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Analysis Essay On An Advertisement (Writing Guide)

How to write good analysis essay on an advertisement.

Analysis Essay On An Advertisement, Writing Guide, customessayorder.com

Outline example

How to start, introduction example.

  • How to write the thesis statement

Thesis example

How to write body paragraphs, example of body paragraphs.

  • How to conclude

Conclusion example

  • Revision tips

Advertising plays a major role in our society today; everywhere you go you will find products being advertised on television, online pages, billboards. Advertisement analysis is a common assignment students are required to undertake. Writing an analysis of an advertisement is more about writing a review of the advertisement using a specific format. There are several strategies to go about this type of assignment. So, below is a step-by-step approach to writing an analysis of an advertisement.

Introduction :

  • What is the advertisement for
  • Summary of the context of the advertisement
  • Background information about the company
  • The thesis statement
  • The effect of the advertisement and the target audience

Body Paragraphs :

  • Present evidence of the effectiveness of the ad on the target audience
  • Give examples
  • Show various components of the advertisement
  • Explain some of the outstanding strategies used to persuade the target audience
  • Describe the values and emotion the ad provokes in the readers
  • Describe the visual strategies
  • Describe the ethos, pathos, and logos
  • Describe the textual strategies, including the diction and the tone.

Conclusion :

  • Present the most important points justify why the advertisement is successful
  • The present technique used that makes the product outstanding
  • Review the intention of the advertisement
  • Provide your opinion.

In the introduction, it is important to state what the analysis will focus on. The ideas to get to the point as early as possible. The essay writer should not assume that the readers are familiar with the product. That is why the first step is to analyze if the advertisement presents a brief history and a detailed description of what the product is about. A good advertisement needs to show how the product is superior to other products in the market.

For example, when a company produces a commercial the aim is to increase sales.

  • Here are also points you should consider when writing your essay:
  • Some people prefer to write the introduction after they have written the essay itself – you should try both ways to see which one works better for you.
  • The introduction must always contain the thesis statement.
  • Any information which is needed for the essay, but doesn’t necessarily fit into any of the body paragraphs, should go into the introduction.
  • Don’t make any arguments in the introduction itself; save it for the body paragraphs.
  • The introduction should summarise the main arguments you intend to make.

Analysis Essay On An Advertisement, customessayorder.com

Now, you know the main rules of writing an introduction. Next, please find an example of the introduction.

Old Spice’s advertisement “How Your Man Could Smell Like” is an attractive phrase used to lure the audience to purchase the product. The advertisement meant to capture men’s attention through women. It presents an ideal image of how a man should smell. The advertisement used sexually themed strategy to grab the reader’s attention.

How to write a thesis statement

To write a thesis statement, make sure that you have done all the research you want to do, and that you know everything you want to when it comes to your essay. Try and boil down the ultimate point of the essay into a small amount of space – at the most two sentences. It should be clear enough that every part of your essay will be able to relate to it without much trouble.

The advertisement conveys a strong message about a strong personality where a man needs not only to be attractive but also to be confident by smelling like a real man. The advertisement uses emotional appeal to influence young women who value strong qualities in a man.

Any advertisement is meant for a specific audience, therefore, a good analysis should present the target audience. The body paragraphs should clearly present, which groups of people are being targeted, discusses how the intention presented work together to create a good impression. When writing an advertisement analysis essay, it is important to explain how popular and effective the advertisement is. Describe the rhetorical appeals, including pathos, ethos, and logo, these are concepts that provoke emotion among the target audience in an attempt to convince them to like the product.

Tips on body paragraph writing:

  • Each paragraph should only deal with one argument, to keep from being cluttered.
  • Each paragraph should have a topic sentence to introduce it, and a summary sentence at the end of both wind things up, and lead into the next sentence.
  • Each paragraph should reference the thesis statement in some way.
  • Each paragraph should fit into the essay in a way which makes it flow properly, leading readers through the essay to a similar conclusion.
  • Each paragraph should contain just the right amount of research – not so much as to confuse the issue, but not so little that it seems like there is nothing to say.

Below is an example of the body paragraphs for advertising analysis.

1st paragraph

The commercial appeals to women more than men. This is important because it does not rely on the attractiveness of the model and the setting, but on sensational, emotional responses presenting how perfect men should translate into the reality the ideal image of who a man should be and what he should smell like to attract a wider audience.

2nd paragraph

The advertisement uses an attractive man who seems to be physically fit, giving the product an image that men are appealing to women’s tastes. The advertisement also presents the notion that a man’s’ emotional needs to smell like a real man to attract a woman. The advertisement uses a reliable strategy of sexuality. Sexually themed advertisements appeal to not only men and women but to a wider audience. Using such themes is the surest way to attract more people to use the product.

3rd paragraph

Normally, these advertisements focus on men who are physically attractive to try and sell their products, with the implication that the product will give an entire lifestyle, not simply a way to smell good. This is one way in which the advertisements appeal to people – making it seem as though they too can aspire to be as ‘cool’ as the man presents, simply by purchasing the aforementioned product.

How to write a conclusion

After review, the advertisement giving appropriate evidence to support the claim the next step of the analysis is to wrap up by reviewing the key points of the analysis. The conclusion of the analysis should be a brief summary justifying if the advertisement has achieved its objectives.

Tips to remember when writing your conclusion

  • Remember to restate the thesis statement.
  • Round up the arguments made in the essay – do not make any original arguments in the conclusion.
  • The conclusion is your last chance to bring people round to your point of view, so make it count.
  • Remember that you can bring in the history or additional information which is used in the introduction, to remind people of anything that might be useful.
  • Your conclusion should mention every argument made in the essay.

Example of a conclusion is shown below.

The Old Spice ad is successful because it makes a good impression on people and makes the audience believe that smelling good can be attractive. The advertisement carefully uses sex appeal, making it attractive for both men and women. Mixing the right amount of humor makes it stand out because of its no offensive. Old Spice’s appeal to women makes men want to look and smells like a real man. The advertisement presents an ideal man as good looking, masculine and romantic. Any advertisement that arouses people’s emotions and people want to watch and remember their products can be termed as a successful advertisement.

Research paper revision

Revision is important since it gives you the opportunity to create the best essay you are capable of. Revision lets you check whether or not your essay flows correctly, whether it makes sense, as well as the smaller things like grammar and punctuation.

  • Do two revisions – one for spelling and grammar, and one for structure.
  • Check to make sure that the argument through the paper flows correctly.
  • Try and come to revision with fresh eyes, since this will help you see problems more easily.
  • If you can, ask someone else to read your essay, to point out any errors.
  • Make sure to specifically check things like thesis statements, topic sentences, etc.

Need a custom essay?

1.How to write an analysis essay on an advertisement? To analyze an advertisement, one needs first to figure out the objectives behind the Ad film. Then, the analysis will deal with weighting the theme of the Ad and how well it conveyed the message. However, several other aspects are also mentioned in an ad analysis. Discuss the brand’s values and beliefs? Elaborate on the Ad appeal, emotional or rational? Discuss the storyline, the big idea, overall execution of the Ad film.

2.Who can write an analysis essay on an advertisement? Advertisement analysis is best written by field experts available on customessayorder.com. The platform provides wiring help to students who face difficulty in completing their college assignments. The writing company is good with deadlines, free revisions, professional proofreading, and guaranteed high-quality paper delivered on time written by native English speakers.

3.How to conclude an analysis essay on an advertisement? The conclusion simply summarizes the objectives the ad aimed at and how well it conveyed the message to the audience. Mention both the wins and losses. Also, give a sneak preview of how well the persuasion appeal worked for the brand in the ad.

4.What should an analysis essay on an advertisement include? Ad Analysis should identify the rhetorical appeals—logos, pathos, and ethos in the ad. Analyze the ad’s target demography. Moreover, several points to be included in an advertisement analysis are: · The big idea · Type of advertisement campaign – thematic or tactical · Persuasion appeal – emotional or rational · Core brand values · Subliminal message · Testimonial · Production value · budgets · Cast · Locations

analysis of advertisement essay

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16 Drafting Your Ad Analysis

Dr. Karen Palmer

Now that you have a solid outline, it’s time to start writing your ad analysis paper! Here we will work through fleshing out each part of your outline–turning your outline into a full draft.

Introduction

The first part of your paper is your introduction. You may remember from the Writing Formula chapter that an introduction consists of three main parts: the hook, the introduction to the topic, and the thesis. Let’s begin with the hook. A hook does two jobs–it connects the topic of your paper to your readers, and it attempts to capture their attention.

This video highlights some of the most common techniques for writing a good hook:

Now that you have a general idea of what a hook does, let’s focus in on the kind of hook that would be most useful for your ad analysis essay. Let’s say you are doing an analysis on that milk ad we discussed earlier in the text.

Strategy 1: Connect to the topic of the ad: milk. You could say something like, “Do you drink milk?” But…would that really draw in readers? Surely, there is a better way to grab the attention of our audience.

Strategy 2: Connect to the broader topic of advertising. Here you might say something like, “Advertisers are always trying to get our attention.” Sure, this is a broad opening to the paper, but is it really going to make anyone interested in the topic?

A good idea is to brainstorm some current events or topics that link to your ad. A brainstorming list for this milk ad could include lactose intolerance, the concept of looking at TV sitcom characters as role models, the changing role of mothers, and even the pressure placed on moms (and women in general)  to be perfect. Choose something that appeals to you and that illustrates a theme that runs through the ad. When brainstorming with my classes, we often land on the idea of perfection with this particular milk ad. It makes a compelling frame for the paper.

Introducing the topic is just that–letting readers know what the paper will be about. ie An ad for ________ located in _________ magazine illustrates this concept. Note that you need to include the specific product advertised in the ad, the name of the magazine in which the ad is located, and include a connection/transition to your hook.

Finally, the last sentence of your introduction is your thesis. Here you make your argument. While you already wrote a thesis for your outline, you want to double check that the thesis connects in some way to your hook. Our example thesis is: “The advertisers successfully persuade the consumer that milk will make them a great mom by using nostalgia, milk branding, and the image of ideal motherhood.” We might make a slight adjustment here to make the connection a bit more explicit: “The advertisers play on the desire of moms to fulfill an image of perfection by using nostalgia, milk branding, and the image of ideal motherhood.”

In the ad analysis, our background consists of two different sections: the description and the discussion of context.

Description

Remember that your audience cannot see the ad you are discussing. If you were in a room presenting to your audience, you might project an image of the ad up on a screen. Since we can’t do that in an essay, we need to describe the ad for our readers. Essentially, you want your readers to be able to draw a basic picture of your ad–or at least visualize it accurately in their minds.

This video from James Rath discussing how people with visual impairments see images on social media gives an important life reason for learning how to write solid image descriptions:

Here are some good tips for writing a description of an image:

1. Start by giving readers a one sentence overview of the ad. For our milk ad, that might be, “In this ad, three mothers from iconic sitcoms sit side by side in a beauty parlor under old-fashioned hair dryers.”

2. Determine in advance how you want readers to see the image–do you want them to look at the image left to right? Foreground to background? Clockwise? Bottom line here–don’t make readers minds jump around from place to place as they try to visualize the image.

3. Choose the key elements. You don’t have to describe every single thing in this paragraph. Tell readers who the three moms are and what show they are from. Give enough basic details so that readers know the setting is old-fashioned. Remember, you’ll be able to bring forward more detail as you analyze the ad in the body of your paper. Readers don’t need to know what color a person’s eyes are unless it’s a key part of the ad.

4. Don’t forget the text! While you should not write every word in the ad in your description, especially if there are lengthy paragraphs, you should include a brief overview of the text. ie placement, basic overview Again, you’ll be able to give specific quotes that are relevant to your analysis in the body of your paper.

5. Write in present tense!

The context of an ad really focuses on the audience of the ad. Remember that advertisers very carefully consider the audience for their product and create their advertisements to best reach that target audience. Let’s look at this from the perspective of a company looking to place an ad:

So, if an advertiser goes to this much trouble to determine the demographics of their target audience, it’s obviously important! The ad (unless perhaps it was published by an inexperienced advertiser) is not “for everyone.” An ad in Newsweek , no matter how childlike it appears, was not created for children. It was created for the audience who will purchase and read this magazine. When we do an ad analysis, we want to share similar information with our readers. What magazine is the ad placed in? What is the general focus of that publication? What kinds of articles appear in the publication? What general types of ads appear? In short, who is the audience? Of course, you can look at a magazine and get some of this information. You can also do a quick online search for the demographics of the magazine or for their media kit, which is what advertisers look at prior to purchasing advertising space to ensure the magazine is a good fit for their ad.

