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Research Paper – Structure, Examples and Writing Guide

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Research Paper

Definition:

Research Paper is a written document that presents the author’s original research, analysis, and interpretation of a specific topic or issue.

It is typically based on Empirical Evidence, and may involve qualitative or quantitative research methods, or a combination of both. The purpose of a research paper is to contribute new knowledge or insights to a particular field of study, and to demonstrate the author’s understanding of the existing literature and theories related to the topic.

Structure of Research Paper

The structure of a research paper typically follows a standard format, consisting of several sections that convey specific information about the research study. The following is a detailed explanation of the structure of a research paper:

The title page contains the title of the paper, the name(s) of the author(s), and the affiliation(s) of the author(s). It also includes the date of submission and possibly, the name of the journal or conference where the paper is to be published.

The abstract is a brief summary of the research paper, typically ranging from 100 to 250 words. It should include the research question, the methods used, the key findings, and the implications of the results. The abstract should be written in a concise and clear manner to allow readers to quickly grasp the essence of the research.

Introduction

The introduction section of a research paper provides background information about the research problem, the research question, and the research objectives. It also outlines the significance of the research, the research gap that it aims to fill, and the approach taken to address the research question. Finally, the introduction section ends with a clear statement of the research hypothesis or research question.

Literature Review

The literature review section of a research paper provides an overview of the existing literature on the topic of study. It includes a critical analysis and synthesis of the literature, highlighting the key concepts, themes, and debates. The literature review should also demonstrate the research gap and how the current study seeks to address it.

The methods section of a research paper describes the research design, the sample selection, the data collection and analysis procedures, and the statistical methods used to analyze the data. This section should provide sufficient detail for other researchers to replicate the study.

The results section presents the findings of the research, using tables, graphs, and figures to illustrate the data. The findings should be presented in a clear and concise manner, with reference to the research question and hypothesis.

The discussion section of a research paper interprets the findings and discusses their implications for the research question, the literature review, and the field of study. It should also address the limitations of the study and suggest future research directions.

The conclusion section summarizes the main findings of the study, restates the research question and hypothesis, and provides a final reflection on the significance of the research.

The references section provides a list of all the sources cited in the paper, following a specific citation style such as APA, MLA or Chicago.

How to Write Research Paper

You can write Research Paper by the following guide:

Choose a Topic: The first step is to select a topic that interests you and is relevant to your field of study. Brainstorm ideas and narrow down to a research question that is specific and researchable.
Conduct a Literature Review: The literature review helps you identify the gap in the existing research and provides a basis for your research question. It also helps you to develop a theoretical framework and research hypothesis.
Develop a Thesis Statement : The thesis statement is the main argument of your research paper. It should be clear, concise and specific to your research question.
Plan your Research: Develop a research plan that outlines the methods, data sources, and data analysis procedures. This will help you to collect and analyze data effectively.
Collect and Analyze Data: Collect data using various methods such as surveys, interviews, observations, or experiments. Analyze data using statistical tools or other qualitative methods.
Organize your Paper : Organize your paper into sections such as Introduction, Literature Review, Methods, Results, Discussion, and Conclusion. Ensure that each section is coherent and follows a logical flow.
Write your Paper : Start by writing the introduction, followed by the literature review, methods, results, discussion, and conclusion. Ensure that your writing is clear, concise, and follows the required formatting and citation styles.
Edit and Proofread your Paper: Review your paper for grammar and spelling errors, and ensure that it is well-structured and easy to read. Ask someone else to review your paper to get feedback and suggestions for improvement.
Cite your Sources: Ensure that you properly cite all sources used in your research paper. This is essential for giving credit to the original authors and avoiding plagiarism.

Research Paper Example

Note : The below example research paper is for illustrative purposes only and is not an actual research paper. Actual research papers may have different structures, contents, and formats depending on the field of study, research question, data collection and analysis methods, and other factors. Students should always consult with their professors or supervisors for specific guidelines and expectations for their research papers.

Research Paper Example sample for Students:

Title: The Impact of Social Media on Mental Health among Young Adults

Abstract: This study aims to investigate the impact of social media use on the mental health of young adults. A literature review was conducted to examine the existing research on the topic. A survey was then administered to 200 university students to collect data on their social media use, mental health status, and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. The results showed that social media use is positively associated with depression, anxiety, and stress. The study also found that social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO (Fear of Missing Out) are significant predictors of mental health problems among young adults.

Introduction: Social media has become an integral part of modern life, particularly among young adults. While social media has many benefits, including increased communication and social connectivity, it has also been associated with negative outcomes, such as addiction, cyberbullying, and mental health problems. This study aims to investigate the impact of social media use on the mental health of young adults.

Literature Review: The literature review highlights the existing research on the impact of social media use on mental health. The review shows that social media use is associated with depression, anxiety, stress, and other mental health problems. The review also identifies the factors that contribute to the negative impact of social media, including social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO.

Methods : A survey was administered to 200 university students to collect data on their social media use, mental health status, and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. The survey included questions on social media use, mental health status (measured using the DASS-21), and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and regression analysis.

Results : The results showed that social media use is positively associated with depression, anxiety, and stress. The study also found that social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO are significant predictors of mental health problems among young adults.

Discussion : The study’s findings suggest that social media use has a negative impact on the mental health of young adults. The study highlights the need for interventions that address the factors contributing to the negative impact of social media, such as social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO.

Conclusion : In conclusion, social media use has a significant impact on the mental health of young adults. The study’s findings underscore the need for interventions that promote healthy social media use and address the negative outcomes associated with social media use. Future research can explore the effectiveness of interventions aimed at reducing the negative impact of social media on mental health. Additionally, longitudinal studies can investigate the long-term effects of social media use on mental health.

Limitations : The study has some limitations, including the use of self-report measures and a cross-sectional design. The use of self-report measures may result in biased responses, and a cross-sectional design limits the ability to establish causality.

Implications: The study’s findings have implications for mental health professionals, educators, and policymakers. Mental health professionals can use the findings to develop interventions that address the negative impact of social media use on mental health. Educators can incorporate social media literacy into their curriculum to promote healthy social media use among young adults. Policymakers can use the findings to develop policies that protect young adults from the negative outcomes associated with social media use.

References :

Twenge, J. M., & Campbell, W. K. (2019). Associations between screen time and lower psychological well-being among children and adolescents: Evidence from a population-based study. Preventive medicine reports, 15, 100918.
Primack, B. A., Shensa, A., Escobar-Viera, C. G., Barrett, E. L., Sidani, J. E., Colditz, J. B., … & James, A. E. (2017). Use of multiple social media platforms and symptoms of depression and anxiety: A nationally-representative study among US young adults. Computers in Human Behavior, 69, 1-9.
Van der Meer, T. G., & Verhoeven, J. W. (2017). Social media and its impact on academic performance of students. Journal of Information Technology Education: Research, 16, 383-398.

Appendix : The survey used in this study is provided below.

Social Media and Mental Health Survey

How often do you use social media per day?
Less than 30 minutes
30 minutes to 1 hour
1 to 2 hours
2 to 4 hours
More than 4 hours
Which social media platforms do you use?
Others (Please specify)
How often do you experience the following on social media?
Social comparison (comparing yourself to others)
Cyberbullying
Fear of Missing Out (FOMO)
Have you ever experienced any of the following mental health problems in the past month?
Do you think social media use has a positive or negative impact on your mental health?
Very positive
Somewhat positive
Somewhat negative
Very negative
In your opinion, which factors contribute to the negative impact of social media on mental health?
Social comparison
In your opinion, what interventions could be effective in reducing the negative impact of social media on mental health?
Education on healthy social media use
Counseling for mental health problems caused by social media
Social media detox programs
Regulation of social media use

Thank you for your participation!

Applications of Research Paper

Research papers have several applications in various fields, including:

Advancing knowledge: Research papers contribute to the advancement of knowledge by generating new insights, theories, and findings that can inform future research and practice. They help to answer important questions, clarify existing knowledge, and identify areas that require further investigation.
Informing policy: Research papers can inform policy decisions by providing evidence-based recommendations for policymakers. They can help to identify gaps in current policies, evaluate the effectiveness of interventions, and inform the development of new policies and regulations.
Improving practice: Research papers can improve practice by providing evidence-based guidance for professionals in various fields, including medicine, education, business, and psychology. They can inform the development of best practices, guidelines, and standards of care that can improve outcomes for individuals and organizations.
Educating students : Research papers are often used as teaching tools in universities and colleges to educate students about research methods, data analysis, and academic writing. They help students to develop critical thinking skills, research skills, and communication skills that are essential for success in many careers.
Fostering collaboration: Research papers can foster collaboration among researchers, practitioners, and policymakers by providing a platform for sharing knowledge and ideas. They can facilitate interdisciplinary collaborations and partnerships that can lead to innovative solutions to complex problems.

When to Write Research Paper

Research papers are typically written when a person has completed a research project or when they have conducted a study and have obtained data or findings that they want to share with the academic or professional community. Research papers are usually written in academic settings, such as universities, but they can also be written in professional settings, such as research organizations, government agencies, or private companies.

Here are some common situations where a person might need to write a research paper:

For academic purposes: Students in universities and colleges are often required to write research papers as part of their coursework, particularly in the social sciences, natural sciences, and humanities. Writing research papers helps students to develop research skills, critical thinking skills, and academic writing skills.
For publication: Researchers often write research papers to publish their findings in academic journals or to present their work at academic conferences. Publishing research papers is an important way to disseminate research findings to the academic community and to establish oneself as an expert in a particular field.
To inform policy or practice : Researchers may write research papers to inform policy decisions or to improve practice in various fields. Research findings can be used to inform the development of policies, guidelines, and best practices that can improve outcomes for individuals and organizations.
To share new insights or ideas: Researchers may write research papers to share new insights or ideas with the academic or professional community. They may present new theories, propose new research methods, or challenge existing paradigms in their field.

Purpose of Research Paper

The purpose of a research paper is to present the results of a study or investigation in a clear, concise, and structured manner. Research papers are written to communicate new knowledge, ideas, or findings to a specific audience, such as researchers, scholars, practitioners, or policymakers. The primary purposes of a research paper are:

To contribute to the body of knowledge : Research papers aim to add new knowledge or insights to a particular field or discipline. They do this by reporting the results of empirical studies, reviewing and synthesizing existing literature, proposing new theories, or providing new perspectives on a topic.
To inform or persuade: Research papers are written to inform or persuade the reader about a particular issue, topic, or phenomenon. They present evidence and arguments to support their claims and seek to persuade the reader of the validity of their findings or recommendations.
To advance the field: Research papers seek to advance the field or discipline by identifying gaps in knowledge, proposing new research questions or approaches, or challenging existing assumptions or paradigms. They aim to contribute to ongoing debates and discussions within a field and to stimulate further research and inquiry.
To demonstrate research skills: Research papers demonstrate the author’s research skills, including their ability to design and conduct a study, collect and analyze data, and interpret and communicate findings. They also demonstrate the author’s ability to critically evaluate existing literature, synthesize information from multiple sources, and write in a clear and structured manner.

Characteristics of Research Paper

Research papers have several characteristics that distinguish them from other forms of academic or professional writing. Here are some common characteristics of research papers:

Evidence-based: Research papers are based on empirical evidence, which is collected through rigorous research methods such as experiments, surveys, observations, or interviews. They rely on objective data and facts to support their claims and conclusions.
Structured and organized: Research papers have a clear and logical structure, with sections such as introduction, literature review, methods, results, discussion, and conclusion. They are organized in a way that helps the reader to follow the argument and understand the findings.
Formal and objective: Research papers are written in a formal and objective tone, with an emphasis on clarity, precision, and accuracy. They avoid subjective language or personal opinions and instead rely on objective data and analysis to support their arguments.
Citations and references: Research papers include citations and references to acknowledge the sources of information and ideas used in the paper. They use a specific citation style, such as APA, MLA, or Chicago, to ensure consistency and accuracy.
Peer-reviewed: Research papers are often peer-reviewed, which means they are evaluated by other experts in the field before they are published. Peer-review ensures that the research is of high quality, meets ethical standards, and contributes to the advancement of knowledge in the field.
Objective and unbiased: Research papers strive to be objective and unbiased in their presentation of the findings. They avoid personal biases or preconceptions and instead rely on the data and analysis to draw conclusions.

Advantages of Research Paper

Research papers have many advantages, both for the individual researcher and for the broader academic and professional community. Here are some advantages of research papers:

Contribution to knowledge: Research papers contribute to the body of knowledge in a particular field or discipline. They add new information, insights, and perspectives to existing literature and help advance the understanding of a particular phenomenon or issue.
Opportunity for intellectual growth: Research papers provide an opportunity for intellectual growth for the researcher. They require critical thinking, problem-solving, and creativity, which can help develop the researcher’s skills and knowledge.
Career advancement: Research papers can help advance the researcher’s career by demonstrating their expertise and contributions to the field. They can also lead to new research opportunities, collaborations, and funding.
Academic recognition: Research papers can lead to academic recognition in the form of awards, grants, or invitations to speak at conferences or events. They can also contribute to the researcher’s reputation and standing in the field.
Impact on policy and practice: Research papers can have a significant impact on policy and practice. They can inform policy decisions, guide practice, and lead to changes in laws, regulations, or procedures.
Advancement of society: Research papers can contribute to the advancement of society by addressing important issues, identifying solutions to problems, and promoting social justice and equality.

Limitations of Research Paper

Research papers also have some limitations that should be considered when interpreting their findings or implications. Here are some common limitations of research papers:

Limited generalizability: Research findings may not be generalizable to other populations, settings, or contexts. Studies often use specific samples or conditions that may not reflect the broader population or real-world situations.
Potential for bias : Research papers may be biased due to factors such as sample selection, measurement errors, or researcher biases. It is important to evaluate the quality of the research design and methods used to ensure that the findings are valid and reliable.
Ethical concerns: Research papers may raise ethical concerns, such as the use of vulnerable populations or invasive procedures. Researchers must adhere to ethical guidelines and obtain informed consent from participants to ensure that the research is conducted in a responsible and respectful manner.
Limitations of methodology: Research papers may be limited by the methodology used to collect and analyze data. For example, certain research methods may not capture the complexity or nuance of a particular phenomenon, or may not be appropriate for certain research questions.
Publication bias: Research papers may be subject to publication bias, where positive or significant findings are more likely to be published than negative or non-significant findings. This can skew the overall findings of a particular area of research.
Time and resource constraints: Research papers may be limited by time and resource constraints, which can affect the quality and scope of the research. Researchers may not have access to certain data or resources, or may be unable to conduct long-term studies due to practical limitations.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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11.1 The Purpose of Research Writing

Learning objectives.

Identify reasons to research writing projects.
Outline the steps of the research writing process.

Why was the Great Wall of China built? What have scientists learned about the possibility of life on Mars? What roles did women play in the American Revolution? How does the human brain create, store, and retrieve memories? Who invented the game of football, and how has it changed over the years?

You may know the answers to these questions off the top of your head. If you are like most people, however, you find answers to tough questions like these by searching the Internet, visiting the library, or asking others for information. To put it simply, you perform research.

Whether you are a scientist, an artist, a paralegal, or a parent, you probably perform research in your everyday life. When your boss, your instructor, or a family member asks you a question that you do not know the answer to, you locate relevant information, analyze your findings, and share your results. Locating, analyzing, and sharing information are key steps in the research process, and in this chapter, you will learn more about each step. By developing your research writing skills, you will prepare yourself to answer any question no matter how challenging.

Reasons for Research

When you perform research, you are essentially trying to solve a mystery—you want to know how something works or why something happened. In other words, you want to answer a question that you (and other people) have about the world. This is one of the most basic reasons for performing research.

But the research process does not end when you have solved your mystery. Imagine what would happen if a detective collected enough evidence to solve a criminal case, but she never shared her solution with the authorities. Presenting what you have learned from research can be just as important as performing the research. Research results can be presented in a variety of ways, but one of the most popular—and effective—presentation forms is the research paper . A research paper presents an original thesis, or purpose statement, about a topic and develops that thesis with information gathered from a variety of sources.

If you are curious about the possibility of life on Mars, for example, you might choose to research the topic. What will you do, though, when your research is complete? You will need a way to put your thoughts together in a logical, coherent manner. You may want to use the facts you have learned to create a narrative or to support an argument. And you may want to show the results of your research to your friends, your teachers, or even the editors of magazines and journals. Writing a research paper is an ideal way to organize thoughts, craft narratives or make arguments based on research, and share your newfound knowledge with the world.

Write a paragraph about a time when you used research in your everyday life. Did you look for the cheapest way to travel from Houston to Denver? Did you search for a way to remove gum from the bottom of your shoe? In your paragraph, explain what you wanted to research, how you performed the research, and what you learned as a result.

Research Writing and the Academic Paper

No matter what field of study you are interested in, you will most likely be asked to write a research paper during your academic career. For example, a student in an art history course might write a research paper about an artist’s work. Similarly, a student in a psychology course might write a research paper about current findings in childhood development.

Having to write a research paper may feel intimidating at first. After all, researching and writing a long paper requires a lot of time, effort, and organization. However, writing a research paper can also be a great opportunity to explore a topic that is particularly interesting to you. The research process allows you to gain expertise on a topic of your choice, and the writing process helps you remember what you have learned and understand it on a deeper level.

Research Writing at Work

Knowing how to write a good research paper is a valuable skill that will serve you well throughout your career. Whether you are developing a new product, studying the best way to perform a procedure, or learning about challenges and opportunities in your field of employment, you will use research techniques to guide your exploration. You may even need to create a written report of your findings. And because effective communication is essential to any company, employers seek to hire people who can write clearly and professionally.

Writing at Work

Take a few minutes to think about each of the following careers. How might each of these professionals use researching and research writing skills on the job?

Medical laboratory technician
Small business owner
Information technology professional
Freelance magazine writer

A medical laboratory technician or information technology professional might do research to learn about the latest technological developments in either of these fields. A small business owner might conduct research to learn about the latest trends in his or her industry. A freelance magazine writer may need to research a given topic to write an informed, up-to-date article.

Think about the job of your dreams. How might you use research writing skills to perform that job? Create a list of ways in which strong researching, organizing, writing, and critical thinking skills could help you succeed at your dream job. How might these skills help you obtain that job?

Steps of the Research Writing Process

How does a research paper grow from a folder of brainstormed notes to a polished final draft? No two projects are identical, but most projects follow a series of six basic steps.

These are the steps in the research writing process:

Choose a topic.
Plan and schedule time to research and write.
Conduct research.
Organize research and ideas.
Draft your paper.
Revise and edit your paper.

Each of these steps will be discussed in more detail later in this chapter. For now, though, we will take a brief look at what each step involves.

Step 1: Choosing a Topic

As you may recall from Chapter 8 “The Writing Process: How Do I Begin?” , to narrow the focus of your topic, you may try freewriting exercises, such as brainstorming. You may also need to ask a specific research question —a broad, open-ended question that will guide your research—as well as propose a possible answer, or a working thesis . You may use your research question and your working thesis to create a research proposal . In a research proposal, you present your main research question, any related subquestions you plan to explore, and your working thesis.

Step 2: Planning and Scheduling

Before you start researching your topic, take time to plan your researching and writing schedule. Research projects can take days, weeks, or even months to complete. Creating a schedule is a good way to ensure that you do not end up being overwhelmed by all the work you have to do as the deadline approaches.

During this step of the process, it is also a good idea to plan the resources and organizational tools you will use to keep yourself on track throughout the project. Flowcharts, calendars, and checklists can all help you stick to your schedule. See Chapter 11 “Writing from Research: What Will I Learn?” , Section 11.2 “Steps in Developing a Research Proposal” for an example of a research schedule.

Step 3: Conducting Research

When going about your research, you will likely use a variety of sources—anything from books and periodicals to video presentations and in-person interviews.

Your sources will include both primary sources and secondary sources . Primary sources provide firsthand information or raw data. For example, surveys, in-person interviews, and historical documents are primary sources. Secondary sources, such as biographies, literary reviews, or magazine articles, include some analysis or interpretation of the information presented. As you conduct research, you will take detailed, careful notes about your discoveries. You will also evaluate the reliability of each source you find.

Step 4: Organizing Research and the Writer’s Ideas

When your research is complete, you will organize your findings and decide which sources to cite in your paper. You will also have an opportunity to evaluate the evidence you have collected and determine whether it supports your thesis, or the focus of your paper. You may decide to adjust your thesis or conduct additional research to ensure that your thesis is well supported.

Remember, your working thesis is not set in stone. You can and should change your working thesis throughout the research writing process if the evidence you find does not support your original thesis. Never try to force evidence to fit your argument. For example, your working thesis is “Mars cannot support life-forms.” Yet, a week into researching your topic, you find an article in the New York Times detailing new findings of bacteria under the Martian surface. Instead of trying to argue that bacteria are not life forms, you might instead alter your thesis to “Mars cannot support complex life-forms.”

Step 5: Drafting Your Paper

Now you are ready to combine your research findings with your critical analysis of the results in a rough draft. You will incorporate source materials into your paper and discuss each source thoughtfully in relation to your thesis or purpose statement.

When you cite your reference sources, it is important to pay close attention to standard conventions for citing sources in order to avoid plagiarism , or the practice of using someone else’s words without acknowledging the source. Later in this chapter, you will learn how to incorporate sources in your paper and avoid some of the most common pitfalls of attributing information.

Step 6: Revising and Editing Your Paper

In the final step of the research writing process, you will revise and polish your paper. You might reorganize your paper’s structure or revise for unity and cohesion, ensuring that each element in your paper flows into the next logically and naturally. You will also make sure that your paper uses an appropriate and consistent tone.

Once you feel confident in the strength of your writing, you will edit your paper for proper spelling, grammar, punctuation, mechanics, and formatting. When you complete this final step, you will have transformed a simple idea or question into a thoroughly researched and well-written paper you can be proud of!

Review the steps of the research writing process. Then answer the questions on your own sheet of paper.

In which steps of the research writing process are you allowed to change your thesis?
In step 2, which types of information should you include in your project schedule?
What might happen if you eliminated step 4 from the research writing process?

Key Takeaways

People undertake research projects throughout their academic and professional careers in order to answer specific questions, share their findings with others, increase their understanding of challenging topics, and strengthen their researching, writing, and analytical skills.
The research writing process generally comprises six steps: choosing a topic, scheduling and planning time for research and writing, conducting research, organizing research and ideas, drafting a paper, and revising and editing the paper.

