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Darwin, Malthus, Süssmilch, and Euler: The Ultimate Origin of the Motivation for the Theory of Natural Selection

• Published: 15 August 2013
• Volume 47 , pages 189–212, ( 2014 )

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• Dominic Klyve 1  

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It is fairly well known that Darwin was inspired to formulate his theory of natural selection by reading Thomas Malthus’s Essay on the Principle of Population . In fact, by reading Darwin’s notebooks, we can even locate one particular sentence which started Darwin thinking about population and selection. What has not been done before is to explain exactly where this sentence – essentially Malthus’s ideas about geometric population growth – came from. In this essay we show that eighteenth century mathematician Leonhard Euler is responsible for this sentence, and in fact forms the beginning of the logical chain which leads to the creation of the theory of natural selection. We shall examine the fascinating path taken by a mathematical calculation, the many different lenses through which it was viewed, and the path through which it eventually influenced Darwin.

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Klyve, D. Darwin, Malthus, Süssmilch, and Euler: The Ultimate Origin of the Motivation for the Theory of Natural Selection. J Hist Biol 47 , 189–212 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10739-013-9366-8

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• Charles Darwin

Charles Darwin did not formally publish on the topic of evolution until 1858, when excerpts from an essay he had privately written in 1844 and a portion of a letter to the American botanist Asa Gray were published along with Alfred Russel Wallace's formal manuscript on the mechanism of natural selection (click  here  to read all three pieces) in the  J ournal of the Linnean Society of London , Zoology . Nevertheless, Darwin wrote extensively about evolution in his private notebooks beginning shortly after his return from the voyage of the Beagle in 1836. In 1842, he we wrote his first formal essay on evolution and this was expanded in 1844. These two essays were first published in 1909 (click  here  to read). Between 1855 and 1858, Darwin worked on what became known as his "Big Species Book" which was subsequently abandoned when he learned that Alfred Russel Wallace had independently elucidated the principle of natural selection and there was a need for expeditious publication of his views. What came next, was the remarkable flurry of writing activity that resulted in  On the Origin of Species , published in November of 1859 (click  here  to read).

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12.2: Introduction to Charles Darwin

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What you’ll learn to do: Describe the work of Charles Darwin in the Galapagos Islands, especially his discovery of natural selection in finch populations

Charles Robert Darwin, was an English naturalist, geologist and biologist, best known for his contributions to the science of evolution. He established that all species of life have descended over time from common ancestors and, in a joint publication with Alfred Russel Wallace, introduced his scientific theory that this branching pattern of evolution resulted from a process that he called natural selection, in which the struggle for existence has a similar effect to the artificial selection involved in selective breeding.

Darwin published his theory of evolution with compelling evidence in his 1859 book On the Origin of Species , overcoming scientific rejection of earlier concepts of transmutation of species. By the 1870s, the scientific community and much of the general public had accepted evolution as a fact. However, many favored competing explanations and it was not until the emergence of the modern evolutionary synthesis from the 1930s to the 1950s that a broad consensus developed in which natural selection was the basic mechanism of evolution. Darwin’s scientific discovery is the unifying theory of the life sciences, explaining the diversity of life.

In this outcome we’ll learn more about his work and how it helped develop the theory of evolution.

Contributors and Attributions

• Introduction to Charles Darwin. Authored by : Shelli Carter and Lumen Learning. Provided by : Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution
• Modifcation of Charles Darwin. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : https://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Darwin . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike

Home — Essay Samples — Science — Evolution — Darwins Four Components Of Natural Selection

Darwins Four Components of Natural Selection

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Charles Darwin

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Introduction

Charles Darwin lived between 1809 and 1882. He was an English geologist and naturalist. He is recognized for the evolution theory that he has established. Darwin brought the idea that all organisms originated from a common ancestor. He believed that evolution came from natural selection as organism struggle to exist. Darwin believed that only the fittest organism is able to survive, and their genes are moved to the next generation. The theory of natural selection was formulated by Charles Darwin in the 19th century. Darwin was an English geologist, biologist and naturalist. Darwin started his investigation on species on the islands using vessel HMS Beagle. He spent time on the islands and came up with a theory that contradicted the creation theory. Darwin concluded that all species originated form a common ancestor, through natural selection process. Natural selection is the largest factor that resulted to the diversity of species as well as their genomes.