Now that you have the background out of the way and your audiences thoroughly understand the topic, it’s time to begin your analysis. Your thesis should have given at least three advertising strategies used in the ad. Your paper should include a paragraph for each one of those strategies.

Topic Sentence

The topic sentence should echo the wording of the thesis and clearly introduce the topic. For example, “One way the advertisers use the concept of the perfect mother to convince readers to purchase milk is by using iconic mothers from television shows.” For your next paragraph, you’d want to be sure to include a transition. For example, “Another way” or “In addition to” are both phrases that can be used to show that you are building onto your previous paragraph.

In this part of the paragraph, you want to give specific examples from the ad to support your point.

First, you should introduce the example. “The three moms from iconic tv shows are the focus of this ad.”

Next, you should give specific examples from the ad–this could be pointing out particular details about the images in the ad or quoting from the text–or both! For example, for the milk ad, you might give the specific names of the characters and the shows they are from. You might point out that every detail of their outfits are perfect. That they are wearing makeup and jewelry. That they have their wedding rings prominently focused in the image. You might also quote text, like the line from the ad that says, “Another all-time great mom line.”

Finally, wrap up your examples with a clear explanation of how the example proves your point. For example, you might say that, especially in modern times, it is very difficult for mothers to live up to the standard of perfection set by these three television moms. You might explain how causing readers to feel “less than” sets the stage for them to accept the premise that giving their children milk will make them more like these TV moms.

The wrap up for your paragraph is similar to the wrap up for the evidence provided. Here you want to reiterate your thesis in a simple sentence. For example, you might say, “Using the images of these iconic moms convinces moms that, in order to be a good mom, they must buy milk for their children.”

image

The conclusion of your paper is essentially a mirror image of your introduction. Think of your paper as an Oreo cookie. The introduction and the conclusion are the cookies that surround the best part–the body of the paper. Like the cookie outsides of the Oreo, the introduction and conclusion should be mirror images of each other.

1. Start with re-stating the thesis.

2. Reiterate the topic.

3. Return to your hook and elaborate.

Unlike an Oreo, the conclusion should not simply copy your introduction word for word in a different order. Try to restate your sentences in a different way. Elaborate on your hook so that you leave readers with something to think about!

 Content written by Dr. Karen Palmer and is licensed CC BY NC.

The Worry Free Writer Copyright © 2020 by Dr. Karen Palmer is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Nike Advertisement Analysis Essay Sample

Nike is an international company that has been around for almost 50 years. Get ready for a journey through the world of marketing mastery with a compelling analysis of a Nike advertisement. This essay delves into the art behind Nike’s campaign, offering students a captivating example of advertising brilliance. Beyond the swoosh and catchy slogans lies a blueprint for effective communication, inspiring students to decode the language of impactful marketing.

Join me in exploring the nuances that transform a mere advertisement into a powerful narrative. This analysis is not just about shoes; it’s a concise lesson for students navigating academia and beyond – a stepping stone to your own marketing triumphs.

Essay Example On Nike Advertisement Analysis

  • Introduction of Nike Advertisement Analysis Essay
  • Analysis of Nike Advertisement’s Visual Impact
  • Analysis on Emotional Resonance of Nike Advertisement
  • Slogans and Taglines of Nike Advertisement
  • Analysis of Celebrity Endorsements
  • Cultural Relevance of Nike Advertisement to do Analysis
Introduction of Nike Advertisement Analysis Essay Nike, a marketing powerhouse, wields the iconic swoosh symbol and creates compelling campaigns that transcend simple product promotion, establishing dominance. In this essay, we’ll analyze a Nike ad, exploring visual and textual elements to reveal persuasive techniques employed in its creation. Embark on a Nike advertising odyssey, where every frame and word holds a purpose, weaving a narrative beyond the surface. Body of Essay Sample on Nike Advertisement Analysis Analysis of  Nike Advertisement’s Visual Impact   Nike advertisements are synonymous with visually striking imagery. From empowering shots of athletes in action to emotionally charged scenes, each frame is meticulously crafted to evoke a response. Our analysis will explore how these visuals contribute to the overall narrative, leaving an indelible mark on the viewer’s psyche. Get Non-Plagiarized Custom Essay on Nike Advertisement Analysis in USA Order Now Analysis on Emotional Resonance of Nike Advertisement Beyond the glossy visuals, Nike advertisements often tap into the realm of human emotion. Whether it’s the triumph of overcoming adversity or the joy of personal achievement, we’ll explore how these emotional triggers are strategically integrated to establish a connection with the audience. Slogans and Taglines of Nike Advertisement  Nike’s taglines are short yet impactful, leaving a lasting impression on consumers. From the iconic “Just Do It” to newer campaigns, our analysis will dissect the linguistic choices made in these slogans and unveil the psychological impact they have on the audience. Read more:- Argumentative Essay Topics About Animals Analysis of Celebrity Endorsements  Nike frequently collaborates with high-profile athletes, turning them into brand ambassadors. We’ll examine the symbiotic relationship between the brand and these influencers, exploring how their association adds credibility and authenticity to Nike’s messaging. Buy Customized Essay on Nike Advertisement Analysis At Cheapest Price Order Now Cultural Relevance of Nike Advertisement to do Analysis  Nike has a knack for staying culturally relevant, addressing societal issues and movements. Our essay will discuss how these strategic moves not only reflect the brand’s social responsibility but also position Nike as a leader in cultural conversations. Conclusion In the final segment of our analysis, we will tie together the various elements explored in the Nike advertisement. From visual impact to emotional resonance, slogans to celebrity endorsements, we’ll paint a comprehensive picture of how Nike’s advertising strategies captivate and engage audiences worldwide. As we dissect the intricacies of a Nike advertisement, it becomes evident that every element is a calculated step towards brand supremacy. Marketers and enthusiasts can glean insights on impactful campaigns by understanding persuasive techniques, enhancing the creation of memorable content. Hire USA Experts for Nike Advertisement Analysis Essay Order Now

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Advertisement Analysis Essay Writing Guide

Advertising plays a huge role in modern life. It interrupts TV and radio programms, decorates (or defaces) the sides of buildings and sometimes it seems like it’s the main function of the internet. It’s estimated that over $450 billion is spent on advertising every year, nearly a third of it in the United States alone.

The advertising industry hasn’t always been measured in US dollars either, because it’s old; Roman sesterces used to pay for quite a lot of it (both political and commercial advertising materials have been found in the ruins of Pompeii) and archaeologists have discovered ancient Egyptian posters that they think were advertisements.

With all this history and money involved it’s no wonder that advertising is a much-discussed subject, and a common essay topic is the analysis of an advertising campaign. Most essay writers aren’t advertising professionals though, so what’s the best way to go about it?

Introduce the product or service being advertised

It doesn’t matter if it’s an insurance company, a political party or a new brand of salad dressing; don’t assume that your reader has heard of it. Make sure to give a short history, a description (and perhaps how it compares with some competitors) and an idea of its market share.

Discuss who the advertising is aimed at

It’s almost impossible to make an advert that’s going to appeal to everyone, unless you’re selling a tree that money really does grow on, so every advert has a target audience. The target audience will influence its style, so in turn the style can be used to work out the target audience. For example an advert that uses skateboarding images is aimed at teenagers; an offer of payday loans is aimed at people who can’t manage money and don’t look like learning any time soon.

Estimate how popular the advert has been

This used to be quite difficult to work out. Often it was a matter of seeing how many people bought a newspaper that the advert was in (or watched a TV programme that it interrupted) and guessing what percentage paid any attention. Now, though, the internet makes it much easier to track. Popular adverts, especially if they’re amusing, often go viral. When this happens social networking sites like Facebook and YouTube make it easy to see how often they’ve been viewed and forwarded. Just make sure it’s not being forwarded with a tag that says “Look at this dumb advert LOL!”

You can also look at the history of similar adverts, if any exist, as well as new techniques or media that have been pioneered. Before you start adding these refinements, though, make sure you’ve covered these three basics thoroughly.

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How to Analyze an Advertisement

Last Updated: August 10, 2022 References

This article was co-authored by Christine Michel Carter . Christine Michel Carter is a Global Marketing Expert, Best-Selling Author, and Strategy Consultant for Minority Woman Marketing, LLC. With over 13 years of experience, Christine specializes in strategic business and marketing consulting services including market analysis, organizational alignment, portfolio review, cultural accuracy, and brand and marketing review. She is also a speaker on millennial moms and black consumers. Christine holds a BS in Business Administration and Art History from Stevenson University. She is a leader in multicultural marketing strategy and has written over 100 articles views for several publications, including TIME and Forbes Women. Christine has worked with Fortune 500 clients such as Google, Walmart, and McDonald’s. She has been featured in The New York Times, BBC News, NBC, ABC, Fox, The Washington Post, Business Insider, and Today. There are 7 references cited in this article, which can be found at the bottom of the page. This article has been viewed 162,679 times.

Christine Michel Carter

Breaking Down a Television Commercial

Step 1 Ascertain who the target audience of the commercial is.

  • For example, if the commercial appears on a TV channel that mainly shows children’s programming, then you can deduce that the advertisers are trying to appeal to children or maybe the parents of young children.
  • If you see a commercial in a movie theater, you may be able to determine its target audience based on the nature of the movie. For example, commercials that appear before R-rated movies are probably intended for adult audiences.

Step 2 Examine how the commercial tries to get your attention.

  • How a commercial seeks to grab your attention can also say a lot about its target audience. For example, a commercial that uses explosive special effects may be aimed at teenagers and young adults.
  • Advertisers don’t just want their commercial to grab your attention; they also want you to remember it. Consider how their attention-grabbing techniques are meant to stick in your mind and influence your view of a product over the long term. [4] X Research source

Step 3 Determine what sort of mood the advertisement seeks to create.

  • For example, a commercial might prominently feature upbeat music, smiling faces, and sunny weather to create a generally happy feeling that you then direct towards the product the commercial is advertising.
  • Advertisers will usually try to make commercials that put their product in a positive light. Determining how they go about doing this will also reveal what unspoken beliefs or values the commercial is attempting to appeal to.

Step 4 Listen to the soundtrack and ask how it affects your reaction.

  • For instance, may accompany depictions of a generic product with sad music to make you feel that products other than the one being advertised are not as good.
  • Ask yourself if your feeling towards the commercial would change if it used a particular genre of music versus another, then think about why different music styles elicit different responses from you.

Step 5 Consider how the actors chosen to star in the commercial influence you.

  • For example, if a commercial pairs a particular beer brand with women in bikinis, the advertisers may be trying to appeal to teenage and adult men through sex appeal.
  • Think about why an actor or actors of a certain race or gender were selected, and ask yourself if the perception of the product would change if different actors were used in the commercial. This may indicate certain biases or subconscious motives at work in the ad.

Step 6 Analyze the language used in the ad.

  • If you’re analyzing one or more commercials for a marketing class, you may find that certain words are used more frequently than others. For example, words like “tasty” and “sensational” are commonly used in ads because they tend to make products seem more desirable.
  • Pay particular attention to words that aren’t used to directly describe the product, and think about why those words have been included in the commercial. If words aren’t overtly being used to inform the audience, they’re being used to covertly influence viewers.

Evaluating Advertisements in Print Media

Step 1 Determine who the target audience is for the advertisement.

  • For example, an ad that appears in Cosmopolitan magazine is probably meant to appeal to women, while an ad featured in the newspaper is probably aimed at a wider general audience.
  • Think about how a person from a particular demographic might respond to an ad targeted at a different demographic, and why they might have a different reaction. This will help you to determine some of the hidden social meanings that the ad is incorporating.

Step 2 Examine what action or activity is taking place in the ad.

  • For example, if an ad for a watch features a man wearing it while on a cruise with his family, you may come to associate the watch with the excitement of going on a cruise and the positive feelings of having a family.
  • Note that the ad’s plot may not seem relevant to the product itself. This is an example of an advertisement intentionally manipulating their audience’s feelings.