The Process of Research Writing

(19 reviews)

Steven D. Krause, Eastern Michigan University

Publisher: Steven D. Krause

Language: English

Formats Available

Conditions of use.

Learn more about reviews.

Reviewed by Kevin Kennedy, Adjunct Professor, Bridgewater State University on 12/2/22

I think this book would make an excellent supplement to other class material in a class focused on writing and research. It helps a lot with the "why"s of research and gives a high-level overview. read more

Comprehensiveness rating: 3 see less

I think this book would make an excellent supplement to other class material in a class focused on writing and research. It helps a lot with the "why"s of research and gives a high-level overview.

Content Accuracy rating: 5

The book is accurate, and talks a lot about different ways to view academic writing

Relevance/Longevity rating: 5

This would be quite relevant for a student early on the college journey who is starting to complete research-based projects.

Clarity rating: 4

The text is clear and concise, though that conciseness sometimes leads to less content than I'd like

Consistency rating: 5

The book is consistent throughout

Modularity rating: 4

I could use the first chapters of this book very easily, but the later ones get into exercises that my classes wouldn't necessarily use

Organization/Structure/Flow rating: 4

The book is organized from the high level (what is academic writing with research) to the more specific (here are some specific exercises)

Interface rating: 3

I don't like the flow from contents to chapters, and they feel distinctly text-based. This is a no-frills text, but that's ok.

Grammatical Errors rating: 3

I didn't note anything glaringly obvious

Cultural Relevance rating: 5

I think that this text stays away from the cultural and focuses mostly on the cognitive. This prevents offensive material, though it may make it less appealing to students.

Reviewed by Julie Sorge Way, Instructional Faculty, James Madison University on 11/23/21

Comprehensiveness rating: 4 see less

Overall, I think this book’s strongest suits are its organization, clarity, and modularity. It is useful and adaptable for a wide range of courses involving a research component, and as the book itself argues, research is a part of most learning at the university level, whether or not a single traditional “research paper” is the end goal of a course. This is a great book with adaptable and useful content across a range of disciplines, and while it is low on “bells and whistles,” the content it provides seems to be relevant, helpful, and also fill a gap among other OER texts that focus more on rhetoric and less on research.

Because this is a book on research writing rather than cutting edge science, etc. it is unlikely to be made inaccurate by the passing of time.

In a desire to move past the simple “Comp II” textbook, Krause’s work here is relevant to a variety of fields. In creating a course with a major-specific research component, many parts of this text are relevant to what I’m doing, and due to its modularity and organization (see below) I am able to make use of it easily and draw students’ attention to the parts that will help them most with our learning objectives.

Clarity rating: 5

Krause’s writing style is uncomplicated and direct. His examples are ones I think most students could relate to or at least connect with reasonably well.

While the book is internally consistent in its tone, level of detail, and relevance to Krause’s original writing goals, in the process of applying it to different courses (as almost inevitably happens with OER materials) it is inconsistently useful for the course I in particular am planning. This is certainly no fault of the book’s. One example would be that it presents MLA and APA format for citing sources, but not Chicago/Turabian.

Modularity rating: 5

Certainly, its modularity is a real strong suit for Krause’s book overall – individual instructors planning different types of coursework that involve writing and research can easily adapt parts that work, and its Creative Commons license makes this even better.

Organization/Structure/Flow rating: 5

Clear and direct organization is another strong suit in Krause’s text. The information is presented in an orderly and easy to navigate way that allows instructors and students alike to hone in on the most useful information for their writing and research task without spending undue amounts of time searching. This is much appreciated especially in an open access text where instructors are more likely to be “picking and choosing” relevant content from multiple texts and resources.

Interface rating: 4

Simple but clear – basic HTML and PDF navigation by chapter and section. Like many OER texts it is a bit short on visual engagement – the colorful infographics and illustrations many people are used to both in printed textbooks and interacting with internet content.

Grammatical Errors rating: 5

No errors noted.

Widely relevant (at least in the North American context I have most experience with) but as always, instructors should preview and adapt all material for the needs and context of their own classes and students.

Reviewed by Li-Anne Delavega, Undergraduate Research Experience Coordinator, Kapiolani Community College on 5/1/21

This textbook builds a good foundation for first-year students with topics such as developing a thesis, how to find sources and evaluate them, creating an annotated bibliography, audience, and avoiding plagiarism. While the content is explained well and students are slowly walked through the research process, the textbook ends abruptly ends with a quick overview of the elements of a research essay after students organize their evidence and create an outline. A part two textbook that covers the rest of the writing process, such as structuring paragraphs, how to write an introduction and conclusion, and revising drafts, is needed to help students get to a finished product. As a composition-based textbook, I also felt it could have used a section on building arguments. The true gem of this textbook is its activities/exercises and comprehensive but accessible explanations.

Content Accuracy rating: 4

Aside from outdated citations and technology-related content, the process-based writing instruction is accurate and answers common questions from students about research and basic writing. I feel like the questions, checklists, and activities posed are helpful for students to really think through their writing process, and the author explains things without judgment. While students can benefit, I feel that faculty would also benefit from using this as a teaching manual to plan their classes.

Relevance/Longevity rating: 3

The writing instruction is solid and is still used in many textbooks today. Obviously, the sections on technology and citation are outdated, but some sections still have good reliable advice at their core. For example, search language, unreliable web sources, and collaborating online have evolved, but the concepts remain the same. I would cut those sections out and just take what I needed to give to students. The author has no plans to update this book, and someone would need to rewrite many sections of the book, which is not easy to implement.

The book is largely free of jargon and terms are clearly explained. The author's tone is casual and conversational when compared to other textbooks, which makes it more accessible to students and acts as a guide through the research process. However, it does lend itself to longer sections that could use heavy editing and it does sound like a mini-lecture, but I liked the way he thoroughly explains and sets up concepts. His tone and style are a bit inconsistent as others have noted.

The book is very consistent since research and writing terminology is the same across most disciplines. If you're a composition instructor, you'll find the framework is just common writing pedagogy for academic writing: focus on the writing process, freewriting, peer review, audience, revision, etc.

This book was intended to be modular and chapters are mostly self-contained, so it is easy to use individual chapters or change the sequence. There are unusable hyperlinks in each chapter that refer to other sections, but those are additional resources that could be replaced with a citation guide or other common resources. Sections, activities, examples, and key ideas are clearly labeled and can be used without the rest of the chapter. However, some writing concepts, such as a working thesis, are mentioned again in later chapters.

Organization/Structure/Flow rating: 3

Parts of the book are easily identifiable and the content within the chapter flows easily from one concept to the next. I felt that some of the chapters should have appeared earlier in the textbook. Students would have to wait until chapter 10 to learn about the research essay. Revising a working thesis comes before categorizing and reviewing your evidence. The peer-review chapter that advises students to read sections of their writing aloud to catch mistakes comes before brainstorming a topic. However, the sequence will depend on the instructor's preference. An index or a complete, searchable text would have helped so you don't need to guess which chapter has the content you need.

The PDF is the more polished and easier to read of the two versions. Overall, the PDF was well laid out, with clear headers and images. I found the colored boxes for the exercises helpful, though a lighter color would make the text easier to see for more students. The text uses different styles to create organization and emphasis, which made some pages (especially in the beginning) hard to read with the bolded and italicized clutter. I would have loved a complied version with all the chapters.

The HTML version is difficult to read as it is one long block of text and the callouts and images are not well spaced. There is, unfortunately, no benefit to reading the web version: no clickable links, dynamic text flow, or navigational links within each page so you will need to go back to the TOC to get the next section.

Grammatical Errors rating: 4

The book has grammatical and mechanical errors throughout but does not impact content comprehension. Other reviewers here identified more notable errors.

Cultural Relevance rating: 2

The language, examples, and references were generally ok, but the overall textbook felt acultural. Some consideration was taken with pronouns (relies on they/them/their) and gender roles. As others pointed out, there are many areas that could have used diversified sources, topics, references, examples, and students. Some of the textbook's activities assume able-bodied students and sections such as peer collaboration would benefit from a more nuanced discussion when he brought up resentment over non-contributing members, being silenced, and access to resources. There are a few red flags, but one glaring example is on page 5 of chapter 10. An excerpt from an article titled “Preparing to Be Colonized: Land Tenure and Legal Strategy in Nineteenth-Century Hawaii”(which includes the sentence, "Why did Hawaiians do this to themselves?") was used to show students when to use "I" in writing.

Overall, this is a good resource for writing instructors. As this book was written in 2007, faculty will need to cut or adapt a fair amount of the text to modernize it. It is not a textbook to assign to students for the semester, but the textbook's core content is solid writing pedagogy and the focus on using activities to reflect and revise is wonderful. Those outside of composition may find the basic exercises and explanations useful as long as students are primarily working out of a more discipline-specific (e.g., sciences) writing guide.

Reviewed by Milena Gueorguieva, Associate Teaching Professor, University of Massachusetts Lowell on 6/28/20

Comprehensiveness rating: 5 see less

This is a process based research writing textbook, a rarity among composition textbooks. It is often the case that foundational writing courses are supposed to cover process and then, very often, instructors, students and textbook authors all forget that process is important when they have to dive into the technical aspects of conducting and writing about and from research, usually in a 'second course' in the first year writing sequence. This is not the case with this book: it is a thoughtful, comprehensive exploration of writing from research as a multi-step recursive process. This approach can help students solidify the knowledge and skills they have acquired in prior courses, especially the multi-step recursive nature of writing as a process while developing a set of strong writing from research skills.

The foundations of research writing are presented in an accessible yet rigorous way. The book does away with the myth of research writing as something you do after you think about and research a topic. The author articulated this idea very well, when he wrote, ”We think about what it is we want to research and write about, but at the same time, we learn what to think based on our research and our writing.”

Relevance/Longevity rating: 4

Overall, an excellent handbook (it can be used non-sequentially); however, some of the information on database searches and working with popular internet sources as well as collaborative writing (especially as it relates to the use of technology) needs updating.

The appropriately conversational tone translates complex academic concepts into easy to access ideas that students can relate to. The same is true for the many activities and exercises that demonstrate a variety of real life applications for the research skills presented in the book, which helps students see that research and research based writing happen everywhere, not just on campuses , where students seem to write for an audience of one: the professor who assigned the paper.

The material presented is rigorously and consistently presented in various modes: text, activities and exercises.

It can be used in a variety of ways; it has excellent modular stucture.

Excellently organized: reviews and expands on what students might already know about academic writing as a process; introduces the fundamentals of research and research writing and then uses both of these sets of skills in various research projects.

Although it has some very useful and appropriate visuals , the text could have been more user friendly; it is difficult to follow.

Excellently proof-read,

the book is culturally sensitive and contains appropriate examples and/or references.

An overall excellent composition text that provides useful exercises and assignments (such as the antithesis essay) that can help students build complex and nuanced arguments based on research. Highly recommend!

Reviewed by Valerie Young, Associate Professor, Hanover College on 3/29/20

This text is both general and specific. General enough for use in a variety of courses and disciplines, specific enough to garner interest for faculty who want to teach students the fundamentals and more nuanced aspects of research writing. The basics are here. The text could be assigned in specific modules. The text will benefit from an update, especially in regards to references about collaborative writing tools and internet research. The text is missing a chapter on reading research and integrating research into the literature review process. This is a relevant skill for research writing, as student writers often struggle with reading the work of others to understand the body of literature as a foundation for their own assertions.

The content and information seems like it could be helpful for any undergraduate course that has a research writing project. The unique aspects of this book are its features of collaborative and peer review writing practices and all of the exercises embedded in the text. The author gives examples and writing exercises throughout the chapters. These examples could serve inexperienced students quite well. They could also annoy advanced students.

There are some references to the World Wide Web and the Internet, and library research that seem a bit outdated. There isn't much advanced referencing of commonly used internet research options, such as Google Scholar, citation apps, etc.

Clarity rating: 3

Some points are clear and concise. Other pieces go into too much detail for one chapter page. Because the pages are long, and not all content will be relevant to all readers, the author could consider using "collapsible" sections. This could be especially relevant in the APA & MLA sections, offering a side-by-side comparison of each or offering overviews of style basics with sections that open up into more details for some interested readers.

Consistency rating: 4

no issues here

Modularity rating: 3

The chapters are relatively concise and each starts with an overview of content. The web format does not allow for much navigational flow between chapters or sections. It would be great to hyperlink sections of content that are related so that readers can pass through parts of the text to other topics. It does look like the author intended to hyperlink between chapters, but those links (denoted "Hyperlink:" in the text) are not functional.

Overall flow is appropriate for an interdisciplinary lens. Readers can move through as many or as few sections as needed. The chapter topics and subtopics are organized fairly comprehensively, and often by questions that students might ask.

Interface rating: 2

The long blocks of text in each chapter aren't very reader friendly. Also, once the reader gets to the end of the long page / chapter, there is no navigation up to the top of the chapter or laterally to previous or next content. Text doesn't adjust to screen size, so larger screens might have lots of white space.

no issues noticed. Some examples could be updated to be more inclusive, culturally diverse, etc.

This book has some good lessons, questions, and suggestions for topics relevant to research writing. The text could benefit from a more modern take on research writing, as some of the topics and phrases are dated.

Reviewed by Jennifer Wilde, Adjunct instructor, Columbia Gorge Community College on 12/13/18

The text is a wonderful guidebook to the process of writing a research essay. It describes the steps a college writer should take when approaching a research assignment, and I have no doubt that if students followed the steps outlined by the text, they would be sure to succeed in generating a quality thesis statement and locating appropriate sources. It is not comprehensive in that it has very little to say regarding composition, clarity and style. It does not contain an index or glossary.

Sections on MLA and APA format are inaccurate in that they are outdated. It would be preferable for the text to refer students to the online resources that provide up to date information on the latest conventions of APA and MLA.

The bulk of the chapters are timeless and filled with wisdom about using research to write a paper. However, the book should contain links or otherwise refer students to the web sources that would tell them how to use current MLA/APA format. There are some passages that feel anachronistic, as when the author recommends that students consider the advantages of using a computer rather than a word processor or typewriter. The sections on computer research and "netiquette" feel outdated. Finally, the author describes the differences between scholarly sources and periodicals but does not address the newer type of resources, the online journal that is peer-reviewed but open access and not associated with a university.

The writing is strong and clear. Dr. Krause does not indulge in the use of jargon.

The different sections open with an explanation of what will be covered. Then, the author explains the content. Some chapters are rather short while others are long, but generally each topic is addressed comprehensively. In the last several chapters, the author closes with a sample of student work that illustrates the principles the chapter addressed.

The text is divisible into sections. To some extent the content is sequential, but it is not necessary to read the early chapters (such as the section on using computers, which millenials do not need to read) in order to benefit from the wisdom in later chapters. I used this text in a writing 121 course, and I did not assign the entire text. I found some chapters helpful and others not so relevant to my particular needs. Students found the chapters useful and discrete, and they did not feel like they had to go back and read the whole thing. The section on writing an annotated bibliography, for instance, could be used in any writing class.

The topics are presented in the order in which a student approaches a writing assignment. First, the author asks, why write a research essay, and why do research? Next, the author addresses critical thinking and library/data use; quoting, summarizing and paraphrasing; collaboration and writing with others; writing a quality thesis statement; annotating a bibliography; categorizing sources; dealing with counterarguments, and actually writing the research essay. It's quite intuitive and logical. It seems clear that this author has had a lot of experience teaching students how to do these steps.

The interface is straightforward, but I could not locate any hyperlinks that worked. Navigation through the book was no problem.

The book is well written overall. The writer's style is straightforward and clear. There are occasional typos and words that feel misplaced, as in the following sentence: "The reality is though that the possibilities and process of research writing are more complicated and much richer than that." There should be commas around the word "though", and the tone is fairly conversational. These are extremely minor issues.

The examples feel inclusive and I was not aware of any cultural insensitivity in the book overall.

The book is really helpful! I particularly appreciate the sections on how to write an annotated bib and a good thesis statement, and I think the sections on writing a category/evaluation of sources, working thesis statement, and antithesis exercise are unique in the large field of writing textbooks. The book contains no instruction on grammatical conventions, style, clarity, rhetoric, how to emphasize or de-emphasize points, or other writing tips. In that sense, it is not a great text for a composition class. But I think it's extremely useful as a second resource for such a class, especially for classes that teach argumentation or those that require an analytic essay. I feel it is most appropriate for science students - nursing, psychology, medicine, biology, sociology. It is less likely to be useful for a general WR 121 class, or for a bunch of English majors who largely use primary sources.

Reviewed by Jess Magaña, Assistant Teaching Professor, University of Missouri-Kansas City on 6/19/18

This is a comprehensive introduction to planning and writing research papers. The suggested activities seem helpful, and the lack of an index or glossary does not interfere with understanding. read more

This is a comprehensive introduction to planning and writing research papers. The suggested activities seem helpful, and the lack of an index or glossary does not interfere with understanding.

The information is accurate and straightforward.

Some information is out of date, such as the section regarding email, but the main concepts are well explained and relevant. An instructor could easily substitute a lecture or activity with updated information.

The clarity is excellent.

There are no inconsistencies.

The text is organized in a way that lends itself to changing the order of chapters and adding and subtracting topics to suit the needs of each class.

The progression of chapters is logical.

Interface rating: 5

The "hyperlinks" helpfully direct readers to related topics (although these are not actual links in the online version), which contributes to the modularity of the text.

There are a few errors, but none that significantly obscure meaning.

Cultural Relevance rating: 4

This text could use updated examples showing greater diversity in authors and work. I recommend instructors find supplementary examples relevant to their classes.

I intend to use this text in my courses, supplemented with a few activities and more diverse examples to suit my students' needs.

Reviewed by Sheila Packa, Instructor, Lake Superior College on 2/1/18

The text is a comprehensive guide to research for students in College Composition courses. The text is concise and interesting. Critical thinking, research and writing argument are integrated into his suggested assignments. The author covers... read more

The author covers the research question, library resources, how to paraphrase and use quotes, and collaborative writing projects. There are suggested exercises in the process of research, such as a topic proposal, a guide to developing a strong thesis statement, a full exploration of refutation (called the antithesis), the critique or rhetorical analysis, the annotated bibliography, and a guide to help students to accumulate a good assortment of sources. MLA and APA documentation is covered. Note that this text is published in 2007. Therefore, I recommend the use of MLA 8 Handbook for up-to-date guidelines for correct documentation. The Research Paper is full explained. In the chapter, Alternate Ways to Present Research, the author focuses on a Portfolio. He discusses web publication of research and poster sessions.

I value the clarity of ideas. The text is error-free, and I like the example essays written by students that will serve to inspire students.

The content is relevant. The author guides students through the process in a way that is easy to understand and also academically rigorous. The MLA 8 Handbook is a needed supplement (and that is affordable).

The writing is clear and concise. The organization of the chapters is logical and leads the students through steps in the process of research, writing a reasoned argument, and professional presentation of the research.

Terminology is clear and the framework for research is clear and sensible.

The book's modularity is definitely a strength. It's possible to use chapters of the text without using the entire book and to omit chapters that are not a focus of the instructor.

This book has a logical arrangement of chapters and the assignments are valuable.

The interface is great. It's readable online or in pdf form.

No grammatical errors. There is one detail that reflects changing rules of documentation. In MLA, titles of books, magazines, and journals are now italicized instead of underlined. In this text, they are underlined.

The text is free of bias or stereotypes.

Reviewed by Jennie Englund, Instructor, Composition I & II, Rogue Community College, Oregon on 8/15/17

Twelve chapters are broken into multiple parts. On Page 3 of the Introduction, the text emphasizes its purpose as an "introduction to academic writing and research." The following chapters present more than substantial information to give... read more

Twelve chapters are broken into multiple parts.

On Page 3 of the Introduction, the text emphasizes its purpose as an "introduction to academic writing and research." The following chapters present more than substantial information to give introductory (even well into master) research writers a foundation of the basics, as well as some detail. It differentiates itself as "Academic" research writing through thesis, evidence, and citation. Two of these concepts are revisted in the conclusion. The third (thesis) has its own section, which this reviewer will use in class.

I'm grateful to have reviewed an earlier electronic text. This provided the ability to compare/contrast, and note that this particular text was more comprehensive and in-depth than the guide I had previously reviewed (which was more of a framework, good in its own right.)

Had the guide contained a thorough section on revision, I'd give it a perfect score! Thus, the book very very nearly does what it sets out to do; it provides most of The Process of Research Writing.

Retrieval dates are no longer used on the APA References page. This reviewer would have preferred titles italicized instead of underlined.

The text opens with an introduction of the project, by its author. The project began in 2000 as a text for a major publishing house, but eventually landed via author's rights as an electronic text. Therefore, essentially, the book has already been around quite a while. This reviewer concludes that time, thought, and execution went into publishing the material, and predicts its popularity and usability will grow.

Timeless, the guide could have been used with small updates twenty years ago, and could be used with updates twenty years from now.

The guide could be used as the sole text in a composition course, supplemented by more formal (as well as APA) examples.

The text is organized into 12 chapters; it logically begins with "Thinking Critically about Research," and concludes with "Citing Your Research Using MLA or APA Style." The text includes most of what this reviewer uses to teach academic research writing. However, the book omits the editing/revising process.

The guide poses purposeful questions.

On Page 7 of the Introduction, the text reports being "organized in a 'step-by-step' fashion," with an invitation to the reader to use the book in any order, and revisit passages. The reviewer found the organization to be consistent and as systematic as the actual composition of an academic research paper.

The meat of the text begins with the definition and purpose of "Research." Immediately, a nod to working thesis follows, which is revisited in Chapter 5. Sources are examined and classified into a chart of "Scholarly Versus Non-scholarly or Popular Sources." The segment on "Using the Library" would complement a course or class period on library usage.

The Table of Contents is fluid and logical. Within the text, concepts are revisited and built upon, which the reviewer appreciates. Examples and exercises are given.

Chapter 10 contains an outline of a student research paper (which follows). The paper examines the problems with and solutions for university athletics. The paper is in MLA format. Tone is less formal than this reviewer would use as an example of academic research writing. The reviewer would have welcomed an example of an APA paper, as well.

The last chapter fully realizes instruction introduced at the beginning: citation defines academic writing, and academic writers credit their sources, and present evidence to their readers. I wish this last part emphasized thesis again, too, but in all, it is a very structured, reader-friendly guide.

Charts are integrated and understandable, though the majority of the book is text.

This review found some grammatical errors including capitalization. Book/journal/magazine/newspaper titles are underlined in lieu of italicized.

