Interesting Literature

A Short Analysis of Cassius’ ‘The Fault, Dear Brutus’ Speech from Julius Caesar

By Dr Oliver Tearle (Loughborough University)

‘The fault, dear Brutus, is not in our stars, / But in ourselves’; ‘Why, man, he doth bestride the narrow world / Like a Colossus’. In just over half a dozen lines, Cassius gives us two of the most famous lines from Shakespeare’s Julius Caesar . His ‘bestride the narrow world like a Colossus’ speech – or, if you prefer, his ‘The fault, dear Brutus, is not in our stars’ speech – is a crucial one in the play.

Let’s take a closer look at why it’s such an important passage in Shakespeare’s play. Perhaps the best way to provide an analysis of Cassius’ words is by going through the speech, summarising its meaning as we go.

Why, man, he doth bestride the narrow world Like a Colossus, and we petty men Walk under his huge legs and peep about To find ourselves dishonourable graves.

Cassius begins his speech by responding to Brutus, who has just himself responded to the sound of applause that can be heard, honouring Julius Caesar. Brutus said that the ‘applauses are / For some new honours that are heaped on Caesar.’

The image of Julius Caesar, the mighty general, straddling the whole world like a ‘Colossus’ summons the Colossus of Rhodes, a giant bronze statue of Apollo that was one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World . There was a common belief that this statue straddled the harbour in Rhodes, although this is almost certainly wrong . Nevertheless, it’s a powerful mental image: Julius Caesar standing mighty and tall across the world, which seems ‘narrow’ in comparison with the might of this great ruler.

By contrast, Brutus and Cassius are small or insignificant men (‘petty men’) who walk under the huge parted legs of Julius Caesar. And their whole lives are spent not conquering the world (as Caesar has done) but in merely finding some quiet spot to die, insignificant and forgotten.

Men at some time are masters of their fates: The fault, dear Brutus, is not in our stars, But in ourselves, that we are underlings.

Here we come to one of the most famous lines in Julius Caesar , and perhaps in all of Shakespeare, and an expression which the contemporary US novelist John Green turned on its head for the title of his book The Fault in Our Stars .

Note that Cassius says: ‘The fault, dear Brutus, is not in our stars’, rather than ‘The fault, dear Brutus, lies not in our stars’ (which is how it is often misquoted). ‘Men at some time are masters of their fates’ means that human beings do actually have some control over their destiny, and it lets us off the hook, Cassius argues, to believe that we have no free will or agency to carve out our own fortune.

Indeed, Julius Caesar is such a man; though it is worth noting that the whole play is about the tension between individual action and preordained destiny. The soothsayer will famously warn Caesar to ‘beware the ides of March’, which turns out to be the day on which Caesar is assassinated.

Could Caesar have averted his grisly fate if he had taken the soothsayer’s warning more seriously? What role did fate play in making his death inevitable, given that the soothsayer clearly had a premonition that that day was fated to be unlucky for him?

But clearly Cassius is of the firm belief that he and Brutus are mere subordinates or ‘underlings’ at the feet of their great ruler because of their own failure to change their circumstances, rather than because the ‘stars’ or fates have decided that they will be underlings: ‘The fault … is not in our stars, / But in ourselves’. We are to blame.

Brutus and Caesar: what should be in that ‘Caesar’? Why should that name be sounded more than yours? Write them together, yours is as fair a name; Sound them, it doth become the mouth as well; Weigh them, it is as heavy; conjure with ’em, Brutus will start a spirit as soon as Caesar.

We might draw a parallel with Juliet’s famous (and similarly rhetorical) question in Romeo and Juliet : ‘What’s in a name? That which we call a rose / By any other word would smell as sweet.’ There is nothing in either ‘Brutus’ or ‘Caesar’ which possesses magical advantage over the other name, to foretell the fates of the two individuals who bear those names.

So, if Brutus started to ‘conjure’ with his name (the expression ‘a name to conjure with’ has come to mean a well-respected and powerful name belonging to someone of influence and reputation, though as the word ‘conjure’ suggests, it originally denoted a belief that the name could be used as an incantation to summon spirits or raise the dead: hence Cassius’ phrase ‘start a spirit’, where ‘start’ means both ‘begin’ and ‘startle’ or ‘disturb’).

As David Daniell observes in his brilliant notes to the play in the Julius Caesar-Arden Shakespeare edition, citing Kittredge, the name ‘Caesar’ was an insignificant name in history until Julius Caesar made it one of the most famous. By contrast, ‘Brutus’ was, before Julius Caesar came along, ‘the greatest name in Roman annals’ (Kittredge).

Now, in the names of all the gods at once, Upon what meat doth this our Caesar feed, That he is grown so great? Age, thou art shamed! Rome, thou hast lost the breed of noble bloods!

However, spirits could only be raised by using the name of a god , so ‘Caesar’ must have been up to something unusual or even suspicious, Cassius insinuates, to have raised himself – a man, not a god – so high. (‘Meat’ in this context, as throughout the medieval and early modern period, was just synonymous with ‘food’; it hadn’t yet acquired its narrower and more specific meaning.)

Cassius laments that the age in which they live has become so debased (‘Age, thou art shamed!’), that a general like Caesar could have raised himself to such a status. Rome, a once-great city and empire, appears to have lost its noble lineage, that such an ordinary man as Caesar (who wasn’t born into a family of good name) could have become so powerful.

When went there by an age, since the great flood, But it was famed with more than with one man? When could they say till now, that talk’d of Rome, That her wide walks encompass’d but one man?

Cassius employs rhetorical questions to drive his point further home: when has there ever been such a time in the history of the world, ever since the biblical flood (the story of which we have analysed here ), when one man alone dominated the political scene? (Note: some editors amend ‘wide walks’ to ‘wide walls’, but Daniell advises against that, on the basis that we can find references to ‘wide walks’ elsewhere in Shakespeare, but never wide walls .)

Now is it Rome indeed and room enough, When there is in it but one only man.

There is a pun here on ‘Rome’ and ‘room’, which could be homophones in Shakespeare’s time: Rome was rhymed with both dome and doom . Cassius’ point is that, as far as Rome and Caesar are concerned, there is room for only one man: Julius Caesar himself. The implication is that Caesar will allow for no one else to take his mantle or power away from him.

O, you and I have heard our fathers say, There was a Brutus once that would have brook’d The eternal devil to keep his state in Rome As easily as a king.

Cassius concludes his speech by reminding Brutus, his companion, that his namesake founded the city of Rome centuries before. (Legend states that Lucius Junius Brutus founded the Roman Republic in around 509 BC.) This earlier Brutus would have let a devil rule in Rome before he let a king rule.

After all, Rome was founded as a republic, i.e., a state that isn’t ruled by a king; and yet Julius Caesar has set himself up as an absolute ruler much like a king in all but name.

1 thought on “A Short Analysis of Cassius’ ‘The Fault, Dear Brutus’ Speech from Julius Caesar”

I love the Cassius character and Brutus too. Caesar’s dislike of Cassius is so vivid and Cassius’ enthusiasm is so laudable. I just can’t stand the Mark Anthony character who is instrumental in destroying a republic and establishing a monarchy. I can’t forgive him and can’t sympathize him in his subsequent love affair. Shakespeare doesn’t really side with the republic, unfortunately.

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Cassius tests brutus.

Act 1 Scene 2 – Key Scene

In this scene Cassius, who is secretly plotting against Caesar, talks to Brutus and tests him to see if he feels the same. He says that Brutus has grown distant and reminds him of how close they used to be as friends. Brutus eventually tells Cassius that he is also afraid about how much power Caesar has and that he might be made king. Cassius then speaks more openly about his own plans and Brutus promises him he will think about the things he’s said.

Take a look at an extract from this scene and watch it in performance here. Using the following steps, remember to look at it line by line and if you’re looking at the scene for the first time don’t worry if you don’t understand everything at once.

Take a look at the scene. Who has the most lines? Are they using prose or verse? Actors at the RSC often put the language into their own words to help them understand what they are saying. We’ve added some definitions (in green), questions (in red) and paraphrased some sections (in blue) to help with this. You can click on the text that is highlighted for extra guidance.

Recently, I've been worried by my own private thoughts and confused emotions and it may have had a bad effect on my behaviour.

Why has Brutus not been friendly towards Cassius lately and not been speaking to him? Why must they both be so careful about revealing their thoughts? What has Brutus been keeping to himself? Why do you think Brutus refers to himself in third person?

Brutus, I misunderstood your feelings and because of this, have kept some very important thoughts to myself.

Deep thinking and processing.

A man cannot see himself unless he is reflected in something (like a mirror).

I have heard many important Romans, apart from the ‘god-like’ Caesar, talk about you. They are complaining about the tyranny of today’s government and wishing you could see yourself as nobly as they do.

What does Brutus think Cassius is asking him to do? He has just compared him to Caesar, but what is Brutus’ reaction?

rhetorical devices in cassius speech

Play the scene in rehearsal

rhetorical devices in cassius speech

Play the Scene in Performance

Brutus and Cassius talk quietly in the 2006 production of Julius Caesar.

Brutus and Cassius in the 2006 production of Julius Caesar. 

Brutus and Cassius talk urgently in the 1972 production of Julius Caesar.

Brutus and Cassius in the 1972 production of Julius Caesar. 

Brutus and Cassius embrace in the 2017 production of Julius Caesar.

Brutus and Cassius in the 2017 production of Julius Caesar. 

Brutus points at Cassius in the 2012 production of Julius Caesar.

Brutus and Cassius in the 2012 production of Julius Caesar. 

Brutus and Cassius speak together in the 2001 production of Julius Caesar.

Brutus and Cassius in the 2001 production of Julius Caesar. 

Brutus and Cassius talk alone together in the 1991 production of Julius Caesar.

Brutus and Cassius in the 1991 production of Julius Caesar. 

Brutus talks to Cassius in 1968. Photo by Reg Wilson _c_ RSC

Brutus and Cassius in the 1968 production of Julius Caesar. 

Brutus and Cassius speak urgently in the 2004 production of Julius Caesar.

Brutus and Cassius in the 2004 production of Julius Caesar. 

rhetorical devices in cassius speech

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What Is The Tone Of Cassius’s Speech?

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Cassius’s Speech

Cassius’s speech is a pivotal moment in William Shakespeare’s play, Julius Caesar. It is a powerful and persuasive speech that aims to convince Brutus to join the conspiracy against Caesar. The tone of Cassius’s speech is crucial in understanding its impact on Brutus and the audience. The speech is filled with rhetorical devices, emotional appeals, and logical arguments that create a sense of urgency and importance. In this article, we will explore the tone of Cassius’s speech and its significance in the play.