Step 3 Consider what words are used in the text of the ad.

  • Think as well about how the language in the ad describes the benefits of buying the product. For example, does the ad say the product will make you happier, cooler, or sexier?
  • The typeface used is also an intentional design choice. Ask yourself how you might react to the ad if the words were printed in a different typeface and why that might be. [15] X Research source

Step 4 Analyze the images used in the ad.

  • For example, ask yourself what sort of images of people or objects are included in the advertisement and how these images influence your reaction to the product. Consider whether your reaction would change if different people or objects were used.
  • If you’re analyzing the ad from an artistic perspective, you should also note which colors are used and where in the ad those colors are placed. You may find there are certain colors that are matched with particular emotional responses.
  • The ad may feature images that reflect a certain lifestyle (e.g., a two-story home in a wealthy neighborhood) and use these images to associate the product with particular values and beliefs in your mind.

Step 5 Think about the background and what sort of reaction it’s meant to elicit.

  • For example, a background of a sunny beach and palm tree might be trying to elicit feelings of calm and relaxation, while a busy city street might bring to mind feelings of activity or people in motion.

Step 6 Take note of how everything in the ad is spatially situated.

  • For example, an advertisement that seeks to leave its audience excited and energized about its product might feature a large amount of overlapping words and images and leave very little blank space in the ad.
  • An ad with lots of empty space might want to make people think of feelings like “quiet” or “understated.” [19] X Research source

Expert Q&A

  • Advertisements can be analyzed in much the same way that books can (i.e., interpreting symbols, determining the motives of the creator, examining the use of particular themes, etc.). Thanks Helpful 4 Not Helpful 1

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  • ↑ Christine Michel Carter. Global Marketing Expert. Expert Interview. 30 September 2020.
  • ↑ http://www.classzone.com/cz/books/ml_lit_gr12/resources/pdfs/media_analysis/HS_15_Ad_Techniques2.pdf
  • ↑ http://www.understandmedia.com/topics/media-theory/110-how-to-analyze-a-television-commercial
  • ↑ https://www.forbes.com/sites/marketshare/2012/10/19/what-makes-a-tv-commercial-memorable-and-effective/#4dc553633079
  • ↑ http://www.understandmedia.com/topics/media-theory/108-how-to-analyze-a-print-advertisement
  • ↑ http://www.medialit.org/reading-room/how-analyze-advertisement
  • ↑ http://www5.csudh.edu/ccauthen/350S12/ad-questions3.htm

About This Article

Christine Michel Carter

Advertisements are all around you, and once you know what to look for, you can analyze them to see how they work. Every ad is designed for a specific target audience, like children, young professionals, or women. An ad for children might use bright colors and big text, while an ad for young adults might feature twenty-something models. The goal of an ad is to grab its target audience's attention and make them feel or want something. Some ads might use flashy visual effects to draw people in, while others will rely on happy or sad music to play on people's emotions. If an ad has a famous person in it, the company that made the ad is probably trying to influence that celebrity's fan base to buy their products. The main thing to consider when looking at any ad is how all of the different elements are being used to sell you something. For more tips, including how to analyze TV commercials, read on! Did this summary help you? Yes No

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How to analyze an advertisement.

Finding Ads' Hidden Messages

By Arthur Asa Berger

There's more to advertising's message than meets the casual eye. An effective ad, like other forms of communication, works best when it strikes a chord in the needs and desires of the receiving consumer -- a connection that can be both intuitive and highly calculated.

The following questions can help foster an awareness of this process. Use them for class or group discussions or your own individual analysis of ads or commercials. You may be surprised by the messages and meanings you uncover.

  • What sociological, political, economic or cultural attitudes are indirectly reflected in the advertisement? An advertisement may be about a pair of blue jeans but it might, indirectly, reflect such matters as sexism, alienation, stereotyped thinking, conformism, generational conflict, loneliness, elitism, and so on.

Excerpted with permission from Signs in Contemporary Culture: An Introduction to Semiotics by Arthur Asu Berger (Longman, Inc., 95 Church Street, White Plains, NY 10601)

Arthur Asa Berger is professor emeritus of Broadcast & Electronic Communication Arts at San Francisco State University, where he taught from 1965 to 2003. He is the author of more than 100 articles and 60 books on media, popular culture, tourism and related concerns.

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Home — Essay Samples — Business — Mcdonald's — Analysis of McDonald’s Advertisement Success

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Success of Mcdonald's Advertisement: Analysis

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Published: Mar 14, 2019

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McDonalds Advertisement Analysis Essay

Works cited:.

  • African Women's Development Fund. (n.d.). Our grants. http://awdf.org/grantees/
  • Arese, U. (2016). The smart money woman. Troubador Publishing Ltd.
  • County Government of Kericho. (2018). Kericho County integrated development plan 2018-2022.
  • Health Renaissance Network. (n.d.). About us.
  • Kipkemoi, J. K. (2019). Youth leadership and representation in Kenya's devolved governance: Experiences from Kericho County. Commonwealth Journal of Local Governance, (22), 26-42.
  • Kweyu, R., Opiyo, R., & Siboe, G. (2016). Determinants of early sexual debut among high school students in Kisumu County, Kenya. Journal of Education and Practice, 7(6), 147-156.
  • National Youth Council of Kenya. (2019). National youth policy 2007 review report. https://nyc.go.ke/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/Report-of-the-Review-of-the-National-Youth-Policy.pdf
  • Population Reference Bureau. (n.d.). PACE project.
  • World Vision Kenya. (n.d.). Programs. https://www.wvi.org/kenya/our-work/health
  • Young African Leadership Initiative. (n.d.). About YALI.

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  • How to write a rhetorical analysis | Key concepts & examples

How to Write a Rhetorical Analysis | Key Concepts & Examples

Published on August 28, 2020 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on July 23, 2023.

A rhetorical analysis is a type of essay  that looks at a text in terms of rhetoric. This means it is less concerned with what the author is saying than with how they say it: their goals, techniques, and appeals to the audience.

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Table of contents

Key concepts in rhetoric, analyzing the text, introducing your rhetorical analysis, the body: doing the analysis, concluding a rhetorical analysis, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about rhetorical analysis.

Rhetoric, the art of effective speaking and writing, is a subject that trains you to look at texts, arguments and speeches in terms of how they are designed to persuade the audience. This section introduces a few of the key concepts of this field.

Appeals: Logos, ethos, pathos

Appeals are how the author convinces their audience. Three central appeals are discussed in rhetoric, established by the philosopher Aristotle and sometimes called the rhetorical triangle: logos, ethos, and pathos.

Logos , or the logical appeal, refers to the use of reasoned argument to persuade. This is the dominant approach in academic writing , where arguments are built up using reasoning and evidence.

Ethos , or the ethical appeal, involves the author presenting themselves as an authority on their subject. For example, someone making a moral argument might highlight their own morally admirable behavior; someone speaking about a technical subject might present themselves as an expert by mentioning their qualifications.

Pathos , or the pathetic appeal, evokes the audience’s emotions. This might involve speaking in a passionate way, employing vivid imagery, or trying to provoke anger, sympathy, or any other emotional response in the audience.

These three appeals are all treated as integral parts of rhetoric, and a given author may combine all three of them to convince their audience.

Text and context

In rhetoric, a text is not necessarily a piece of writing (though it may be this). A text is whatever piece of communication you are analyzing. This could be, for example, a speech, an advertisement, or a satirical image.

In these cases, your analysis would focus on more than just language—you might look at visual or sonic elements of the text too.

The context is everything surrounding the text: Who is the author (or speaker, designer, etc.)? Who is their (intended or actual) audience? When and where was the text produced, and for what purpose?

Looking at the context can help to inform your rhetorical analysis. For example, Martin Luther King, Jr.’s “I Have a Dream” speech has universal power, but the context of the civil rights movement is an important part of understanding why.

Claims, supports, and warrants

A piece of rhetoric is always making some sort of argument, whether it’s a very clearly defined and logical one (e.g. in a philosophy essay) or one that the reader has to infer (e.g. in a satirical article). These arguments are built up with claims, supports, and warrants.

A claim is the fact or idea the author wants to convince the reader of. An argument might center on a single claim, or be built up out of many. Claims are usually explicitly stated, but they may also just be implied in some kinds of text.

The author uses supports to back up each claim they make. These might range from hard evidence to emotional appeals—anything that is used to convince the reader to accept a claim.

The warrant is the logic or assumption that connects a support with a claim. Outside of quite formal argumentation, the warrant is often unstated—the author assumes their audience will understand the connection without it. But that doesn’t mean you can’t still explore the implicit warrant in these cases.

For example, look at the following statement:

We can see a claim and a support here, but the warrant is implicit. Here, the warrant is the assumption that more likeable candidates would have inspired greater turnout. We might be more or less convinced by the argument depending on whether we think this is a fair assumption.

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Rhetorical analysis isn’t a matter of choosing concepts in advance and applying them to a text. Instead, it starts with looking at the text in detail and asking the appropriate questions about how it works:

  • What is the author’s purpose?
  • Do they focus closely on their key claims, or do they discuss various topics?
  • What tone do they take—angry or sympathetic? Personal or authoritative? Formal or informal?
  • Who seems to be the intended audience? Is this audience likely to be successfully reached and convinced?
  • What kinds of evidence are presented?

By asking these questions, you’ll discover the various rhetorical devices the text uses. Don’t feel that you have to cram in every rhetorical term you know—focus on those that are most important to the text.

The following sections show how to write the different parts of a rhetorical analysis.

Like all essays, a rhetorical analysis begins with an introduction . The introduction tells readers what text you’ll be discussing, provides relevant background information, and presents your thesis statement .

Hover over different parts of the example below to see how an introduction works.

Martin Luther King, Jr.’s “I Have a Dream” speech is widely regarded as one of the most important pieces of oratory in American history. Delivered in 1963 to thousands of civil rights activists outside the Lincoln Memorial in Washington, D.C., the speech has come to symbolize the spirit of the civil rights movement and even to function as a major part of the American national myth. This rhetorical analysis argues that King’s assumption of the prophetic voice, amplified by the historic size of his audience, creates a powerful sense of ethos that has retained its inspirational power over the years.

The body of your rhetorical analysis is where you’ll tackle the text directly. It’s often divided into three paragraphs, although it may be more in a longer essay.

Each paragraph should focus on a different element of the text, and they should all contribute to your overall argument for your thesis statement.

Hover over the example to explore how a typical body paragraph is constructed.

King’s speech is infused with prophetic language throughout. Even before the famous “dream” part of the speech, King’s language consistently strikes a prophetic tone. He refers to the Lincoln Memorial as a “hallowed spot” and speaks of rising “from the dark and desolate valley of segregation” to “make justice a reality for all of God’s children.” The assumption of this prophetic voice constitutes the text’s strongest ethical appeal; after linking himself with political figures like Lincoln and the Founding Fathers, King’s ethos adopts a distinctly religious tone, recalling Biblical prophets and preachers of change from across history. This adds significant force to his words; standing before an audience of hundreds of thousands, he states not just what the future should be, but what it will be: “The whirlwinds of revolt will continue to shake the foundations of our nation until the bright day of justice emerges.” This warning is almost apocalyptic in tone, though it concludes with the positive image of the “bright day of justice.” The power of King’s rhetoric thus stems not only from the pathos of his vision of a brighter future, but from the ethos of the prophetic voice he adopts in expressing this vision.

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The conclusion of a rhetorical analysis wraps up the essay by restating the main argument and showing how it has been developed by your analysis. It may also try to link the text, and your analysis of it, with broader concerns.

Explore the example below to get a sense of the conclusion.

It is clear from this analysis that the effectiveness of King’s rhetoric stems less from the pathetic appeal of his utopian “dream” than it does from the ethos he carefully constructs to give force to his statements. By framing contemporary upheavals as part of a prophecy whose fulfillment will result in the better future he imagines, King ensures not only the effectiveness of his words in the moment but their continuing resonance today. Even if we have not yet achieved King’s dream, we cannot deny the role his words played in setting us on the path toward it.