Student examples include Daniel Marvins, Ashley Nelson, Jeremy Stephens, Kelly Ritter, Stuart Banner, and Casey Copeman. Most examples of citations are from male authors. Text would benefit from multi-cultural authors. Examples/topics include The Great Gatsby,African-American Physicians and Drug Advertising, Cyberculture, ADHD, Diabetes, Student-athletes, and Drunk Driving.Examples are culturally appropriate and multi-disciplinary. Consistent pronoun used: he/him/his

Third-person narration is used; the author addresses the reader directly (and informally). While this perhaps makes a connection between the author and the reader, and adds to understanding, it does not reflect academic research writing, and may confuse beginning writers?

Chapter 5, "Writing a Working Thesis," is among the most clear, comprehensive, and straightforward instruction on the topic this reviewer has seen. I will use this section in my Composition I and II courses, as well as Chapters 1, 3, and 12. I wish this form had a place to rate usability. In that case, this guide would score highly. I commend Dr. Krause's execution and composition, and applaud his sharing this at no cost with the academic community.

Reviewed by Marie Lechelt, ESL/English Instructor and Writing Center Co-director, Riverland Community College on 6/20/17

"The Process of Research Writing" is a textbook that includes all of the major topics covered in most college research writing courses. The style of writing makes it easily understood by students. Depending on your focus in your writing class, you may want to supplement this text with more about argumentative writing. Other writing models, homework exercises, and classroom activities found by the instructor would also compliment the use of this text. While I would not use this textbook in my course from start to finish, I would jump around and use a variety of sections from it to teach research writing. This text could be used for a beginning writing class or a second semester writing course. Based on my students writing experiences and abilities, I would eliminate or include certain sections. There is no index or glossary included. The hyperlinks to other sections also do not work.

The content is accurate and error-free. I didn't detect any biased information either. The MLA and APA information have changed since this book was published. The peer review work, plagiarism, critiquing sources, and many more of the topics are almost exactly what I teach to my students. This format will work well for them.

While most research writing content does not change over time, there are many parts of this book that could be updated. These include examples (The Great Gatsby), hyperlinks, and references to technology. The technology aspect is especially important. Since technology is constantly changing, most textbooks (print and online) are out of date as soon as they are printed. Because of this, teachers are constantly having to use supplemental material, which is fine. Just like our class websites, we have to update this information every semester or even more often. If you choose to use this textbook, keep in mind that this will be necessary. The MLA/APA information is also out of date, but this is also to be expected.

Clarity is one of the benefits of this textbook. Although the style is somewhat informal, it included appropriate topics and terminology for students learning to write research essays. Students can understand the topics with one or two readings and discuss the topics in class. There were a few places that seemed like common knowledge for students at this level, like the library or using computers. Unfortunately, we do still have students who do not come to us having already learned this information. So, I don't think these sections would have a negative impact on other students. Students can also be given optional sections to read, or as I plan to do, the teacher can skip around and only assign some sections.

The majority of the terminology is common knowledge in research writing teaching. The text is fairly informal in writing style, which I believe is an advantage for students. Many times, students will read a text and then I will need to explain the terminology or ideas in depth in my lectures. Since I prefer to complete activities and work on students' writing in class, instead of lecturing, this book will work well. The chapter on the "Antithesis" was new to me. While I have taught these ideas, I have not used this term before. This is a chapter I may not use and instead include supplemental material of my own.

The chapters are divided clearly and could be separated quite easily to use as individual units in a writing class. If the hyperlinks worked though, they would be helpful. Exercises build upon one another, so one could not assign a later exercise without students first understanding the other sections of the text. I plan to use this text in a research writing class, and I will be skipping around and only using some sections. I do not believe there will be any problem with this. While students may at first feel that starting on Chapter 4 might be strange, they are very adaptive and should have no difficulties with this format.

The Table of Contents is clear and easily understood. Each chapter follows a logical sequence, and students will be able to transition from one topic to another without difficulty. The use of charts, headings, bold, highlighting, and some other visual aids help the reader to understand what is most important to remember. Although, this could be improved upon with the use of color and graphics. While the content is valuable, I would most likely skip around when using this book in the classroom. While the author begin with an introduction and then jumps right into research, I focus on topic selection and thesis writing before research begins. Of course, as the author mentions, students will go back to their thesis and research many times before finishing the writing process.

The text is easily navigated, and students would be able to follow the topics throughout. The lack of graphics and color is noticeable and detracts from the content. In a world of advanced technology where students click on hundreds of websites with amazing content each week, online textbooks need to meet this standard. This textbook is similar to a traditional textbook. Some links are also inactive.

There were some typos and small grammatical errors but no glaring instances. They also did not impact understanding.

This book contained no offensive language or examples. However, we have a lot of diversity in our classrooms, and this is not reflected in the book. Expanding the examples or including links to diverse examples would be helpful.

I will be using this text in a second semester writing class. It has valuable information about research writing. I believe it could also be used for a first semester writing class. As mentioned above, I will use sections of the text and skip around to accommodate the needs of my students. Supplemental materials will also be needed to meet current technology needs.

Reviewed by Betsy Goetz, English Instructor, Riverland Community College on 6/20/17

The text covers all subject areas appropriately. read more

The text covers all subject areas appropriately.

Overall, the text is accurate.

Relevant and current.

I liked the clarity of the text, especially the specific exercises for students to apply the theory they have learned.

This text is consistent -- good terminology!

Clear sections to focus on key points of research writing.

Well organized.

Not confusing

Overall, lacking grammatical errors.

Relevant -- research writing and thesis building are timeless.

Reviewed by Karen Pleasant, Adjunct Instructor, Rogue Community College on 4/11/17

The textbook covered the basics of writing a research paper (the term "essay"is preferred by the author) and would be appropriate for an introductory college writing course, such as WR 121 or WR 122. A table of content is provided, but there is no glossary. The textbook guides a student from exploring the initial topic selection through the finished product, although I would have liked the use of citations to be covered in more depth. If I chose this as the textbook for my class I would also need to add supplemental materials about thoroughly developing an argument as well as revising a paper.

The author presented the material in an unbiased manner and does so in a way that provides high readability for students with little to no background in writing a research paper. Excellent examples are provided to reinforce concepts and thoughtful, creative collaborative exercises round out each chapter to give practice in skill mastery. Both MLA and APA formatting styles are included, but the APA section needs to be updated. The book was published in 2007 and many of the APA guidelines have changed., including the preference for using italics versus underlining for book and journal titles.

Each chapter is self-contained and stands alone and , therefore, could easily be updated. Most of the information is relevant and could be used indefinitely. I like that Chapter 11 recommended alternate ways to present the research and suggested more contemporary technology based methods. Chapter 12, about APA and MLA citations, is the chapter that currently needs to be updated and would need to be checked for accuracy annually against the latest APA & MLA guidelines. As it reads, I would handout current materials for APA citation sessions and not use this chapter in the book.

The book is well organized and is very user friendly. I think students would enjoy reading it and be able to relate readily to the content. Examples given and exercises provided help to clarify the content and reinforce the concepts for students. The textbook flows well from selection of initial topic ideas to finished product and will help students to work through the process of writing a research paper.

New terms are thoroughly explained and are used consistently throughout the textbook. The knowledge students gain as they progress through the book feels logical and organized in a usable fashion.

The text is organized so that each chapter stands alone and the order the information is presented can be easily modified to fit the needs of an instructor. The book is that rare combination of being equally functional for both student and instructor.

The topics are presented as needed to guide students through the process of writing a research paper, but could be done in another order if desired. Bold and boxed items are used to emphasize key concepts and chapter exercises.

The textbook is visually appealing and easy to read with adequate use of white space and varied font sizes. I explored the textbook via the PDF documents, which were easy to download, although the hyperlinks were not accessible.

There were noticeable grammatical errors.

The textbook is inclusive and accessible to all and didn't have any content that could be deemed offensive. The approachable layout and writing style make the textbook relevant to college students from a variety of backgrounds.

I would definitely adopt this open textbook for my writing classes. The author provided some wonderful ideas for teaching about research papers and I found many chapter exercises that I would be willing to incorporate into my class . I am especially intrigued by the use of writing an antithesis paper as a lead in to adding opposition to the research paper and look forward to getting student input and feedback about some of the alternative ways to present their research. Compared to textbooks I have used or perused in the past, this book seems more inviting and user friendly for students new to writing college level research papers.

Reviewed by VINCENT LASNIK, Adjunct Professor, Rogue Community College on 4/11/17

This comprehensiveness is one of the strengths of The Process of Research Writing. The Table of Contents (TOC) is fine—and each separate chapter also reproduces the contents listing from high-lever through low-level subsections at the beginning of each chapter. This duplicate listing feature helps orient students to what is covered (and what is not) for every chapter in-context. Yes—It is a fair evaluation that there can generally be easy-to-fix, quickly recognizable updates, enhancements, and notable improvements to virtually any textbook 10-15 years after its initial publication date (particularly related to changing terminology and nomenclature within the dynamic English lexicon, technology applications (databases, websites, ‘search engines,’ current good ‘help sites’ for students learning the latest iteration of APA style for manuscript formatting, in-text citations, and end references, etc.)—and the Krause text is a prime candidate for such a thorough revision. For example, digital object identifiers (the doi was first introduced circa 2000) did not become widely/pervasively established until well into the first decade of the 21st century; the ‘doi’ is an ubiquitous standard today in 2017. Nevertheless, many of the basic (boilerplate) concepts are clearly noted and credibly, coherently explained. The text could use some effective reorganization (as I note elsewhere in my review)—but that is arguably a subjective/personalized perspective more related to the way we approach writing instruction and student academic development at Rogue Community College—and perhaps less of a global/universal criticism.

See my comments in other sections that impact this issue. Overall, Krause’s text appears, “accurate, error-free and unbiased.” There are no obvious problems with this observation/contention. Some of the ‘out-of-date’ specifics in the text need updating as I note in detail in my other comments.

Most of the text describes research-writing strategies that are fairly well-established if not generic to the undergraduate English composition content area; thus, the overall longevity of the existing text is good. I have suggested, however, that any such ‘how-to’ guide should be updated (as this particular version) after its first decade of publication. The content for online research, for example, reflects an early 2000s perspective of emerging technology terms (e.g., defining blogs as “web-logs” is easily 12-15 years behind the use of the term in 2017), and some of the online websites mentioned are no longer relevant. These types of ‘out-of-date’ past-referents/links, however, can be easily updated to 2017+ accuracy. I have made a few suggestions about such an update—including my offer to assist Steve Krause (gratis and pro bono) in this update should my collaboration be desired. Otherwise, Krause might go the more open ‘peer review’ route and assemble a set of active teachers, instructors, and adjunct professors (such as me) who are on the ‘frontlines’ of current praxis for research-based, critical thinking, problem-oriented writing courses across the 11th-12th grade and through the undergraduate and workforce education community.

The text is written is a clear, credible, and cogent prose throughout. This is one of the particular strengths of Krause’s text—and recursively provides an exemplar for well-written composition. On occasion, the clarity for students might be improved by additional ‘real-world examples’ (i.e., more ‘showing rather than mere abstract telling) explicating some obtuse concepts and numerous rules (e.g., for research strategy, proofreading/editing, using search engines and conducting library research, etc.)—but a similar constructive criticism could easily be made of nearly all similar sources.

The text wording, terminology, framework and process emphasis are highly consistent. There are overlaps and dovetailing (i.e., redundancy) in any/every college textbook—but Krause keeps these to a minimum throughout. Some updating of terminology would be appropriate, useful, and needed as I note throughout my OER review.

The text is superb in this regard. The chapters and exercises are highly modular—which supports the customized reorganization I apply myself in my own courses as noted in my other comments. Numerous subheads and special highlighted ‘key points’ textboxes augment this modularity and improve the narrowing of assigned readings, examples, and exercises for most writing courses. The Process of Research Writing is clearly not, “overly self-referential,” and can easily be, “reorganized and realigned with various subunits of a course without presenting much disruption to the reader” by any instructor.

One of the principal weaknesses of the set of chapters is that the given ‘table of contents’ structure is conceptually disjointed—at least insofar as my research writing course is designed. Therefore, to provide a more coherent, logical sequence congruent to the course organization of my Writing 122 (this is an intermediate/advanced-level English Composition II)—it was necessary to assign a completely different order of The Process of Research Writing (Krause, 2007) high-level chapters/pages for weekly course reading assignments as follows:

Week One: Table of Contents; Introduction: Why Write Research Projects?; and Chapter 1: Thinking Critically About Research; Week Two: Chapter 2: Understanding and Using the Library and the Internet for Research. These three starting chapters were reasonable to introduce in Krause’s original sequence. Continuing into Week Two, I also added Chapter 4: How to Collaborate and Write with Others (but I highlighted limited/specific passages only since WR122 does not emphasize collaborative prose composition activities and extensive group-writing projects using such apps as Google Docs). Week Three: I then assigned Chapter 10: The Research Essay—since it was important to orient students to the intrinsic, namesake umbrella concept of researching and writing the research essay—the essential focus of the course I teach. IMPORTANT NEED TO RESTRUCTURE THE OER as it exists: Viewed from a course rationale and content/skill acquisition conceptual level—I have no idea why Krause did not place ‘Writing The Research Essay’ as high as Chapter 2. It comes far too late in the book as Chapter 10. This is actually where the chapter belongs (in my view); the other topics in the remaining Chapters’ (2—12) would more cogently and effectively proceed after first exploring the high-level nature of the research essay task in the first place. The subsequent skills for conducting Online Library Research; Quoting, Paraphrasing, Avoiding Plagiarism, creating a testable ‘Working Thesis,’ producing an Annotated Bibliography (some courses also use a précis assignment), Evaluating and Categorizing Sources, etc.—are realistically supporting, scaffolding, and corroborating functional/operational skills designed to design, research, and produce the research-based essay project. Therefore—from a project-based and problem-oriented pedagogical strategy/approach—a sound argument could be proffered that putting Chapter 10 second in a reordered book would help students on many levels (not the least being engaging interest and promoting contextual understanding for why learning the content of the remaining chapters makes sense and can be critical/applicable to the research-writing process.

Continuing on my own WR122 course text-sequence customization—in Week Four—we move into the attribution phase of the writing process in Chapter 3: Quoting, Paraphrasing, and Avoiding Plagiarism. Logically, we then move (in Week Five) to Chapter 5: The Working Thesis so students can ask significant/original questions and determine a point of departure into their research essay. This seemed like a good time to add the concept of ‘opposition views’ (i.e., counter-claims, rejoinder and rebuttal) discussed in Chapter 8: The Antithesis. In Week Six—we moved into essay formatting, in-text citation and end references, so Chapter 12: Citing Your Research Using MLA or APA Style {(focusing on reading pp. 1-2 (brief overview), and pp. 18-33 about APA style)} was assigned. In addition, students also perused Chapter 7: The Critique preceding a related argumentative assignment (i.e., a movie review project). For Week Seven (concurrent with an annotated bibliography project for the main term paper—students read Chapter 6: The Annotated Bibliography, and Chapter 9: The Categorization and Evaluation (of sources) that was ostensibly/logically relevant to the annotated bibliography project. Concluding the course for Weeks Eight-Eleven—there were new required readings. Students were instructed to review previous readings in The Process of Research Writing (Krause, 2007)—time permitting. Also Note: Chapter 11: Alternative Ways to Present Your Research is completely optional reading. It is not particularly applicable to this course; there is a student’s self-reflection about the research process on pp. 3-11 that may have some nominal merit, but it notes MLA style (versus my course’s use of APA 6th edition style only) and is in any case not required.

The text is not fancy; standard black and white (high-contrast) font used throughout. For emphasis of key points, Krause does use special ‘highlight boxes’ with gray background, a thick black stroke on the outside of the rectangular textbox. While the gray level might be lowered (in the update) for improved contrast—the true-black, bulleted, bolded key-terms are easy to perceive/read. The only criticism I have is the distracting overuse of quotation mark punctuation for emphasis; this should be corrected in any updated version. Otherwise, most of the book’s interface presentation supports a good user (student) experience, good printability, and good accessibility per ADA and general disability (e.g., visually impaired learners) protocols.

There are no significant/glaring occurrences of grammatical errors in the text. I am not a ‘grammar snob’ in any case. The prose seems clear, cogent, thoughtful, well-written; it generally uses solid grammar, mechanics, and punctuation. The exception is the overuse of a somewhat casual/conversational tone combined with (what is more of a recognizable issue) a distracting overuse of quotation marks—many of which are simply neither needed nor helpful; most could be quickly removed with an immediate improvement to readability.

I do not see significant, relevant, or glaring faux pas pertaining to any biased disrespect for multiculturalism. All persons (e.g., races, ethnicities, genders, sexual orientations, and cultural backgrounds) are equally respected and appreciated. The content area (English composition) is very amenable to a relatively generic, culture-free perspective—and Krause’s examples and prose is well-within any applicable standards of post-modern, scholarly, formal non-fiction in written Standard English.

[1] The Process of Research Writing was ostensibly presented/published to Creative Commons in 2007. No identifiable part/portion of the original edition text appears to have been updated (changed, modified, or improved) since then (i.e., at least 10 years); This is perhaps the single, most apparent flaw/weakness for this textbook. An in-depth revision to 2017 post-rhetorical model essay-writing standards and APA conventions would be invaluable—and quite bluntly—is sorely required. A newly updated Version 2.0 for 2017-18 should be critically planned (and scheduled or already ‘in progress’ if it is not already).

[2] There are many insightful, practical, and high-value approaches to the research writing process; in this regard—the nominal OER title is superbly appropriate for late high-school and beginning college (undergraduate) research essay projects. Even though some of the technical components (e.g., APA style) require updating/revision (which makes basic, reasonable sense after a ‘decade on the shelf’ for any academic research writing source)—Krause’s chapters can effectively replace many expensive, glossy college entry-level textbooks! After presenting the core concepts in a coherent and self-evident manner, Krause supplies a plethora of examples to illustrate those concepts. Then (and this is one of the true strengths of this OER)—each chapter (particularly Chapters 5-10) highlights student-oriented exercises to practice those same core concepts). Because of this latter emphasis—the Krause OER is ‘learner-centered’ (as opposed to ‘content centered’), problem-oriented and performance-oriented as well—providing opportunities for creative, resourceful teachers to adapt/adopt the OER to course assignments.

[3] There does not appear to be a single (standalone) PDF for this OER. This is a notable flaw/weakness for this textbook. Conversely, however, although a single PDF would have some convenient ‘easier downloading’ advantages for students—having separate chapters affords every teacher to create a customized chapter-order (as I have efficiently done to correspond to my course design). The chapters support excellent modularity and the accompanying exercises/examples demonstrate the concepts Krause explicates with a fine degree of granularity for any teacher. Thus—integrating any textbooks or teaching/learning resources (like OERs) always has tradeoffs—plusses and minuses, positives and negatives. The obvious key, therefore, is taking the liberty of using the OER as a supporting scaffold or buttress to an instructor’s original design concept—rather than the foundation around which a course can be designed.

[4] Some minor weaknesses for prose instruction are (a) Krause’s acceptance of passive, sophomoric signal phrasing (i.e., According to X…)—as opposed to strong, active voice such as ‘’X found…’; and (b) a general overuse of quotation marks throughout the book. This is not meant as a harsh criticism—merely an observation that readability could be improved with a newer version that eliminates most quotation marks (Note: In APA style—these punctuation symbols are only used for verbatim quotes. This makes for a cleaner, clearer manuscript).

[5] One of the solid/helpful strengths of the book is a relatively accurate presentation of APA style for in-text citation and end references (Chapter 12). It appears that like many academics—Krause is more familiar and comfortable with the Modern Language Association’s MLA style/formatting. No problem there—I was simply trained on APA beginning in 1984 so it is native to me; I also use the latest version of APA style in all of my writing (college composition) courses. Thus—it should come as no surprise there are a number of obvious APA-associated inaccuracies including (but limited to): (a) meekly accepting ‘n.d.’ (no date) and ‘n.a.’ (no author) sources when a little investigative research by the student (and adherence to the APA rule hierarchy for dates and authors) would easily come up with a sound date and author. Another error (b) seems to be more typographic (formatting) and/or refers to an earlier edition of APA style: the end references in the PDF (and html versions?) use underline in place of italics. The 2011 APA 6th edition style does not use underline in the end references. There are other small (faux pas) errors such as (c) noting generally inaccessible proprietary online databases and servers (again—no longer done in APA). A thorough, meticulous updating of this OER source would probably take care of many of these APA-error issues. I’d be happy to work with Steve on this update at any time.

[6] I use Amy Guptill’s Writing in College: From Competence to Excellence by Amy Guptill of State University of New York (2016) for my English Composition I course that emphasizes general essay writing and a simple research-supported argumentative essay. I teach that course using the following assigned readings: Week One: Chapter 1 (Really? Writing? Again?), pp. 1-7, and Chapter 2 (What Does the Professor Want? Understanding the Assignment), pp. 9-18; Week Two: Chapter 6 (Back to Basics: The Perfect Paragraph), pp. 48-56; Chapter 7 (Intros and Outros), pp. 57-64; Week Four: Chapter 9 (Getting the Mechanics Right), pp. 75-85; Week Five: Chapter 8 (Clarity and Concision), pp. 65-73; Week Six: Chapter 3 (Constructing the Thesis and Argument—From the Ground Up), pp. 19-27; Week Seven: Chapter 4 (Secondary Sources in Their Natural Habitats), pp. 28-37; Week Eight: Chapter 5 (Listening to Sources, Talking to Sources), pp. 38-47. I then switch over to Krause’s OER for my English Composition II course. At Rogue Community College, Writing 122 emphasizes intermediate essay writing and analytical, more rigorous and original research-based essays involving critical thinking. I completely reordered the chapters as described above to fit into my course design. I like Krause’s individual ‘modular’ chapters—but the particular ‘scope and sequence’ he uses are debatable. Overall, however, The Process of Research Writing easily and effectively substitutes/replaces other costly tomes from for-profit academic publishers—even those that offer bundled DVDs and online-access to proprietary tutorial sources. Used in conjunction with other freely available PDF OERs, websites, YouTube videos, tutorial/practice sites from innumerable libraries, blogs (e.g., the APA Blog is particularly helpful)—as well as original/customized sources created by individual instructors for their own courses—the Krause book offers a good, solid baseline for developing research-based writing competencies particularly appropriate for the first two years of college.