The Tone of Cassius’s Speech

Significance of cassius’s speech.

The significance of Cassius’s speech lies in its impact on Brutus and the audience. Cassius’s persuasive tone and use of rhetorical devices are successful in convincing Brutus to join the conspiracy against Caesar. Brutus’s decision to join the conspiracy is a turning point in the play, as it sets in motion the events that lead to Caesar’s assassination and the downfall of the conspirators.

Cassius’s speech also has a significant impact on the audience. The use of emotional appeals and logical arguments creates a sense of tension and drama that draws the audience into the play. The audience is left to question the morality of the conspirators’ actions and the consequences of their decision to assassinate Caesar.

What is the tone of Cassius’s speech?

The tone of Cassius’s speech can be described as persuasive and manipulative. He uses rhetoric and appeals to emotion to convince Brutus to join the conspiracy against Caesar.

How does Cassius use rhetoric in his speech?

Cassius uses rhetoric by employing persuasive language and techniques to sway Brutus’s opinion. He appeals to Brutus’s sense of honor and patriotism, and he also uses logical arguments to make his case.

What emotions does Cassius try to evoke in his speech?

Cassius tries to evoke feelings of fear, anger, and betrayal in his speech. He wants to make Brutus believe that Caesar’s rise to power will lead to the loss of their freedom and the destruction of the Roman Republic.

Does Cassius succeed in convincing Brutus?

Yes, Cassius succeeds in convincing Brutus to join the conspiracy against Caesar. Brutus is swayed by Cassius’s arguments and agrees to participate in the plot to assassinate Caesar.

What is the significance of Cassius’s speech in the play?

Cassius’s speech is significant because it marks a turning point in the play. It sets in motion the events that lead to Caesar’s assassination and the subsequent downfall of the conspirators. It also highlights the power of persuasive rhetoric and the manipulation of emotions.

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Convincing the Masses: Rhetoric in Julius Caesar

Introduction.

“For who so firm that cannot be seduced?” --Cassius [I,ii,305]

Rhetoric, or the art of persuasion, is a key skill for my sophomore English students to develop as it requires them to make connections between the classroom and the world surrounding them. This necessitates that they come to a deeper understanding of figures of speech and how they affect readers, how they are used to persuade, and how to use them oneself to effectively communicate. Rhetoric surrounds them every day as they interact with advertisements, political speeches, media coverage of current events, movies, art, and the classroom. While my students are quite savvy viewers and are aware that many images they see may be altered, they seem less critical of the written and spoken word. My unit seeks to develop in my students the ability to think critically, read analytically and speak and write effectively and convincingly. By exploring the connections among the speaker, the audience, and the subject within the given context, I hope to give my students the tools that will enable them to be aware of how those interconnections are played out in their daily lives. The analysis and use of the arts of rhetoric will empower my students to be better citizens, better communicators and more successful in their pursuits.

By teaching the fundamentals of rhetoric, I hope to create an awareness of its prevalence in advertising and political speeches, an appreciation for the power of language, and a sense that students can potentially harness that power. I want my students not only to become skilled at identifying rhetoric, but also to become proficient in using the art to strengthen their critical reading skills, speaking and writing. I plan to build on their understanding of logos, ethos and pathos, as Aristotle divided the parts of persuasive speech in his Rhetoric , while also strengthening their observation of basic rhetorical strategies like repetition, structure, symbolism, defining, describing, etc. While some time will be devoted to the classical canon of rhetoric - invention, arrangement, style, memory and delivery- I do not intend to cover the tropes and figures in detail. My true aim is to develop critical thinking skills, utilizing challenging classroom activities to engage their interest and encourage civic engagement.

A number of different texts and video clips will be utilized to create a rich and comprehensive exploration of the use of rhetoric in modernity, but William Shakespeare’s play Julius Caesar will serve as my foundation text. This drama is based upon the historical figure Julius Caesar, who returns to Rome as a triumphant hero only to be considered a potential threat to the republic as a result of his consolidation of power. Several senators, led by his friend Marcus Brutus, conspire to assassinate him. After the bloody deed, Mark Antony masterfully turns the people against the conspirators and a vicious struggle for power ensues. Although the semantically dense language is a challenge, grappling with the text develops close reading skills and challenges students to really excel and perform in a rigorous manner. Students will carefully read the text with a focus on characters and themes, using a variety of activities.

Demographics

Oak Grove High School encompasses a population of just under two thousand students who represent diverse ethnicities as part of the East Side Union High School District. 43% of our students are considered socioeconomically disadvantaged , as they qualify for the free and reduced lunch program, and our graduation rate is improving at 82.3%. Our struggles to graduate our population are evident: we are considered a Program Improvement site due to low Annual Yearly Progress, and the Degrees of Reading Power test reveals that approximately 45% of our incoming freshmen read at, or below, a sixth grade level.

In addition, our school is located in an area known for having an incredibly high cost of living, which often necessitates that our students contribute to the household finances by working. Additionally, parental supervision is often minimal, as the economy requires both parents to work. 56.4% of our students identify as Latino/Mexican and these students are especially at risk because many will be the first family members to earn a high school diploma, and often must do so with limited access to technology and even internet access in an area known for heavy gang activity.

The Common Core State Standards are in their second year of implementation in California, and the pragmatic approach to developing students who are able to engage in complex critical thinking activities is a challenge to implement. In the past, speaking and listening skills were largely limited in the classroom as they were not assessed in state testing, and they consumed valuable time that needed to be spent on basic reading comprehension and other skills. The Common Core has allowed us to become more holistic practitioners and I hope my unit allows our students to translate classroom skills to real world applications that benefit them personally, civically, and academically.

Rhetoric and Rigor

Julius Caesar could be viewed as an exploration of the uses and abuses of rhetoric as characters persuade one another most eloquently to engage in or excite violence. Using Julius Caesar as a foundation text, my students will learn about rhetorical devices.  As we decode the text and explore themes and characters central to the historical play, students will engage in a variety of activities that enable them to truly understand the differing perspectives that lead so many men to assassinate their leader and the turmoil that ensues.  One of the focuses at my school has been to require students to provide evidence from the text for any responses they provide in class.  This play will afford students ample practice in finding textual evidence to cite as there are distinct rhetorical styles evident, as well as sharply contrasting points of view, which allow for students to explore passages and interpret the text differently.  Grappling with facts in an attempt to gain a perspective or synthesize ideas is a valuable mental exercise, and even if the students forget the facts, they retain the value of the intellectual struggle.

Content Objectives

My sophomores will have been introduced to Shakespeare in their freshman year through the text of Romeo and Juliet , so while the rigor of this unit is great, it is not their first encounter with the Bard. Additionally, the unit will not occur in isolation of their other academic courses. The English II students are required to concurrently enroll in World History, which focuses on Rome for the first six weeks of instruction, making this the ideal time for me to teach this unit. Beyond creating interdisciplinary connections between their classes, it creates a more authentic learning experience and precludes the necessity of providing background historical information about Rome and Julius Caesar.

Concerning Rhetoric

Aristotle’s rhetoric.

Greek philosopher Aristotle offered three means to persuade your audience: ethos, pathos, and logos. 1 While ethos is said to translate to ethics, it really suggests the modern sense of image in that the speaker is relying upon their authority to convince the audience based upon our impression of their character. Considering ethos from both the perspective of analyzing how advertising or political rhetoric is meant to impact the audience, but also how a writer can use word choice and style to create their own ethos, is imperative. Logos, or logical argument, traditionally utilizes syllogisms, yet an exploration of inductive and deductive reasoning, logical fallacies and what exactly makes for effective reasoning will be a more appropriate for my purposes. The emotion aroused in audience, or pathos, is crucial to persuasion.  Negative emotions such as anger, fear and insecurity are the most effective and prevalent in modern advertising and politics. 2

The Five Canons of Rhetoric

After determining the audience and context for an appeal, Cicero felt effective persuasion necessitated consideration of invention, arrangement, style, memory, and delivery. 3 Familiarity with these canons is necessary to both craft a speech and to properly analyze the rhetoric of others. Invention tailors an approach for the audience and context: What is the most appropriate appeal and which words will one use to effectively convey that appeal? Arrangement requires the establishment of the credibility of the speaker via ethos, and then the use of pathos or logos to pursue the argument using a structure suitable for the audience and context; traditionally this order is: introduction, statement and proof, conclusion. Style is the choice of appropriate rhetorical techniques and figures of speech and of the construction of the argument, and may include diction, grammar, rhythm and metaphor. Memory is not necessarily rote recall of the words, but a familiarity with the speech that allows the content to seem natural and fluid upon delivery and can support or erode ethos. Delivery of the appeal includes body language and intonation, which profoundly affect ethos and the subconscious reaction to the appeal. Several famous speeches will be analyzed as both a text and a performance to familiarize students with these terms.

Produced in 1599, the play Julius Caesar is based on Sir Thomas North’s 1579 translation of Plutarch’s Parallel Lives of the Noble Grecians and Romans , which Shakespeare undoubtedly used to create his account. 4 While Julius Caesar could be considered a political revenge tragedy, it is hardly a biographical narrative. The content relating to his many military exploits and success as a general and politician is eliminated from the play as Shakespeare focuses on the end of his life and the turmoil that ensued after his murder. It is thought-provoking to contrast the historical figure documented by Plutarch with the leader in the play. Interestingly, Plutarch clearly states that Caesar was ambitious, the crime for which he was assassinated. “But the chiefest cause that made him mortally hated was the covetous desire he had to be called king.” 5

The historical figure is a physically robust and mentally astute leader , whereas Shakespeare’s portrayal seems to evince a weaker individual. One example of this might be Cassius’ tale of Caesar needing to be rescued while swimming whereas Plutarch’s account demonstrates him to be a vigorous and accomplished swimmer. Plutarch cites that during the war in Alexandria Caesar:

leaping into the sea, with great hazard saved himself by swimming. It is said that then, holding divers books in his hand, he did never let them go, but kept them always upon his head above water, and swam with the other hand, notwithstanding that they shot marvelously at him.” 6

Is this description of a man in the midst of a battle leaping into the sea while holding books above his head compatible with Cassius’ account, wherein it is Cassius who emerges as brave, strong and heroic?