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Darwins Theory of Natural Selection

Darwins theory is traced back to the time of Aristotle. Darwin pointed out that he borrowed some ideas from the works of Aristotle and other Greek Thinkers such as Empedocles. Darwin pointed out that he could not have discovered how evolution took place without the work of Robert Thomas Malthus who made him realize that organisms adjust as they try to fit in the competition for scarce resources.

Charles Darwin is regarded as the father of revolutionary biology as he introduced the evolution theory that describes the origin of species. Darwins scientific theory argues that populations develop over time through the natural selection process. His works proved that diversity of life arises through common descent evolution pattern. Darwin gathered information for his theory in the 1830s on the Beagle voyage. He also conducted subsequent experimentation, correspondence and research that proved his theory.

Explanation of Natural Selection

All species have an aim of reproducing to survive. They pass genetic information from one generation to another. Through reproduction, species produce more offspring such that the environment cannot handle it. As a result of increased reproduction, the population increases. The species living in a particular environment start competing for the scarce resources. Some of the offspring cannot survive because the competition becomes tougher and tougher as the amount of competitors increases.

Survival for the Fittest

As a result of the competition, some of the organisms die, leaving the tough ones to survive. Organisms that are best fitted for the environment mange to survive. When the environment provides such complicated conditions, some of the animals still manage to survive while some perish. Darwin believed that evolution came from natural selection as organisms struggle to exist. He pointed out that only the fittest organisms are able to survive, and their genes are moved to the next generation

Organisms that manage to survive the tough environment develop desirable characteristics that allow them survive in such environment. They have a suitable genome that makes them adjust to the environment by attaining suitable characteristics for the environment. The organisms pass the desirable characteristics to their offspring through their genes. A new species is created through evolution as organisms try to adjust to the environment.

According to Darwin, the evolved organisms start living in an ecological niche that favours their survival. These organisms continue passing adjusted features to their offspring in order to increase chance of survival. When the population of the organisms living in a particular ecological niche increases beyond what the environment can handle, the theory of natural selection continues acting. An organism that cannot survive in the harsh environment dies because of the competition for the scarce resources. This leaves the survivors with adjustment as the only option. They develop suitable characteristics that make them survive in the environment. They pass their adjusted features to their offspring, giving a rise to new species.

Impact of Natural Selection Theory

Most scientists are convinced that Darwin was the greatest scientist who had the revolutionised ideas. He managed to convince scientists that evolution originated form descent modification. His theory has been used to develop scientific drugs, genetically modified organisms and pesticides among other biological elements. His evolutionary synthesis has been incorporated with Madelia genetics, population genetics and natural selection ideas to evolve the world. It is Darwins ideas that reference modern scientific theories.

Darwin is the founder of evolution theory that shows how organism evolved. He explained how evolution occurred through natural selection. He did a lot of researches that resulted to a conclusion that all organisms originated from a similar ancestor. He believed that competition for the use of scarce resources such as food makes animals to adjust so that they can defeat the others. Only those that fit the best win the race. This adjustment is caused by natural selection, leading to evolution. New species arise from the adjusted parents with inheritable variations.

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Did Charles Darwin Convert to Christianity and Discredit Evolution on His Deathbed?

According to one account, darwin said he had been "a young man with uninformed ideas.", published march 10, 2024.

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It wasn't long after the famed scientist Charles Darwin died that the rumors started. Within a week of his death on April 19, 1882, a preacher in Wales "confirmed" for his parishioners that the father of evolution, a devoted man of science, had converted to Christianity on his deathbed. 

Similar stories have been shared ever since.

More than 30 years later, in 1915, across the Atlantic in Northfield, Massachusetts, a woman named Lady Elizabeth Hope told a story during a devotional service about meeting Darwin in late 1881. During their talk, Darwin reportedly expressed his belief in God and renounced the theory of natural selection that made him a household name.

The story is sometimes used as an argument against evolution, the very theory that Darwin made famous. If you believe Lady Hope's story, even Darwin didn't believe his own theory — so why should we?