Reviewed by Amy Jo Swing, English Instructor, Lake Superior College on 4/11/17

This book covers most of the main concepts of research writing: thesis, research, documenting, and process. It's weak on argument though, which is standard in most research composition texts. The book provides a clear index so finding information is relatively easy. The other weak spot is on evaluation evidence: there is a section on it but not comprehensive examples. Students in general needs lots of practice on how to evaluate and use information.

The information is accurate mostly except for the APA and MLA section. Writing and research writing haven't changed that much in a long time. It's more the technology and tools that change.

Relevance/Longevity rating: 2

The ideas about research and writing in general are fine, However, the references to technology and documentation are very out of date, over 10 years so. Students use technology very differently than described in this text, and the technologies themselves have changed. For example, the author talks about floppy disks and AOL messenger but not about Google Drive, Wikipedia, Prezi, or how to use phones and tablets while researching. Our students are digital natives and need to understand how to use their devices to write and research.

The book is quite readable in general. Concepts are easy to understand. Sometimes, they are almost too simple like the section explaining what a library is. Students might not be sophisticated library users, but they understand in general how they work. The chapters are concise, which is nice for student use too.

Except for pronoun use, the book is consistent in tone and terms. Not all the terms are ones I use in my own teaching, and it would be nice to see explanation of more argument/research frameworks like the Toulmin Model of argument.

The chapters are pretty self-contained and clear as individual units. I can see including certain chapters and leaving out others that aren't as relevant to my teaching style or assignments. One could easily assign the chapters in a different order, but students ask lots of questions when you assign chapter 6 first and then weeks later, assign chapter 2 or 3.

The basic chapters make sense in terms of how they are created and categorized but the order is problematic if an instructor were to assign them in the order presented. For example, the chapter on creating an annotated bibliography comes before the one on documenting (APA/MLA). Students can't complete an annotated bibliography without knowing how to cite sources. Same with evaluating sources. There is so much information on locating sources before any clear mention is made of how to evaluate them. I find that is the weak spot with students. If they learn how to evaluate sources, it's easier to find and locate and research effectively.

Not many images. Students really like info-graphics, pictures, and multi-media. The hyperlinks to other sections of the book do not work in either the PDF or HTML versions. I do like some of the illustrations like mapping and how research is more a web than a linear process. For an online textbook, there aren't a lot of hyperlinks to outside resources (of which there are so many like Purdue's OWL and the Guide to Grammar and Writing).

There were quite a few errors : comma errors, spelling (affect/effect), some pronoun agreement errors, capitalization errors with the title in Chapter Four. The author also uses passive voice quite a bit, which is inconsistent with the general familiar tone. In some chapters, there is constant switching between first, second, and third person. I focus much on point of view consistency in my students' writing, and this would not be a great model for that.

Cultural Relevance rating: 3

There is no cultural offensiveness but not much diversity in examples and students names either. Marginalized students (of color, with disabilities, of different sexuality or gender) would not see themselves reflected much.

This is a good basic reference on the process of writing and research. However, it would not be too useful without updated information on technology and documentation. As a web-based text, it reads more like a traditional physical textbook.

Reviewed by Jocelyn Pihlaja, Instructor, Lake Superior College on 2/8/17

The length and scope of this book are appropriate for a semester-long research writing course, with twelve chapters that move from foundational concepts into more specific skills that are needed for the crafting of a paper incorporating MLA or APA citation. In particular, I like that the early chapters cover the questions of "Why Write Research Papers?" and how to think critically, the middle chapters provide specific activities in the skills of quoting and paraphrasing, and the later chapters bring in assignments (such as writing an annotated bibliography) that help students practice and build content for their ultimate paper.There is no index or glossary to this book; however, the table of contents provides an overview of the chapters that guides navigation well.

Content Accuracy rating: 3

In terms of the thinking, this book's information is logical and sound. The explanations of concepts and activities read easily and do a fine job of explicating the why and how of research writing. In a few places, however, the word "effected" is used when it should be "affected." Editing also is needed when the author uses phrases such as "in the nutshell" instead of "in a nutshell." As well, in Chapter 4, there is pronoun/antecedent disagreement when the author uses "their" to refer to "each member." Also, each chapter contains at least one "Hyperlink" to supplemental information, yet the hyperlinks are dead. For the most part, the text is clean and well edited, but we English teachers are line-editing sticklers, so even small, occasional errors stand out. Overall: the ideas presented are accurate and free of bias, yet there are a few, niggling errors.

When it comes to relevance and longevity, this book is problematic. In fact, it is so outdated as to be unusable, at least for this instructor. Certainly, the concepts presented are solid; they don't change with passing years. However, typographically, the book is passe, as it uses two spaces after periods. Even more troubling is that it refers to the Internet as "new" and comes from a point of view that sees this thing called "the World Wide Web" as novel while also noting students might want to rely on microfilm and microfiche during their research. In another example, the author suggests to students that a benefit of writing on computers is that they can share their work with each other on disc or through email. Truly, such references make the book unusable for a class in 2017. Another issue is that the Modern Language Association has updated its guidelines several times since this book's publication; ideally, a text used in a research writing class would cover, if not the latest guidelines, at least the previous version of the guidelines. A full rewrite of the book is necessary before it could be adopted. As the book currently stands, students would roll their eyes at the antiquated technological language, and the teacher would need to apologize for asking students to read a text that is so out-of-date.

The writing in this book is both accessible and intelligent. It's eminently readable. Specifically, the inclusion of things like an "Evidence Quality and Credibility Checklist" at the end of Chapter 1 and the continual use of grey boxes that highlight major concepts is very good. Also extremely helpful are the examples of student writing that end nearly every chapter; these models demonstrate to readers what is expected from each assignment. Finally, the explanations of quoting and paraphrasing are superior -- so clear, so easy for students to digest. Were it not outdated in terms of technological references, I would definitely consider using this book in my classes due to the clarity of the prose.

Consistency rating: 3

For the most part, the book is well structured and consistent in its design and layout. Each chapter provides general explanation of a concept, moves into a specific assignment, and ends with an example or two of student responses to that assignment. Very quickly, readers know what to expect from each chapter, and there's something comforting about the predictability of the layout, especially in a book that is being read on a screen, using scrolling. When it comes to the terminology, my only note would be that the book starts out using a relaxed second-person point of view, addressing students as "you," but then, at the end of Chapter 2, the author suddenly begins also using the first-person "I." This first-person point of view continues throughout the book, so it becomes consistent from that point on, but for me as a reader, I never quite adjusted to that level of informality, particularly when all the sentences using "I" could easily be re-written in the third person. Before reading this text, I hadn't really considered what I like in a book, but now I know: because I want the text to model the ideal, I would prefer a more formal (and consistent) point of view. Today's students struggle to create essays that don't include "you" or "I" -- even when they very consciously are trying to avoid those words. Learning to write from the third person POV is surprisingly challenging. Therefore, my personal preference would be a textbook that consistently models this approach.

The chapters in this book are of a perfect length -- long enough to develop the ideas and present comprehensive explanations yet short enough to be ingested and excised. Put another way, I could see grabbing bits and pieces of this text and using them in my classes. For instance, without adopting the entire text, I still could pull the instructions for the Anti-Thesis essay or the Annotated Bibliography, or I could use the explanation of the purpose of collaboration. Indeed, the chapters and exercises in this book are tight "modules" that allow an instructor to pick and choose or to reorganize the chapters to better fit with an individual course structure. For me, although I won't use this entire text, I can envision incorporating pieces of it into my teaching.

The organization of this book is one of its greatest strengths. It starts with a broad overview of research into an exploration of the process behind seeking out reputable sources, weaves in a few shorter essay assignments that serve as building blocks for a longer paper, and culminates with the ideas for a final, capstone research project -- something that naturally grows out of all the previous chapters. Each chapter in the text flows easily out of the chapter before it. One of this text's greatest strengths is how each successive chapter builds on the concepts presented in the previous chapters.

As noted earlier, the hyperlinks in the book don't work. As well, the screenshots included in the book are blurry and add little, except frustration, to the content. Outside of those issues, though, the book is physically easy to read and navigate, largely thanks to the easy clicking between the table of contents and individual chapters.

As suggested earlier, the book, as a whole, reads easily, yet there are some errors with the homonyms "effected" and "affected," along with pronoun/antecedent disagreement. I also noticed a handful of places where there are extra spaces around commas (in addition to the use of two spaces after periods).

This text is definitely not insensitive or offensive; its tone is fair and balanced, free of bias. On the other hand, this book does not really bring in examples that address diversity. Students reading this book will not see acknowledgment of different races, ethnicities, sexual preferences, or personal histories. Thus, in addition to updating the references to technology, if this book were rewritten, it also could more deliberately address this lack. As it is, the content of this book does feel whitewashed and free of cultural relevance.

There is a lot of promise in this text because the explanations and assignments are so good. But unless it is updated, I don’t see it as usable in a current classroom.

Reviewed by Leana Dickerson, Instructor , Linn Benton Community College on 2/8/17

The author certainly outlines and examines elements of research writing, and does so in a very clear, organized, and thoughtful way. There is no glossary or index included in the text, but the chapters and headings in the table of contents and at the beginning of each section very clearly outline what is to be expected from the text. Most all of the concepts are very thoroughly explained and examined including topics that typically are glossed over in research writing texts, including the opposition to argument, close reading, and the importance of research writing to a variety of career pathways. Although thorough in what is present, there are some issues that I would want to touch on with my research students including developing effective argument, logical organization, and examples of the revision process.

The information in this text is accurate and adequately explained. It seems readily accessible for any college age student, but doesn’t expect students to come with a background in research or writing. MLA formatting for works cited pages is up to date, and even addresses the fact that the format for citation changes regularly and points to appropriate resources outside of the text. The only formatting issue that I noticed were some in-text citations (examples throughout early chapters) that included a comma which is no longer expected by the MLA. In the works cited section (and throughout, in examples) when referring to book titles, the author does use the underline function instead of an italicized book title; the author also refers to the use of either italic or underlined differentiation, yet MLA suggests italics in text form.

The content of this text is very straight forward and although essentially up to date, may need updates as relevant technology develops. Updates should be simple and clear to implement as needed because of the strict organization of each chapter.

I found the content clarity in this text to be refreshing for college age students. Often, as an instructor, I ask my students to read a text and then I must re-visit the content in lecture format to ensure that my students are not lost on terminology or foundational knowledge. This text does not assume any prior knowledge from the reader, but also does not feel rudimentary. The formatting and highlighted importance of some information also provided clarity and consistency throughout. The author paced information well, building on major concepts from the beginning and returning to them throughout. The final stages of the text bring students to a major essay that easily shows how each concept included throughout the text can weave into a larger project.

This text is consistent, and feels organized with format, terminology, and the building of content from beginning to end.

The sections in this text are easily broken into segments that can be taught or read at any point throughout the writing process. The text does build on exercises from the beginning to the end, but each of these can be taken out of a linear timeline and used for multiple kinds of projects. The author actually refers to this organization in text, making it clear how each element can work alone or for a streamlined project.

Concepts build upon one another, and yet can be returned to (or jumped to) out of order and still be easy to access and utilize. The text is broken up nicely with bolded, bulleted, or boxed items which designate a stopping point, a discussion to consider, or important details or concepts to focus on.

The layout and navigation of this text online is very accessible, organized, and easy to read. The text PDFs often open in a full browser window, other times they open as PDF documents, but either way include a clean, streamlined format. The text does not seem to be able to be downloaded, making it potentially difficult for students to access without internet access. One issue that I did encounter was that in PDF format, or in html, hyperlinks do not function.

The text is clear, free of grammatical errors, and flows well.

This text is relevant to all audiences and very approachable for college age students.

I found this text to be a refreshing change from what is typically find in research textbooks; it’s relevance to more than just the assignment will help students connect research to the broader concept of academia and other facets of their lives. The antithesis section is a useful way for students to really engage with an opposing opinion and how they can then incorporate that into a successful research project. Also, the differing ways of presenting research I found to be useful for students to think about their project beyond a stapled stack of pages, and to expand that to differing modes of communication and presentation. I look forward to being able to use this text with students.

Reviewed by Samuel Kessler, Postdoctoral Fellow, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University on 2/8/17

"The Process of Research Writing" covers most of the areas students need to understand as they begin research writing at a college level. It has explanations of theses, bibliographies, citations, outlines, first paragraphs, etc. There is no index or glossary, the latter especially being something that would have been very helpful and easy to put together. Krause has many useful definitions and quick-help guides throughout the text, but they are so scattered and ineffectively labeled that it can be very difficult to find them without reading through whole chapters in one's search. On the whole, buried inside these pages, is a very effective guides to *teaching* about research writing. In truth, this book is a teacher's introduction to a class (or, more realistically, three or four class sessions) devoted to college-level academic writing. Unfortunately, there are a lot of words that one has to get through to find all these subject, which can make for tough going.

Based on the questions and errors I see my students making, Krause has done a strong job of highlighting the basics of proper academic research. He spends much time on sources, especially on learning to differentiate between scholarly, trade, and journalistic sources, as well as how to steer clear and note the signs of online schlock (i.e. much of the internet). His tips for peer-to-peer editing and self-reflexive assignments are just the sort of things our students needs help working on.

This is a strange book. The portions that are about implementing class assignments or explaining terms like thesis and antithesis, as well as the examples of an outline or a good first paragraph, are all excellent tools for a classroom.

But there are so many instances of irrelevant or outdates explanations. No college student today needs to read about why writing on a computer is a useful thing to do. No student needs to read about how email can be a tool for academic exchange. A section on using computers for research? On how to copy and paste within a word document? (And no-one calls it the "World Wide Web".) These are issues for the late 90s, not for students in the second decade of the twenty-first century.

There is also a fair amount that is personal and peculiar to the author: a discussion of why he uses the term "research essay" instead of "research paper"? That is just wasted space, and actually without the argumentative merits of a research thesis that he had been teaching up to that point.

For students at research universities, or even at second-tier state and private colleges, the information about libraries and library catalogues changes so quickly that I could never assign those passages. Instead, we'll spend class time looking at our specific library interface. And often, so much material is being sent off-site these days that in many humanities fields its not even possible to scan the shelves any longer. And in science, books are almost irrelevant: online access journals are where the latest research is stored. A bound edition of *Science* from the 1970s contains very little that's important for a scientific research paper written in 2016--unless that paper is about the history of some form of experiment.

Krause writes in a folksy, breezy second-person. Now, so does Tom Friedman of the Times, though that is one of the main criticisms of his otherwise insights books. Krause has a tendency to be overly wordy. This book should more closely resemble Hemingway than Knausgaard in order to be practical. For students who have Facebook etc. open while they're reading this book, every sentence that's not directly relevant will make their minds wander. There are so many sentences that simply need to be cut. To use this book, I'd need to cut and paste just the relevant passages. And without an index or glossary, assigning sections to students is very hard.

"The Process of Research Writing" is internally consistent. Krause maintains the same tone throughout, and defines terms as he goes along. The chapters vary considerably in length, with the short chapters always being more useful and focused, with less superfluous verbiage and fewer authorial quirks.

Modularity rating: 2

"The Process of Research Writing" is a very difficult text to use. The HTML and PDF versions are identical, which defeats the unique way the internet functions. I read this book on both Safari and Chrome, and in neither browser do the hyperlinks work. The tables of content at the heads of each chapter do not link to their respective sections. The projects, assignments, and definitions do not appear in different windows, which would make them possible to keep open while continuing on in the book. There are many instances in which moving back and forth between sections would be very helpful, and that is simply not possible without having multiple windows of the same book open and going between them that way--something that is very clumsy. And again, there are so many superfluous words that even assigning specific chapters means getting through a lot of talk before actually encountering the various hints, tricks, and explanations that are important for learning how to do college-level research.

"The Process of Research Writing" reads like a series of lectures that are meant to be give in a large lecture class, with assignments appended throughout and at the ends. The order of the books is, overall, what one would expect and need for teaching the basics. However, there is a good deal in Chapter 10 that should have appeared earlier (outlines, for instance), and that becomes part of one long chapter that is difficult to use and should have been divided into smaller sections.

As mentioned, in neither Safari nor Chrome do the hyperlinks work. And there appears to have been no planning for links from the chapter tables-of-content to their various associated sections. This makes it very difficult to get between sections or to return to where one was after going somewhere else in the book. Further, there are many links on the internet that remain stable over long periods of time. The Library of Congress, for instance, about which there is a section concerning its cataloguing system, should have a link. As should WorldCat, which for many people who do not have access to a major research library is the best place for learning about texts. Many services like LexusNexus, ABC Clio, and the NY Times archive all also maintain stable websites that should be externally linked.

Except for a smattering of typos, the book has fine (though informal) grammar. This is not a text that could also be used to demonstrate high-level academic writing.

There is nothing culturally offensive here in any way.

In many ways, this is a much better book for teachers of first-year students than for the students themselves. There are many sections of this book to pull out and assign, or to read together in class, to help students gain an understanding of college-level research. But this is not a book I'd ever assign to my students in total. The suggestions for in-class and homework assignments are all high quality pedagogy. But students shouldn't read about their own assignments--they should just do them. Departments can give this book to first-year professors to help them create class periods where they teach their students how to write papers. That would be an excellent use for this text. But as a book for students themselves, I cannot recommend it.

Reviewed by Margaret Wood, Instructor, Klamath Community College on 8/21/16

The book thoroughly covers the material that first-year college research writers need to know including an introduction to basic academic research concepts, searches and source evaluation from library and web resources, a thorough discussion of summary, paraphrase and direct quotation, collaboration and peer review, topic selection, hypothesis and thesis development, annotated bibliography, text analysis and evaluation, engaging seriously with opposing viewpoints, working with evidence and attributes of evidence, the components of a traditional research essay, alternative forms of presentation (web-based project), and finally MLA and APA documentation. There are also hyperlinks to help readers move to relevant information in other chapters.

While concepts like ethos, logos, and pathos are mentioned in passing, they are not deeply developed. Other topics I generally teach alongside research which are not covered include strategies for defining terms, inductive and deductive logic, and logical fallacies.

I did not identify any inaccuracies or biases. There are areas where focus may be a bit different. For example, the model my institution uses for annotated bibliographies uses the rhetorical precis as a summary model, and also encourages a brief evaluative analysis. On the other hand, the emphasis given to the antithesis is new to me, and looks like a very good idea. I did identify a couple of grammatical issues -- two cases of "effect" instead of "affect", and one pronoun agreement problem.

Good writing principles don't tend to change that much. The discussion of the Web-based research project is very timely.

The book is written in a conversational style which should be easy for students to understand. All technical terms are clearly explained. There are also aids for comprehension and review including: a useful bulleted list at the beginning of each chapter outlines material covered in that chapter; highlighted boxes which provide guidance for class discussion on the topic; sample assignments; easy-to-read checklists of key points.

The text is entirely consistent. Hyperlinks help to connect key points to other chapters.

The material is subdivided into clear and appropriate chapters; moreover, the chapters provide clear subheadings. However, I did identify one instance where subheadings indicated material that is not present in chapter four: Three Ideas for Collaborative Projects * Research Idea Groups * Research Writing Partners * Collaborative Research Writing Projects.

Also, as previously mentioned, some material that I would like to include is not covered in this text.

I feel that chapter 3 should be placed later, at a point in the term where students have actually begun the writing process.

Images, though used infrequently, are blurry, and hyperlinks, at least as I was able to access them, did not appear to be active.

Mentioned above -- two "effect"/"affect" issues and one issue of pronoun agreement

I did not identify any culturally insensitive issues. The one essay topic used throughout, a thesis involving The Great Gatsby, I did not find particularly relevant, since my institution excludes literature from its research projects.

Solid and thorough advice on research writing. Quite heavy on text, but advice is useful and frequently innovative.

Reviewed by Laura Sanders, Instructor, Portland Community College on 8/21/16

The text offers a comprehensive discussion of all the elements of writing a research project. The author covers evaluating sources, using library research, incorporating research into essays, collaborative work, creating a thesis, as well as... read more

The text offers a comprehensive discussion of all the elements of writing a research project.

The author covers evaluating sources, using library research, incorporating research into essays, collaborative work, creating a thesis, as well as writing annotated bibliographies, close reading, opposition, alternative project formats, and citing sources.

Although there is no index or glossary, the text is organized in discrete chapters available on the site as HTML or PDF for easy navigation.

Although I found no inaccuracies, both the APA and MLA handbooks have been updated since the versions used in this text.

Most of the content will not be obsolete any time soon, but the citation chapter is not based on recent APA and MLA handbooks.

The section on alternative ways to present research (Chapter 11) could be updated to include YouTube, Prezi, and more recent technology.

The modular format would make it very easy to update.

The text is written at a level that is appropriate for the target audience, college students who need to build research and writing skills.

This text is internally consistent.

I consider the modules to be one of the main strengths of the text. The sections have useful subheadings.

It would be easy to select specific chapters as course readings.

The chapters follow an intuitive sequence of developing a paper from topic to research to draft.

This text is easy to navigate.

I found no grammar errors.

There are ample opportunities here to add cultural diversity to the sample topics and writing tasks.

I am thrilled to offer this text to my students instead of the incredibly expensive alternatives currently available.

I am particularly interested in using this book for online writing courses, so students who desire more thorough discussion of particular stages of writing a research project could build or refresh foundational skills in these areas.

Introduction
Chapter One: Thinking Critically About Research
Chapter Two: Understanding and Using the Library and the Internet for Research
Chapter Three: Quoting, Paraphrasing, and Avoiding Plagiarism
Chapter Four: How to Collaborate and Write With Others
Chapter Five: The Working Thesis Exercise
Chapter Six: The Annotated Bibliography Exercise
Chapter Seven: The Critique Exercise
Chapter Eight: The Antithesis Exercise
Chapter Nine: The Categorization and Evaluation Exercise
Chapter Ten: The Research Essay
Chapter Eleven: Alternative Ways to Present Your Research
Chapter Twelve: Citing Your Research Using MLA or APA Style

Ancillary Material

About the book.

The title of this book is The Process of Research Writing , and in the nutshell, that is what the book is about. A lot of times, instructors and students tend to separate “thinking,” “researching,” and “writing” into different categories that aren't necessarily very well connected. First you think, then you research, and then you write. The reality is though that the possibilities and process of research writing are more complicated and much richer than that. We think about what it is we want to research and write about, but at the same time, we learn what to think based on our research and our writing. The goal of this book is to guide you through this process of research writing by emphasizing a series of exercises that touch on different and related parts of the research process.