Caesar said to me, “Dar’st thou, Cassius, now Leap in with me into this angry flood And swim to yonder point?” Upon the word, Accoutered as I was, I plunged in And bad him follow. So indeed he did. The torrent roared, and we did buffet it With lusty sinews, throwing it aside, And stemming it with hearts of controversy. But ere we could arrive the point proposed, Caesar cried, “Help me, Cassius, or I sink.” [I,ii,102-111]

The fact that Cassius positions himself as the first to enter the Tiber having been dared, and then must encourage Caesar to follow him into the water is an interesting juxtaposition. He then demonstrates a huge ego when he compares himself to Aeneas as he saves Caesar from drowning. This tale is wholly believed by Brutus, along with other claims that Caesar was a physically weak, deaf, epileptic who demonstrates a superstitious nature and a vacillating opinion driven by a need for sycophantic devotion. 7 This older Caesar is markedly different from the historical figure represented by Plutarch, but it is exaggerated so greatly by Cassius as to make his jealousy evident. Perhaps “Shakespeare weakens Caesar physically in order to suggest that his bodily vulnerabilities exemplify his psychological and moral failings.”

Similarly, Antony and Brutus are characterized differently by Shakespeare than the historical annals of Plutarch might suggest. Plutarch even suggests that Brutus is the illegitimate son of Julius Caesar and Harold Bloom contends that Shakespeare does not allude to this relationship as it “would have given Brutus too personal a motive for letting himself be seduced into Cassius’s conspiracy.” 9

Elizabethan Theater

It may be useful to provide a sketch of the Elizabethan theater, where the common people clamored to see repertory performances in the afternoons in venues that could pack in up to 3000 theatergoers. There was no intermission, but the crowd did not sit attentively and quietly for three hours: they ate, talked and gambled. The nobility and upper middle class would sit in the galleries while the commoners, or groundlings, stood in the courtyard directly in front of the stage. As audience will be key to the reception of the funeral speeches, students should really be encouraged to visualize the theater and the proximity of the groundlings, whom Shakespeare transforms into the plebeians themselves being swayed by first Brutus and then Antony. The plebeians are easily swayed by effective oratory; thus, they are manipulated by Antony into a dangerous mob. This fickle responsiveness to rhetoric should serve as a warning to each of us that we too might easily fall victim to persuasive rhetoric. Brutus and Antony’s speeches not only sway the plebeians at the Forum, Shakespeare’s rhetoric is aimed at us as well.

While the play is typically considered to be one of Shakespeare’s histories, the very title, The Tragedy of Julius Caesar begs the question, ‘whose tragedy?’ Given that the titular character is murdered in the third act, students must consider whether the tragedy is the loss of innocence that Brutus undergoes as politics and morals collide. In common with the Histories, however, concern over the throne, given that Queen Elizabeth was a female monarch with no progeny, is also a feature of Julius Caesar . Shakespeare may have had the English monarchy in mind as he wrote of this hero of the Roman Republic, whose sanctioned authority was tragically undermined when he was assassinated, leading to instability in the Republic. The stability of his reign was followed by turmoil, which may further evince tragedy as in a larger sense Rome fell into chaos and war. 10 Given that Shakespeare demonstrated an awareness of how his works supported the legitimacy of the Tudors, and specifically the reign of Queen Elizabeth, the revenge for the untimely death of this iconic figure may reflect the fear of civil insurrection many Elizabethans harbored. The titular character may only appear in three scenes, but his immortality is attained through his achievements and our acknowledgement that the Roman Republic is headed for decline after these triumphs. 11 Until her death in 1603, the play may have served as an argument for stability and civil harmony in that the social upheaval that preceded Queen Elizabeth and ominously loomed during her reign and the question of legitimate rule was always present in the minds of the people.

Some of the skill building activities include using “Letter from the Birmingham Jail” by Martin Luther King, Jr., to instruct students on the most basic application of logos, ethos and pathos by highlighting the text in three different colors. They will watch a clip of the “I Have a Dream Speech” to focus not only on text, but also on the cadence and power of sound devices. As we review the literary devices (simile, metaphor, alliteration, onomatopoeia, personification, hyperbole) and elements (genre, point of view, tone, audience, purpose, etc.) they were introduced to as freshmen, students will begin to apply these skills in a new manner. Students will view Nancy Duarte’s TED talk, “The Secret Structure of Great Talks” as it refers to Aristotle’s Rhetoric and analyzes the “I Have a Dream Speech” as well as a contemporary speech by Steve Jobs. Students will practice annotation while deepening their understanding of rhetoric as they read “Ethos, Logos, Pathos: Three Ways to Persuade.” ELL students and at-risk students will benefit from high interest activities designed to simultaneously create the appropriate academic language to discuss rhetoric as well as develop an awareness of its prevalence in advertising and politics. Some clips of YouTube will be viewed together with an activity wherein students view Super Bowl advertisements and categorize the types of persuasion each employs. 

Once a foundation for understanding and appreciating the power and fundamentals of rhetoric has been laid, students will engage with the text of Julius Caesar . During the process of parsing out the play together, students will be led to note the relationship between rhetoric and power as Caesar is able to express his will and his word is obeyed without question.  Likewise, students will note how Cassius employs the use of rhetorical questions to sway Brutus towards seeing Caesar as a threat to Rome and liberty.  The moment when Antony deceives the conspirators through clever double speak in order to address the people will be carefully analyzed to demonstrate the power words have to sway men's hearts and minds.  Most notable of the speeches will be Brutus and Antony's funeral speeches, which sway the crowd's opinion back and forth.  Comparisons of the delivery of these speeches in notable films will also be introduced by means of exploring the art of public speaking and effective speaking strategies.  The moral ambiguity of several characters will also be a key point of discussion. It is only after we have read, viewed and closely examined key passages from the play that I will invite students to engage in a Socratic seminar that will address key questions, such as why the tragedy is called Julius Caesar , given that he has so few lines and dies in the third act. Finally, students will compose a personal statement that requires them to demonstrate their mastery of the art of rhetoric. This culminating activity, based upon the NPR “This I Believe” format, will encourage students to consider the core values and beliefs that shape their characters and inform their decisions. Several fantastic models exist from individuals they are familiar with, such as Amy Tan, Elie Wiesel, Bill Gates and Muhammad Ali.

Analyzing the Characters

Caesar is introduced by the remarks of Flavius and Murellus, who may initially encourage skepticism among the audience about this returning military hero whose victory over Pompey has led the plebeians to celebrate during the Feast of Lupercal. The stage is set with one strong military leader replacing another and conflict in the streets between men of status, the tribunes, and the plebeians, themes that may resonate with my students as we approach a heated Presidential election year. Caesar appears on stage in Act 1, Scene 2, directing his wife to stand before Marc Antony as he runs in a race during the Feast of Lupercal to induce fertility.

Caesar.  Calpurnia. Casca.  Peace ho! Caesar speaks. Caesar.  Calpurnia. Calpurnia. Here, my Lord. Caesar.  Stand you directly in Antonio’s way When he doth run his course. Antonio! [I,ii,1-4]

This choice is complicated and odd as modern science leads us question whether Calpurnia is actually the party responsible for the infertility. 12 This scene furthermore introduces Caesar as a character who is given to a belief in superstition, such that he would command this ritual to take place. Nonetheless, Caesar is shown to be an absolute ruler whose will is obeyed without question and without delay. His power and respect are undoubtable, but perhaps there is also a hint of arrogance. He is clearly an astute observer of the character of others as he has suspicions of Cassius and has proven himself to be a heroic general and powerful leader. His supremacy and nobility are especially significant to establish, as this will later lend terror to the apparition of his ghost. 13 Both Brutus and Cassius speak to Caesar’s spirit when they die, evincing the sense that his posthumous power is nearly invincible.    

There is a lot of rhetoric, but is there any evidence that this Caesar is the character Brutus and Cassius have constructed in their minds who would abuse his power? He does decline the crown three times, and Brutus acknowledges that he rules by reason as opposed to whim, yet his ambition is the supposed justification for the murder. Perhaps Brutus and Cassius dispute the political ideal as opposed to reacting to his individual reactions? He is called a serpent, implying he is a sly and vicious creature as well as a stag whose nobility shouldn’t be marred by slavering dogs tearing him to shreds. Students may perceive him to be a considerate husband who seeks to please his anxious wife when he vacillates upon his decision to go to the Capitol, or as a superstitious man driven by vanity. If he fails to go to the Capitol he might not only be mocked for listening to his wife’s superstitious nonsense, he may also miss his opportunity to be offered the crown. Does this ultimately prove that he is ambitious and therefore a threat who was justly assassinated? Conversely, is his final refusal to read Artemidorus’ letter evidence that he was an unselfish leader who ultimately held the needs of the people before his personal well-being?

Brutus is the most morally pure character in that he truly believes his motivation for murder to be the protection of the Republic. His first lines are therefore rather ironic as he interceded in the exchange between the soothsayer and Caesar to report that “A soothsayer bids you beware the ides of March” [I,ii,19] given that we know he will deliver the final blow that defeats Caesar physically and eliminates his will to live. His first soliloquy focuses on the necessity to murder Caesar and the justification for the action, as opposed to a moral dilemma over the murder of his friend or a logical debate over the fallacies in Cassius’ justification.

Cassius seems motivated by petty revenge -- he feels slighted by a man he saved -- as opposed to a purely political motivation. He manipulates Brutus through the use of rhetorical questions to convince Brutus that Caesar was a threat to Rome and liberty, yet his rhetoric is not particularly clever and one must wonder why it is so easy for him to convince Brutus to murder his friend. While he claims to be interested in discoursing on the topic of honor, a common theme in Shakespeare’s plays, he actually seeks to launch an attack upon Caesar. He cites evidence of epilepsy and the near-drowning to draw attention to Caesar’s lack of physical strength and then proceeds to compare the names Brutus and Caesar by way of demonstrating that Caesar is no more deserving of honor and titles. His first soliloquy is delivered in such a manner as to reveal that he is merely using Brutus to establish public respect for his agenda. The very fact that this scheming character considers Brutus worthy of manipulating due to his morally pure reputation cements our impression of Brutus as being motivated by pure ideals, leading to complexity in character interpretation. Cassius’ scheming is ultimately ended when he ends his life (with the help of Pindarus) and the natural order is restored as he proclaims: “Caesar, thou art revenged, Even with the sword that killed thee.” [V,iii,45-6]

Antony is initially introduced as this vigorous young man running a race in honor of his friend Caesar, and his first line is a loyal response , “Caesar, my Lord?” [I,ii,5] after which Caesar conveys his request that he touch Calpurnia during the race. Antony responds “I shall remember. When Caesar says, ‘Do this,’ it is performed,” [I,ii,9-10] reflecting his absolute obedience and subservience to Caesar’s will. Antony demonstrates self-control and an ability to manipulate when he responds to the murder by flattering Brutus’ character, sending a servant to Brutus with instructions to prostrate himself and say “Brutus is noble, wise, valiant and honest,” [III,I,126] and suggesting that he will submit to Brutus’ justification if he demonstrates sufficient reason for killing his friend. He then deceives the conspirators, using clever double speak in order to address the plebeians.