If you want to know more about AI tools , college essays , or fallacies make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples or go directly to our tools!

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The goal of a rhetorical analysis is to explain the effect a piece of writing or oratory has on its audience, how successful it is, and the devices and appeals it uses to achieve its goals.

Unlike a standard argumentative essay , it’s less about taking a position on the arguments presented, and more about exploring how they are constructed.

The term “text” in a rhetorical analysis essay refers to whatever object you’re analyzing. It’s frequently a piece of writing or a speech, but it doesn’t have to be. For example, you could also treat an advertisement or political cartoon as a text.

Logos appeals to the audience’s reason, building up logical arguments . Ethos appeals to the speaker’s status or authority, making the audience more likely to trust them. Pathos appeals to the emotions, trying to make the audience feel angry or sympathetic, for example.

Collectively, these three appeals are sometimes called the rhetorical triangle . They are central to rhetorical analysis , though a piece of rhetoric might not necessarily use all of them.

In rhetorical analysis , a claim is something the author wants the audience to believe. A support is the evidence or appeal they use to convince the reader to believe the claim. A warrant is the (often implicit) assumption that links the support with the claim.

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A Semiotic Analysis of an Advertisement Report (Assessment)

Introduction, semiotic analysis, further study: faq.

The chosen piece is a ‘No 5 Chanel’ perfume advertisement. It is a relatively recent poster that offers a great platform for semiotic analysis. Questions such as “How does body language convey the intended meaning of the advertisement?”, “Is facial expression an important part of the sign system?”, “What concept is signified by the clothes worn in this advert?”, and many more must be examined in order to know how meaning is created.

Meaning making in semiotics occurs through a combination of signs and codes. Signs include signifiers and the signified; that is, forms shown and concepts represented respectively.

However, since codes are derived from particular societies, then social and cultural patterns must be well understood before creating a certain message (Danesi, 2002). Advertisements in general tend to reflect societal values, and this particular ad is no exception. The advertiser who was responsible for its creation clearly knew the predominant cultural codes in his or her target audience.

He or she was acting as a transmitter of these sign systems to consumers. The poster depicts particular values that operate in society today. In this perfume ad, the manufacturer needs to reach out to consumers regardless of the competition out there. The image in the poster has been created so that the concerned product can act as signifier. At first glance, one is instantly struck by the beauty and the elegance of the female model.

If one has a western background, then one immediately recognises that this is the face and body of a famous actress – Nicole Kidman. The advertisers wanted to convey the message that their product represents those same values of beauty and elegance. It can be said that the No 5 Chanel is a signifier of these ideals. Elegance and beauty now become ‘the signified’ concepts (Metz, 2005). Customers are supposed to buy the product in the hope that they will acquire those characteristics.

The primary signifier in this advertisement is a chic woman. The clothes she has on are intended on conveying a particular message about her social status and class. One can deduce that she is an upper class lady merely from the dress she is wearing. This is something such women wear to corporate functions or elegant dinners. Her jewellery is subtle; yet another status symbol. She is wearing a bracelet, earrings and a necklace with “No 5” engravings placed on it.

The necklace acts as a link between this model and the product she is endorsing. Nonetheless, the woman’s clothing also has a sexual element in it. It is a low cut dress that exposes a significant portion of her back. People who may be looking at the ad will instantly be drawn to her body’s flawlessness as revealed through the dress. Indeed most advertisers tend to use sexuality as an audience captivator, and this piece’s creator was one of them.

She exudes confidence through her facial expression, but has not overdone this. It is likely that the advertisers wanted to portray a strong feminine figure. Societies tend to be more accepting of women who convey subtle strength rather than outright aggression (McDonald, 1995). Members of the intended audience are likely to admire this woman and many may actually want to ‘be her’.

Creators of the piece have solidified that message even more by using a celebrity. Nicole Kidman is an award winning actress; western audiences associate her with wealth and prosperity. Consequently, if someone as affluent as she is can endorse the product, then she is illustrating that the product is for people just like her. Targeted audiences are likely to think of themselves as being special because a celebrity has approved the perfume that they have chosen.

The manner in which the model has posed in the photograph can also be viewed as another signifier. She has given the audience a profile of herself and tilted her head in order to look into the camera. It is almost as if she wants to seduce onlookers without being too direct about it. This body language is symptomatic of the product’s qualities. Perhaps the manufacturers wanted to tell consumers that their perfume is seductive but not too ‘loud’.

Generally speaking, this advertisement has international appeal. The image of a rich, attractive and classy lady is not intended to reach audiences who possess these same qualities; it is meant to create a fantasy for consumers to look up to (McDonald, 1995). In other words, there is a contradiction in the piece because the regular consumer can never really look like or be Nicole Kidman, but through the use of No 5 Chanel, one can escape into a fantasy that will allow one to coexist with one’s imagined self.

Owing to globalisation, many people are likely to identify with the clothing, body language and expressions worn by this model. However, not all international audiences will immediately recognise that the photographed woman is a celebrity. This may take away the intended effect of such an endorsement. Nonetheless, women around the world are likely to recognise and appreciate intended meanings in the advertisement through other attributes.

The ad under analysis constructs meaning through the images portrayed (i.e. the woman and a bottle of perfume) and the conventions put across. Essentially the message being promoted is classy femininity, which many women desire. It has made use of a stereotypical woman (in terms of gender expectations) in a non stereotypical role (that of a celebrity or a person living a glamorous lifestyle) to show audiences that they also deserve to be treated like celebrities.

Danesi, M. (2002). Understanding media semiotics . London: Arnold.

Metz, C. (2005). The Imaginary signifier. Apparatus theory , 3,408-439.

McDonald, M. (1995). Representing women . London: Hodder.

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📌 what is semiotics in advertising, 📌 what is a semiotic analysis, 📌 how do you write an analysis of an advertisement.

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IvyPanda. (2023, October 31). A Semiotic Analysis of an Advertisement. https://ivypanda.com/essays/a-semiotic-analysis-of-an-advertisement/

"A Semiotic Analysis of an Advertisement." IvyPanda , 31 Oct. 2023, ivypanda.com/essays/a-semiotic-analysis-of-an-advertisement/.

IvyPanda . (2023) 'A Semiotic Analysis of an Advertisement'. 31 October.

IvyPanda . 2023. "A Semiotic Analysis of an Advertisement." October 31, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/a-semiotic-analysis-of-an-advertisement/.

1. IvyPanda . "A Semiotic Analysis of an Advertisement." October 31, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/a-semiotic-analysis-of-an-advertisement/.

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IvyPanda . "A Semiotic Analysis of an Advertisement." October 31, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/a-semiotic-analysis-of-an-advertisement/.

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Essay On Advertisement

500 words essay on advertisement.

We all are living in the age of advertisements. When you step out, just take a quick look around and you will lay eyes upon at least one advertisement in whichever form. In today’s modern world of trade and business, advertisement plays an essential role. All traders, big and small, make use of it to advertise their goods and services. Through essay on advertisement, we will go through the advantages and ways of advertisements.

essay on advertisement

The Various Ways Of Advertisement

Advertisements help people become aware of any product or service through the use of commercial methods. This kind of publicity helps to endorse a specific interest of a person for product sale.

As the world is becoming more competitive now, everyone wants to be ahead in the competition. Thus, the advertisement also comes under the same category. Advertising is done in a lot of ways.

There is an employment column which lists down job vacancies that is beneficial for unemployed candidates. Similarly, matrimonial advertisement help people find a bride or groom for marriageable prospects.

Further, advertising also happens to find lost people, shops, plots, good and more. Through this, people get to know about a nearby shop is on sale or the availability of a new tutor or coaching centre.

Nowadays, advertisements have evolved from newspapers to the internet. Earlier there were advertisements in movie theatres, magazines, building walls. But now, we have the television and internet which advertises goods and services.

As a large section of society spends a lot of time on the internet, people are targeting their ads towards it. A single ad posting on the internet reaches to millions of people within a matter of few seconds. Thus, advertising in any form is effective.

Benefits of Advertisements

As advertisements are everywhere, for some magazines and newspapers, it is their main source of income generation. It not only benefit the producer but also the consumer. It is because producers get sales and consumer gets the right product.

Moreover, the models who act in the advertisements also earn a handsome amount of money . When we look at technology, we learn that advertising is critical for establishing contact between seller and buyer.

This medium helps the customers to learn about the existence and use of such goods which are ready to avail in the market. Moreover, advertisement manages to reach the nooks and corners of the world to target their potential customers.

Therefore, it benefits a lot of people. Through advertising, people also become aware of the price difference and quality in the market. This allows them to make good choices and not fall to scams.

Get the huge list of more than 500 Essay Topics and Ideas

Conclusion of Essay On Advertisement

All in all, advertisements are very useful but they can also be damaging. Thus, it is upon us to use them with sense and ensure they are entertaining and educative. None of us can escape advertisements as we are already at this age. But, what we can do is use our intelligence for weeding out the bad ones and benefitting from the right ones.

FAQ on Essay On Advertisement

Question 1: What is the importance of advertisement in our life?

Answer 1: Advertising is the best way to communicate with customers. It helps informs the customers about the brands available in the market and the variety of products which can be useful to them.

Question 2: What are the advantages of advertising?

Answer 2: The advantages of advertising are that firstly, it introduces a new product in the market. Thus, it helps in expanding the market. As a result, sales also increase. Consumers become aware of and receive better quality products.

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Restoring the Past Won’t Liberate Palestine

An illustration of two faces atop the ground. A small white person stands on top of one of the faces.

By Lydia Polgreen

Opinion Columnist

Amid the graphic images, fierce polemics and endless media criticism that have dominated my social media feeds since the war in Gaza began late last year, I noticed a seemingly bizarre subplot emerge: skin cancer in Israel.

“You are not Indigenous if your body cannot tolerate the area’s climate,” one such post read, highlighting outdated news coverage claiming that Israelis had unusually high rates of skin cancer. (They do not .) Skin cancer, these posts claimed, was proof that Israeli Jews were not native to the land between the Jordan River and the Mediterranean Sea but were white Europeans with no ancestral connection to the region, enactors of one of the worst crimes of the modern age: settler colonialism.

On one level, the claims about skin cancer — like similar ones about Israeli cuisine and surnames — are silly social media talking points from keyboard warriors slinging hashtags, hyped up on theories of liberation based on memes of Frantz Fanon quotes taken out of context. In the context of the ongoing slaughter in Gaza — more than 28,000 people dead, mostly women and children — such posturing may seem trivial. But even, or maybe especially, at this moment, when things are so grim, the way we talk about liberation matters. And I find this kind of talk revealing of a larger trend on the left these days, emanating from important and complex theories in the academy but reflected in crude and reductive forms in the memes and slogans at pro-Palestine protests — an increasingly rigid set of ideas about the interloping colonizer and the Indigenous colonized. In this analysis, there are two kinds of people: those who are native to a land and those who settle it, displacing the original inhabitants. Those identities are fixed, essential, eternal.

I have spent much of my life and career living and working among formerly colonized peoples attempting to forge a path for themselves in the aftermath of empire. The rapacious carving up of much of the globe and the genocide and enslavement of millions of people by a handful of European powers for their own enrichment was the great crime of early modernity. The icons who threw off the yoke of colonial oppression — including Ghana’s Kwame Nkrumah, India’s Jawaharlal Nehru and Fanon — were my childhood heroes, and they remain my intellectual lodestars. But I sometimes struggle to recognize their spirit and ideas in the way we talk about decolonization today, with its emphasis on determining who is and who is not an Indigenous inhabitant of the lands known as Israel and Palestine.

A good deal of the antipathy toward Israeli Jews today is undergirded and enabled, I believe, by something that to some ears sounds progressive: the idea that people and lands that have been colonized must be returned to their indigenous peoples and original state. But that belief, when taken literally, is, at best, a kind of left-wing originalism, a utopian politics that believes the past answers all the questions of the present. At worst, it is a left-wing echo to the ancestral fantasies of the far right, in which who is allowed to live in which places is a question of the connection of one’s blood to a particular patch of soil.