About the Contributors

Steven D. Krause grew up in eastern Iowa, earned a BA in English at the University of Iowa, an MFA in Fiction Writing at Virginia Commonwealth University, and a PhD in Rhetoric and Writing at Bowling Green State University. He joined the faculty at Eastern Michigan University in 1998.

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What Is Research?

What is research writing.

Research = the physical process of gathering information + the mental process of deriving the answer to your question from the information you gathered. Research writing = the process of sharing the answer to your research question along with the evidence on which your answer is based, the sources you used, and your own reasoning and explanation .

The essential components or building blocks of research writing are the same no matter what kind of question you are answering or what kind of reader you are assuming as you share your answer.

The Essential Building Blocks of Research Writing

Begin from a question to which you don’t know the answer and that can’t be answered just by going to the appropriate reference source. That is, begin from a research question, not a homework question.
Decide what kind of information or data will be needed in order to build the answer to the question.
Gather information and/or collect data.
Work with the information/data to derive or construct your answer.
This will be the thesis statement/main point/controlling idea of your research paper.
Include plentiful and well-chosen examples from the data/information you gathered
Indicate the validity of your data by accurately reporting your research method (field or lab research)
Indicate the quality of your information by accurately citing your sources (source-based research)
Provide the reasoning and explanation that will let your readers completely understand how the evidence adds up to your answer.

Photo of a man using a card catalog in a library

Composition II. Authored by : Janet Zepernick. Provided by : Pittsburg State University. Located at : http://www.pittstate.edu/ . Project : Kaleidoscope Open Course Initiative. License : CC BY: Attribution
Image of man using card catalog. Authored by : brewbooks. Located at : https://flic.kr/p/7NxJTd . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike

ENGL002: English Composition II

Course introduction.

Time: 101 hours
Free Certificate

The intent of this course is to teach you how to prepare research for any discipline or subject. We will carefully explore and practice general research techniques and processes that you should apply to many academic disciplines and in your job.

In Unit 1, you will select a topic that intrigues you, conduct preliminary research to focus your topic, and develop a thesis statement and a set of questions to help guide the remainder of your research.

In Unit 2, you will learn strategies for conducting your research and taking careful notes. We will look carefully at researching on the Internet, but we will also make a point of honing the skills necessary to research topics in a physical library. We will explore some of the techniques that scholars use to record and organize the information that they plan to include in their work so you can make the most of your resources when you start to write. By the end of the unit, you will have completed detailed notes for your own research project.

In Unit 3, you will learn how to evaluate and understand the sources you located in the previous units. You will learn why it is important to put significant effort into reading and evaluating Internet sources and how to identify and what you need to consider when you use primary and secondary sources. You also will get plenty of practice in determining how and when to use sources to help make your point. By the end of this unit, you will start to understand how to determine whether any source is authoritative, accurate, and current. You will also have an annotated bibliography that will guide you through the writing process.

In Unit 4, you will develop your argument and create a detailed outline for your research paper. We will take some time to reinforce and expand upon the rhetorical concepts we introduced in Composition I. Like the prerequisite course, this unit focuses on putting your research to work to strengthen your academic writing. We will study how to use the results of your research and analysis to bolster written arguments and support rhetorical strategies.

Unit 5 focuses on how to use style standards and citation methodology correctly. This unit will help you clearly understand why it is important to document and cite your sources and do so consistently and correctly. We will closely examine the issue of plagiarism, noting the situations that can cause writers to misuse source materials, either consciously or accidentally. After completing this unit, you will write a complete draft of your research paper.

Unit 6 prepares you for revising and polishing your paper. We will provide you with detailed editorial exercises focusing on specific elements of sentence and paragraph structure, grammar, and mechanics, which will help you achieve your goal of writing clear, grammatically-sound expository and persuasive prose.

We will use the Modern Language Association (MLA) standards for citation and formatting. Refer to this cheat sheet on MLA Style Resources for links to the most useful MLA sites on the internet.

Course Syllabus

First, read the course syllabus. Then, enroll in the course by clicking "Enroll me". Click Unit 1 to read its introduction and learning outcomes. You will then see the learning materials and instructions on how to use them.

Unit 1: Research and the Writing Process

Researching and reporting the results of research are fundamental to academic work in almost every discipline and many professional contexts. While research in itself may seem like an enormous task when you are just starting a project, it is important to understand that effective research is a straightforward, step-by-step process. By practicing effective research techniques and becoming adept with the tools that are available to researchers, you will begin to see research as an invaluable part of an organized system of study that includes discovery, invention, critical thinking, and clear communication.

While writing is sometimes viewed as a solitary undertaking, research requires active involvement in a larger community of scholars. You will have a chance to define yourself as a member of many communities, and you will begin to see your research as an important part of the conversations that take part among members of your communities. As you begin to see yourself as an active contributor in a community, you will start to understand how others' work can both enrich your own perceptions and improve your understanding of the topic about which you are writing.

To help you get started as a contributing member of a community of scholars, we will first explore how your research can support the writing process you began developing in ENGL001. You will recall that the PWR Method is a process based on pre-writing, writing, editing, and proofreading, so it is probably no surprise to learn that effective research follows a similar process and is based on similar methods of preparation and analysis.

By mastering the essentials of effective research, you can train yourself to think more carefully about your work at every stage of the writing process. For example, you probably know how much a good quote can emphasize an important point. Still, you may not be conscious of how helpful general background research can be in the very earliest phases of your writing, when you are just beginning to refine your topic and clarify your thesis and argument.

As we continue to build your experience as a member of a research community, we will explore how effective research can help you appeal to specific audiences and more clearly define the purpose of your writing.

Completing this unit should take you approximately 16 hours.

Unit 2: Researching: How, What, When, Where, and Why

If you are already working on a writing project, you most likely are well aware that you often need to start writing to discover all of your ideas about a subject. In this unit, we will take the discovery process a bit further by exploring how identifying, analyzing, and making effective use of others' work can do even more to clarify your viewpoint and refine your thesis.

We will begin by looking at research as a concept. By now, you should feel a little more comfortable thinking of yourself as a researcher, and you may be anxious to get started. To get you off on the right foot, we will look at how analysis and planning can streamline your research efforts and help you make the best use of your findings. After that, we will dig deeper into the research process itself. Besides learning more about traditional library research methods, you will have a chance to get acquainted with methods for conducting research in person, on your computer, and on the Internet.

We will also define primary and secondary sources and will look at some of the merits of using both of these types of information. We will spend quite a bit of time reviewing the tools and techniques for researching on the Internet. You will have a chance to explore some of the most useful Internet sites for locating both printed and online information, and you will start to get a clearer idea about where to look for information in specific disciplines and to fulfill specific purposes.

Finally, we will acknowledge the importance of keeping research well-organized and clearly documented. You will get a chance to practice the best techniques for recording, organizing, and annotating the source information you want to use.

By the end of this unit, you should have a good understanding of how to carry out your research in an organized, thoughtful manner. You should also have the opportunity to complete much of the preliminary research for your final paper and to identify any information gaps that may require further investigation.

Completing this unit should take you approximately 17 hours.

Unit 3: Reviewing and Analyzing Your Sources

A successful research paper is more than a well-constructed argument supplemented by facts, figures, and quotations. Like the good writing that it supports, successful research involves planning, careful analysis, and reflection. Before you can incorporate an outside source into your work, you must take some time to think about more than just the facts and ideas you have uncovered. Is the source authoritative? Is the information substantiated fact, or is it primarily opinion? Is it up-to-date? Is it accurate and complete? These are just some of the essential questions you must ask about each piece of source information that you discover.

In this unit, you will take an in-depth look at some techniques for analyzing and evaluating the information you locate. As you review critical reading as a research strategy, you will look very closely at techniques for evaluating and comparing information that you find on the Internet and in print. You will learn some well-established techniques for determining whether a source is reputable and authoritative, and you will acquire some tools for discerning fact and opinion. You will also get to have a little fun as you complete a WebQuest in which you will find and analyze information online.

By the time you have completed this unit, you should be more confident about how and when to use the sources you have identified, and you should have a basic understanding of how to use your research to effectively and clearly support a well-developed academic paper. You will also be ready to complete your research.

Completing this unit should take you approximately 20 hours.

Unit 4: Putting Your Source Material to Work

Many college research papers are structured primarily as arguments supported, at least in part, by evidence gathered from outside sources. A major purpose of ENGL001 was to define written arguments and practice some techniques for developing them. To help clarify the close relationships between research and argumentation, we will use the first part of this unit to review some of the basics of formulating written arguments. As we do so, you will be able to explore the best techniques for putting research to work in your writing, and we will analyze how these techniques support the fundamental requirements of successful academic writing.

As we discuss the essential components, you should pay particular attention to how your research must support your basic logical structure and rhetorical strategy. This unit will give you a chance to get a little more practice in analyzing and developing written arguments.

You will spend some time investigating how various forms of research can support different writing strategies, including literary analysis, discussions, and comparison-contrast strategies. You will get some more practice in using research and analytical tools and have an opportunity to update your paper if you think it needs it.

Before we begin the more rigorous practice of citation and style in Unit 4, we will take a more general look at how to build quotations, paraphrases, and summaries into your work. You will be able to explore the best uses for all of these forms of reference so that you can confidently use your source material without changing its meaning, tone, or intent – or distorting your own.

At the end of the unit, you will use what you have learned to create a detailed outline that specifies what resources you will use to develop your arguments more fully.

Completing this unit should take you approximately 21 hours.

Unit 5: Writing the Research Paper and Acknowledging Your Sources

When you write a research paper, your work's success can depend almost as heavily on the work of others as it does on your own efforts. Your information sources not only provide essential facts and insights that can enhance and clarify your original ideas, but source material can also help you better understand your own theories and opinions and help you to arrive at more authoritative, clearly-drawn conclusions.

Because of the debt that you, as the author of a research paper, owe your sources, you must understand how to present, acknowledge, and document the sources you have built into your work. You should be aware that using accepted standards of style and citation can benefit you as a writer. When your references are clearly annotated within your work, you can see where your source material appears, making it that much easier to edit, update, and expand your work.

By following accepted standards to present your work in a manner accessible to readers, you also enhance your credibility as a writer and researcher. When your readers can easily identify and check your sources, they are more likely to accept you as a member of their discourse communities. This is especially important in an academic environment, where your readers are likely to investigate your work as a potential source for their own research projects. To put it bluntly, careful adherence to accepted style conventions in academic writing can mean the difference between great success and total failure.

In this unit, we will review the concept of plagiarism and discuss how you can use clear, consistent documentation to avoid even the unintentional misuse of source material. We will also review many of the commonly accepted methods of acknowledging and documenting sources used in writing college research papers. We will pay particular attention to the Modern Language Association (MLA) style standards because this is the most widely used convention in college undergraduate work.

This unit will culminate in an opportunity to build your selected source material into a fully developed first draft of your final research paper. By the time you have finished the final activity in this unit, you should have accomplished much of the groundwork for your final research paper.

By the time you have finished the work in this unit, you should have a command of the materials and techniques you will need to complete a well-developed academic paper. As a by-product, your final research paper for this course will probably be nearly finished.

This unit's final activity is to develop a final polished and clearly documented research paper that makes full use of the tools, techniques, and products that you have discovered, developed, and organized during the preceding four units.

Completing this unit should take you approximately 27 hours.

Unit 6: Polishing Your Research Paper

Now that you have completed the draft of your research paper, you will revise and polish it. Remember that writing is a process from the pre-writing phase to drafting to revising your essay. This unit will review techniques for revising and improving your writing in this unit. In revising your paper, you will consider the use of diction, sentence-level issues (like transitional phrases, grammar, tone, and so on), paragraph-level problems (like cohesion or relating the paragraph to your thesis), and incorporating proper format for MLA style.

Completing this unit should take you approximately 13 hours.

Study Guide

These study guides will help you get ready for the final exam. They discuss the key topics in each unit, walk through the learning outcomes, and list important vocabulary terms. They are not meant to replace the course materials!

Course Feedback Survey

Please take a few minutes to give us feedback about this course. We appreciate your feedback, whether you completed the whole course or even just a few resources. Your feedback will help us make our courses better, and we use your feedback each time we make updates to our courses.

If you come across any urgent problems, email [email protected].

Certificate Final Exam

Take this exam if you want to earn a free Course Completion Certificate.

To receive a free Course Completion Certificate, you will need to earn a grade of 70% or higher on this final exam. Your grade for the exam will be calculated as soon as you complete it. If you do not pass the exam on your first try, you can take it again as many times as you want, with a 7-day waiting period between each attempt.

Once you pass this final exam, you will be awarded a free Course Completion Certificate .

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3.4: What Is Research Writing?

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Research = the physical process of gathering information + the mental process of deriving the answer to your question from the information you gathered. Research writing = the process of sharing the answer to your research question along with the evidence on which your answer is based, the sources you used, and your own reasoning and explanation .

The essential components or building blocks of research writing are the same no matter what kind of question you are answering or what kind of reader you are assuming as you share your answer.

The Essential Building Blocks of Research Writing

Begin from a question to which you don’t know the answer and that can’t be answered just by going to the appropriate reference source. That is, begin from a research question, not a homework question.
Decide what kind of information or data will be needed in order to build the answer to the question.
Gather information and/or collect data.
Work with the information/data to derive or construct your answer.

This is the research process , and it happens before you begin to write your paper. No research, no research writing, so don’t shortchange this part of the process.

This will be the thesis statement/main point/controlling idea of your research paper.
Include plentiful and well-chosen examples from the data/information you gathered
Indicate the validity of your data by accurately reporting your research method (field or lab research)
Indicate the quality of your information by accurately citing your sources (source-based research)
Provide the reasoning and explanation that will let your readers completely understand how the evidence adds up to your answer.

Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\)

English for Writing Research Papers

Adrian Wallwork 0

Pisa, Italy

You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

How to: structure sections (abstract, methods) and keep editors/ referees happy
Sentence/paragraph structure; avoiding redundancy, ambiguity and plagiarism; using AI to correct and paraphrase
Unique insights into writing skills based on editing around 5000 research papers authored by non-natives

Part of the book series: English for Academic Research (EAR)

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Table of contents (20 chapters)

Front matter, writing skills, planning and preparation.

Adrian Wallwork

Word order and sentence length

Structuring paragraphs, being concise and removing redundancy, avoiding ambiguity, repetition, and vague language, clarifying and highlighting, discussing your limitations, readability, automatic translation, sections of a paper, abstracts: standard types, abstracts: particular types, introduction, writing a review of the literature.

Publishing your research in an international journal is key to your success in academia. This guide is based on a study of over 1000 manuscripts and reviewers' reports revealing why papers written by non-native researchers are often rejected due to problems with English usage and poor structure and content.

With easy-to-follow rules and tips, and examples taken from published and unpublished papers, you will learn how to:

prepare and structure a manuscript
increase readability and reduce the number of mistakes you make in English by writing concisely, with no redundancy and no ambiguity
write a title and an abstract that will attract attention and be read
decide what to include in the various parts of the paper (Introduction, Methodology, Discussion etc)
highlight your claims and contribution
avoid plagiarism
discuss the limitations of your research
choose the correct tenses and style
satisfy the requirements of editors and reviewers

This edition has two completely new chapters covering machine translation and using AI tools (e.g. chatbots, paraphrasers, editing tools) to improve and correct the English of a text.

Other titles in this series:

Grammar, Usage and Style

Grammar, Vocabulary, and Writing Exercises (three volumes)

100 Tips to Avoid Mistakes in Academic Writing and Presenting

English for Presentations at International Conferences

English for Academic Correspondence

English for Interacting on Campus

English for Academic CVs, Resumes, and Online Profiles

English for Academic Research: A Guide for Teachers

Adrian Wallwork is the author of more than 40 English Language Teaching (ELT) and English for Academic Purposes (EAP) textbooks. He has trained several thousand PhDstudents and researchers from 50 countries to write papers. He edits research manuscripts through his own proofreading and editing agency.

Research papers
preparing and structuring a manuscript
readability
avoiding mistakes
redundancy and ambiguity
introductions
review of the literature
highlighting results

Book Title : English for Writing Research Papers

Authors : Adrian Wallwork

Series Title : English for Academic Research

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-31072-0

Publisher : Springer Cham

eBook Packages : Education , Education (R0)

Copyright Information : The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023

Softcover ISBN : 978-3-031-31071-3 Published: 21 September 2023

eBook ISBN : 978-3-031-31072-0 Published: 20 September 2023

Series ISSN : 2625-3445

Series E-ISSN : 2625-3453

Edition Number : 3

Number of Pages : XVI, 338

Number of Illustrations : 1 b/w illustrations, 2 illustrations in colour

Topics : Language Education , Linguistics, general , Linguistics, general

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Front Psychol

Research on correlation between English writing self-efficacy and psychological anxiety of college students

Associated data.

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.

English writing is not only a cognitive process for college students, it is also influenced by factors related to the emotional or psychological level. With the continuous improvement of the quality of university education cultivation, the pressure faced by college students has increased significantly, which has also given rise to general anxiety among college student groups. In order to investigate the correlation between college students’ English writing self-efficacy and English writing psychological anxiety, we conducted a questionnaire survey on 595 current college students who were not majoring in English at a university in China, and used SPSS 25.0 software to make an empirical analysis of the collected data. The results showed that college students’ English writing self-efficacy was at a moderate level, and they lacked self-confidence in their English writing skills and tended to complete writing tasks; college students generally had a moderate level of psychological anxiety in English writing, among which avoidance behavior was the most significant; college students’ English writing self-efficacy was significantly negatively related to English writing psychological anxiety. English writing self-efficacy can reduce psychological anxiety level by enhancing college students’ English writing motivation. Therefore, we suggest that we should set up English writing courses based on the process teaching method, change college students’ English writing psychology in teaching, set reasonable writing goals, mobilize their enthusiasm and motivation in English writing, reduce college students’ writing anxiety, and enhance their self-confidence in English writing.

Introduction

With the development and the progress of society over time, English has gradually become a compulsory course for every Chinese student, which has been generally valued by schools and students at all levels. For non-English majors, they face a series of changes in learning requirements and learning patterns from high school English to college English, and are especially prone to the problem of psychological anxiety in English writing. As a basic skill, English writing can not only express the values and emotional attitudes of college students, but also measure their comprehensive quality. According to Mcleod (1987) , writing is not only a cognitive composition of English, but also an effective activity that is accompanied by an individual’s emotional engagement. In recent years, more and more attention has been paid to the influence of emotional and psychological factors of college students on English writing. These studies have mainly focused on the relationship between college students’ English writing self-efficacy and their writing level, writing ability, and writing achievement.

According to the latest requirements of Chinese English curriculum standards, one of the goals of English writing teaching is to enhance students’ self-confidence and motivation in English writing. In order to achieve this goal, Chinese colleges and universities have set up corresponding writing tasks in English courses for college students. For example, college students are given writing tasks of practical value (such as invitations, notices, etc.) that they can complete independently, thus improving their writing skills and self-efficacy. Bandura (1977) put forward the concept of self-efficacy, which is defined as the individual’s confidence and belief in his or her ability to complete a task. In 1986, Bandura (1986) went further and pointed out that self-efficacy is not only a judgment of one’s own ability, but also includes expectations of one’s own ability. Combining self-efficacy with English writing gives rise to the concept of English writing self-efficacy. English writing self-efficacy refers to the confidence of English writers in their ability to perform a particular English writing task ( Mitchell et al., 2017 ). Research on English writing self-efficacy points out that English writing self-efficacy can improve an individual’s English writing ability and writing achievement ( Murdoch and Kang, 2019 ).

However, for Chinese non-English majors, writing in English is a very challenging task, which will be affected not only by positive factors (e.g., self-efficacy), but also by negative anxiety ( Cheng, 2004 ; Woodrow, 2011 ). In the context of English writing, college students’ psychological anxiety is regarded as a kind of trait anxiety, which is a relatively strong fear and avoidance psychology for English Writing ( Daly and Wilson, 1983 ; Woodrow, 2011 ) and can seriously hinder the improvement of college students’ English writing skills. A large amount of literature and research results confirm that Chinese college students have a relatively low level of English writing, have obvious fear of writing in English, generally lack motivation and self-confidence in writing, and have more obvious writing psychological barriers and anxiety ( Woodrow, 2011 ; Zhang and Guo, 2012 ; Li et al., 2013 ).

Although there are many discussions on English writing self-efficacy in the existing literature ( Sun et al., 2021 ; Zhang et al., 2021 ), most studies have focused on the current situation of English writing among college students and the impact of English writing self-efficacy on improving college students’ English writing performance, and there is lack of sufficient attention and empirical research on the relationship between English writing self-efficacy and psychological anxiety and the mediation of English writing motivation among Chinese college students. Based on this, the current study takes college students in a Chinese university as an entry point and focuses on the current situation of English writing psychological anxiety among Chinese college students, the current situation of Chinese college students’ English writing self-efficacy, the correlation between Chinese college students’ English writing self-efficacy and psychological anxiety, and the effect of English writing motivation in the relationship between English writing self-efficacy and psychological anxiety. By answering these questions, this study hopes to put forward targeted suggestions to alleviate writing psychological anxiety and improving English writing self-efficacy among Chinese college students on the basis of complementing existing research.

Literature review

English writing psychological anxiety.

Psychological anxiety is an important component of anxiety, which corresponds to physiological anxiety. Generally, psychological anxiety refers to the emotional experience and behavioral performance of an individual in an anxious state. In terms of emotional experience, individuals under psychological anxiety may perceive fear, worry, nervousness, uneasiness, and annoyance, and may even have a sense of panic and imminent death. In terms of behavioral performance, individuals under psychological anxiety may experience fidgeting, facial tension, and sleepless nights ( Li et al., 2021 ; Wang and Zhang, 2021 ). Focusing on the aspect of English writing, the term psychological anxiety can be extended to writing anxiety or English writing psychological anxiety. The term writing anxiety was first introduced by Daly and Miller in 1975, who argued that writing anxiety is an anxious behavior exhibited by writers in the aggregate of the writing process, such as avoiding writing task and worrying about the content of their writing being read or commented on by others. Furthermore, Daly and Miller (1975) proposed that writing anxiety is a higher level and more intense state of psychological anxiety or psychological fear, not a general state of psychological tension. When writers experience psychological anxiety, their attention to writing is distracted, and the quality of their writing decreases dramatically. Since then, this concept has attracted the attention of many scholars, and these studies cover the conceptual deepening and scale development of writing anxiety ( Cheng, 2004 ), the current situation of foreign language writing anxiety among students in different countries, their coping strategies for writing anxiety ( Salam and Al Dyiar, 2014 ; Torres et al., 2020 ; Qadir et al., 2021 ; Abolhasani et al., 2022 ), and the consequences of writing anxiety ( Zhu, 2021 ). In this study, we no longer distinguishes between psychological anxiety and writing anxiety, but rather in the form of psychological anxiety throughout the text.