That argument, however, cannot stand on stable ground. There is no evidence Darwin professed his belief in God in this conversation, nor is there evidence that he recanted the theory of evolution. In order to best understand the claim, let's start with a brief explanation of Darwin himself.

Charles Darwin

Darwin was born in 1809, when the fields of biology and geology were new and mysterious. Over the course of his life, Darwin's theory of natural selection completely redefined the scientific landscape. But it took him a very long time to publish the work that made him famous.

Between 1831 and 1836, Darwin traveled the world on the HMS Beagle, where he visited the Galápagos Islands and first began thinking about the ideas his name would become synonymous with. Although he privately proposed his theories of natural selection soon after returning to England, he waited more than 20 years to publish them. "On the Origin of Species," now one of the most famous scientific works ever, was published in 1859.

It was not initially popular, especially among conservative and religious circles. Early reviewers quickly latched onto the implied idea that humans had evolved from apes, despite the fact that Darwin chose to never explicitly state that. One reviewer wrote :

Lady Constance Rawleigh, in Disraeli's brilliant tale, inclines to a belief that man descends from the monkeys. This pleasant idea, hinted in the "Vestiges," is wrought into something like a creed by Mr. Darwin. Man, in his view, was born yesterday — he will perish to-morrow. In place of being immortal, we are only temporary, and, as it were, incidental. … The work deserves attention, and will, we have no doubt, meet with it. Scientific naturalists will take up the author upon his own peculiar ground; and there will we imagine be a severe struggle for at least theoretical existence. Theologians will say — and they have a right to be heard — Why construct another elaborate theory to exclude Deity from renewed acts of creation? Why not at once admit that new species were introduced by the Creative energy of the Omnipotent? Why not accept direct interference, rather than evolutions of law, and needlessly indirect or remote action? Having introduced the author and his work, we must leave them to the mercies of the Divinity Hall, the College, the Lecture Room, and the Museum.

Health problems around the time of the publication of "On the Origin of Species" prevented Darwin from actively participating in the debates over the validity of his work. As a result of his health issues, Darwin's later years were largely spent doing research and with his family: his wife, Emma, and their seven children.

In the years before he died, Darwin wrote an autobiography . According to Encyclopedia Britannica , the work — completed between 1876 and 1881 — was not intended for wider publication, but for his grandchildren. The scientist died less than a year after it was finished.

"I cannot pretend to throw the least light on such abstruse problems. The mystery of the beginning of all things is insoluble by us; and I for one must be content to remain an Agnostic," Darwin wrote. It is this claim that supporters of Darwin's supposed deathbed conversion must effectively prove wrong.

The preacher in Wales was the first to attempt the feat, but others followed. In " Darwinian Myths: The Legends and Misuses of a Theory ," author Edward Caudill shares a correspondence from one of Darwin's most ardent supporters, Thomas Huxley, and his son Francis Darwin, confirming for a Canadian newspaper that Darwin had not converted to Christianity.

Overall, the historians agree: Such claims were few and far in between until Lady Hope's story in 1915.

Born Elizabeth Reid Cotton in 1842 as the daughter of an evangelist, Lady Hope continued her father's work throughout her life. She gained her title after marrying Adm. Sir James Hope and continued to use it after his death. Around the time of Darwin's death, Hope was living relatively close to him, and according to "The Darwin Legend," a book exploring the origins of Darwin's supposed conversion written by prominent Darwin scholar James Moore, the two probably did meet about six months before Darwin died.

(Snopes was unable to access a full copy of "The Darwin Legend." Our sources for this claim come from "Darwinian Myths" and reviews of "The Darwin Legend" available online.)

Perhaps these claims would hold more weight if Lady Hope had mentioned Darwin's sudden turn to religion not long after their meeting. However, she first recounted the supposed events in 1915 during a devotional service. It was quickly reprinted in the Watchman-Examiner, a Baptist newspaper. The following quote, which she   attributed to Darwin, supposedly contains his renouncement:

I was a young man with uninformed ideas. I threw out queries, suggestions, wondering all the time over everything; and to my astonishment the ideas took like wildfire. People made a religion of them.

It's a bit much to call that a renouncement. The story quickly spread, and multiple members of Darwin's family wrote to various people advocating the theory to deny the claim. But, true or not, it has been republished multiple times since then.