Implicit in the emphasis on indigeneity is a promised restoration, albeit one of a very different sort from the imperial fantasies of Vladimir Putin or the gender obsessions of Ron DeSantis. Decolonization “is not converting Indigenous politics to a Western doctrine of liberation; it is not a philanthropic process of ‘helping’ the at-risk and alleviating suffering; it is not a generic term for struggle against oppressive conditions and outcomes,” as the scholars Eve Tuck and K. Wayne Yang write in an influential academic paper published in 2012, “ Decolonization Is Not a Metaphor .”

“The broad umbrella of social justice may have room underneath for all of these efforts,” Tuck and Yang write. “By contrast, decolonization specifically requires the repatriation of Indigenous land and life.”

There is perhaps no more vexed question in the world than how this might play out in Israel and Palestine. There is no doubt that Palestinians long lived in the land that became Israel. Jews have deep historical roots in that land, but a vast majority of the people who established the state of Israel came from elsewhere, fleeing genocide and persecution in Europe and forced into exile by Middle Eastern and North African nations. It is impossible to separate Israel’s birth from the dying gasps of the old colonial order. It was, in the indelible phrase of Arthur Koestler, “one nation solemnly promised to a second nation the country of a third.”

In theory, decolonization includes the disestablishment of the very idea of land as property, of modern notions like nationhood and citizenship. In theory, it is a chance to do it all over and replay history with the benefit of indigenous ideas and traditions to guide us.

But history doesn’t work that way. People do bad things. Other people resist those bad things. Humans invent and discover; they create and destroy. There is no going backward to some mythic state. There is no restoration. The events that unfold over time shape the land and the people who live on it, and those people shape one another in manifold ways, some brutal and destructive, some generative and loving. But time and experience ensure that nothing can ever be the same as it was before the last thing that happened.

A s I was thinking through these issues, I came across a series of social media posts about settler colonialism by Iyad el-Baghdadi, a Palestinian writer and activist whose work has been an indispensable guide for me in the present crisis. I sent him an email, and he agreed to speak with me to expand on his ideas. I explained my unease with the reliance on concepts like indigeneity to decide who has a just claim to live in a place.

“Don’t take these people seriously,” he told me, though he made clear that he has some sympathy for those who espouse such views. “They’re not really motivated by some kind of ideology. They’re really motivated by emotion, and they kind of slap together an ideology to satisfy their emotion, but then emotions, by their very nature, cannot be satisfied that way.” He told me that sometimes when he hears people talk about Palestinian liberation, it is almost as though they are expecting a literal reversal of 1948, what Palestinians call the nakba, or catastrophe, of their expulsion upon the founding of the state of Israel.

“It is as if there will be this magical moment and all our villages are going to appear out of the earth. And then 75 years of settler colonialism is going to disappear,” he said. “But this romantic idea is really unmourned trauma.”

Questions of indigeneity are simply a distraction, he said, from the real challenge of building Palestinian political power. “I don’t care if they’re settlers or not,” he said. “The solution is not to constantly try to moralize. The solution is to fix the power imbalance. The future needs to be rooted in the truth that all human beings are equal and that Jewish life is equivalent to Palestinian life and that we can together work on a future in which nobody is oppressed and we can address the inequities of the past.”

Eventually our conversation came around to Fanon, whose writings on political violence are now once again in vogue, taken up with alacrity by the activists focused on undoing settler colonialism — even, or perhaps especially, if it requires bloodshed.

“People are really using him to lend some kind of intellectual legitimacy for political violence,” he said. “And I find that really, really obscene. When I read Fanon, I think he’s talking about power. He’s not really talking about violence. Violence is a weak person’s idea of what power is.”

Fanon, a psychiatrist turned anticolonial political figure, had a lot to say about violence. In his book “The Wretched of the Earth” he wrote that “violence is a cleansing force. It frees the native from his inferiority complex and from his despair and inaction; it makes him fearless and restores his self-respect.”

There is no question that Fanon, who devoted much of his short life to the often violent struggle to liberate Algeria from French rule, believed that violence was a legitimate tool to fight oppression. But what did he actually mean, and did he write these words as a physician’s description or a revolutionary’s prescription?

The writer Adam Shatz argues in “The Rebel’s Clinic,” his terrific new biography of Fanon , that “cleansing” is a misleading translation: “The English translation of ‘la violence désintoxique’ as ‘violence is a cleansing force’ is somewhat misleading, suggesting an almost redemptive elimination of impurities,” Shatz writes. “Fanon’s more clinical word choice indicates the overcoming of a state of drunkenness, the stupor induced by colonial subjugation.”

Indeed, what violence restored to the colonial subject was agency, the ability to shake off the role imposed by the colonizer and begin to act of his or her own volition. Colonized people may harbor fantasies of returning to a long-lost past, before their land was stolen. But it is equally likely that they, like Fanon, want to build a new and different future.

Fanon had a lot to say about history. Shatz’s book details Fanon’s early infatuation with the romantic ideas of thinkers like Léopold Sédar Senghor, the poet and anticolonial leader who would become Senegal’s first president. Senghor and some of his generation of Black colonial intellectuals posited an idealized and mystical precolonial African past that needed to be unearthed and revived.

Eventually, Fanon rejected these backward-looking ideas: “In no way do I have to dedicate myself to reviving a Black civilization unjustly ignored,” he wrote in his book “Black Skin, White Masks.” “I will not make myself the man of any past.”

A nd yet. How can we not look to the past to try to find a path through the present, just as we look to the future as the repository of some long-awaited justice that never quite arrives? This human propensity leaves us stuck between memory and dreams, neither of which tell us all that much about our present difficulties.

We think understanding the past with hindsight will somehow save us. But what is that hindsight? A perfect knowledge of the past that was not accessible or visible to those experiencing it. Somehow, we believe, the future will be untainted by the passions of the present and able to see what unfolded more clearly. In practice, it works the other way: We see the past through the prism of the present and often in the blinding light of our hopes for the future, eliding and emphasizing the role of the past as suits our present purpose.

A theory of decolonization that seeks to move backward will inevitably run up against this human tendency. But it also, perhaps unwittingly, strips the formerly colonized of the very self-determination they seek.

Olúfémi Táíwò, a Nigerian philosopher at Cornell University, argued in his book “Against Decolonisation: Taking African Agency Seriously” that the Manichaean divide between the colonized and the colonizer and the rejection of everything emanating from the latter stripped the colonized of agency by denying them the creative freedom to make something new out of the experience of being oppressed. “It must and does foreclose the possibility that the colonized could find anything of worth in the life and thought of the colonizer which they could repurpose for their own societies, both during and after colonialism,” he wrote.

Africans, Táíwò argues, should be able to take what they want from modernity and use it, like any free people, to invent their own future, not look backward to a past that in any case can never be recovered.

The agonizing months since Oct. 7 have made it seem all but impossible for any of us to imagine what kind of hopeful future might be invented out of the present nightmare. We have reached a terrifying new stage of the war with the looming assault on Rafah, where hundreds of thousands of civilians have fled Israeli bullets and bombs only to find themselves once again in the cross hairs with nowhere left to run. But generations of Palestinian activists and intellectuals, people who have perhaps the greatest reason to find sustenance in fantasies of a mythic past free of Israel and its people, do not dream of rolling back time.

“Successful liberation movements were successful precisely because they employed creative ideas, original ideas, imaginative ideas, whereas less successful movements (like ours, alas) had a pronounced tendency to formulas and an uninspired repetition of past slogans and past patterns of behavior,” wrote the Palestinian American scholar Edward Said. “The future, like the past, is built by human beings. They and not some distant mediator or savior provide the agency for change.”

Said was perhaps the most influential intellectual heir to Fanon, and in a tragic twist, he too died of leukemia, the same cancer that killed Fanon at the age of 36. Both of them died without seeing their lifelong struggles won. But both went to their graves as modern, cosmopolitan men, engaged with the world not as they wished it was but as they found it, chronicled it and shaped it toward their unshakable vision of self-determination and freedom for the colonized peoples of the world. Liberation requires invention, not restoration. If history tells us anything, it is this: Time moves in one direction, forward.

The Times is committed to publishing a diversity of letters to the editor. We’d like to hear what you think about this or any of our articles. Here are some tips . And here’s our email: [email protected] .

Follow the New York Times Opinion section on Facebook , Instagram , TikTok , X and Threads .

Lydia Polgreen is an Opinion columnist and a co-host of the “ Matter of Opinion ” podcast for The Times.

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  • 12 February 2024

China conducts first nationwide review of retractions and research misconduct

  • Smriti Mallapaty

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The reputation of Chinese science has been "adversely affected" by the number of retractions in recent years, according to a government notice. Credit: Qilai Shen/Bloomberg/Getty

Chinese universities are days away from the deadline to complete a nationwide audit of retracted research papers and probe of research misconduct. By 15 February, universities must submit to the government a comprehensive list of all academic articles retracted from English- and Chinese-language journals in the past three years. They need to clarify why the papers were retracted and investigate cases involving misconduct, according to a 20 November notice from the Ministry of Education’s Department of Science, Technology and Informatization.

The government launched the nationwide self-review in response to Hindawi, a London-based subsidiary of the publisher Wiley, retracting a large number of papers by Chinese authors. These retractions, along with those from other publishers, “have adversely affected our country’s academic reputation and academic environment”, the notice states.

A Nature analysis shows that last year, Hindawi issued more than 9,600 retractions, of which the vast majority — about 8,200 — had a co-author in China. Nearly 14,000 retraction notices, of which some three-quarters involved a Chinese co-author, were issued by all publishers in 2023.

This is “the first time we’ve seen such a national operation on retraction investigations”, says Xiaotian Chen, a library and information scientist at Bradley University in Peoria, Illinois, who has studied retractions and research misconduct in China. Previous investigations have largely been carried out on a case-by-case basis — but this time, all institutions have to conduct their investigations simultaneously, says Chen.

Tight deadline

The ministry’s notice set off a chain of alerts, cascading to individual university departments. Bulletins posted on university websites required researchers to submit their retractions by a range of dates, mostly in January — leaving time for universities to collate and present the data.

Although the alerts included lists of retractions that the ministry or the universities were aware of, they also called for unlisted retractions to be added.

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More than 10,000 research papers were retracted in 2023 — a new record

According to Nature ’s analysis, which includes only English-language journals, more than 17,000 retraction notices for papers published by Chinese co-authors have been issued since 1 January 2021, which is the start of the period of review specified in the notice. The analysis, an update of one conducted in December , used the Retraction Watch database, augmented with retraction notices collated from the Dimensions database, and involved assistance from Guillaume Cabanac, a computer scientist at the University of Toulouse in France. It is unclear whether the official lists contain the same number of retracted papers.

Regardless, the timing to submit the information will be tight, says Shu Fei, a bibliometrics scientist at Hangzhou Dianzi University in China. The ministry gave universities less than three months to complete their self-review — and this was cut shorter by the academic winter break, which typically starts in mid-January and concludes after the Chinese New Year, which fell this year on 10 February.

“The timing is not good,” he says. Shu expects that universities are most likely to submit only a preliminary report of their researchers’ retracted papers included on the official lists.

But Wang Fei, who studies research-integrity policy at Dalian University of Technology in China, says that because the ministry has set a deadline, universities will work hard to submit their findings on time.

Researchers with retracted papers will have to explain whether the retraction was owing to misconduct, such as image manipulation, or an honest mistake, such as authors identifying errors in their own work, says Chen: “In other words, they may have to defend themselves.” Universities then must investigate and penalize misconduct. If a researcher fails to declare their retracted paper and it is later uncovered, they will be punished, according to the ministry notice. The cost of not reporting is high, says Chen. “This is a very serious measure.”

It is not known what form punishment might take, but in 2021, China’s National Health Commission posted the results of its investigations into a batch of retracted papers. Punishments included salary cuts, withdrawal of bonuses, demotions and timed suspensions from applying for research grants and rewards.

The notice states explicitly that the first corresponding author of a paper is responsible for submitting the response. This requirement will largely address the problem of researchers shirking responsibility for collaborative work, says Li Tang, a science- and innovation-policy researcher at Fudan University in Shanghai, China. The notice also emphasizes due process, says Tang. Researchers alleged to have committed misconduct have a right to appeal during the investigation.