English writing self-efficacy

The concept of English writing self-efficacy is derived from self-efficacy, which was introduced by Bandura (1977) , who summarized the influencing results of self-efficacy in four aspects, which are determining the individual’s choice and persistence in a certain activity, affecting the individual’s attitude toward difficulties, affecting the acquisition and subsequent performance of new behaviors, and affecting the individual’s emotion when engaging in a certain activity. Existing research has shown that individuals with this overall confidence are able to make good predictions about the problems they face, and can effectively cope with whatever difficulties they face ( Jin et al., 2022 ). The concept of writing self-efficacy or English writing self-efficacy emerged when self-efficacy was developed in English writing. McCarthy et al. (1985) first put forward the concept of writing self-efficacy, defining it as an individual’s perception and evaluation of his or her own writing skills. Pajares (2003) also combined self-efficacy with writing in his study and proposed a definition of writing self-efficacy, stating that writing self-efficacy is an individual’s self-perceived judgment of the ability to use various writing knowledge and skills to accomplish different writing tasks. Furthermore, he also provided an in-depth analysis of writing self-efficacy, pointing out that writing self-efficacy can significantly promote the improvement of writing achievement, and may also be related to writing anxiety, achievement goals, and expected outcomes. In recent years, writing self-efficacy has received more and more attention, and the research has identified group differences and fluctuations in writing self-efficacy ( Mendoza et al., 2022 ).

English writing motivation

Motivation is a necessary factor of language learning, the resource that language and language use are equally dependent on. Lowie et al. (2009) claimed that motivation is an adaptable interconnected factor but not a fixed one; high levels of it will lead to learning success. For example, Kormos and Csizér (2008) found that the idea that students’ attitudes toward the role of English in the globalized world are important in English learning. Statistics indicated that Chinese college students vary in their motivation to learn English with variables, such as regional and urban/rural disparities, as well as educational discrepancy ( You and Dörnyei, 2016 ). Writing is difficult with motivational challenges and writing motivation plays a critical role in predicting writers’ performance, shaping learners’ writing experience, and performance ( Wright et al., 2019 ). Previous research showed that more motivated students with past successful experiences in writing are more likely to improve their writing, while college students with low motivation are more likely to procrastinate writing ( Hayes, 1996 ; Fritzsche et al., 2003 ; Wright et al., 2019 ).

English writing self-efficacy and psychological anxiety

In terms of the relationship between English writing self-efficacy and psychological anxiety among college students, the present study holds that there is a negative influence on each other. On the one hand, from the perspective of the differential effects of the two on college students’ English writing performance and writing improvement, English writing-related studies have found that psychological anxiety was significantly and negatively related to writing performance and writing improvement. Students with higher levels of psychological anxiety performed worse in writing performance than those with lower levels of psychological anxiety ( Horwitz, 2001 ; Li et al., 2013 ). However, the relevant studies focusing on the relationship between writing self-efficacy and writing achievement have reached the opposite conclusion. These studies showed that there was a significant positive correlation between English writing self-efficacy and writing achievement ( Pajares, 2003 ; Woodrow, 2011 ). Thus, it can be seen that college students’ writing self-efficacy has a negative relationship with psychological anxiety. On the other hand, college students with a high sense of self-efficacy in English writing mean that individuals have high confidence in their ability to successfully complete their writing task. They will be subject to self-reinforcement (observation, feedback, self-reward, etc.) during the English writing process, and this reinforcement effect will directly serve as important motivational factors to enhance college students’ English writing, such as effort, commitment, persistence, strategy use, ability attribution, etc., thus promoting them to better complete the writing task. As a result, they will have less writing anxiety and less writing avoidance behavior, and their psychological anxiety level will naturally decrease ( Zeng et al., 2020 ). Accordingly, the present study suggests that there is a negative relationship between college students’ English writing self-efficacy and psychological anxiety.

Furthermore, college students’ English writing self-efficacy can alleviate their psychological anxiety by enhancing their English writing motivation. Gardner and Lambert (1972) classified learning motivation into instrumental learning motivation and integrative learning motivation. The former refers to learning a language and using it as a tool to achieve a practical purpose, while the latter refers to learning a language and viewing it as an activity to understand and integrate into the culture. However, more research has divided learning motivation into intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation corresponds to integrative motivation, which is to derive pleasure and satisfaction from language learning activities, while extrinsic motivation corresponds to instrumental motivation, which is to take language learning as a way to achieve a certain goal. Existing studies have linked learning motivation with self-evaluation, learning strategies, and psychological anxiety. In the present study, we believe that college students with high self-efficacy in English writing will enhance their writing activity and enthusiasm to participate in English writing, which significantly stimulates their learning motivation, encourages them to put more efforts into English writing, and thus overcoming difficulties and reducing psychological anxiety. Accordingly, we suggests that college students’ English writing motivation plays a mediating role between writing self-efficacy and psychological anxiety.

Research methodology

Research questions.

Understanding the developmental level of English writing self-efficacy and the status quo of psychological anxiety among Chinese college students, and presenting the relationship between the two, will be of reference and guidance to both the educational activities of Chinese college teachers and the learning activities of college students. The research questions in this research include:

(1) What is the status quo of English writing self-efficacy among Chinese college students?
(2) What is the status quo of English writing psychological anxiety among Chinese college students?
(3) Is there a correlation between English writing self-efficacy and psychological anxiety among Chinese college students? What is the correlation?
(4) Can Chinese college students’ English writing self-efficacy reduce their psychological anxiety by enhancing their writing motivation?

Participants

In this study, 595 current college students who were not English majors at a Chinese university were randomly selected as the research participants, and four upper and lower grades were also sampled to find out the overall status of English writing self-efficacy and psychological anxiety. There are two reasons for this selection: first, college students in each grade have different English learning times, different English learning strategies, different abilities to use different strategies to complete English writing tasks, and different writing knowledge and writing skills. Therefore, we randomly selects college students from the first to the fourth year of college as the research subjects, which can better enhance the accuracy and comprehensiveness of this study. Second, the selection of college students in four grades as the research subjects can reflect the status quo of English writing self-efficacy and psychological anxiety of Chinese college students more comprehensively, and reflect the overall state and characteristics of English writing of Chinese college students. The research results can better provide a reference for the design of college English writing teaching.

Instruments

English writing self-efficacy questionnaire.

This study used the writing self-efficacy scale developed by Jones (2008) to measure the status quo of Chinese college students’ English writing self-efficacy, while we made adjustments to some of the textual expressions in the scale to form the Chinese college students’ English writing self-efficacy scale. This scale includes English writing task self-efficacy and English writing skill self-efficacy. English writing task self-efficacy refers to college students’ judgments about their ability to successfully complete a certain writing task. English writing skill self-efficacy refers to college students’ judgments about their ability to successfully complete various English writing skills. The task self-efficacy subscale has 10 items, which mainly measure general writing tasks and application writing tasks. The sample items are “I believe I can write an email in English to introduce my school to my foreign friends” and “I believe I can write an English composition of at least 80 words within the specified time according to the topic requirements.” The skill self-efficacy sub-scale has 10 items, which mainly measures expressive writing skills, organizational writing skills, stylistic writing skills, and revision writing skills. The sample items are “I believe I can spell all words in an English composition correctly and use punctuation correctly,” “I believe I can finish a writing task within the specified time according to the topic requirements,” “I believe I am good at writing different subjects in English, such as narratives essays, argumentative essays, and letters,” and “I think I can find out the advantages and disadvantages and correct the shortcomings after finishing my English composition.”

English writing psychological anxiety questionnaire

The present study used the foreign language writing anxiety scale revised by Guo and Qin (2010) to measure the status quo of English writing psychological anxiety among Chinese college students based on Cheng (2004) study. We adjusted some of the expressions in the original scale to form the Chinese college students’ English writing psychological anxiety scale. This scale includes project teaching anxiety, ideation anxiety, avoidance anxiety, and confidence anxiety. The project teaching anxiety sub-scale has five items, and a sample item is “When I write an English composition, I will feel nervous and uneasy if I know that the teacher will review it.” The ideation anxiety sub-scale has five items, and a sample item is “My mind stops spinning when I am asked to write a time-limited English composition without preparation.” The avoidance anxiety sub-scale has five items, and a sample item is “I usually don’t write in English unless I have no other choice.” The confidence anxiety sub-scale has five items, and a sample item is “I will worry about getting a very low score when my English composition is reviewed.”

English writing motivation questionnaire

This study modified and adjusted some of the expressions to form the Chinese college students’ English writing motivation scale based on the English learning motivation questionnaire developed by Gao et al. (2003) . This scale includes two sub-scales: intrinsic motivation sub-scale and extrinsic motivation sub-scale. The intrinsic writing motivation scale has seven items, and a sample item is “The reason why I finish my English writing is my love for English.” The extrinsic writing motivation scale has 15 items, and a sample item is “The reason why I finish my English writing is to get good grades so as to get a good job.”

Reliability and validity tests

We examined the reliability and validity of the Chinese college students’ English writing self-efficacy scale, the Chinese college students’ psychological anxiety scale, and the Chinese college students’ English writing motivation scale. Unless otherwise noted, responses to all items were measured on five-point Likert-type scales.

The Chinese college students’ English writing self-efficacy scale consists of 20 items, ranged from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (5). The mean score of all 20 items was the overall English writing self-efficacy level of college students. We conducted a confirmatory factor analysis on the whole scale. The KMO value was 0.890, the Bartlett’s sphere test reached a significant level ( p < 0.001), and the factors with characteristics greater than 1 explained 78.961% of the total variance. Exploratory factor analysis extracted two factors, namely, the English writing task self-efficacy sub-scale and the English writing skill self-efficacy sub-scale. The internal consistency coefficient of the total scale was 0.853, the internal consistency coefficient of factor 1 was 0.901, and the internal consistency coefficient of factor 2 was 0.804. Accordingly, the Chinese college students’ English writing self-efficacy scale had high reliability and internal validity consistency, and was suitable to be used as a research tool for the English writing self-efficacy of Chinese college students.

The Chinese college students’ English writing anxiety scale consists of 20 items, ranged from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (5). The mean score of all 20 items was the overall English writing psychological anxiety level of college students. We conducted a confirmatory factor analysis on the whole scale. The KMO value was 0.911, the Bartlett’s sphere test reached a significant level ( p < 0.001), and the factors with characteristics greater that 1 explained 80.738% of the total variance. Exploratory factor analysis extracted four factors, namely, the English writing project anxiety sub-scale, the English writing ideation anxiety sub-scale, the English writing avoidance anxiety sub-scale, and the English writing confidence anxiety sub-scale. The internal consistency coefficient of the total scale was 0.883, the internal consistency coefficient of factor 1 was 0.897, the internal consistency coefficient of factor 2 was 0.865, the internal consistency coefficient of factor 3 was 0.937, and the internal consistency coefficient of factor 1 was 0.900. Accordingly, the Chinese college students’ English writing psychological anxiety scale had high consistency reliability and internal validity, and was suitable to be used as a research tool for English writing psychological anxiety of Chinese college students.

The Chinese college students’ English writing motivation scale consists of 22 items, ranged from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (5). The mean score of all 22 items was the overall English writing motivation level of college students. We conducted a confirmatory factor analysis on the whole scale. The KMO value was 0.934, the Bartlett’s sphere test reached a significant level ( p < 0.001), and the factors with characteristics greater that 1 explained 82.974% of the total variance. Exploratory factor analysis extracted two factors, namely, the English writing intrinsic motivation sub-scale and the English writing extrinsic motivation sub-scale. The internal consistency coefficient of the total scale was 0.874, the internal consistency coefficient of factor 1 was 0.869, and the internal consistency coefficient of factor 2 was 0.883. Accordingly, the Chinese college students’ English writing motivation scale had high reliability and internal validity consistency, and was suitable to be used as a research tool for the English writing motivation of Chinese college students.

Questionnaire distribution and data analysis

A questionnaire survey was conducted among college students in a Chinese university at the beginning of March 2022. In order to ensure the validity of the data, an electronic version of the questionnaire was sent to each college student after confirming that they fully understood the purpose and relevant requirements of the survey. A total of 700 surveys were distributed and 650 surveys were collected, of which 595 were effective, with an effective response rate of 85%.

We used SPSS 25.0 for data analysis. First, descriptive statistical analysis was applied to investigate the development level of college students’ English writing self-efficacy and the status quo of college students; English writing psychological anxiety. Second, correlation analysis was applied to verify the correlation between English writing self-efficacy and psychological anxiety among college students. Finally, structural equation modeling (SEM) was used to test the mediating role of English writing motivation between college students’ English writing self-efficacy and psychological anxiety.

Results and discussion

The status quo of college students’ english writing self-efficacy.

As shown in Table 1 , the results of descriptive statistical analysis of Chinese college students’ English writing self-efficacy show that the scores of college students’ overall English writing self-efficacy ( M = 3.0619, SD = 0.5978), English writing task self-efficacy ( M = 3.1250, SD = 0.6184), and English writing skill self-efficacy ( M = 2.9987, SD = 0.6033) are not high, and all lower than 3.5. According to Pajares (1996) , the mean value of English writing self-efficacy is low between 1.0 and 1.5, medium between 1.5 and 3.5, and high between 3.5 and 5.0. It can be seen that Chinese college students’ English writing self-efficacy is at a moderate level. Comparing the means of English writing task self-efficacy with skill self-efficacy, we can find that the mean of English writing task self-efficacy is higher than that of skill self-efficacy, which indicates that Chinese college students are essentially more confident in English writing tasks despite the fact that they have mastered certain English writing skills after years of writing practice. It also means that Chinese college students are more inclined to regard English writing as a task and lack confidence in their own English skills. In addition, the SD of college students’ overall English writing self-efficacy, English writing task self-efficacy, and English writing skill self-efficacy was less than 1, which indicates that although the overall level of English writing self-efficacy among Chinese college students is not high, the development level is relatively balanced.

Results of descriptive analysis of English writing self-efficacy.

Furthermore, this study conducted a descriptive analysis of each relevant dimension of college students’ English writing self-efficacy. Writing task self-efficacy includes general writing task self-efficacy and applied writing task self-efficacy. General English writing task self-efficacy refers to college students’ judgment of their ability to complete general writing tasks, while applied writing task self-efficacy refers to college students’ judgment of their ability to complete practical writing tasks. The mean of general writing task self-efficacy is 3.1528, and the mean of applied writing task self-efficacy is 3.3325, indicating that Chinese college students are more confident in the task of applied writing category, which may be related to the fact that college students pay more attention to the practical value of English writing more and have received more training in applied writing. For example, college students generally score higher in writing invitation letters and introduction letters. Writing skill self-efficacy includes four aspects: expressive writing, organizational writing, genre writing, and revision writing. The mean of expressive writing skill self-efficacy is significantly higher than the other three, which indicates that Chinese college students show more confidence in test-taking abilities, such as spelling words and using punctuation marks correctly, judging wordiness, and quickly examining questions. It may be related to their college entrance examination experience. According to the above clues, college teachers can select materials appropriately and flexibly when teaching English writing, which is not limited to the topics with high applicability, but also can be broaden to more general genres, so as to promote the all-round development of college students’ English writing ability while maintaining their self-confidence in application-based essays.

The status quo of college students’ English writing psychological anxiety

As shown in Table 2 , the results of descriptive statistical analysis of Chinese college students’ English writing psychological anxiety show that except for project teaching anxiety ( M = 2.7912, SD = 0.7862) scored low, college students’ overall English writing psychological anxiety ( M = 3.2852, SD = 0.6831), English writing ideation anxiety ( M = 3.0313, SD = 0.8277), English writing avoidance anxiety ( M = 3.7745, SD = 0.5154), and English writing confidence anxiety ( M = 3.5438, SD = 0.6396) scored higher 3.0. English writing avoidance anxiety scored the highest with over 3.5. This shows that Chinese college students’ English writing anxiety is generally at a moderate level. Despite the fact that they have mastered certain English writing skills after many years of writing practice, Chinese college students are still essentially more confident in English writing tasks. It also indicates that Chinese college students tend to see English writing as a task and lack confidence in their own English skills.

Results of descriptive analysis of English writing psychological anxiety.

We further conducted a descriptive analysis of each relevant dimension of college students’ psychological anxiety. Among the four dimensions of English writing psychological anxiety, Chinese college students’ avoidance anxiety is particularly serious, followed by confidence anxiety, while project teaching anxiety is relatively less serious, indicating that Chinese college students show high levels of anxiety in English writing avoidance anxiety and confidence anxiety. Facing English writing, most college students choose to avoid and lack confidence in their English writing, which may be due to the fact that Chinese college students have less daily exposure to the topic of English writing and are not interested in English writing. This enlightens that teachers in university need to reduce the assignment of writing practice tasks during English writing classes, interact more with students, and enhance college students’ interest in English writing, while focusing on college students’ progress in the process of English writing rather than only on their English writing scores. Project teaching anxiety and ideation anxiety belong to low-anxiety levels, and the possibility of triggering college students’ anxiety is relatively small. However, in our further analysis, we also found that college students still experience writing stress, nervousness, and blankness, especially when they are faced with the requirement to complete the English writing tasks within the specified time. Project teaching anxiety mainly occurs when college students are unable to respond to the teacher’s questions. It is an anxiety phenomenon arising from the protection of self-image. This suggests that teachers in university should relax time as much as possible when assigning writing tasks. They also can set up study groups to give students the opportunity to brainstorm before writing, and ask divergent questions to encourage students to dare to answer, rather than focusing on whether the answers are correct.

Correlation between college students’ English writing self-efficacy and psychological anxiety

To further understand the relationship between Chinese college students’ English writing self-efficacy and psychological anxiety, the present study used the correlation coefficient to analyze the correlation between English writing task self-efficacy, skill self-efficacy, and four types of psychological anxiety.

As shown in Table 3 , the simple correlation coefficients between English writing self-efficacy and psychological anxiety was −0.287. The two dimensions of English writing self-efficacy and psychological anxiety were −0.269 and −0.301, respectively. These results indicated that there was a negative correlation between English writing self-efficacy and psychological anxiety. The higher the college students’ English writing efficacy, the lower the level of psychological anxiety. Furthermore, we also calculated the correlations between different dimensions of English writing self-efficacy and different dimensions of psychological anxiety, and the results showed that there was a significant negative between different dimensions of both.

Results of the correlation analysis between English writing self-efficacy and psychological anxiety.

**p < 0.01, *p < 0.05.

We applied a combination of path analysis and SEM to verify the mediating role of English writing motivation in the relationship between English writing self-efficacy and psychological anxiety among college students. First, the predictive effect of English writing self-efficacy on psychological anxiety was examined. According to the results of path analysis, the standardized coefficient between English writing self-efficacy and psychological anxiety was −0.229, with a standard error of 0.064, t = −4.138, and a significance level of p = 0.000 (<0.001), which indicates that writing self-efficacy has a significant impact on psychological anxiety, and for each unit increase in writing self-efficacy one unit, psychological anxiety decreased by 0.229 units.

We applied SEM to examine the mediating effect of writing motivation. The results showed that theoretical model (χ 2 /df = 3.025, RMSEA = 0.060, CFI = 0.917, TLI = 0.905, SRMR = 0.058) fitted the data well. Meanwhile, the two dimensions loads of writing self-efficacy were above 0.920, the four dimensions loads of psychological anxiety were between 0.700 and 0.950, and the two dimensions loads of writing motivation were above 0.800 (see Figure 1 ). In terms of the standardized coefficients, the effect of writing self-efficacy on writing motivation was significantly positive (β = 0.357, p < 0.001), the effect of writing motivation on psychological anxiety was significantly negative (β = −0.574, p < 0.001), and the effect of writing self-efficacy on psychological anxiety was still significantly negative (β = −0.205, p < 0.001), but the standardized coefficient was smaller. Thus, college students’ writing motivation plays a partial mediating role in the relationship between writing self-efficacy and psychological anxiety. Writing self-efficacy can directly reduce college students’ psychological anxiety, and can also alleviate psychological anxiety by enhancing their writing motivation.

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Results of the mediating effect of writing motivation.

Conclusion and implication

Research conclusion.

The present study found that college students’ overall English writing self-efficacy was at a moderate level, and Chinese college students lacked self-confidence in their English writing skills and tended to complete writing tasks. They generally had a moderate level of English writing psychological anxiety, with avoidance behavior being the most significant. College students’ writing self-efficacy was significantly negatively related to psychological anxiety, and writing self-efficacy could reduce psychological anxiety by enhancing their writing motivation. The results reaffirm the previous literature on the negative effect of self-efficacy on psychological anxiety in the context of Chinese college students’ English writing.

Practical implications

Our study provides pedagogical recommendations based on the research findings. First, enhance college students’ English writing self-efficacy and cultivate their interest in English writing. According to the findings in our study, Chinese college students’ English writing self-efficacy level is not high, i.e., they are not confident enough in English writing. Thus, we suggest that college teachers need to pay attention to enhancing college students’ self-efficacy in English writing in the teaching process ( Bandura, 1977 ). For example, they should consolidate the basic knowledge of the English language and improve the language foundation of college students. When reviewing college students’ English writing, the teacher should not only focus on word or grammatical errors, but also pay attention to the outstanding points of college students’ English writing and give them positive and encouraging comments. In these ways, college students’ self-confidence in English writing can be improved. In terms of cultivating college students’ interest in English writing, the reason for this phenomenon that college students have a high level of English writing avoidance anxiety is the lack of interest, which means that college teachers should consciously cultivate college students’ interest. In the topic selection, they should choose those writing topics that are close to the daily life of college students to reduce their avoidance psychology. In the review of writing, they should correct the English writing submitted by college students in time and give them timely feedback to enhance their learning motivation.