While we focus on each character, there are also many opportunities to explore the power of rhetoric through particular scenes. Creating students who read with intelligence, using their mental faculties to explore text, necessitates choosing challenging content. Exploring character and motivation through the lens of rhetoric with a focus on first lines and soliloquies will lead my students to a more nuanced and complicated analysis of character, motivation and persuasion. Taking note, for example, of the moment when directly after slaughtering Caesar, Cinna declares “Liberty! Freedom! Tyranny is dead! Run hence! Proclaim! Cry it about the streets!” [III,i,78] demonstrating an immediate control of the spin on the action and embedding the justification in the declaration.

Another passage that may encourage interesting discourse is the reconciliation between the conspirators after they argue over funding the military venture. The very nature of friendship and criticism of one’s character flaws is the subject of the dialogue between Cassius and Brutus.

Cassius.  You love me not. Brutus.  I do not like your faults. Cassius.  A friendly eye could never see such faults. Brutus.  A flatterer’s would not, though they do appear As huge as high Olympus. [IV,iii,88-92]

Portia always seems to interest my students as she proves her loyalty to her husband and her determination by actually stabbing herself in the thigh. Her interchanges with him demonstrate a fascinating dynamic and her use of rhetoric to urge Brutus to divulge what’s troubling him includes many strategies. Her bold claim that she is no more than “Brutus’ harlot, not his wife” [II,i,288] if he fails to disclose his plans to her shock both Brutus and the audience.

The dramatic scene in which Caesar is alternately concerned about Calpurnia’s dream wherein he is sacrificed, and vaingloriously eager to meet his fate when Decius Brutus explains that he is the metaphorical fountain of freedom, nourishing the people, is fascinating. Students may declare him to be superstitious and will find ample evidence in the text to support that claim, while others may interpret his choices as an attempt to honor his wife and his civic duty. This is an important passage for analyzing his character and ensuring student comprehension prior to the murder and funeral speeches. 

Teaching Strategies

Essential questions.

Who is the speaker and how do they establish ethos?

What is the speaker’s intent?

Who is the intended audience?

What is the rhetorical situation?

How does an author use rhetorical devices to communicate characters’ point of view?

How do the form and content of the message interrelate?

How can you effectively use rhetoric to challenge current thought and bring positive change to the world?

How do we interpret, evaluate and analyze content in our world to discover our own thoughts and opinions?

Learning to annotate text in a careful and deliberative manner is perhaps the most essential skill I will impart to my students, as these notes will inform their writing, thinking and conversations. “Reading Rhetorically” is a text that provides strategies for reading critically to support writing and conversation about a text with a focus on determining the audience, purpose and genre. Educators are incessantly asking students to analyze a text, but what does that really mean? Analysis means that an understanding of the rhetorical strategies used by the author is evident and that they are evaluated in light of the author’s purpose; it is a marriage of both the ideas explicit and implicit in the text and your opinions about those ideas. “On the one hand, you will be expected to represent what the text said accurately and fairly. On the other hand, you will be expected to offer your own analysis, interpretation, or critique in a way that enables readers to see the text differently.” 14

The initial read-through of a piece of text should be active, involving students noticing and circling organizational signal words such as however , therefore , or likewise . Additionally, students will put a question mark next to words, terms or references they are unfamiliar with, and return to them after the initial reading. Bracketing ideas that seem difficult of confusing will also allow students to continue reading through their confusion and later pose questions or determine whether the passage is more clear once they have completed the reading. As students are completing this initial read, they should annotate the text by highlighting main ideas and evidence that supports the writer’s assertions, draw arrows to significant word choices and otherwise note questions, objections, and connections. Once they have reviewed their questions, looked up vocabulary, analyzed the impact of specific word choice, and discussed the reading with their peers, the second reading should occur. This is the point at which I ask them to engage in descriptive outlining. On the left margin they will write a note for each segment that addresses what is said--a summary of the content--and on the right what is done, a statement of how that segment interacts with the whole, usually preceded by words such as describe , explain , or argue . 15 This strategy will be useful for students to practice close reading skills, but will be predominantly used with the “Logos, Ethos, Pathos: Three Ways to Persuade” article and the sample personal essays, such as Joseph Epstein’s "The Divine Miss H, Revisited” and Horace Miner’s “Body Rituals Among the Nacirema”, which students will review prior to writing their final product

They Say I Say

Developing students who are able to speak clearly and effectively to communicate an idea is incumbent upon educators. The authors of They Say I Say have created an approach to classroom conversations that is rooted in the idea that they are not merely preparing to discuss the author’s argument, but also the arguments it is responding to. Students become active and critical readers as they seek to parse out “not only what the author thinks, but how what the author thinks fits with what others think, and ultimately with what you yourself think.” 16 In order to help students learn how to express their ideas, this strategy offers sentence frames to help them utilize appropriate academic language that focuses on ideas.  The frames can be categorized into groups such as those that capture authorial action, such as “X demonstrates that _____” or “X urges us to ______.” Disagreeing, with reasons, might lead to the use of the frame: “X’s claim that _____ rests upon the questionable assumption that _____.” Agreeing with qualifications could be aided by the use of the frame: “I agree that ______, a point that needs emphasizing since so many people believe _____.” Agreeing and disagreeing simultaneously could be expressed through the frame: “Though I concede that _____, I still insist that _____.” 17

This acronym (Speaker, Occasion, Audience, Purpose, Subject and Tone) is intended to help students consider and evaluate an argument through a series of questions. Students will ask themselves, who is the speaker and what personae they have created, with a focus on ethos. Next, the occasion can be understood in terms of time, place, context and background information. Audience necessitates consideration of the intended audience, which may only be a segment of the population with access to the rhetoric, as well as the three rhetorical appeals utilized. Purpose is the implicit or explicit intention of the speaker. The worldview, assumptions and philosophies that inform the subject of the text must be carefully considered. Tone requires students to consider the attitude of the speaker towards the subject and perhaps even the audience.

Classroom Activities

Character analysis.

As the students read the play, they will fill out a graphic organizer that has several characters (Antony, Brutus, Caesar, Calpurnia, Cassius, Portia) for whom they must address questions such as: What do other characters say about the focus character? How do they represent themselves with words to others? What are the character’s private thoughts? What are their actions? This activity is designed to demonstrate how much evidence there is in the text relating to character, and how the evidence may point to conflicting interpretations. Effective classroom conversations cannot occur without adequate preparation for both the rituals and routines of the discussion, as well as the appropriate language for the discourse, in addition to ample textual evidence to support opinion. The graphic organizer is one way to support and scaffold students towards effective conversation.

Funeral Speeches

Close reading requires that students have the opportunity to annotate and really work with the text. Hence it is useful to provide worksheets that will allow students to write, highlight, circle and otherwise annotate. As they are examples of some of the most notable rhetoric in the play, the funeral speeches afford ideal opportunities for students to perform close textual analysis. As indicated in Appendix B, the side-by-side format allows students to respond to questions and be led through close textual analysis. The initial speech by Brutus would be heavily teacher directed, whereas Antony’s speech might be analyzed in small groups.

Brutus’ idealism has been perverted by Cassius, yet he still fails to recognize his tenuous position as he addresses the audience. His relatively short funeral oration is a masterful example of carefully constructed verse that demonstrates balance, yet comes across as cold and too logical with over 30 figures of speech crammed into a relatively short monologue, in the face of his supposed regret for the necessity of murdering a man he loved. His speech seems almost entirely informed by ethos as he commands the crowd to “hear” and “believe” him. He repeatedly refers to his own honor, as if to suggest that it is an unquestionable attribute, which demonstrates his idealism and perhaps his naiveté. His emotional distance is evident when he expresses his regret for the necessity of murder “As Caesar loved me, I weep for him” [III,ii,23] as opposed to expressing his own love for Caesar. 18 Brutus calls Caesar “fortunate” and commends his valor, but condemns his “ambition” and uses that as justification to the amassed crowd for the murder. He asks the rhetorical question , who is so “vile” that they don’t love the Republic and asks that individual to step forward, which of course has the effect of silencing any dissenter. In sum, Brutus’ speech demonstrates stilted rhetoric and moral narcissism, and ultimately his focus on ethos (his honor) will be turned against him. Although he tried to kill a political idea he feared, he necessarily had to commit a murder. However, he distances himself from the actual physical murder by making it a symbolic act and even refers to Caesar as a sacrifice, a “dish fit for the gods” [II,I,174] when planning the deed. His guilty conscience still troubles him when he commits suicide at the end of play and declares “Caesar, now be still, I kill’d not thee with half so good a will.” [V,v,52-53]

When Antony addresses the crowd at the Forum, they initially are respectful only because Brutus has instructed them to be so. His audience is not necessarily hostile, but they seem hardly malleable, yet while Brutus commanded them most masterfully, Antony coaxes them through a progressive series of rhetorical devices that build upon one another. Antony immediately sets himself apart from Brutus by using prose and taking the conversation from the ethereal level to the very physical, evident especially in his use of the actual corpse to illustrate his perspective. Antony proves capable of harnessing his emotions in order to sway the opinion of the crowd in a seemingly natural manner by using prose, yet it is rife with irony, questioning, and logical appeals that gradually persuade the audience. His appeal seems motivated by genuine grief as he carefully leads the audience to question Caesar’s ambition, then tantalizes them with the will while continuing slyly to refer to Brutus’ honor. His use of pathos and logos, while continually sarcastically referring to Brutus’ ethos--“But Brutus says he was ambitious, and Brutus is an honorable man” [III,ii,85-86]--are delivered in segments with pauses for the crowd to respond and generate pity for Caesar and then righteous indignation after they learn of Caesar’s bequests in the will . Eventually their passions are so inflamed that they are incited to riot. Antony is perhaps the most masterful orator. He has convinced the crowd that he is “a plain blunt man” [III,ii,208], but my students will understand through their analysis that his is in fact, the most calculated and devious deployer of rhetoric in the play. This may lead to a discussion of an audience’s dislike of being manipulated by a rhetorically gifted individual and in inherent reaction to resist the content of what such a person says. Antony’s last speech might respond to the question who is truly the tragic hero of this play. With no benefit to derive from dissembling, Antony states that Brutus “was the noblest Roman of them all” [V,v,68] and his judgment stands as a summary thought for the audience. Still considering the effects of rhetoric, students may also choose a historical interpretation that focuses on the chaos that ensues when the legitimate ruler is usurped.