The notice is a good approach for addressing misconduct, says Wang. Previous efforts by the Chinese government have stopped at issuing new research-integrity guidelines that were poorly implemented, she says. And when government bodies did launch self-investigations of published literature, they were narrower in scope and lacked clear objectives. This time, the target is clear — retractions — and the scope is broad, involving the entire university research community, she says.

“Cultivating research integrity takes time, but China is on the right track,” says Tang.

It is not clear what the ministry will do with the flurry of submissions. Wang says that, because the retraction notices are already freely available, publicizing the collated lists and underlying reasons for retraction could be useful. She hopes that a similar review will be conducted every year “to put more pressure” on authors and universities to monitor research integrity.

What happens next will reveal how seriously the ministry regards research misconduct, says Shu. He suggests that, if the ministry does not take further action after the Chinese New Year, the notice could be an attempt to respond to the reputational damage caused by the mass retractions last year.

The ministry did not respond to Nature ’s questions about the misconduct investigation.

Chen says that, regardless of what the ministry does with the information, the reporting process itself will help to curb misconduct because it is “embarrassing to the people in the report”.

But it might primarily affect researchers publishing in English-language journals. Retraction notices in Chinese-language journals are rare.

Nature 626 , 700-701 (2024)

doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-024-00397-x

Data analysis by Richard Van Noorden.

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  • Published: 20 February 2024

National and regional prevalence of gestational diabetes mellitus in India: a systematic review and Meta-analysis

  • Neha Mantri   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-1709-1274 1 ,
  • Akhil Dhanesh Goel   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-6156-7903 2 ,
  • Mamta Patel   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-4659-3687 1 ,
  • Pritish Baskaran 2 ,
  • Gitashree Dutta 2 ,
  • Manoj Kumar Gupta   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-5367-5795 2 ,
  • Vikas Yadav 3 ,
  • Madhukar Mittal   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-6919-5614 4 ,
  • Shashank Shekhar 5 &
  • Pankaj Bhardwaj   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-9960-3060 6  

BMC Public Health volume  24 , Article number:  527 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

175 Accesses

Metrics details

Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) is frequently misdiagnosed during pregnancy. There is an abundance of evidence, but little is known regarding the regional prevalence estimates of GDM in India. This systematic review and meta-analysis aims to provide valuable insights into the national and regional prevalence of GDM among pregnant women in India.

We conducted an initial article search on PubMed, Scopus, Google Scholar, and ShodhGanga searches to identify quantitative research papers (database inception till 15th June,2022). This review included prevalence studies that estimated the occurrence of GDM across different states in India.

Two independent reviewers completed the screening of 2393 articles, resulting in the identification of 110 articles that met the inclusion criteria, which collectively provided 117 prevalence estimates. Using a pooled estimate calculation (with an Inverse square heterogeneity model), the pooled prevalence of GDM in pregnant women was estimated to be 13%, with a 95% confidence interval (CI) ranging from 9 to 16%.. In India, Diabetes in Pregnancy Study of India (DIPSI) was the most common diagnostic criteria used, followed by International Association of Diabetes and Pregnancy Study Groups (IADPSG) and World Health Organization (WHO) 1999. It was observed that the rural population has slightly less prevalence of GDM at 10.0% [6.0–13.0%, I 2 = 96%] when compared to the urban population where the prevalence of GDM was 12.0% [9.0–16.0%, I 2  = 99%].

Conclusions

This review emphasizes the lack of consensus in screening and diagnosing gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM), leading to varied prevalence rates across Indian states. It thoroughly examines the controversies regarding GDM screening by analyzing population characteristics, geographic variations, diagnostic criteria agreement, screening timing, fasting vs. non-fasting approaches, cost-effectiveness, and feasibility, offering valuable recommendations for policy makers. By fostering the implementation of state-wise screening programs, it can contribute to improving maternal and neonatal outcomes and promoting healthier pregnancies across the country.

Peer Review reports

Manifestation of glucose intolerance in pregnancy, often, named Gestational Diabetes Mellitus (GDM) is emerging as a major public health problem. The World Health Organization 1999 report provides a fundamental definition which states “Gestational diabetes is a carbohydrate intolerance resulting in hyperglycemia of variable severity with onset or first recognition during pregnancy” [ 1 ]. Nevertheless, there has been substantial debate over how to characterize glucose in pregnancy, which has complicated clinical work and research over the past three decades. Additionally, it may start at the same time as pregnancy, which increases the risk of it going undetected and having adverse maternal and neonatal complications [ 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 ].

In 2015, the International Diabetic Federation (IDF) reported that 1 in 11 people worldwide have diabetes, with 75% of them residing in low and middle-income countries [ 7 ]. There is a huge variation in the prevalence of GDM globally from 10.1% (Eastern & Southeastern Asia) to 13.61% (Africa) depending on screening strategies, diagnostic criteria, and the background population’s ethnic composition [ 8 , 9 ]. South East Asia region had 6.9 million live births being affected by hyperglycemia in pregnancy; with an estimated prevalence of 24.2% [ 10 ]. India, being the largest populous country in the world, shows the prevalence of GDM in the ranging from 3 to 35% [ 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 ].

Currently, the Diabetes in Pregnancy Study Group of India advocates for universal screening using a single non-fasting 2-h 75 g OGTT, with 2 h value > 140 mg/dL being diagnostic of GDM [ 16 ]. The International Association of Diabetes and Pregnancy Study Groups (IADPSG) criteria are based on the findings of the large-scale Hyperglycemia and Adverse Pregnancy Outcome (HAPO) study and hence popular globally, [ 17 ] but its drawback is argued to be the large number of false-positive cases due to lower fasting cutoffs and hence adding to the burden of GDM [ 18 , 19 ]. In addition, diagnosing the Indian population by international studies can be inconclusive as the HAPO study lacked Indian representativeness in its findings [ 17 ].

To solve the inconsistencies in diagnosis and management of GDM, a technical and operational guideline has been developed under the aegis of the Maternal Health Division, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Government of India in February 2018 [ 20 ]. However, subsequent studies have shown high variability in the prevalence, from rates as low as 0% in Manipur to 42% in Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh [ 21 , 22 ]. A variety of factors may contribute to this variability, including differences in the genetics and population across India, as well as differences in screening practices.

A pan India prospective study (2021) conducted by FOGSI and DIPSI shows about one-third of the pregnant women are diagnosed with GDM during the first trimester and over a quarter of them have a history of fetal loss in the previous pregnancies [ 23 ]. Hence, GDM is a topic of considerable controversy when it comes to its screening, diagnosis and its cost-effectiveness.

With this aim, we conducted a systematic review to estimate the national and regional prevalence of GDM in pregnant women to foster the implementation of programs state-wise effectively. This analysis aims to investigate how various factors, such as different screening criteria, geographical locations (urban versus rural areas), techniques used for blood collection, and the timing of screening during pregnancy (early versus late), might influence the observed prevalence of GDM in pregnant women in India.

Methodology

Study protocol.

This Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis is written in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) guidelines [ 24 ] and is registered in the International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews (PROSPERO) database (Ref.no. CRD42022335011).

Search strategy

We framed our research question using the PICO(S)(T) methodology (Population-pregnant women; Intervention-nil; Comparison-nil; Outcome-GDM; Study design-cross-sectional in India).

We performed searches in PubMed and Scopus using selected keywords. These results were supplemented by relevant studies from Google Scholar and ShodhGanga—Indian thesis repository ( https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/ ). The last day fir performing the search was 15th June 2022. No date or language restrictions were imposed. The cross-references of the included studies were explored for additional studies. Keywords were identified by iterative discussion among reviewers, and a search query was developed separately for each database. The controlled descriptors (such as MeSH terms) and Boolean operators were used to develop a robust search strategy. (See Additional file 1 : Search Strategy).

Eligibility criteria

The studies reporting the prevalence of GDM in pregnant women in India were included.

Inclusion criteria

Community or hospital-based studies.

Original published articles and short communications.

Studies providing the prevalence of GDM

Studies conducted in India

Type of studies: cross-sectional studies.

Exclusion criteria

Overviews, editorials, other review papers, or method protocols without results

Molecular or genetic studies, animal studies, Invitro studies.

Studies that did not differentiate between GDM and type 1 and/or type 2 diabetes

Studies that reported risk factors, associated biomarkers, or outcomes of GDM without reference to GDM prevalence

Studies which have not reported screening methods

Experimental studies

Three authors independently examined search results for inclusion. Disagreements, if any, were settled by consensus with a fourth author.

Study selection

A reviewer independently conducted searches on all information sources from various databases and uploaded to Rayyan QCRI online software [ 25 ]. Rayyan QCRI helped in ensuring a systematic and comprehensive search and selection process. A fourth reviewer managed Rayyan QCRI software, who identified and removed the duplicate citations. Three authors independently screen titles and abstracts with turned “blind” function on. The discrepancies between the three reviewers were discussed with a fourth author for making a consensus to select the articles. Full-text copies of all selected studies were obtained to find more details. We documented the reasons for the exclusion of studies explored as full text. The study inclusion process is presented using the PRISMA flowchart. The reference management software Mendeley Desktop ( https://www.mendeley.com ) for Windows was used to store, organize, cite, and manage all the included articles.

Data extraction

After selecting eligible studies, we obtained full-text articles for all included studies. Two reviewers independently performed data extraction of relevant information. Data were extracted regarding author, year of publication, study location, site (hospital- or community-based or data-based), study type, trimester, sample size, diagnostic criteria, and prevalence of GDM. We recorded investigators’ definitions of GDM and screening and diagnostic criteria used for GDM.

When a study reports the prevalence of GDM in the same population using multiple diagnostic criteria, the most recent and up-to-date criteria was selected in the following sequence-.IADPSG/ WHO 2013 > DIPSI> WHO 1999 > ADA > NICE> Carpenter and Coustan > NDDG> O’Sullivan and Mahan’s Criteria as framed after the iterative discussion.

Bias reporting

The methodological quality of the studies was analyzed independently by two investigators using the AXIS tool which critically appraises study design and reporting quality as well as the risk of bias in cross-sectional studies. We assessed bias using the AXIS Tool for Prevalence Studies in our systematic review [ 26 ]. The AXIS tool has 20 components assessing the quality of the studies with special focus on the presented methods and results based on a combination of evidence, epidemiological processes, experience of the researchers and Delphi participants. The components included in this checklist are addressing study objective, design, sample size, sample population, sample frame, selection process, non-responders, risk factors and outcome measured, appropriateness of statistical methods, consistency of results, discussion justified, limitation of the study, ethical approval and any conflict of interest or funding received.

Data synthesis and analysis

The prevalence of GDM from different studies were pooled together using the Inverse variance heterogeneity method. Heterogeneity was assessed using I 2 Statistics. High heterogeneity in the study was analyzed using sub-group analysis and sensitivity analysis. MetaXL software was used for data synthesis [ 27 ]. Publication bias was determined using DoI plot and LFK index.

On searching PubMed ( n  = 1883), Scopus ( n  = 345), Google Scholar ( n  = 92), and ShodhGanga—reservoir of Indian theses ( n  = 73), a total of 2393 articles were identified related to GDM (see Fig. 1 : PRISMA flowchart) Thus, the full texts of 140 articles were assessed for eligibility. During this process, a total of 13 authors were contacted for full-text via email, out of which ( n  = 11) responded. Remaining 2 articles were included based on only abstract and in data extraction sheet, missing data were reported. Thus, a final 117 articles were included in the systematic review and meta-analysis for the analysis. (See Table 1 : Data Extraction Sheet).

figure 1

PRISMA Flowchart

A total of 13 studies were found to report the data in separate studies which was part of a large study. The studies by Punnose J et al. 2018 [ 28 ] and Punnose J et al. 2021 [ 29 ] and Agarwal MM et al. 2018 [ 30 ] was conducted in the same population ( n  = 36,530) during the time period January 2006–December 2016 and was also reported in multiple publication. Thus, data from these studies were considered as one data and the study with the longest time period (Punnose J et al. 2018) was included in the review. Similarly, a study was conducted in the South Indian pregnant women ( n  = 304) during July 2011 to August 2012 by Nayak PK et al. 2013 [ 31 ] and Mitra S et al. 2014 [ 32 ] and was reported as separate studies. Thus, we included the Mitra S et al. 2014 with the complete data for the analysis. Similarly, a project “Women in India with GDM Strategy (WINGS)” was carried out in Tamil Nadu between January 2013 and December 2015 in Pregnant women ( n  = 1459) and were reported as two separate studies by Bhavdharini et al. (2016 and 2017). We considered them as one data and included Bhavdharini et al. 2016 in our study.