Second, pay attention to college students’ English writing psychological anxiety. According to the high level of psychological anxiety among Chinese college students found in our study and the negative relationship between English writing self-efficacy and psychological anxiety, college teachers should pay attention to college students’ attitudes toward English writing in their usual English writing teaching, actively communicate with students, and understand their emotional expressions. For example, when observing the anxiety of college students, teachers should take the initiative to communicate with them and tell them about the normality of anxiety to weaken the psychological burden of college students. Besides, one important reason for the emergence of English writing psychological anxiety is the difficulties encountered in English writing. Pre-writing inspiration and conception or pre-writing preparation activities for college students can help to reduce their English writing psychological anxiety. In order to enrich college students’ language knowledge and improve their language output skills, colleges teachers should increase comprehensible input as much as possible in the training of comprehensive language skills. At the same time, with a certain language’s skills as a guarantee, college teachers should try to provide college students with various themes, and interesting content in writing materials. They also should assign different genres of writing tasks and try different forms of writing, such as poem, prose, and novel. College students should ensure enough writing output and improve the quality of written English. The improvement of writing ability is the basic way to eliminate English writing psychological anxiety.

Finally, strengthen the English writing motivation training of college students. Enhancing English writing motivation can also alleviate psychological anxiety for college students. Teachers in universities can apply the process writing teaching method in teaching, and carry out a series of idea training, such as brainstorming, to increase students’ writing ideas before they write in English, so as to relieve the psychological anxiety caused by the lack of ideas ( Rusinovci, 2015 ). In order to change college teachers’ traditional evaluation method, we think teachers in colleges should reduce error-correcting composition and pay more attention to college students’ writing process. This means that teachers in colleges need to shift students’ attention from writing scores to the writing process. In the process of writing, what college students get and what wonderful sentences they accumulate in their brain may be more important, not just the numbers given by teachers to represent their writing ability by scores. In fact, the teacher can adopt self-evaluation, peer evaluation, and group evaluation to evaluate students’ English writing.

Limitations and suggestions

Although the present study achieves the research aims and obtains some valuable findings, our study still has some limitations. As Pajares and Valiante (2012) mentioned in their study, exploring causal relationships between variables in non-experimental contexts requires sound theoretical assumptions about the model and considerable caution in interpreting the results. They also suggested that different theoretical models could be tested with more powerful statistical tools, such as SEM. Although we used SEM to suggest the positive effect of English writing self-efficacy on relieving psychological anxiety and the mediating effect of writing motivation in the relationship from the theoretical and existing findings on English writing self-efficacy, English writing psychological anxiety, and writing motivation, and these findings were tested among Chinese college students, the results still could not clarify in the cross-sectional study. In the follow-up study, we can use the tracking research paradigm to explore the deeper causal relationships. In addition, our study is a sample from a single university, with no mention of the University courses involved, so its results are limited in terms of generalization.

Data availability statement

Ethics statement.

Ethical review and approval was not required for the study on human participants in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements. Written informed consent from the patients/participants or patients/participants legal guardian/next of kin was not required to participate in this study in accordance with the national legislation and the institutional requirements.

Author contributions

BL made significant contributions to the study concept and design. He was primarily responsible for designing the study, collecting and analyzing data, and drafting the manuscript. Also, he made several revisions and refinements to the content of the manuscript.

Conflict of interest

The author declares that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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Professor Andrew McRae

[email protected]

01392 724258

Supervision

Publications.

Andrew McRae is Professor of Renaissance Studies in the Department of English; and Dean of Postgraduate Research and the Exeter Doctoral College.

His publications include: God Speed the Plough: The Representation of Agrarian England, 1500-1660 (Cambridge, 1996); Literature, Satire and the Early Stuart State (Cambridge, 2004); Literature and Domestic Travel in Early Modern England (Cambridge, 2009); and (as co-editor) ‘ Early Stuart Libels: an edition of poetry from manuscript sources '. He was the Principal Investigator for the AHRC-funded ‘ Stuart Successions Project’ and ' The Poly-Olbion Project ', and led the development of the Stuarts Online . In 2019 he has co-directed Places of Poetry , a community arts project for England and Wales.

Professor McRae is a Principal Fellow of the Higher Education Academy, a Strategic Reviewer for the Arts and Humanities Research Council, a fellow of the English Association, and a member of the REF 2021 English sub-panel. He maintains ' A Head of Department's Blog ' and tweets @McRaeAndrew .

For office hours (Queen's 217), please book online .

In my research, in the field of early modern English literature and culture, I aim to combine literary and historical modes of analysis. Particular themes and questions that I have addressed, and that continue to interest me, include: literature and the environment, literature and politics, satire, pastoral and georgic, travel-writing, space and nationhood, popular literature, the early modern body.

My current research projects include two major collaborative AHRC-funded projects: 'The Stuart Successions Project' , which is concerned with the wealth of literature produced to mark the accession of each Stuart monarch across the period 1603-1702; and 'The Poly-Olbion Project' , which aims to produce a new scholarly edition of Michael Drayton's early seventeenth-century poem of national description. I also maintain an interest in representations of early modern woodlands, in the context of Britain's earliest debates over the sustainability of a natural resource. I expect that this will lead to grants and publications in the future.

I have supervised doctoral projects on topics including: London lord mayors’ pageants of the early seventeenth-century; taverns in early modern literature; the maternal body in Shakespeare; the cultural history of cancer in early modern England; and the figure of the royal consort in Stuart England. I have particularly enjoyed supervising two projects in collaboration with a medical historian, and I am always keen to discuss potential projects with students, and to find the right supervision arrangements for the individual.

Copyright Notice: Any articles made available for download are for personal use only. Any other use requires prior permission of the author and the copyright holder.

| 2022 | 2020 | 2019 | 2017 | 2016 | 2015 | 2010 | 2009 | 2008 | 2006 | 2005 | 2004 | 2003 | 2001 | 2000 | 1999 | 1996 | 1993 | 1992 |

McRae A. (2022) Jacobean Georgic, A History of English Georgic Writing , Cambridge University Press, 121-139.
McRae A. (2020) Poly-Olbion: New Perspectives , D. S. Brewer.
Drayton M. (2020) Poly-Olbion.
Kewes P, McRae A. (2019) Introduction , Stuart Succession Literature , Oxford University Press (OUP), 1-16, DOI:10.1093/oso/9780198778172.003.0001.
Kewes P, McRae A. (2019) Stuart Succession Literature Moments and Transformations , Oxford University Press, USA.
McRae AD. (2017) Farting in the House of Commons: Popular Humour and Political Discourse in Early Modern England, The Power of Laughter and Satire in Early Modern Britain Political and Religious Culture, 1500-1800 , Boydell Press.
McRae A. (2017) Literature of the Stuart Successions An Anthology , Oxford University Press.
McRae AD. (2016) Stuarts Online.
McRae AD. (2016) ‘Remembering 1625: George Wither’s Britain’s Remembrancer and the Condition of Early Caroline England’, English Literary Renaissance .
McRae AD. (2015) Isle of Wonder.
McRae AD. (2010) The Green Marvell, The Cambridge Companion to Andrew Marvell , Cambridge University Press, 122-139.
McRae AD. (2009) Literature and Domestic Travel in Early Modern England , Cambridge University Press.
McRae AD. (2008) Fluvial Nation: Rivers, Mobility, and Poetry in Early Modern England, English Literary Renaissance , volume 38, no. 3, pages 506-534.
McRae A. (2006) Stigmatizing Prynne: Seditious Libel, Political Satire and the Construction of Opposition, The 1630s: Interdisciplinary Essays on Culture and Politics in the Caroline Era , Manchester Univ Pr, 171-188.
McRae AD. (2006) Guest Editor of Huntington Library Journal edition "'Railing Rhymes': Politics and Poetry in Early Stuart England". .
McRae A. (2005) Political Satire in Early Stuart England: New Voices, New Narratives , Literature Compass , volume 1, no. 1, pages **-**, DOI:10.1111/j.1741-4113.2004.00038.x.
Bellany A, McRae A. (2005) Early Stuart Libels: An Edition of Poetry from Manuscript Sources. [ PDF ]
McRae AD. (2004) Literature, Satire and the Early Stuart State , Cambridge University Press.
McRae, A.. (2004) The Poetics of Sycophancy: Ben Jonson and the Caroline Court, Running Wild: Essays, Fictions and Memoirs Presented to Michael Wilding , 29-42.
Bending S, McRae A. (2003) The Country House , The Writing of Rural England, 1500–1800 , Springer Nature, 63-93, DOI:10.1057/9780230508255_3.
Bending S, McRae A. (2003) The Discovery of Landscape , The Writing of Rural England, 1500–1800 , Springer Nature, 32-62, DOI:10.1057/9780230508255_2.
Bending S, McRae A. (2003) The Georgic Imperative: Labour, Thrift, Improvement , The Writing of Rural England, 1500–1800 , Springer Nature, 122-144, DOI:10.1057/9780230508255_5.
Bending S, McRae A. (2003) Property and Oppression: Voices from the Margins , The Writing of Rural England, 1500–1800 , Springer Nature, 145-178, DOI:10.1057/9780230508255_6.
Bending S, McRae A. (2003) Gardens: Public and Private Pleasures , The Writing of Rural England, 1500–1800 , Springer Nature, 179-205, DOI:10.1057/9780230508255_7.
Bending S, McRae A. (2003) Merry England: Property, Pastoral and Rural Pleasures , The Writing of Rural England, 1500–1800 , Springer Nature, 94-121, DOI:10.1057/9780230508255_4.
Bending S, McRae A. (2003) Feudalism and Beyond: the Anxiety of Change , The Writing of Rural England, 1500–1800 , Springer Nature, 1-31, DOI:10.1057/9780230508255_1.
McRae A. (2003) Satire and Sycophancy: Richard Corbett and Early Stuart Royalism, Review of English Studies , volume 215, pages 336-364.
McRae A. (2003) Renaissance drama , Hodder Arnold.
McRae AD, Bending S. (2003) The Writing of Rural England, 1500-1800 , Palgrave.
McRae, A.. (2003) Place and Displacement: Refiguring the Thai Village in an Age of Rural Development, Trans-Status Subjects: Gender in the Globalization of South and Southeast Asia , Duke University Press, 167-188.
McRae A. (2001) Female Mobility and National Space in Restoration England: The Travel Diaries of Celia Fiennes, Meridian , volume 18, no. 2, pages 127-138.
McRae A. (2001) 'On the Famous Voyage': Ben Jonson and Civic Space, Literature, mapping, and the politics of space in early modern Britain , Cambridge Univ Pr, 181-203.
McRae A. (2000) The Literary Culture of Early Stuart Libeling, Modern Philology , volume 97, no. 3, pages 364-392.
McRae A. (2000) The Verse Libel: Popular Satire in Early Modern England, Subversion and scurrility: popular discourse in Europe from 1500 to the present , Ashgate Publishing, 58-73.
McRae A. (1999) The Peripatetic Muse: Internal Travel and the Cultural Production of Space in Pre-revolutionary England, The country and the city revisited: England and the Politics of Culture, 1550-1850 , Cambridge Univ Pr, 41-57.
McRae A. (1996) God speed the plough , Cambridge Univ Pr.
McRae A. (1993) 'To Know One's Own': Estate Surveying and the Representation of the Land in Early Modern England, Huntington Library Quarterly , volume 56, pages 333-357.
McRae A. (1992) Husbandry Manuals and the Language of Agrarian Improvement, Culture and cultivation in early modern England: Writing and the Land , Leicester University, 35-62.

External impact and engagement

I was born in Melbourne, Australia, and educated at Monash University and the University of Cambridge. I then taught and held postdoctoral fellowships at the University of Sydney, before moving to a post at the University of Leeds. I was subsequently appointed to a position at Exeter in 2000, and was promoted to a personal chair in 2004.

My research focuses on the literature and cultural history of the early modern period (c.1500-1700). One strand of work has focused on literature and the land, considering the ways in which writing of various kinds represents social, economic and environmental changes of the time. This has led to publications including God Speed the Plough: The Representation of Agrarian England, 1500-1660 (Cambridge, 1996) and Literature and Domestic Travel in Early Modern England (Cambridge, 2008). A second strand of work has focused on political literature, particularly in the context of the upheavals of the seventeenth century. This has led to publications including Literature, Satire and the Early Stuart State (Cambridge, 2004), and (with Alastair Bellany) the online edition Early Stuart Libels (2005).

My current research is centred on two major AHRC-funded projects. ‘ The Stuart Successions Project ’ (2012-15; PI, with Paulina Kewes, Oxford, as CI) considers the category of succession literature in the Stuart era (1603-1714). Outputs include a collection of essays (contracted to Oxford University Press), a database , and an anthology of primary materials (contracted to Manchester University Press. ‘ The Poly-Olbion Project ’ (2013-16; PI, with Philip Schwyzer, Exeter, as CI) aims to produce a new scholarly edition of a remarkable early seventeenth-century work of national description. Poly-Olbion is a 15,000-line poem by Michael Drayton, published with prose notes by John Selden and decorative country maps by William Hole. As well as the scholarly edition, the project will stage a conference and produce a volume of critical essays.

Both ongoing research projects involve strong elements of impact-oriented work. ‘The Poly-Olbion Project’ has a twin-project, ‘ The Children’s Poly-Olbion ’, co-funded by the AHRC and the Heritage Lottery Fund. Meanwhile, in the autumn of 2015 we will begin work on 'The Stuart Successions: fresh approaches to the understanding of seventeenth-century history and literature', funded by an AHRC follow-on grant.

In my time at Exeter I have been heavily involved in management roles at various levels. Positions have included: Associate Dean, Education, in the College of Humanities; Director of Education, in the School of Arts, Literatures and Languages; Director of Research, English. I have served on University Senior Management Group, Senate, and numerous university-level committees and task-and-finish groups. Most recently, in 2014-15, I chaired the Profesorial Pay Review Group .

At a national level, I am involved in both research and educational policy: as a member of the AHRC Advisory Board , a QAA institutional reviewer , and (since 2015) a Principal Fellow of the Higher Education Academy . I maintain ‘ A Head of Department’s Blog ’ and tweet @McRaeAndrew .

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How to Answer “Tell Me About Yourself” in an Interview (Plus Examples!)

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By Stav Ziv

“Tell me about yourself” might seem like an easy win of an interview question —after all, you know all about yourself! And good thing, too, because it’s often the very first thing an interviewer will ask you to do—whether you’re having a preliminary phone screen, speaking to your prospective boss, or sitting down with the CEO during the final round.”

Read the full article on The Muse: https://www.themuse.com/advice/tell-me-about-yourself-interview-question-answer-examples

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How to Paraphrase | Step-by-Step Guide & Examples

How to Paraphrase | Step-by-Step Guide & Examples

Published on April 8, 2022 by Courtney Gahan and Jack Caulfield. Revised on June 1, 2023.

Paraphrasing means putting someone else’s ideas into your own words. Paraphrasing a source involves changing the wording while preserving the original meaning.

Paraphrasing is an alternative to quoting (copying someone’s exact words and putting them in quotation marks ). In academic writing, it’s usually better to integrate sources by paraphrasing instead of quoting. It shows that you have understood the source, reads more smoothly, and keeps your own voice front and center.

Every time you paraphrase, it’s important to cite the source . Also take care not to use wording that is too similar to the original. Otherwise, you could be at risk of committing plagiarism .

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How to paraphrase in five easy steps, how to paraphrase correctly, examples of paraphrasing, how to cite a paraphrase, paraphrasing vs. quoting, paraphrasing vs. summarizing, avoiding plagiarism when you paraphrase, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about paraphrasing.

If you’re struggling to get to grips with the process of paraphrasing, check out our easy step-by-step guide in the video below.

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Putting an idea into your own words can be easier said than done. Let’s say you want to paraphrase the text below, about population decline in a particular species of sea snails.

Incorrect paraphrasing

You might make a first attempt to paraphrase it by swapping out a few words for synonyms .

Like other sea creatures inhabiting the vicinity of highly populated coasts, horse conchs have lost substantial territory to advancement and contamination , including preferred breeding grounds along mud flats and seagrass beds. Their Gulf home is also heating up due to global warming , which scientists think further puts pressure on the creatures , predicated upon the harmful effects extra warmth has on other large mollusks (Barnett, 2022).

This attempt at paraphrasing doesn’t change the sentence structure or order of information, only some of the word choices. And the synonyms chosen are poor:

“Advancement and contamination” doesn’t really convey the same meaning as “development and pollution.”
Sometimes the changes make the tone less academic: “home” for “habitat” and “sea creatures” for “marine animals.”
Adding phrases like “inhabiting the vicinity of” and “puts pressure on” makes the text needlessly long-winded.
Global warming is related to climate change, but they don’t mean exactly the same thing.

Because of this, the text reads awkwardly, is longer than it needs to be, and remains too close to the original phrasing. This means you risk being accused of plagiarism .

Correct paraphrasing

Let’s look at a more effective way of paraphrasing the same text.

Here, we’ve:

Only included the information that’s relevant to our argument (note that the paraphrase is shorter than the original)
Introduced the information with the signal phrase “Scientists believe that …”
Retained key terms like “development and pollution,” since changing them could alter the meaning
Structured sentences in our own way instead of copying the structure of the original
Started from a different point, presenting information in a different order

Because of this, we’re able to clearly convey the relevant information from the source without sticking too close to the original phrasing.

Explore the tabs below to see examples of paraphrasing in action.

Journal article
Newspaper article
Magazine article

Once you have your perfectly paraphrased text, you need to ensure you credit the original author. You’ll always paraphrase sources in the same way, but you’ll have to use a different type of in-text citation depending on what citation style you follow.

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Missing commas and periods
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It’s a good idea to paraphrase instead of quoting in most cases because:

Paraphrasing shows that you fully understand the meaning of a text
Your own voice remains dominant throughout your paper
Quotes reduce the readability of your text

But that doesn’t mean you should never quote. Quotes are appropriate when:

Giving a precise definition
Saying something about the author’s language or style (e.g., in a literary analysis paper)
Providing evidence in support of an argument
Critiquing or analyzing a specific claim

A paraphrase puts a specific passage into your own words. It’s typically a similar length to the original text, or slightly shorter.

When you boil a longer piece of writing down to the key points, so that the result is a lot shorter than the original, this is called summarizing .

Paraphrasing and quoting are important tools for presenting specific information from sources. But if the information you want to include is more general (e.g., the overarching argument of a whole article), summarizing is more appropriate.

When paraphrasing, you have to be careful to avoid accidental plagiarism .

This can happen if the paraphrase is too similar to the original quote, with phrases or whole sentences that are identical (and should therefore be in quotation marks). It can also happen if you fail to properly cite the source.

Paraphrasing tools are widely used by students, and can be especially useful for non-native speakers who may find academic writing particularly challenging. While these can be helpful for a bit of extra inspiration, use these tools sparingly, keeping academic integrity in mind.

To make sure you’ve properly paraphrased and cited all your sources, you could elect to run a plagiarism check before submitting your paper. And of course, always be sure to read your source material yourself and take the first stab at paraphrasing on your own.

If you want to know more about ChatGPT, AI tools , citation , and plagiarism , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

ChatGPT vs human editor
ChatGPT citations
Is ChatGPT trustworthy?
Using ChatGPT for your studies
What is ChatGPT?
Chicago style
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Plagiarism

Types of plagiarism
Self-plagiarism
Avoiding plagiarism
Academic integrity
Consequences of plagiarism
Common knowledge

To paraphrase effectively, don’t just take the original sentence and swap out some of the words for synonyms. Instead, try:

Reformulating the sentence (e.g., change active to passive , or start from a different point)
Combining information from multiple sentences into one
Leaving out information from the original that isn’t relevant to your point
Using synonyms where they don’t distort the meaning

The main point is to ensure you don’t just copy the structure of the original text, but instead reformulate the idea in your own words.

Paraphrasing without crediting the original author is a form of plagiarism , because you’re presenting someone else’s ideas as if they were your own.

However, paraphrasing is not plagiarism if you correctly cite the source . This means including an in-text citation and a full reference, formatted according to your required citation style .

As well as citing, make sure that any paraphrased text is completely rewritten in your own words.

Plagiarism means using someone else’s words or ideas and passing them off as your own. Paraphrasing means putting someone else’s ideas in your own words.

So when does paraphrasing count as plagiarism?

Paraphrasing is plagiarism if you don’t properly credit the original author.
Paraphrasing is plagiarism if your text is too close to the original wording (even if you cite the source). If you directly copy a sentence or phrase, you should quote it instead.
Paraphrasing is not plagiarism if you put the author’s ideas completely in your own words and properly cite the source .

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To present information from other sources in academic writing , it’s best to paraphrase in most cases. This shows that you’ve understood the ideas you’re discussing and incorporates them into your text smoothly.

It’s appropriate to quote when:

Changing the phrasing would distort the meaning of the original text
You want to discuss the author’s language choices (e.g., in literary analysis )
You’re presenting a precise definition
You’re looking in depth at a specific claim

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.

Gahan, C. & Caulfield, J. (2023, June 01). How to Paraphrase | Step-by-Step Guide & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved April 9, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/working-with-sources/how-to-paraphrase/

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11 Apr 2024

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A blond college-aged woman, wearing a beige sweater sits on steps. Purple flowers are in the background.

Adventuresome notions of zookeeping, law enforcing, firefighting, doctoring humans or pets, driving a bus, or owning a shop tantalize many 5-year-olds’ minds. Then adulthood sets in, and people often find themselves pursuing passions different from what they imagined during childhood.

But this is not the case with Julie Deacon.

Why it matters

Since her early childhood, the Virginia Tech junior who is majoring in creative writing and minoring in international studies hoped her path would involve writing. That lifelong dream is finding new validation. The National Humanities Center Leadership Council in November accepted Deacon into its membership.

“Julie is a great example of a dedicated student who knows where she wants to go,” said Laura Belmonte, dean of the College of Liberal Arts and Human Sciences, “and with her love of writing and journalism, she is the perfect ambassador for the humanities when it comes to representing Virginia Tech in this highly competitive role on the leadership council.”

The leadership council, housed in the nonprofit National Humanities Center at Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, helps prepare select students with humanities-based leadership skills. These young scholars are from institutions that are center sponsors. Universities nominate them to the council ranks.

Elected students participate in round tables and discussion sessions about the importance of humanistic perspectives in addressing the concerns of contemporary society. They then embark on a semester-long research project, which they will present at a symposium later in the year. After this, they work on other initiatives and career development.

War zone research

Deacon’s focus with her research project involves the extent to which journalism is justifiable in war zones, examining different perspectives on peace coverage and its benefits and detriments.

She will interview journalists and spend time in historical collections.

“In terms of the main focus for the research project, I’ll be able to utilize a lot of past information in archives for firsthand accounts. The American Red Cross archive database has a lot of information on war journalists and peace coverage, as does the National Archives,” she said. “I can use these archives to help build my research project with information from United States wars and worldwide conflicts that involved journalists living on assignment in war zones, and hopefully I’ll be able to get first-hand references from different established journalists. There are so many more resources than I ever thought there would be about such a focused topic.”