I hope to demonstrate how Brutus’ funeral oration is ultimately flawed as a result of his dependency upon ethos and style. It is a beautiful piece of rhetoric comprised of repetition, reverse interchanges, the pairing of opposites, and rhetorical questions, but it ultimately demonstrates his narcissistic reliance on his own honor as a justification for murder, and the haughty rhetoric alienates him from his audience. In marked contrast, Antony’s speech is a testament to his apparent emotional trauma. It uses irony and manipulation to firstly convince with logos and then play to the crowd’s emotions with ethos. After close analysis, students will compare and contrast the speeches of Brutus and Antony to reveal the marked contrast between prose and verse, reliance upon ethos as opposed to logos, brevity in contrast to breadth, and careful composition versus an emotional appeal. 19 Although there are a number of questions that direct attention to significant uses of rhetoric, there are also many opportunities to conduct further and deeper analysis. Students may benefit from completing a Venn Diagram that compares and contrasts the speeches of Brutus and Antony (length, prose vs. verse, reaction to the death, commanding vs. coaxing, rhetorical strategies employed, etc.), followed by a discussion of how those differences affect the audience, given the speaker’s purpose. Ultimately it is my hope that students will concur that the masterful use of a variety of rhetorical devices develops logos, ethos and then pathos in Antony’s speech, making him therefore the more effective rhetorician. “He passes the only test that matters in classical rhetoric---audience response.” 20 Film versions of the key speeches by Brutus and Antony will be viewed and compared to demonstrate how delivery profoundly alters perception of the content and to explore the art of public speaking and effective speaking strategies.  

Conduct a mock trial of Brutus for the crime of assassinating Caesar. Assign roles for Brutus, several prosecution and defense lawyers, a judge, and witnesses. The remainder of the class will serve as the jury. Students will prepare for their role in the trial. At the end of the trial the jury members will each write a paragraph explanation of their opinion on the guilt or innocence of the defendant and the evidence that swayed them. The judge will deliver an appropriate sentence, having acted as moderator for the process.

Socratic Seminar

A Socratic seminar is a structured conversation between students that demands they use evidence from the text to support their assertions and interact utilizing a constructive model. I tend to use an inner circle of confident speakers to engage in debate while an outer circle takes very specific notes on the types of interactions students engage in: Do they they pose a question, ask another student to elaborate, refer to another student’s ideas when making a point, or use evidence from the text? Posing questions that are highly debatable and don’t necessarily have a correct answer is a favorite strategy to help students prepare for meaningful classroom conversation. When is murder justified? Is assassination morally less reprehensible than murder? How is the treatment of the wives (Portia and Calpurnia) parallel? Is Caesar’s excessive use of his own name and the third person evidence that he is vainglorious or merely that he is cognizant of his own authority? Was Caesar a threat to Rome or just a fallible man? If the conspirators were right to fear Caesar’s power, were they right to kill him? Did Brutus betray Caesar? Why do Cassius and Brutus kill themselves on the battlefield? Do the ends justify the means? Can positive change result from violent action? What is the function of soliloquy? How does the relationship between Brutus and Cassius change over the course of the play?

Students will create a six panel storyboard to convey the most significant plot points of the play. This activity requires students to demonstrate sequencing skills as they determine which are the most significant moments. They will indicate the main ideas and include a caption with a quotation from the text. This activity will be especially engaging for students as they work in groups and will help my English Language Learners remain engaged.

Resource List

Classroom texts.

Duarte, Nancy, “The Secret Structure of Great Talks,” TEDx East video, 18:38,

November 11, 2010,

http://www.ted.com/talks/nancy_duarte_the_secret_structure_of_great_talks

Edlund, Dr. John R. "Ethos, Logos, Pathos." Ethos, Logos, Pathos. Accessed July 31,

2015. http://web.calstatela.edu/faculty/jgarret/3waypers.htm.

Epstein, Joseph. "The Divine Miss H, Revisited." The Weekly Standard, June 22, 2015,  

Vol 20, No. 39, 5.

King, Martin Luther. Letter from the Birmingham Jail . San Francisco: Harper San  

Francisco, 1994.

Shakespeare, William, and John D. Cox. Julius Caesar . Peterborough, Ont.: Broadview,

2013. One of two indispensable texts for the teacher as it includes discussion of

rhetoric that precedes the play as well as [] excerpts from Plutarch’s Lives

of the Noble Grecians and Romans .

Zigarelli, Michael, “An Introduction to Ethos, Logos and Pathos” You Tube, 4:20, May

30, 2014, http://youtu.be/9L_G82HH9Tg

Bibliography for Teachers

Bean, John C., Virginia A. Chappell and Alica M. Gillam. Reading Rhetorically . New

Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc., 2014. This is one of the fundamental texts used by

our ERWC classes in alignment with the Common Core State Standards. Although

written for students, it serves to deconstruct the elements of analysis by teaching

students how to approach thinking, reading and writing from the perspective of

rhetoric and is especially useful in strategies for closely and vigorously annotating

Blits, Jan H. “ From Caesar’s Ambiguous End.” In Julius Caesar , edited by S.P.

Cerasano, 199-210. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2012.

Bloom, Harold. Shakespeare: The Invention of the Human . New York: Riverhead Books,

Includes references to Aristotle’s rhetoric, a basic plot diagram and close analysis of

two speeches: “I Have a Dream” by Martin Luther King and a speech by Steve Jobs.

2015. http://web.calstatela.edu/faculty/jgarret/3waypers.htm. Great foundational text

to provide students with an opportunity to understand Aristotle’s three most basic

methods of persuasion and can serve to simultaneously teach annotation skills. There

are also great questions at the end of each method that encourage group conversations.

Garber, Marjorie B. Shakespeare after All . New York: Pantheon Books, 2004.

Garber, Marjorie B. Shakespeare and Modern Culture . New York: Pantheon Books,

Graff, Gerald, and Cathy Birkenstein. They Say / I Say: The Moves That Matter in

Academic Writing . 2nd ed. New York: W.W. Norton &, 2010.

Greenblatt, Stephen. Will in the World: How Shakespeare Became Shakespeare . New

York: WW. Norton and Co., 2004. I provide my students with some great handouts

on both Shakespeare and life/theater in Elizabethan times, but this biography is a

delightful exploration of the playwright and his world which will help flesh out my

lectures and commentary.

Heinrichs, Jay. Thank You for Arguing: What Aristotle, Lincoln, and Homer Simpson Can

Teach Us About the Art of Persuasion . New York: Three Rivers Press, 2007.

Joseph, Sister Miriam. Rhetoric in Shakespeare's Time: Literary Theory of Renaissance

Europe. New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1962.

McGuigan, Brendan, and Paul Moliken. Rhetorical Devices: A Handbook and Activities

for Student Writers . Rev. ed. Clayton, DE: Prestwick House, 2011.

Miner, Horace. “Body Rituals Among the Nacirema”

Museum of the Moving Image, “The Living Room Candidate: Presidential Campaign

Commercials 1952-2012” http://www.livingroomcandidate.org. Given that I will be

teaching this unit in the midst of campaigning for the next presidential election, an

analysis of one of outgoing President Barack Obama’s speeches that used ethos to

arouse hope and logos to address the economy and war might provide useful as will

viewing current candidate’s debates and ads.

Roskelly, Hepzibah. “What do Students Need to Know About Rhetoric.” College Board

Shakespeare, William, and Susan P. Cerasano. Julius Caesar . New York: W.W. Norton,

rhetoric that precedes the play as well as the addition of excerpts from Plutarch’s Lives

of the Noble Grecians and Roman.

Wills, Garry. Rome and Rhetoric: Shakespeare's Julius Caesar . New Haven, CT: Yale

University Press, 2011. Invaluable text in that it analyzes the characters in Julius

Caesar through the lens of rhetoric. While it is far too in-depth an analysis in terms of

depth and breadth for my classroom, it is invaluable to me as an educator to

familiarize myself with Plutarch’s historical take on these men as well as the specific

rhetorical devices in the text.

30, 2014, http://youtu.be/9L_G82HH9Tg. Fun introductory clip to the pragmatic use of the art of persuasion through as example of a detective trying to get a confession from a suspect.

Academic Standards

This is the second year after adoption of the California Common Core State Standards and the Oak Grove High School English department is focused on truly preparing our students for the 21st century.  

Enduring Understandings

Students will understand that:

  • argument is part of a process and debate, and not the last word, nor is it a dogmatic opinion. One can form an opinion while keeping an open mind W.9-10.1 Write arguments to support claims in an analysis of substantive topics or gets, using valid reasoning and relevant and sufficient evidence.

(The ability to accept the writer’s premise and conduct a descriptive outline that seeks comprehension prior to engaging in questioning the text in a skeptical manner will be taught as a discreet skill)

  • they can observe patterns objectively and thoroughly, especially when they consider how diction, syntax, style and structure profoundly impact how a message is received by an audience.  RL.9-10.10 By the end of grade 10, read and comprehend literature, including stories, dramas and poems, and the high end of the grades 9-10 text complexity band independently and proficiently.   (My aim is to teach perseverance to my students, who often feel overwhelmed by a complicated text like a Shakespeare play. Teaching them to consider speaker, audience, genre, tone, use of figurative language, grammar, sentence structure and rhetoric and how to perform a close annotation of the text that leads to analysis is key)
  • the rhetorical choices made by an author can influence the way people think or perceive . "Evaluate a speaker's point of view, reasoning, and use evidence and rhetoric, identifying any fallacious reasoning or exaggerated or distorted evidence.” SL.9-10.3

(Ultimately, the honorable Brutus leaves the stage convinced that his authority and ethos have convinced the audience of the necessity of slaying Caesar, and when he offers to fall upon his own sword, they chant “Live, Brutus, live, live!” However, once Antony has played the impassioned crowd like a fiddle, convincing them with both his style [such as using irony], his tearful emotions and the reading of the will, we witness the crowd incited to riot.)