Likewise, studies, namely, Rajput R et al. 2012, Tripathi R et al. 2012, Kumar CN et al., C R et al. 2014, Bhattacharya et al. 2002, Balaji V et al. 2006, Balaji V et al. 2012, and Seshiah V et a 2007, were reported as separate studies using data from a large study and hence, were excluded from the analysis.

Five studies were added using suffix (A, B and C) as they reported the prevalence of GDM using different sub-sets of population, but were otherwise reported in the same study. Taneja et al. 2020 in Punjab used the same criteria of screening GDM in women at different gestational age (26 to 28 weeks and after 34 weeks) [ 33 ]. These were considered as 2 separate studies and labelled as Taneja (A) and Taneja (B) respectively. Similarly, a study was conducted by Siddique et al. using ADA criteria in Saket, Muzzaffarpur and Bhilai area on different subset of population [ 34 ]. These studies were also considered as three different studies and labelled as Siddique (A), (B) and (C) respectively. Also, a community based study was conducted in urban, semi-urban and rural area of Chennai city on a different sub-set of population [ 35 ]. These were considered as three different studies and labelled as Seshiah V et al. 2009 (A), (B) and (C) respectively.

A total of 19 articles utilized a combination of criteria to estimate the prevalence of GDM [ 36 , 37 , 38 , 39 , 40 , 41 , 42 , 43 , 44 , 45 , 46 , 47 , 48 , 49 , 50 , 51 , 52 ].

The variation in diagnostic criteria during estimation of Glucose in pregnant women pose a challenge in data extraction. Thus, the most recent and up-to-date criteria was selected in the following sequence-IADPSG/ WHO 2013 > DIPSI>WHO 1999 > ADA > NICE> Carpenter and Coustan > NDDG> O’Sullivan and Mahan’s Criteria as framed after the iterative discussion by the subject experts.

Diagnostic criteria

A variety of diagnostic criteria were used in a total of 117 studies included in the review. (See Table 2 : Different GDM Screening criteria).

DIPSI (29 prevalence estimates) [ 23 ] was the most common diagnostic criteria used, followed by IADPSG / WHO 2013 (38 prevalence estimates) [ 53 ], WHO 1999 (24 prevalence estimates) [ 54 ], and ADA (11 prevalence estimates) [ 55 ]. Other criteria used were Carpenter and Coustan Criteria (6 prevalence estimates) [ 56 ], NDDG (1 prevalence estimate) [ 57 ], NICE (1 prevalence estimate) [ 58 ], and O’Sullivan and Mahan’s criteria (1 prevalence estimate) [ 59 ]. There was no clear description of study criteria used in 6 studies [ 33 , 60 , 61 , 62 , 63 ].

Capillary versus venous blood

A total of 6 prevalence estimates used capillary blood glucose (CBG) or glucometer measurements rather than venous plasma glucose (VPG) [ 30 , 64 , 65 , 66 , 67 , 68 ]. Three studies use capillary blood followed by venous blood glucose estimation [ 12 , 48 , 69 ]. In 3 studies, a comparative assessment of capillary and venous blood glucose estimation was done on the prevalence of the GDM in the pregnant women [ 70 , 71 , 72 ].

Two-step versus one-step procedure

A total of 93 studies ( n  = 93) uses one-step procedure to estimate the prevalence of GDM, whereas, only 19 studies ( n  = 19) used two-step procedure for the diagnosis of the GDM in the study population. There was no clear description of study criteria used in 5 studies.

Risk of Bias

We assessed the Risk of Bias using the AXIS tool [ 26 ]. Overall, 117 studies were included in the Risk of Bias assessment using the AXIS tool. A horizontal bar graph showing the Risk of bias tool result for each component is given in Fig. 2 Risk of Bias.

figure 2

Risk of Bias Assessment

Majority of the study components revealed a low risk of bias namely, objective of the study, appropriateness of the study design, study population defined, appropriateness of sample frame, risk factors measured according to the objectives and with the appropriate study tool, accuracy of choice of statistical methods, measures of replicability of the study, description of the basic data, results internally consistent, all results presented and justification of discussion and conclusion.

There was no clear description of response rate bias in 48 studies. Also, there was no description of Ethical consent in 22 studies. Only 9 studies reported funding, but there was no clarity of 28 studies on their funding sources keeping them in unclear risk of bias.

A high risk of bias was revealed in the sample size justification in 57 studies. Further, the results from 90 studies lacks generalizability to the general population marking them with high risk of bias. There was no description about non-responders and their information in 87 studies revealing the high risk of bias. Many studies ( n  = 63) which did not discuss their limitations were categorized as having high risk of bias.

Prevalence estimates of GDM in pregnant women in India

The final 117 studies were used for prevalence estimates of GDM in pregnant population in India. A total of 106 studies were conducted in a hospital-based setting and 11 were community-based studies.

We found a pooled estimate (with an Inverse square heterogeneity model) of the prevalence of overall GDM in pregnant women was 13% [95% CI, 9–16%, n  = 117 studies] with the heterogeneity of the studies high at 99% which restricts the generalizability of the findings ( Fig. 3 Forest Plot depicting the pooled prevalence of GDM in India) The possible reasons could be studies varied widely in population type, geography, as well as the diagnostic method used. (Table 3 Sub group Analysis) The publication date of the studies ranged from 1989 to 2022.

Geographical Zones

figure 3

Forest Plot depicting the pooled prevalence of GDM in India

India has a union of 28 states and 8 Union territories, divided as “North,” “South,” “East,” “Central” or “West” based on the Inter-state council secretariat classification of geographic regions of India [ 73 ]. Therefore, region-wise subgroup analysis was also conducted to get estimates of the prevalence of GDM. North region includes Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, Delhi, Chandigarh, Uttarakhand, Jammu and Kashmir and Ladakh. States like Gujarat, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Goa, Daman and Diu and Dadara and Nagar Haveli comprises West Region of India. South India includes Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Telangana, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Lakshadweep and Puducherry. East and North-eastern states are Bihar, Jharkhand, Odisha, West Bengal, Arunachal Pradesh, Sikkim, Mizoram, Assam, Meghalaya, Manipur, Nagaland and Tripura. Central Zone of India includes Chhattisgarh, Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh.

The prevalence of GDM varies across the 5 zones of India. The highest prevalence of GDM was found in North region followed by South India. Areas of low prevalence include West, Central and Eastern zone of India. One of the confounding factors behind low prevalence could be lesser studies conducted in these zones to estimate the prevalence. (Fig. 4 Map of India showing the prevalence of GDM in 5 different zones of India).

figure 4

Map of India showing prevalence of GDM in 5 different zones of India

The pooled prevalence of GDM in North Zone was found to be 16.1% [95% CI, 9.9–22.7, I 2  = 98.9%, n  = 31 studies]. The maximum weightage (36.53) was by a study from Punnose J et al. conducted in 2018 [ 28 ].

Similarly, the pooled prevalence of GDM in West Zone was found to be 7% [95% CI, 3.3–11.2, I 2  = 98.9%, n  = 17 studies]. The maximum weightage (50.24) was by a study from Naik RR et al. 2019 [ 74 ].

In Central Zone , the pooled prevalence of GDM was found to be 12.0% [95% CI, 4.3–21.1, I 2  = 99.29%, n  = 13 studies]. A study by Jain R et al. conducted in 2016 has a maximum weightage of 66.55 [ 75 ].

The pooled prevalence of GDM in South Zone was 12.6% [95% CI, 7.8–17.8, I 2  = 98.38%, n  = 47 studies]. The maximum weightage was held with study by Jeeyasalan L et al. conducted in 2016 [ 63 ].

In East and North-eastern Region , the pooled prevalence of 11.5% was found. [95% CI, 5.3–18.4, I 2  = 97.34%, n  = 9 studies]. The maximum weightage (27.27) by a study done by Hussain et al. in 2020.) [ 76 ].

Urban versus Rural Studies

A total of 92 studies were conducted in urban areas, 8 studies in semi-urban areas and 17 studies in rural areas. The pooled prevalence in the rural population was 10.0% [6.0–13.0%, I 2 = 96%, n  = 10 studies], whereas, the pooled prevalence of 12.0% [9.0–16.0%, I 2  = 99%, n  = 88 studies] was found in the urban population. A study conducted by Seshiah V et al. in 2009 included the study participants from urban, semi-urban and rural areas of Tamil Nadu [ 35 ].

Diagnostic and Screening criteria

With the subgroup-analysis using diagnostic criteria, the prevalence of GDM using WHO 1999 criteria was 12.0% (9.0–16.0%), I 2 = 97% studies, n  = 57 studies] which was slightly less than the prevalence of GDM with DIPSI criteria [ 23 ] 13.0% [3.0–24.0%, I 2 = 99%, n  = 29 studies] The IADPSG/ WHO 2013 criteria detected a higher prevalence of GDM as 17.0% [12.0–22.0%, I 2  = 99%, n  = 38 studies], while, ADA criteria pooled a lower prevalence of 7.0 [4.0–10.0%, I 2  = 86%, n  = 11 studies]. There was prevalence range of 13.0% [3.0–24.0%, I 2  = 99%, n = 9 studies] was using other criteria like C&C criteria, NICE, NDDG and O′ Sullivan Criteria.

Small study effects

We evaluated the small study effects like publication bias using the DOI plot and LFK index. There was no asymmetry in the National pooled estimate [LFK index = − 0.67] and Zonal estimate except for the North zone and West zone. (See Fig. 5 : DOI Plot for Publication bias).

figure 5

DOI plot for publication bias

Plethora of studies discussing the GDM prevalence in India are published, but there is a scarcity of studies discussing the regional estimates of GDM prevalence in India. A systematic review and meta-analysis conducted by Katherine T Li et al. quantitatively examined the prevalence of GDM across India based on 64 studies up to the year 2016 and explored the prevalence of GDM which ranged 0 to 41.9% [ 77 ].

This systematic review and meta-analysis included 110 studies reporting the prevalence of GDM ranging from 9 to 16% in pregnant women in India. We found a pooled estimate (with an Inverse square heterogeneity model) of the prevalence of overall GDM in pregnant women was 13% [95% CI, 9–16%] with the heterogeneity of the studies high at I 2  = 99%. The possible reasons behind this heterogeneity could be studies varying widely in population type, geography, study duration and the diagnostic method used. Our study also highlighted the discrepancy in prevalence estimates due to different screening criteria, gestational age of screening, capillary versus venous blood estimation and one-step versus two-step procedure used for diagnosing GDM.

Which diagnostic criteria is suitable for Indian pregnant women?

The most commonly used criteria were DIPSI followed by IADPSG/WHO 2013 and WHO 1999. With descriptive analysis, we found that the WHO 1999 criteria detected a high prevalence of GDM as compared to IADPSG and DIPSI which almost detected the pooled prevalence of 12–13%.

Das Mukhopadhyay et al. did not find any significant difference between the prevalence rates of GDM among DIPSI and IADPSG criteria [ 52 ]. But he concluded that DIPSI being simple in execution and patient friendly is close to the international consensus. In a study by Singh et al. in 2021, it was observed that DIPSI was only 37.1% sensitive as compared to IADPSG criteria [ 51 ]. Contrary to these findings, Seshiah et al. found a high concordance between DIPSI and IADPSG criteria [ 78 ]. The low sensitivity of DIPSI has been reported by studies such as Mohan et al.2014 [ 41 ]. and Herath et al. [ 79 ]. Sensitivity of DIPSI is quite low, hence to be used as screening and diagnostic tool at the same time is still questionable. This is the dire requirement of our country to have a better sensitive method for diagnosing GDM so that patients do not escape diagnosis (false-negatives cases) detected by DIPSI which later on crunch out the health system.

Indeed, in 2013, the WHO embraced the IADPSG criteria, replacing the earlier 1999 criteria. The DIPSI criteria were formulated based on the 2-hour post-glucose (PG) values of the WHO 1999 criteria, primarily focusing on the simplicity of assessing the 2-hour PG value independently. It’s important to note that the Fasting Plasma Glucose (FPG) parameter from the WHO 1999 criteria is considered outdated now, indicative of diabetes [ 53 ].