Modern Distancing

Lady Hope's story was long used by creationists arguing against Darwin's theories as evidence that they were wrong. But over time, even creationist websites have come to acknowledge the inherent weakness of the argument. In fact, several of the sources we used in researching this article were from creationist websites sharing the story but cautioning readers against employing it in an argument.

We cannot sum up the arguments against this story any better than the creationist website AnswersInGenesis.org did:

Given the weight of evidence, it must be concluded that Lady Hope's story is unsupportable, even if she did actually visit Darwin. He never became a Christian, and he never renounced evolution. As much as we would like to believe that he died with a saving knowledge of Jesus Christ, it is much more likely that he didn't. It is unfortunate that the story continues to be promoted by many sincere people who use this in an effort to discredit evolution when many other great arguments exist , including the greatest: the Bible .

Lady Hope's Visit With Charles Darwin . http://www.endureinstrength.org/pages.asp?pageid=118448. Accessed 28 Feb. 2024.

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Unveiling the secrets of the speartooth shark in australia.

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Charles Darwin University PhD Candidate Julia Constance holding a speartooth shark.

In a groundbreaking expedition led by Charles Darwin University’s PhD candidate, Julia Constance, alongside Dr. Peter Kyne and the Yugul Mangi Rangers, a remarkable discovery has been made in the Roper River of Northern Territory, Australia – a hidden population of speartooth sharks ( Glyphis glyphis ).

Before we go further: yes, there are sharks in rivers.

Glyphis sharks, commonly known as ‘river sharks,’ belong to the genus Glyphis within the family Carcharhinidae . They are a group of elusive and poorly understood sharks that inhabit freshwater and brackish water environments (such as rivers, estuaries, and coastal regions) in tropical regions of the world. These sharks are distributed across various regions in the Indo-Pacific, including northern Australia, Papua New Guinea, Borneo and India. Each species has its own specific range and habitat preferences. The speartooth shark and Northern River Shark ( Glyphis garricki ) are found in only limited areas of Northern Australia. Both are easily confused with the bull shark ( Carcharhinus leucas ), which also is found in Australia. These are three of only a very few ‘euryhaline’ shark species – capable of tolerating salinities ranging from freshwater to seawater. Rivers are especially important for juvenile euryhaline sharks, often serving as important nursery habitats.

Due to their limited distribution and specific habitat requirements, they are particularly vulnerable to human activities that alter their freshwater environments. Threats to the survival of these sharks include line fishing, gill netting and habitat degradation. As a result, several species within the genus Glyphis are classified as endangered or critically endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature. The speartooth shark, a species listed as rare and threatened by the IUCN, has long eluded scientists due to its elusive nature and limited distribution.

However, Constance took on the challenge of unraveling the mysteries surrounding these sharks. And the collaboration with the Yugul Mangi Rangers, known for their intimate knowledge of the region, proved to be a crucial. Last year’s team expedition - comprised of Constance, Kyne, and the Yugul Mangi Rangers - discovered a breeding population of speartooth sharks, including the baby sharks known as ‘pups.’ “That’s good we found the Speartooth Shark in the Roper River because we didn’t know they lived in the muddy and brackish water here before,” said Ranger Davin Hall.

Yugul Mangi Rangers with CDU PhD candidate Julia Constance and one of the shark specimens.

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Kyne also emphasized the importance of their findings via CDU tweet : “The results of our survey showed that the speartooth shark occur in a limited stretch of the downstream Roper River, and the population could decline rapidly in the face of threats, so we need to determine how environmental change might impact them.”

The project has not only unveiled a new population of speartooth sharks, but also highlighted the importance of interdisciplinary collaboration and the role of local communities in scientific research and conservation. Drawing upon diverse expertise ranging from marine biology and ecology to Indigenous Knowledge and traditional land management practices made this discovery possible. Beyond the realms of academia, the collaboration between researchers and local communities exemplifies a paradigm shift towards more inclusive and participatory approaches to conservation.

Constance and her team are committed to ensuring the survival of this rare and threatened species in the face of environmental challenges and plan to carry out future interdisciplinary expeditions.

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