  • Grammar would actually be imperative to Aristotle as well, considered an essential part of style and therefore noting the schemes of words and repetition would dovetail with this threefold approach to persuasion. Sister Miriam Joseph, Rhetoric in Shakespeare’s Time , 34-38.
  • John R. Edlund, “Ethos, Logos, Pathos: Three Ways to Persuade.
  • Sister Miriam Joseph, Rhetoric in Shakespeare’s Time , 20.
  • P. Cerasano, ed, Julius Caesar , xi.
  • John Cox, ed, Julius Caesar , 195.
  • Brutus’ willingness to believe such lies shows that he was predisposed to despise Caesar already.” Garry Wills, Rome and Rhetroic , 14-15.
  • Harold Bloom, Shakespeare: The Invention of the Human,
  • “The image of Cicero that Shakespeare wants for his play is the typical Renaissance attitude of respect for the champion of liberty,” hence, Shakespeare could not include Cicero amongst the conspirators, nor could he use Plutarch’s assertion that Cicero was elderly and fainthearted without diminishing his image as a defender of the Republic. Gary Wills, Rome and Rhetoric , 7-8. 
  • Jan H. Blits “ From Caesar’s Ambiguous End,” in Julius Caesar , edited by S.P. Cerasano, 210.
  • “Shakespeare also invented Caesar’s belief in his wife’s barrenness…, a detail that could as easily reflect Caesar’s disability as his wife’s, though Caesar characteristically fails to see the situation that way.” Cox, 17.
  • John C. Bean, Virgina A. Chappell and Alica M. Gillam, Reading Rhetorically , 36.
  • Descriptive outlining (says and does statements) can be explored in detail, along with other helpful strategies for annotating text in Reading Rhetorically . John C. Bean, Virgina A. Chappell and Alice M. Gillam, Reading Rhetorically , 56-57
  • Gerald Graff, and Cathy Birkenstein, They Say / I Say: The Moves That Matter in Academic Writing ,
  • Wills, 81-82.

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What Is a Rhetorical Device? Definition, List, Examples

  • An Introduction to Punctuation

rhetorical devices in cassius speech

  • B.A., English, Rutgers University

A rhetorical device is a linguistic tool that employs a particular type of sentence structure, sound, or pattern of meaning in order to evoke a particular reaction from an audience. Each rhetorical device is a distinct tool that can be used to construct an argument or make an existing argument more compelling.  

Any time you try to inform, persuade , or argue with someone, you’re engaging in rhetoric. If you’ve ever had an emotional reaction to a speech or changed your mind about an issue after hearing a skilled debater's rebuttal, you've experienced the power of rhetoric. By developing a basic knowledge of rhetorical devices, you can improve your ability to process and convey information while also strengthening your persuasive skills. 

Types of Rhetorical Devices

Rhetorical devices are loosely organized into the following four categories:

  • Logos. Devices in this category seek to convince and persuade via logic and reason, and will usually make use of statistics, cited facts, and statements by authorities to make their point and persuade the listener.
  • Pathos. These rhetorical devices base their appeal in emotion. This could mean invoking sympathy or pity in the listener, or making the audience angry in the service of inspiring action or changing their mind about something.
  • Ethos. Ethical appeals try to convince the audience that the speaker is a credible source, that their words have weight and must be taken seriously because they are serious and have the experience and judgment necessary to decide what’s right.
  • Kairos. This is one of the most difficult concepts in rhetoric; devices in this category are dependent on the idea that the time has come for a particular idea or action. The very timeliness of the idea is part of the argument.

Top Rhetorical Devices

Since rhetoric dates back to ancient times, much of the terminology used to discuss it comes from the original Greek. Despite its ancient origins, however, rhetoric is as vital as ever. The following list contains some of the most important rhetorical devices to understand:

  • Alliteration , a sonic device, is the repetition of the initial sound of each word (e.g. Alan the antelope ate asparagus).
  • Cacophony , a sonic device, is the combination of consonant sounds to create a displeasing effect. 
  • Onomatopoeia , a sonic device, refers to a word that emulates the real-life sound it signifies (e.g. using the word "bang" to signify an explosion).
  • Humor  creates connection and identification with audience members, thus increasing the likelihood that they will agree with the speaker. Humor can also be used to deflate counter-arguments and make opposing points of view appear ridiculous.
  • Anaphora  is the repetition of certain words or phrases at the beginning of sentences to increase the power of a sentiment. Perhaps the best-known example of anaphora is Martin Luther King Jr.'s repetition of the phrase "I have a dream."
  • Meiosis is a type of euphemism that intentionally understates the size or importance of its subject. It can be used to dismiss or diminish a debate opponent's argument. 
  • Hyperbole  is an exaggerated statement that conveys emotion and raises the bar for other speakers. Once you make a hyperbolic statement like “My idea is going to change the world," other speakers will have to respond in kind or their more measured words may seem dull and uninspiring in comparison.
  • Apophasis  is the verbal strategy of bringing up a subject by denying that that very subject should be brought up at all.
  • Anacoluthon  is a sudden swerve into a seemingly unrelated idea in the middle of a sentence. It can seem like a grammatical mistake if handled poorly, but it can also put powerful stress onto the idea being expressed.
  • Chiasmus  is a technique wherein the speaker inverts the order of a phrase in order to create a pretty and powerful sentence. The best example comes from President John F. Kennedy's inaugural address: "Ask not what your country can do for you — ask what you can do for your country ."
  • Anadiplosis  is the use of the same word at the end of one sentence and at the beginning of the subsequent sentence, forming a chain of thought that carries your audience to the point you’ve chosen.
  • Dialogismus  refers to moments when the speaker imagines what someone else is thinking, or speaks in the voice of someone else, in order to explain and then subvert or undermine counterpoints to the original argument.
  • Eutrepismus , one of the most common rhetorical devices, is simply the act of stating points in the form of a numbered list. Why is it useful? First off, this devices makes information seem official and authoritative. Second, it gives speech a sense of order and clarity. And third, it helps the listener keep track of the speaker's points.
  • Hypophora  is the trick of posing a question and then immediately supplying the answer. Do you know why hypophora is useful? It's useful because it stimulates listener interest and creates a clear transition point in the speech.
  • Expeditio  is the trick of listing a series of possibilities and then explaining why all but one of those possibilities are non-starters. This device makes it seem as though all choices have been considered, when in fact you've been steering your audience towards the one choice you desired all along.
  • Antiphrasis  is another word for irony. Antiphrasis refers to a statement whose actual meaning is the opposite of the literal meaning of the words within it.
  • Asterismos. Look, this is the technique of inserting a useless but attention-grabbing word in front of your sentence in order to grab the audience’s attention. It's useful if you think your listeners are getting a bit bored and restless.

Examples of Rhetorical Devices

Rhetoric isn’t just for debates and arguments. These devices are used in everyday speech, fiction and screenwriting, legal arguments, and more. Consider these famous examples and their impact on their audience.

  • “ Fear leads to anger. Anger leads to hate. Hate leads to suffering.” – Star Wars: The Empire Strikes Back . Rhetorical Device : Anadiplosis. The pairs of words at the beginning and ending of each sentence give the impression that the logic invoked is unassailable and perfectly assembled.
  • “ Ask not what your country can do for you, ask what you can do for your country.” —President John F. Kennedy. Rhetorical Device : Chiasmus. The inversion of the phrase can do and the word country creates a sense of balance in the sentence that reinforces the sense of correctness.
  • "I will not make age an issue of this campaign. I am not going to exploit, for political purposes, my opponent’s youth and inexperience." –President Ronald Reagan Rhetorical Device : Apophasis. In this quip from a presidential debate, Reagan expresses mock reluctance to comment on his opponent's age, which ultimately does the job of raising the point of his opponent's age.  
  • “ But in a larger sense, we cannot dedicate, we cannot consecrate, we cannot hallow this ground.” —Abraham Lincoln, Gettysburg Address . Rhetorical Device : Anaphora. Lincoln’s use of repetition gives his words a sense of rhythm that emphasizes his message. This is also an example of kairos : Lincoln senses that the public has a need to justify the slaughter of the Civil War, and thus decides to make this statement appealing to the higher purpose of abolishing slavery. 
  • “ Ladies and gentlemen, I've been to Vietnam, Iraq, and Afghanistan, and I can say without hyperbole that this is a million times worse than all of them put together.” – The Simpsons . Rhetorical Device : Hyperbole. Here, hyperbole is used to humorous effect in order to undermine the superficial point of the sentence.
  • Rhetoric. The discipline of discourse and persuasion via verbal argument.
  • Rhetorical Device. A tool used in the course of rhetoric, employing specific sentence structure, sounds, and imagery to attain a desired response.
  • Logos. The category of rhetorical devices that appeal to logic and reason. 
  • Pathos. The category of rhetorical devices that appeal to emotions.
  • Ethos.  The category of rhetorical devices that appeals to a sense of credibility. 
  • Kairos.  The concept of “right place, right time” in rhetoric, wherein a specific rhetorical device becomes effective because of circumstances surrounding its use.
  • “16 Rhetorical Devices That Will Improve Your Public Speaking.” Duarte , 19 Mar. 2018, www.duarte.com/presentation-skills-resources/rhetoric-isnt-a-bad-thing-16-rhetorical-devices-regularly-used-by-steve-jobs/.
  • Home - Ethos, Pathos, and Logos, the Modes of Persuasion ‒ Explanation and Examples , pathosethoslogos.com/ .
  • McKean, Erin. “Rhetorical Devices.” Boston.com , The Boston Globe, 23 Jan. 2011, archive.boston.com/bostonglobe/ideas/articles/2011/01/23/rhetorical_devices/ .
  • AP English Exam: 101 Key Terms
  • Anadiplosis: Definition and Examples
  • Use Social Media to Teach Ethos, Pathos and Logos
  • Artistic Proofs: Definitions and Examples
  • Traductio: Rhetorical Repetition
  • Pathos in Rhetoric
  • Brief Introductions to Common Figures of Speech
  • What Are Tropes in Language?
  • Polyptoton (Rhetoric)
  • Persuasion and Rhetorical Definition
  • Rhetorical Analysis Definition and Examples
  • Logos (Rhetoric)
  • What is an Appeal in Rhetoric?
  • A Rhetorical Analysis of U2's 'Sunday Bloody Sunday'
  • Proof in Rhetoric
  • What Is Phronesis?

31 Useful Rhetorical Devices

What is a rhetorical device and why are they used.

As with all fields of serious and complicated human endeavor (that can be considered variously as an art, a science, a profession, or a hobby), there is a technical vocabulary associated with writing. Rhetoric is the name for the study of writing or speaking as a means of communication or persuasion, and though a writer doesn’t need to know the specific labels for certain writing techniques in order to use them effectively, it is sometimes helpful to have a handy taxonomy for the ways in which words and ideas are arranged. This can help to discuss and isolate ideas that might otherwise become abstract and confusing. As with the word rhetoric itself, many of these rhetorical devices come from Greek.

quill-in-ink

Ready, set, rhetoric.

The repetition of usually initial consonant sounds in two or more neighboring words or syllables

wild and woolly, threatening throngs

Syntactical inconsistency or incoherence within a sentence especially : a shift in an unfinished sentence from one syntactic construction to another

you really should have—well, what do you expect?

Repetition of a prominent and usually the last word in one phrase or clause at the beginning of the next

rely on his honor—honor such as his?