Further, IADPSG recommendation necessarily requires estimation of plasma glucose in three blood samples after administrating 75 g oral glucose load. Pregnant women resent this procedure, as they are pricked three times and feel too much of blood is drawn. Whereas, DIPSI criterion requires one blood sample drawn at 2-h for estimating the plasma glucose Future studies should compare the outcomes of the GDM cases diagnosed by different criteria as this would provide the final answer as to which criteria is more suitable for Indians.

Does sensitivity and Specifity of the diagnostic test matters?

A study by Mohan V et al. in 2014 compared the IADPSG, DIPSI and WHO 1999 criteria shows that the non-fasting OGTT has poor sensitivity compared to both the WHO 1999 criteria (27.7%) and the IADPSG criteria (22.6%) [ 41 ]. Thus, the current DIPSI guidelines of doing a single-step non-fasting OGTT using the 2-h VPG cut point of 140 mg/dl (7.8 mmol/l) to diagnose GDM would miss 72.3% of women with GDM diagnosed by the WHO 1999 criteria and 77.4% of women with GDM diagnosed by the IADPSG criteria. Similarly, a study by Tripathi R et al. 2017, a two-hour 75 g non-fasting DIPSI test was done and followed by OGTT [ 40 ]. Using OGTT as per the WHO 2013 /IADPSG criteria as gold standard, the sensitivity of 75 g non-fasting test was low. With this low sensitivity, about one quarter of women with GDM were missed. Missing such a large number is not acceptable for a diagnostic test, especially as GDM is associated with both maternal and perinatal complications. On contrary, in the study population, Seshiah V 2012, utilized both DIPSI and IADPSG criteria to ascertain the prevalence of GDM, which were 13.4 and 14.6% respectively [ 43 ].

Which is appropriate- early screening or risk-based screening?

There is a debate regarding the timing of screening for GDM, whether it should be done during the first prenatal visit or during the recommended period of 24–28 weeks of gestation. On the question of when to screen for GDM, a descriptive analysis by Li et al. 2018 showed that a substantial percentage of patients (11.4–60% of GDM cases) develop GDM in the first trimester, but that a similarly large percentage of patients (16–40% of GDM cases) are missed at the first visit [ 77 ]. Conducting the screening at later stages of pregnancy is linked to increased risks of maternal and perinatal morbidity and mortality. Many studies on GDM also suggest that early screening and dietary control of GDM can promote the curtailment of maternal and perinatal morbidities [ 80 , 81 ]. Additionally, Raets et al. demonstrated that there is need for clear guidelines and criteria concerning early screening for GDM [ 82 ]. In line with the Flemish consensus of 2019 on screening for GDM, this review recommend to universally screen for diabetes in early pregnancy [ 83 ].

Therefore, the review findings indicates an early screening with an OGTT test at 24 weeks coupled with diet counselling and postpartum testing in pregnant women can improve perinatal outcomes [ 75 ]. However, this may not be a logistically feasible or cost-effective strategy for all patients, and screening may need to be risk-stratified in Low or Middle Income Country (LMIC).

How should pregnant women come for GDM screening- fasting or non-fasting?

In their study, Supraneni et al. conducted a comparative analysis of the diagnostic effectiveness of different fasting plasma glucose levels and the one-hour 75 g OGTT in diagnosing GDM [ 84 ]. The study found that fasting plasma glucose levels above 92 mg/dL exhibited better diagnostic effectiveness, but there was no significant difference when compared to the results obtained from the one-hour 75 g OGTT in distinguishing between pregnant women with and without GDM.

Additionally, the researchers observed that utilizing the International Association of Diabetes and Pregnancy Study Groups (IADPSG) cutoffs for fasting and one-hour 75 g OGTT demonstrated good diagnostic properties in the study population. By implementing an exit strategy based on a positive result at either the fasting or one-hour mark, it was estimated that the need for further testing could potentially be reduced in approximately one in five pregnant women. However, accessing antenatal care in a fasting state posed challenges in rural settings, as highlighted in a 2014 study by Mohan et al. [ 41 ]. On the other hand, the DIPSI (Diabetes in Pregnancy Study Group India) guidelines suggest that the GDM test can be conducted at any time during pregnancy, regardless of food intake [ 85 ]. Nevertheless, the DIPSI approach faces difficulties in effectively screening pregnant women for GDM due to low sensitivity and underdiagnosis [ 86 ].

Based on the findings of the review, it is clear that a significant need exists for well-designed and unified programs aimed at effectively managing GDM cases. Implementing such programs would be instrumental in reducing the escalating burden of diabetes in India.

Capillary versus venous blood – does it affect estimation?

There is contradictory evidence reporting varying results and conclusions regarding the accuracy and agreement between blood glucose estimation using venous plasma glucose (VPG) and capillary blood glucose (CBG) methods for diagnosing GDM.

The study by Balaji V in 2012 involving a significant number of cohorts indicated that the Accu-Chek glucometer, a CBG measurement device, provided accurate results that aligned well with laboratory measurements of VPG [ 72 ]. Similarly, another study reported that CBG values provided the closest approximation to VPG values in healthy individuals without diabetes or GDM [ 66 ]. On the other hand, Jadhav DS conducted a hospital-based clinical study in 2017 comparing VPG and CBG estimation using a glucometer based on the DIPSI criteria found a satisfactory level of agreement between the two methods with equal sensitivity. Additionally, the CBG estimation by glucometer demonstrated a small number of false positive cases due to its high specificity (99.46%) [ 70 ].

Indeed, it is interesting to note that in some studies, the capillary blood glucose (CBG) and venous plasma glucose (VPG) values were found to be similar at 1 hour (9.9 mmol/L vs. 9.6 mmol/L) and 2 hours (7.9 mmol/L vs. 7.7 mmol/L) after the glucose load [ 87 ]. These findings suggest a fair agreement between CBG and VPG measurements during the 2-hour OGTT test for (GDM.

However, it is worth mentioning that other studies have reported a slight difference between VPG and CBG values, ranging from 0.28 to 0.5 mmol/L (5–9 mg/dL) specifically at the 2-hour mark, although the difference is relatively small [ 88 ]. These discrepancies in findings may be attributed to several factors, including the specific population under study, the glucose measurement methods used, and the performance characteristics of the glucose measurement devices employed [ 89 ]. The accuracy and agreement between CBG and VPG measurements can vary across different studies and settings.

A recent study by VidyaM Sree et al. demonstrated an excellent diagnostic accuracy (99.77%) of CBG estimation using a one-step OGTT based on DIPSI criteria for GDM in an Indian population. This study highlighted the feasibility and reliability of capillary blood estimation for GDM screening, particularly in countries with limited resources [ 71 ].

This review led to the conclusion that capillary blood estimation is a feasible and reliable method for screening GDM In countries with limited resources as this approach requires less technically trained manpower and equipment. It is important for further research to explore and address these differences in order to establish standardized guidelines and protocols for the diagnosis and management of GDM, particularly in terms of blood glucose estimation methods.

Cost-effectiveness and feasibility- what should be preferred?

The prevalence of GDM varies across different states in India, highlighting the country’s diversity. Even if a universally applicable, feasible, diagnostically accurate, and cost-effective test for GDM is discovered, the gravity of the problem remains consistent.

Supraneni et al. discovered in his study that the IADPSG criteria have good specificity, positive likelihood ratio and post-test probabilities for GDM in their study population [ 87 ]. However, the cost involved for performing IADPSG recommended procedure is high, as this procedure requires three blood tests compared to one blood test of DIPSI.

“DIPSI as one-step screening and diagnostic procedure for assessing GDM in pregnant women which is less time-consuming, economical and feasible” as stated by Mounika E et al. in her study conducted in south Indian Population [ 47 ]. But, the large extent of false negatives is a major limitation of DIPSI test which cannot be overlooked. Swaroop N et al. used one-step DIPSI criteria in his study and found it to be effective but larger studies are required to further validate its importance [ 90 ].

Thus, this review suggests that ideally, and whenever feasible, a single-step 75-g OGTT using the IADPSG criteria should be done in the fasting state as this is the accepted criteria worldwide and would help to bring about international standardization. However, in countries with less resources, DIPSI criteria may be used as a backup option in certain situations where it would be cost-effective without compromising the clinical equipoise: (a) inaccessible areas where pregnant females are not able to visit healthcare facility in fasting state in morning (b) epidemiological studies where fasting sample is unavailable (c) where OGTT is not feasible in some pregnant females due to certain specified reason.

Strength of the review

Our review raises a valid point regarding the challenges of implementing a universal screening program for GDM in India. We have taken into account unpublished literature from the Indian database ShodhGanga to gather comprehensive information about the current scenario of GDM in different zones of India. We have made efforts to contact authors to obtain full-text articles or any necessary information for our analysis, ensuring maximum data inclusion.

The review highlights the need for policymakers to reach a consensus on a universal screening test for diagnosing GDM in pregnant women, considering various key factors. These factors include the variation in diagnostic criteria, such as fasting or non-fasting, one-step or two-step approaches, and the use of capillary or venous blood estimation. Additionally, the review considers the sensitivity and specificity of the diagnostic test, the cost-effectiveness of the screening method, and its feasibility in real-world settings.

We also conducted an analysis to assess publication bias. However, since we have included prevalence studies, the results can be generalized to the population regardless of any bias. Furthermore, we performed a sub-group analysis to provide an overview of the current pooled prevalence of GDM in different geographic zones of India.

The authors suggest that implementing a uniform approach nationwide may not be practical. Instead, they propose adopting a more focused and region-specific strategy to maximize resources and efficiently detect and address cases of GDM.

Overall, our review aims to provide evidence-based insights and encourage policymakers to develop consensus guidelines for GDM screening in India. By considering the diverse factors and conducting thorough analyses, we hope to contribute to the formulation of effective strategies for GDM diagnosis and management across the country.

Limitations

Although we comprehensively searched four databases, we may have included a few more databases to include more GDM-related studies. Further, analyzing the risk factors involved in the prevalence of GDM was not in the scope of our review. Further, some studies did not provide detailed information about their population type, their GDM screening methods, trimester or the distribution between multiple different screening methods that were used. It is imperative to acknowledge the absence of a standardized screening strategy, which introduces a significant limitation to our analysis. Furthermore, we recognize the potential influence of evolving diagnostic criteria on variations in GDM prevalence. To address this concern, it would be beneficial to incorporate a comparative analysis of GDM prevalence across different regions, focusing on studies that employ consistent diagnostic criteria such as DIPSI or IADPSG (WHO 2013). Additionally, we acknowledge that differences in prevalence may be attributed to assessments conducted in distinct time periods. As a means to enhance the comprehensiveness of our review, we highlight the importance of exploring studies that specifically examine trends in GDM within a given population in India over time.

This review emphasizes the growing concern of GDM as a public health issue, particularly in resource-constrained settings like India, where the prevalence of GDM varies significantly among states. Numerous studies conducted in India have revealed poor agreement among existing diagnostic criteria for GDM. To enable prompt diagnosis and enhance the management of GDM in India, it is crucial to incorporate a diagnostic tool that is feasible, cost-effective, and reliable. Such a tool should seamlessly integrate with the existing public healthcare system and benefit the target population. Large-scale population-based studies are necessary to address the conflicts in GDM diagnosis and provide evidence-based criteria that are applicable to the Indian population. By tailoring the screening program based on regional variations, healthcare authorities can better allocate resources and implement interventions focused on areas with higher GDM prevalence or other risk factors.

Availability of data and materials

Available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Abbreviations

Gestational Diabetes Mellitus

Diabetes in Pregnancy Study group of India

International Association of Diabetes and Pregnancy Study Group

Hyperglycemia and Adverse pregnancy outcomes

Federation of Obstetric and Gynecological Societies of India

Low-or-Middle Income Country

Oral Glucose Challenge Test

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Mantri, N., Goel, A.D., Patel, M. et al. National and regional prevalence of gestational diabetes mellitus in India: a systematic review and Meta-analysis. BMC Public Health 24 , 527 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-024-18024-9

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