to the whole population. Research instruments in quantitative research include surveys, questionnaires, telephone, and interviews.

The main component of surveys is questionnaires. These are lists of questions to collect data from a large group. In survey research, the questions are primarily closed-ended or include rating scales to collect data in a unified fashion.

The reliability of survey results greatly depends on the sample size. The larger the sample size, the higher validity it will have, though not cheap to execute.

There is limited interviewer bias and errors in surveys. However, the refusal rate is high as few people are willing to write down their answers.

Research instrument questionnaires

Questionnaires as a research instrument can be self-administered or with interference from the researcher.

Self-administered questionnaires are ones completed in the absence of the researcher. 2 The respondent fills out the questionnaire themselves, which gives the term "self-administered". Self-administered surveys allow participants to keep their anonymity and be more comfortable sharing their opinions. When surveys are self-administered, researcher bias can be removed. The only drawback is that the researcher can't track who will fill the questionnaires and when they will return the answer.

Questionnaires with interference from the researcher are primarily found in focus groups, interviews, or observational research . The researcher hands out the questionnaire and remains there to help the respondents fill it. They can answer questions and clear out any uncertainties the respondent might have. This type of questionnaire has more risk of researcher bias but will give more quality responses and have a higher response rate.

Research Instrument: Telephone

The telephone is another research instrument for quantitative research. It is based on random sampling and also has low interviewer bias. However, phone calls tend to be short (less than 15 minutes), giving interviewers little time to collect in-depth information. Customers can also hang up when they are distracted by something else.

Most interviews are qualitative in nature, but some are quantitative, especially those carried out in a structured manner. An example is structured interviews which include closed-ended questions arranged in a specific order.

Research Instrument - Key takeaways

• Popular research instruments are interviews, surveys, observations, focus groups, and secondary data.
• When designing research instruments, the researcher needs to consider the research results' validity, reliability, applicability, and generalizability.
• Research instruments mostly used in quantitative research are telephone, interviews, and surveys.
• Questionnaires as a research instrument can be self-administered or with the researcher's interference.
• Vision Edge Marketing, How to Design an Effective Survey Instrument, https://visionedgemarketing.com/survey-instrument-effective-market-customer-research/.
• Form Plus Blog, Self Administered Survey: Types, Uses + [Questionnaire Examples], https://www.formpl.us/blog/self-administered-survey, 2022.

Frequently Asked Questions about Research Instrument

--> what instruments are used to collect quantitative data.

Instruments used to collect quantitative data include surveys, telephone, and (structured) interviews.

--> What is questionnaire in research instrument?

Questionnaires are lists of questions to gather data from the target group. It is mainly used in surveys to collect quantitative data. 

--> What are research instruments for data collection?

There are many research instruments for data collection. The most popular are interviews, surveys, observations, focus groups, and secondary data. Different research instruments can be used depending on the type and purpose of the research. 

--> What are research instrument examples?

Some research instrument examples are surveys, interviews, and focus groups. Surveys can be used to collect quantitative data from a large group while interviews and focus groups gather qualitative data from a smaller group of participants.

--> What are instrument design in research?

Research instrument design means creating research instruments to obtain high-quality and reliable research data. Good research instruments must match four qualities: validity, reliability, applicability, and generalizability. 

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The research instrument that involves watching people interacting in a controlled or uncontrolled environment is __________.

Focus groups can be organised online. 

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Tools for collecting and analysing data in research is called ____________.

research instruments

What tools are used in interviews?

observation

Interviews in research can be structured, _________, or ________.

unstructured

semi-structured

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