A literary technique that involves interruption of the chronological sequence of events by interjection of events or scenes of earlier occurrence : flashback

Repetition of a word or expression at the beginning of successive phrases, clauses, sentences, or verses especially for rhetorical or poetic effect

we cannot dedicate—we cannot consecrate—we cannot hallow—this ground

The repetition of a word within a phrase or sentence in which the second occurrence utilizes a different and sometimes contrary meaning from the first

we must all hang together or most assuredly we shall all hang separately

The usually ironic or humorous use of words in senses opposite to the generally accepted meanings

this giant of 3 feet 4 inches

The use of a proper name to designate a member of a class (such as a Solomon for a wise ruler) OR the use of an epithet or title in place of a proper name (such as the Bard for Shakespeare)

The raising of an issue by claiming not to mention it

we won't discuss his past crimes

An expression of real or pretended doubt or uncertainty especially for rhetorical effect

to be, or not to be: that is the question

Harshness in the sound of words or phrases

An inverted relationship between the syntactic elements of parallel phrases

working hard, or hardly working?

A disjunctive conclusion inferred from a single premise

gravitation may act without contact; therefore, either some force may act without contact or gravitation is not a force

The substitution of a disagreeable, offensive, or disparaging expression for an agreeable or inoffensive one

greasy spoon is a dysphemism for the word diner

Repetition of a word or expression at the end of successive phrases, clauses, sentences, or verses especially for rhetorical or poetic effect

of the people, by the people, for the people

Emphatic repetition [ this definition is taken from the 1934 edition of Webster's Unabridged dictionary ]

An interchange of two elements in a phrase or sentence from a more logical to a less logical relationship

you are lost to joy for joy is lost to you

A transposition or inversion of idiomatic word order

judge me by my size, do you?

Extravagant exaggeration

mile-high ice-cream cones

The putting or answering of an objection or argument against the speaker's contention [ this definition is taken from the 1934 edition of Webster's Unabridged dictionary ]

Understatement in which an affirmative is expressed by the negative of the contrary

not a bad singer

The presentation of a thing with underemphasis especially in order to achieve a greater effect : UNDERSTATEMENT

A figure of speech in which a word or phrase literally denoting one kind of object or idea is used in place of another to suggest a likeness or analogy between them ( Metaphor vs. Simile )

drowning in money

A figure of speech consisting of the use of the name of one thing for that of another of which it is an attribute or with which it is associated

crown as used in lands belonging to the crown

The naming of a thing or action by a vocal imitation of the sound associated with it

A combination of contradictory or incongruous words

cruel kindness

The use of more words than those necessary to denote mere sense : REDUNDANCY

I saw it with my own eyes

A figure of speech comparing two unlike things that is often introduced by "like" or "as"

cheeks like roses

The use of a word in the same grammatical relation to two adjacent words in the context with one literal and the other metaphorical in sense

she blew my nose and then she blew my mind

A figure of speech by which a part is put for the whole (such as fifty sail for fifty ships ), the whole for a part (such as society for high society ), the species for the genus (such as cutthroat for assassin ), the genus for the species (such as a creature for a man ), or the name of the material for the thing made (such as boards for stage )

The use of a word to modify or govern two or more words usually in such a manner that it applies to each in a different sense or makes sense with only one

opened the door and her heart to the homeless boy

MORE TO EXPLORE: Rhetorical Devices Used in Pop Songs

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rhetorical devices in cassius speech

Julius Caesar

William shakespeare, everything you need for every book you read..

In Act 1, Scene 2, Brutus remarks to Cassius that Casca, with whom they have just conferred, seems to have lost his quick wit. Cassius uses a metaphor to explain that, in fact, Casca's style of speech is a deliberate choice: 

BRUTUS: What a blunt fellow is this grown to be! He was quick mettle when he want to school. CASSIUS: So is he now in execution Of any bold or noble enterprise, However he puts on this tardy form. This rudeness is a sauce to his good wit, Which gives men stomach to digest his words With better appetite. Cite this Quote

Cassius justifies Casca’s apparent “bluntness,” or dullness, by comparing it to a sort of digestive aid, a delightful “sauce” that makes him more agreeable. Many of the characters in  Julius Caesar  rely on complex arguments and entangled literary devices to make their point, and Casca is a notable departure from this trend: for Casca, simple language makes it easier for him to be understood and, ultimately, for others to find him agreeable. 

Shakespeare uses  Julius Caesar  as an opportunity to play with various modes of speech and rhetoric, displaying not only his versatility as a playwright but also the power of language in political argument. This sequence is evidence enough that one need not be a brilliant orator to be a convincing speaker. Even in a play famous for its elaborate speeches and passionate debates, less is sometimes more.

Logic and Language Theme Icon

In Act 1, Scene 3, Cassius offers his withering opinion of Caesar. Using a set of nested metaphors, he sets up his rival as a lowly man who nonetheless presents a threat to the people of Rome if they do not pay attention:

And why should Caesar be a tyrant, then? Poor man, I know he would not be a wolf But that he sees the Romans are but sheep; He were no lion, were not Romans hinds. Those that with haste will make a mighty fire Begin it with weak straws. What trash is Rome, What rubbish, and what offal when it serves For the base matter to illuminate So vile a thing as Caesar! Cite this Quote

Cassius demeans Caesar’s political prowess by accusing him of taking advantage of the weak Roman public using comparisons between the Romans being prey animals (sheep and hinds, or deer) who enable Caesar to act as a wolf or lion. Caesar “hastily” attempts to gain power, like the building of a fire, by manipulating the Roman populace like “weak straws,” fuel for his fire. Romans must be "rubbish," in Cassius’s view, to empower someone like Caesar.

This mixed metaphor conveys Cassius’s passionate angst as as he runs through a set of comparisons to convey his disdain for Caesar. Shakespeare also takes this opportunity to emphasizes a certain weakness in Cassius as an orator—his comparisons overlap in a bit of a jumble, though they do show the extent of Cassius's loathing. 

Shakespeare pays particular attention to various uses of language and argument in  Julius Caesar , as he examines the power of speech to affect political sentiment. This sequence presents Cassius at his most passionate and least refined. It also underscores a major point of pride for the political power players in Shakespeare's fictionalized Rome: manhood and honor are at the core of everything, and Cassius is keen to portray Caesar as a dishonorable and weak "wolf in sheep's clothing." 

Manhood and Honor Theme Icon

In Act 2, Scene 1, a sleepless Brutus mulls over the plot against Caesar in his orchard. In metaphorical language, he muses over Caesar's rise to power:

But ‘tis a common proof That lowliness is young ambition’s ladder, Whereto the climber-upward turns his face; But, when he once attains the upmost round, He then unto the ladder turns his back, Looks in the clouds, scorning the base degrees By which he did ascend. So Caesar may. Cite this Quote

Brutus compares humility to a ladder that a young and ambitious politician would use to climb the ranks, only to cast aside once they are ready to seize power for themselves. Humility, in other words, is a strategic device—a tool used to disguise one’s plans until the time has come to be overtly (and even disastrously) ambitious. Such is the accusation Brutus levies against Caesar.

It is concerning that a virtue such as humility could be used to such manipulative ends, although this is altogether fitting with Shakespeare's exploration of the morality of politics throughout  Julius Caesar : politicians—such as Caesar, and Brutus himself—may behave morally, but only in order to gain more power. One's honor is at the heart of one's identity in the play, and Brutus's accusation that Caesar would behave with honorable humility and gain respect in order to better manipulate his supporters thus strikes at the heart of Caesar's legitimacy as a politician and as a man.

Politics and Morality Theme Icon

In Act 2, Scene 1, Cassius and Brutus lay the groundwork for their effort to defeat Caesar and remove him as a threat to the Roman Republic. Brutus balks at the prospect of more bloodshed when Cassius proposes eliminating Mark Antony in addition to Caesar himself, metaphorically comparing Antony to the "limb" of Caesar in order to advocate against his murder:

Our course will seem too bloody, Caius Cassius, To cut the head off and then hack the limbs, Like wrath in death and envy afterwards; For Antony is but a limb of Caesar. Let’s be sacrificers, but not butchers, Caius. Cite this Quote

For Brutus, killing Antony alongside Caesar would be needlessly brutal. Caesar is the "head"—the figurative brains—of his political operation, whereas as Antony is only a "limb"—a mere follower. To cut off the head and hack off the limbs of a body is an excessively gruesome endeavor, and Brutus warns against descending from political assassination into rote butchery.

As he does throughout the play, Shakespeare uses metaphor to equate the function of Caesar and his allies as part of a body politic with the actual parts of a human body. The story of Caesar, of course, will eventually literalize part of this comparison: Brutus compares the process of removing Caesar as a political threat to the act of murdering, or beheading, a body—a process that will shortly hereafter require Caesar's actual murder. 

Julius Caesar  presents a lengthy exploration of the role of morality in political decision making—the audience witnesses characters of the play selectively disregarding any sense of morality in order to further their political causes. In Brutus's speech above, he makes a moral, if twisted, case for sparing Antony's life: murder is justifiable toward certain political ends. He describes Caesar's death as a necessary "sacrifice," but any more bloodshed would be gratuitous and irredeemable.

In Act 2, Scene 1, Brutus attempts to recruit Licarius to the conspiracy against Caesar. Though Ligarious is ill, he feels eager to join the cause. He goes so far as to compare, using simile, Brutus's recruitment efforts to the work of a spiritual healer:

LIGARIUS: Brave son, derived from honorable loins, Thou like an exorcist hast conjured up My mortified spirit. Now bid me run, And I will strive with things impossible, Yea, get the better of them. What’s to do? BRUTUS: A piece of work that will make sick men whole. Cite this Quote

Ligarius feels that Brutus's invigoration of his political sentiments is like the work of an exorcist reviving an ailing soul. Picking up on Ligarius's own simile, Brutus then extends it into a metaphor for the entire plot against Caesar: it is a work of healing in itself,  to "make sick men whole."

Throughout Julius Caesar , Shakespeare conveys the urgency of Rome’s political scheming—and the depth of passion felt by all sides—in the language of life (and healing) and death (and dying). Brutus articulates the work at hand, to assassinate Caesar, in terms of a pun on the notion of a "body politic." Caesar threatens Rome like disease threatens a body, and to stop Caesar is to heal Rome of its sickness. Conflating on the intimate matter of bodily health with the public affair of political struggle, Brutus transforms his cause into a mortal effort to save Rome itself.

Public vs. Private Theme Icon

In Act 2, Scene 1, Brutus suffers under the burden of plotting against his old ally, Caesar. In a lengthy metaphor, he compares his body's visceral reaction to the stress of the situation to a kingdom in rebellion:

Since Cassius first did whet me against Caesar, I have not slept. Between the act of a dreadful thing And the first motion, all the interim is Like a phantasma or a hideous dream. The genius and the mortal instruments Are then in council, and the state of man, Like to a little kingdom, suffers then The nature of an insurrection. Cite this Quote

In the nerve-racking time between crafting his plan against Caesar and executing it, Brutus's body feels like a "little kingdom" in the disarray of rebellion: his brain, "the genius," and his body, the "mortal instruments," plot against him, and he cannot sleep. This is a clever and extensive pun on the "body politic," the metaphorical description of a political body—like a city, state, or country—as a physical human body. As Brutus plots to disrupt the body politic of Rome, his own body plots against him. 

The narrative arc of  Julius Caesar  presents numerous intersections between public and private life: intimate dreams predict catastrophic political violence, hushed conversations plot the future of Roman government, and—as Brutus declares above—even one's own bodily functions begin to rebel in parallel with the machinations of the treacherous senators who will strike at Caesar. Throughout the play, Shakespeare uses small moments like this to illustrate how, for the class of celebrity-rulers in charge of the fate of Rome, even the smallest moments of private life are dragged out into the open and laden with political implication.

Conquest is all a matter of timing. In Act 4, Scene 3, as Brutus and Cassius discuss how best to face the armies of Antony and Octavius in battle, Brutus uses the metaphor of the ocean's tides to emphasize the importance of striking at the right moment:

There is a tide in the affairs of men Which, taken at the flood, leads on to fortune; Omitted, all the voyage of their life Is bound in shallows and in miseries. On such a full sea are we now afloat, And we must take the current when it serves Or lose our ventures. Cite this Quote

The political struggles of humanity move like the tides in the ocean: if you act at “high tide,” when the timing is right, success will follow; if you miss this moment, you doom yourself to life in the “low tide” of “miseries.” Brutus argues that the tide is high for Cassius and himself, and that they should therefore take action and march to meet their rivals at Philippi.

Throughout  Julius Caesar , Shakespeare explores whether humans have agency in determining the course of their own lives—and, indeed, the course of Rome itself. To a certain extent, the events of the play—and especially Caesar's assassination—seem predetermined, predicted at every turn by omens, soothsayers, and foreshadowing. In this metaphor, Brutus's invocation of the tide seems to imply that "human affairs" mimic the give-and-take motion of the sea: the sentiments, ambitions, and opportunities of the moment will rise only to eventually recede and be replaced by some other focus in cyclical fashion. Though this momentum may be outside Brutus or his peers' control, his speech would suggest that he nonetheless has the agency to decide whether or not to take advantage of the situation.

Fate Theme Icon

In Act 5, Scene 1, Cassius, Brutus, and Antony trade insults as their armies face each other in battle. Cassius makes an allusion to Hyblean honeybees as he mocks Antony for his bluster:

CASSIUS: Antony, The posture of your blows are yet unknown, But, for your words, they rob the Hybla bees And leave them honeyless. ANTONY: Not stingless too. BRUTUS: O yes, and soundless too, For you have stolen their buzzing, Antony, And very wisely threat before you sting. Cite this Quote

Hybla is an area of Sicily renowned for its bees. Cassius and Brutus use this allusion to insult Antony for his flowery language and lack of decisive action as a warrior: Antony has taken the “honey” from the Hybla bees and used it in his sweet speech, and has also “stolen their buzzing”: he makes a lot of noise with his words without any actual aggression, like a Shakespearean post-classical version of the idiom “all bark and no bite.” These jabs from Cassius and Brutus are direct attacks on Antony’s fitness as a soldier and political and military leader, reflecting both Cassius's preoccupation with status and Brutus's preoccupation with honor.

In Act 5, Scene 5, as Brutus faces defeat, he asks Dardanius to kill him. Relaying Brutus's final request to Clitus, the pair observe Brutus's grieving form through metaphor: 

CLITUS: What ill request did Brutus make to thee? DARDANIUS: To kill him, Clitus. Look, he meditates. CLITUS: Now is that noble vessel full of grief, That it runs over even at his eyes. Cite this Quote

Brutus has become a water vessel: he is so full of grief that he begins to "overflow" with it. In the midst of this tragic scene, Brutus weeps because there is no where else for the grief to go. The extent of this emotion, and Brutus's deadly request to Dardanius, cements him as the true tragic hero at the center of  Julius Caesar . He has lost everything: his wife, Portia, has committed suicide, his political ambitions have been vanquished, and he faces immanent military defeat. For the politicians at the center of  Julius Caesar , self-worth is entirely determined by political standing and military success—any defeat has existential proportions and questions the person's very right to exist. As he overflows with grief, Brutus finds the only honorable way out to be his death even as his companions urge him to continue on.

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COMMENTS

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  2. What four rhetorical devices does Cassius use to win over Brutus in

    Get an answer for 'What four rhetorical devices does Cassius use to win over Brutus in Julius Caesar, Act 1, Scene 2?' and find homework help for other Julius Caesar questions at eNotes

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    Analysis: Act III, scenes ii-iii. Act III, scene ii evidences the power of rhetoric and oratory: first Brutus speaks and then Antony, each with the aim of persuading the crowd to his side. We observe each speaker's effect on the crowd and see the power that words can have—how they can stir emotion, alter opinion, and induce action.

  4. Language analysis in Julius Caesar

    The language of rhetoric, or persuasive speaking, is very important in Julius Caesar. Both in Shakespeare's time and in Ancient Rome, public speaking and the ability to move a crowd was a highly valued skill, particularly in politics. In this video, you can hear RSC actor, Alex Waldmann talk about Brutus' use of rhetoric in his speech to ...

  5. Julius Caesar Act 1, scene 2 Summary & Analysis

    Analysis. Caesar, Antony, Brutus, Cassius, and others enter. Caesar tells his wife, Calpurnia, to stand in Antony 's path when he runs his race. He tells Antony to touch Calpurnia as he runs by, since this is believed to cure a woman's infertility. Antony agrees.

  6. Julius Caesar Literary Devices

    In Act 3, Scene 2, Brutus addresses the assembled crowd after Caesar's death. He uses the rhetorical device of logos to explain the reason for the conspiracy against Caesar that has led his assassination. Romans, countrymen, and lovers, hear me for my. cause, and be silent that you may hear. Believe me.

  7. Julius Caesar: Style

    Each of the major characters—Brutus, Caesar, Cassius, Portia, Mark Antony—delivers a number of such speeches, and each has his or her own own distinct style of using rhetoric. The central action of the play is the assassination of Caesar, and Brutus is the character who has to make a public speech attempting to justify it.

  8. Julius Caesar Act 1 Scene 2

    Cassius tests Brutus. Act 1 Scene 2 - Key Scene. In this scene Cassius, who is secretly plotting against Caesar, talks to Brutus and tests him to see if he feels the same. He says that Brutus has grown distant and reminds him of how close they used to be as friends. Brutus eventually tells Cassius that he is also afraid about how much power ...

  9. Rhetorical Analysis Of Cassius Speech Against Caesar

    In Cassius's eloquent speech against Caesar, he primarily utilizes persuasion through tools such as pathos, rhetorical questions, and compare and contrast. Cassius uses pathos to begin his monologue when he claims, "I know that virtue be in you, Brutus, / As well as I do know your outward favor" (Shakespeare 1.2.95-96).

  10. What Is The Tone Of Cassius's Speech?

    The speech is filled with rhetorical devices, emotional appeals, and logical arguments that create a sense of urgency and importance. In this article, we will explore the tone of Cassius's speech and its significance in the play. The Tone of Cassius's Speech. The tone of Cassius's speech is manipulative, cunning, and persuasive. Cassius ...

  11. Julius Caesar Act 3, scene 2 Summary & Analysis

    Analysis. A crowd of plebeians follows Brutus and Cassius, demanding satisfaction. Half of them follow Cassius to hear his explanation, and half follow Brutus. Brutus begins to speak, asking his countrymen to believe him out of respect for his honor, and to use their wisdom to judge him. He explains that he rose against Caesar not because he ...

  12. 15.02.08: Convincing the Masses: Rhetoric in Julius Caesar

    Convincing the Masses: Rhetoric in Julius Caesar by Jennifer Vermillion Introduction "For who so firm that cannot be seduced?" --Cassius [I,ii,305] Rhetoric, or the art of persuasion, is a key skill for my sophomore English students to develop as it requires them to make connections between the classroom and the world surrounding them.

  13. Rhetorical Devices in Julius Caesar

    In particular, the dueling speeches by the play's two most important characters, Brutus and Mark Antony, are classic examples of the uses of various rhetorical appeals and devices.

  14. Julius Caesar Act 5, scene 1 Summary & Analysis

    Octavius, Antony, and their army are waiting on the battlefield. Antony thinks that Brutus and Cassius are attacking them in order to make themselves look braver than they are. A messenger alerts them that the opposing army is approaching. Antony gives Octavius an order about how to advance his troops, which Octavius disputes.

  15. What Is a Rhetorical Device? Definition, List, Examples

    The following list contains some of the most important rhetorical devices to understand: Alliteration, a sonic device, is the repetition of the initial sound of each word (e.g. Alan the antelope ate asparagus). Cacophony, a sonic device, is the combination of consonant sounds to create a displeasing effect. Onomatopoeia, a sonic device, refers ...

  16. 31 Common Rhetorical Devices and Examples

    An expression of real or pretended doubt or uncertainty especially for rhetorical effect. to be, or not to be: that is the question. cacophony | see definition ». Harshness in the sound of words or phrases. chiasmus | see definition ». An inverted relationship between the syntactic elements of parallel phrases.

  17. Julius Caesar Rhetorical Analysis

    948 Words4 Pages. Rhetoric is the art of persuasion and speaking or writing, using various figures of speech and literacy devices. In William Shakespeare's The Tragedy of Julius Caesar, rhetoric is frequently used. Julius Caesar becomes emperor, upsetting many citizens of Rome, including the senators. The senators develop a plan to kill ...

  18. Julius Caesar Literary Devices

    Shakespeare also takes this opportunity to emphasizes a certain weakness in Cassius as an orator—his comparisons overlap in a bit of a jumble, though they do show the extent of Cassius's loathing. Shakespeare pays particular attention to various uses of language and argument in Julius Caesar , as he examines the power of speech to affect ...

  19. Which rhetorical device does Brutus use in this quote from Julius

    Compare the language, techniques, and devices used in Antony's and Brutus' speeches in Julius Caesar. What four rhetorical devices does Cassius use to win over Brutus in Julius Caesar, Act 1, Scene 2?

  20. In Shakespeare's Julius Caesar , what rhetorical devices does Antony

    Using this device, he makes his speech sound more emotional and dramatic. The use of 'brutish beasts' is a direct reference to the horrific act performed by Brutus and his co-conspirators.