Although she is not sure she will pursue this avenue of journalism, she became intrigued with the idea after talking to editor Michael Marshall at the Crozet Gazette, a community newspaper in Virginia where Deacon works as a freelance writer. When she first met him, he mentioned wanting to be a foreign correspondent at the start of his career. Deacon thought that sounded fascinating.

“It’s such an interesting perspective,” she said. “When we think about war, of course our minds naturally go to those directly involved in the fighting, but there are also those who report news and development to the general public. Media and communication are so influenced by how events are reported, where they’re reported, and who’s reporting them. I thought that’d be an interesting topic to dive into, and everything came together to make the role of journalism in war zones the focus of this research project. I’m thankful and excited that the National Humanities Center is giving me the resources to pursue it.”

Early career writing

The realities of a war zone are different from the types of journalism prevalent in Deacon’s writing experience. Currently, she is a digital media intern for the Department of Computer Science at Virginia Tech. Prior to this, when she first started at Virginia Tech, she wrote for the Collegiate Times and then segued to the newspaper in Crozet, Virginia.

Deacon also completed a bridge experience internship with the Center for Excellence in Teaching and Learning at Virginia Tech. A bridge experience offers students an experiential learning opportunity, such as an internship, in exchange for credit toward graduation. For this, Deacon revised and edited content for student access and career development.

After deciding to pursue journalism, she began working for the Crozet Gazette in the summer of 2023 and continues to freelance for the publication.

The latter experience is one she finds fulfilling, delighting in opportunities to interact with a wide variety of people. These include athletes who overcome personal challenges, business owners, and an 85-year-old who was once a member of the Hollywood Foreign Press who reported on the American entertainment industry for predominantly foreign media markets. With the paper’s small team of seven employees, Deacon considers herself fortunate to be able to write alongside these more seasoned writers and that she can continue working for what started as a summer dream job.

“It’s been such a great experience working for a local paper,” she said. “You find out there’s always something to write and talk about, and interesting people to talk to everywhere you go.”

Humanities forward

Deacon finds her peers on the leadership council just as interesting. From Vanderbilt to Yale, there is a vast, diverse group of majors. These include neuroscience, engineering, the arts, and liberal arts, all engaged in propelling the humanities forward. In an age when STEM fields can dominate discussions of education and career prospects, Deacon’s experience at Virginia Tech and her work with the leadership council have made her optimistic about the enduring value of the humanities.

“I completely understand the desire to major in a discipline with guaranteed high pay and job security, but I don’t think those should be the sole reasons to earn your degree in something,” she said. “In my eyes, I think having the opportunity to come to college and choose how you might want to spend your future is an incredibly fortunate thing that we get to do, and it’s important that you focus on what you enjoy and what truly interests you.”

For Deacon, that career is writing. Her journey is one that bridges the divide between STEM and the humanities and speaks to the role of young leaders shaping a more empathetic and understanding world.

Jenny Kincaid Boone

540-314-7207

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Political typology quiz.

Notice: Beginning April 18th community groups will be temporarily unavailable for extended maintenance. Thank you for your understanding and cooperation.

Where do you fit in the political typology?

Are you a faith and flag conservative progressive left or somewhere in between.

Take our quiz to find out which one of our nine political typology groups is your best match, compared with a nationally representative survey of more than 10,000 U.S. adults by Pew Research Center. You may find some of these questions are difficult to answer. That’s OK. In those cases, pick the answer that comes closest to your view, even if it isn’t exactly right.

About Pew Research Center Pew Research Center is a nonpartisan fact tank that informs the public about the issues, attitudes and trends shaping the world. It conducts public opinion polling, demographic research, media content analysis and other empirical social science research. Pew Research Center does not take policy positions. It is a subsidiary of The Pew Charitable Trusts .

A list of all upcoming fourth-year seminars for 2024-25. Scheduling tbd. Texts and assignments may vary

SUMMER TERM, C SESSION (17 JUNE-26 JULY 2024)

Professor: Andrew Taylor

Love, Sex, and Death in the Medieval Borderlands

“A borderland is a vague and undetermined place created by the emotional residue of an unnatural boundary. It is in a constant state of transition. The prohibited and forbidden are its inhabitants.” Gloria Anzaldúa, Borderlands/La Frontera

Medieval romances often evoke journeys into mysterious lands whose languages and sexual norms break or surpass the rules of regular society. These journeys can move entirely outside natural geography, leaping over oceans or plunging into the otherworld, or they can move through specific regions, noting local customs and landmarks; they can be written in some elevated literary standardized language, such as Latin or Chaucer’s English, or in the language of a specific region. These journeys are often perilous and sexually charged and they open up new possibilities of identity. In this course we will follow a number of journeys as they move through actual geographic regions, such as the Welsh Marches, the edge of the Pennines in Cheshire, the borders between Scotland and England, and the edge of the Pyrenees near the Basque country. Many of the stories we examine will be about King Arthur and his court, material which circulated widely in many languages. We will explore the association of medieval borders with linguistic instability, multilingual contact, gender fluidity, shape-shifting, disguise, and creative mendacity, and try to isolate some significant locations in medieval border writing, such as the wasteland, the contact zone, the listening post, and the portal. We will make significant use of maps and local histories.

Grading: Seminar presentation and class participation 40%; major paper 60%

Texts: The Broadview Anthology of Medieval Arthurian Literature, ed. Kathy Cawsey and Elizabeth Edwards (2023).

Professor: Tom Allen

African American Literature: The Harlem Renaissance and the Chicago Black Renaissance

The first half of the twentieth century witnessed two great flowerings of African American literature, visual art, theatre, and music. The Harlem Renaissance of the 1920s marked the birth of a new urban culture in New York City. The cultural milieu placed the work of writers such as Langston Hughes and Zora Neale Hurston in dialogue with the creative expressions of performing artists in jazz (Duke Ellington), theatre (Paul Robeson), dance (Josephine Baker), and painting (Aaron Douglas). Two decades later, the Chicago Black Renaissance gave voice to a new generation of writers such as novelist Richard Wright, poet Gwendolyn Brooks, and playwright Lorraine Hansberry. This second Renaissance of the twentieth century was also defined by the mutual influences of different art forms, especially the Chicago blues scene. In this course we will study the literary achievements of these two movements in the context of the culture of their urban environments, especially music. We will also explore important themes such as Black identity in America, the role of Black writers and artists in fostering community, feminism, LGBTQ+ possibilities, and the role of a Black avant-garde in the struggle for social change. In order to reflect on the lasting legacy of this period of artistic flourishing, we will conclude the semester by reading Toni Morrison’s great historical novel of the Harlem Renaissance, Jazz.

The Portable Harlem Renaissance Reader, edited by David Levering Lewis Home to Harlem, by Claude McKay Cane, by Jean Toomer Their Eyes Were Watching God, by Zora Neale Hurston Native Son, by Richard Wright The Street, by Ann Petry Selected Poems, by Gwendolyn Brooks A Raisin in the Sun, by Lorraine Hansberry Jazz, by Toni Morrison

Relevant critical readings will be available through the library or on Brightspace.

Professor: Mary Arseneau

Victorian Women Poets: Gender, Poetics, and a Female Literary Tradition This seminar course will consider gender and poetics within the specific context of the nineteenth-century British woman poet’s tradition. We will consider how women poets self-consciously identified themselves as working in a female tradition, how that identification informs their poetics, and the critical implications of approaching this female canon as sequestered from a mainstream, predominantly male, canon. In the process of our literary study we will acknowledge the recuperative work undertaken by feminist scholars and consider what attitudes contributed to the last century’s erasure of the woman poet’s tradition. Beginning with Felicia Hemans and Letitia Elizabeth Landon (L.E.L.) as originators of a discernible female poetic tradition in the nineteenth century, we will trace the tradition of the “poetess” through Elizabeth Barrett Browning and Christina Rossetti, paying particular attention to these poets’ deliberate self-representations as female artists. Finally, through a study of late Victorian poets Augusta Webster and Michael Field (Katharine Bradley and Edith Cooper), we will consider how the Victorian woman poet’s tradition extends to the later part of the century. We will trace the poets’ emulations of Sappho, Corinne, and the “improvisatrice”; their experiments with genres including the epic, dramatic monologue, and sonnet; and their engagement with larger social issues. Throughout the course, we will examine these poets’ compromises and confrontations with dominant gender ideology as they attempt to negotiate a transgression into the public arena while asserting and performing their “femininity.” This poetic tradition is still in the process of being recovered and undergoing historical revision, and over the last decades various forgotten figures have gained a deserved scholarly profile. Our goal in the course is to continue this project of recuperating forgotten voices and discovering other neglected figures. As we shall see, the poetess tradition—which was thought of as conservatively and conventionally feminine—actually has extended into identities and poetry reaching well beyond the “Angel in the House” persona. Even when women poets are writing about emotions and domesticity, they often interrogate cultural issues. In her book The Political Poetess, critic Tricia Lootens asks and answers the important question, “Who made the Poetess white? No one; not ever.” In this course, we will pay particular attention to poets that articulate novel and ground-breaking views, and we will discover voices that are diverse in terms of sexual orientation, politics, subject matter, disability, race, and ethnicity. Through “Recuperating Women Poets” seminar presentations we will consider the poetry and critical reputations of figures whose poetry is less well known, with particular focus on identifying promising areas for future scholarship. We will acknowledge and discuss the reality that the female poetic tradition is still in formation. Through brief seminar presentations we will also consider the poetry and critical reputations of other figures whose poetry is less well known, with particular focus on identifying promising areas for future scholarship. Other poets to be explored might include Dora Greenwell, Adelaide Procter, George Eliot, Matilde Blind, Bessie Rayner Parkes (Madame Belloc), Constance Naden, A. Mary F. Robinson (Madame James Darmesteter, Madame Mary Duclaux), Alice Meynell, Amy Levy, Mary E. Coleridge, and Graham R. Tomson (Rosamund Marriott Watson). Method: Seminar and discussion Grading: 30% major seminar presentation and handout 15% “recuperating women poets” seminar and handout 10% participation 45% final essay Texts: Barrett Browning, Elizabeth. Aurora Leigh. Ed. Margaret Reynolds. Norton critical edition. New York: W.W. Norton, 1995. ---. Elizabeth Barrett Browning: Selected Poems. Ed. Marjorie Stone and Beverly Taylor. Peterborough, ON: Broadview, 2009. Field, Michael (Katharine Bradley and Edith Cooper). Michael Field, The Poet: Published and Manuscript Materials. Ed. Marion Thain and Ana Parejo Vadillo. Peterborough, ON: Broadview, 2009. Hemans, Felicia. Felicia Hemans: Selected Poems, Prose, and Letters. Ed. Gary Kelly. Peterborough, ON: Broadview, 2002. Landon, Letitia Elizabeth. Letitia Elizabeth Landon: Selected Writings. Ed. Jerome McGann and Daniel Riess. Peterborough, ON: Broadview, 1997. Rossetti, Christina. Christina Rossetti: The Complete Poems. Text by R.W. Crump. Notes and introduction by Betty S. Flowers. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 2001. Webster, Augusta. Augusta Webster: Portraits and Other Poems. Ed. Christine Sutphin. Peterborough, ON: Broadview, 2000.

Professor: Emelia Quinn

Reading Animals: The Question of the Animal in Contemporary Literature

Literature is a traditionally human affair: reliant on language use for its production and reception, literary narratives tend to center around human agents and human concerns. However, the nonhuman animals with whom we share our world also have a significant, if overlooked, place in literary history. Animals have frequently figured as allegorical presences, from Aesop’s fables to George Orwell’s Animal Farm. They also figure as significant symbolic presences, as innocence and moral goodness in William Blake’s “The Lamb,” for instance, or as representative of the glory of imperial adventure in the big game hunts of H. Rider Haggard’s King Solomon’s Mines. Animal characters are also pervasive as background presences in literary fictions, whether as modes of transport, domestic companions, or in the disembodied form of food and clothing. We should also not forget that animals have a significant spectral materiality in the history of the book itself: from the use of calfskin for vellum pages to the rabbit bones melted down to produce the glue for bookbinding.

And yet, despite a vast bestiary of animal presences in literature, literary criticism has tended to either ignore animals, focusing solely on the human actors in narrative, or failed to think about the animal itself, beyond its symbolic or metaphorical value. This has changed in recent years, with the rise of animal studies in the humanities demonstrating the importance of paying close attention to animals in literary texts and to the ways in which animals can assert their textual agency in unexpected and powerful ways. The primary focus of this seminar will be on contemporary texts that engage with key ideas and debates in the field of animal studies. Just as philosophical views on animals have transformed dramatically over the course of human history, from Descartes’ sense of animals as machines to Peter Singer’s treatise on animal suffering, the representation of animals in literary texts has shifted over the course of the twentieth and twenty-first centuries in ways that reflect contemporary values, such as the advancement of animal rights; anxieties, including the contribution of industrial animal agriculture to the climate crisis and the looming threat of a sixth mass extinction event; and the influence of posthumanist thought, destabilizing that which we define as “the human.”

This seminar will consider a range of contemporary texts, including novels, short stories, and films, that engage with topics such as: pet-keeping and domestication, bestiality and zoophilia, animal language, anthropomorphism and empathy, extinction and conservation, the postcolonial animal, meat eating, animal satire, and animal revolution. In the process, we will encounter some of the major theoretical works in animal studies, from Carol J. Adams’s feminist-vegetarian theory of the “absent referent,” to Jacques Derrida’s concept of the “l’animot,” and from Donna Haraway’s vision of “multispecies entanglement” to Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari’s sense of “becoming-animal.” We will also consider the ways in which animal studies scholars have engaged (not uncontroversially) with questions of race, gender, and disability, considering the intersections of animal studies with postcolonial studies, critical race studies, queer theory, ecocriticism, posthumanism, disability studies, and vegan studies.

Assessment: Oral Presentation (15%), Close Reading Assignment (35%), Final Essay (50%) Sample texts: Possible texts may include: Patricia Highsmith, The Animal Lovers Book of Beastly Murder Marian Engel, Bear Octavia Butler, Dawn J. M. Coetzee, The Lives of Animals Yann Martel, Life of Pi Amitav Ghosh, The Hungry Tide Julia Leigh, The Hunter Ruth Ozeki, My Year of Meats NoViolet Bulawayo, Glory

Possible films: Simon Amstell, Carnage Bong Joon-ho, Okja

WINTER 2025

Professor Victoria Burke

War, Politics, and Espionage in Seventeenth-Century English Women’s Writing

In this course we will use the English Civil War and its aftermath (c.1640-1680) as the primary lens through which to examine a range of writing by women. We will consider poetry (including laments for the execution of King Charles I), prose (radical religious tracts written by Quakers, letters—both personal and fictional, and autobiographical writing), and five plays. These plays are Bell in Campo by Margaret Cavendish, The Concealed Fancies by her step-daughters, Jane Cavendish and Elizabeth Egerton, and three plays by Aphra Behn: The Rover, The City-Heiress, and The Widow Ranter. We will study some of the historical, political, and religious contexts relevant to these works, and we will put them in dialogue with scholarly criticism. Two of our writers (Anne Halkett and Aphra Behn) were government spies, and so we will use the research of Nadine Akkerman and others to learn about the mechanics of espionage for women. The final play, The Widow Ranter, treats a rebellion in colonial Virginia and has just been published in an edition that offers contextual materials that illuminate discourses of empire and colonization. By studying writing from a range of genres (poetry, prose, and drama), political positions (from royalist to revolutionary), and religious affiliations (from radical to conformist), we will explore women writers’ insights into important events of this tumultuous century.

COURSE OBJECTIVES: This fourth-year course is designed to introduce students to canonical and lesser-known but extremely accomplished writers from the seventeenth century, and to some of the critical debates in this field. It is also intended to foster an atmosphere of inquiry as we read, summarize, discuss, debate, and think through the implications of the primary and secondary texts we are reading. The course will offer students the opportunity to hone their skills in research, critical thinking, argumentation, and writing. It will also give them a chance to prepare and present a short seminar on a topic and to practice techniques of engaging their classmates in discussion.

METHOD: Lecture, seminar presentations, and discussion.

GRADING: Participation (15%), seminar presentation including written report (25%), term paper (30%), final in-person exam (30%).

TEXTS: Behn, Aphra. The Rover. Edited by Anne Russell, Broadview Press, 1999. Behn, Aphra. The Widow Ranter. Edited by Adrienne L. Eastwood, Broadview Press, 2022. Early Modern Women’s Writing: An Anthology 1560-1700. Edited by Paul Salzman, Oxford UP, 2000. Course reader plus additional materials that will be posted on the course web page.

Professor Cynthia Sugars

Margaret Atwood: The Writings, The Controversies

Variously described as a “legend,” a “prophet,” a “literary superstar,” a “juggernaut,” a “badass feminist prognosticator,” and the “Queen of CanLit,” Margaret Atwood is hard to ignore. So let’s see what all this fuss is about! This course will delve into the literary oeuvre and changing reputations of Margaret Atwood (the author, the celebrity, the activist, and the industry). We will begin with her early career, two early collections of poems The Circle Game and Power Politics, and read a selection of her poetry, novels, short stories, nonfiction, and social media interventions up to the present. Our readings will be accompanied by weekly chapters from Rosemary Sullivan’s biography of Atwood, and selected secondary works (by Atwood and other critics). Atwood has been a controversial figure from early on – from debates about her take on second-wave feminism in the 1970s, to her statements on Canadian cultural nationalism, to her representations of genetic engineering, to her opposition to censorship and book burning (in the past few years, The Handmaid’s Tale has been banned by a number of states and schoolboards in the US), to her challenges to the #MeToo movement in the early 2000s. Atwood’s work with PEN International on behalf of writers across the world had been widely applauded, yet for many of her fans, her 2018 controversial op-ed article in the Globe and Mail “Am I a Bad Feminist?” marked a betrayal. All this and more awaits us as we wade into the turbid waters of the Atwood universe. We will conclude the course with a discussion of Atwood’s conscious self-fashioning as a celebrity.

Grading: Seminar presentation (written and oral components) 30%: term paper 30%; final in-person exam 30%; class participation 10%.

Texts: The Circle Game (1964) and Power Politics (1971) -- selections Surfacing (1972) The Handmaid’s Tale (1985) Cat’s Eye (1988) Bluebeard’s Egg (1983) -- selections Wilderness Tips (1991) – selections Stone Mattress (2014) -- selections Alias Grace (1996) Morning in the Burned House (1995) Oryx and Crake (2003) Burning Questions (2022) – selections

Professor Sara Landreth

Eighteenth-Century Black Voices

In 2022, the re-release of Gretchen Gerzina’s seminal Black England: A Forgotten Georgian Story marked a turning-point in how we view the history of Black lives in the eighteenth century. This 4th-year seminar will examine literature and culture of the antislavery movement throughout the Atlantic regions between 1760 to 1830. Our syllabus will focus on writings by eighteenth-century Black authors of the English-speaking world, including Briton Hammon, Phyllis Wheatley, Ignatius Sancho, Olaudah Equiano, and anonymous authors. We will read the anonymously published novel The Woman of Colour (1808), which features a biracial Jamaican heiress as its protagonist and primary narrator. In the final weeks of the term, we will turn to historical fiction, and will delve into how 21st-century representations of 18th-century racialized writers both embrace and reject the historical record. We’ll watch Amma Asante’s 2007 film, Belle, which adapts elements of Woman of Colour for the screen.

Method: In-person Seminar & Discussion

Required Texts Gretchen Gerzina, Black England 139980488X Vincent Carretta, Ed. Unchained Voices Anthology 0813108845 Anonymous, The Woman of Colour 1551111764 Henry Louis Gates, The Trials of Phyllis Wheatley 0465018505 Francis Spufford, Golden Hill 1501163884

Marking: Seminar = 30% (15% quality of written script; 15% oral presentation and discussion leadership) Participation = 30% (in-person spoken contributions, bringing printed texts to class, attendance) Final Essay = 40% (appears as a take-home exam on the university schedule)

Course Objectives: To engage deeply and critically with a wide range of texts; to foster a generous intellectual environment where discussion and debate can thrive; and to hone our skills in oral presentation, in-person real-time conversation, and written communication.

Professor Kimberly Quiogue Andrews

Creative Writing seminar (prerequisite of a 3000-level Creative Writing course is required)

The Rectangle

“Genre always fails.” --Claudia Rankine

In this course, we will explore the possibilities inherent in one of the more generically-vexing forms of creative writing: the paragraph. Capable of containing entire stories and essays as well as experiments in the lyric, the paragraph-as-genre has both a rich history and an exciting present, and can offer creative writing students a wealth of new ways to explore and play with language. Over the course of our readings in this class, we will develop a kind of negative theory of the line—a theory, in other words, about what happens in the line’s absence, or in the line’s presence as delineated by the shape of the page. Students in this class will try their hand at various short prose forms with a focus on the “lyric” (a term we will complicate and unpack repeatedly), in the process gaining an enhanced understanding of both genre and lyric theories. The “rectangle,” as it were, has cropped up in nearly every major recent literary movement—be it Gertrude Stein’s modernism, Frank O’Hara’s New York-ism, Russell Edson’s neo-Surrealism, Christian Bök’s conceptualism, Harryette Mullen’s late-Oulipeanism, even Robert Hass’s careful formalism—and as such, students will also come away with a rich sense of the form’s applicability across traditions and time periods.

Method: Seminar

Texts: • Ziegler, Alan. Short: An International Anthology. Persea Books, 2014. • Cheng, Jennifer S. House/A. Omnidawn, 2016. • Lundy Martin, Dawn. A Life in a Box is a Pretty Life. Nightboat Books, 2015. • Lennon, Brian. City: An Essay. University of Georgia Press, 2002.

Assignment Overview & Grading: • Workshop Participation and Attendance 20% • Weekly Poems 40% • Reading Responses 10% • Recitation 5% • Journal Presentation 5% • Revision Portfolio w/ Cover Letters. 20%

IMAGES

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Writing a Research Paper
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English for Writing Research Papers
Publishing your research in an international journal is key to your success in academia. This guide is based on a study of over 1000 manuscripts and reviewers' reports revealing why papers written by non-native researchers are often rejected due to problems with English usage and poor structure and content.
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The title of this book is The Process of Research Writing, and in the nutshell, that is what the book is about. A lot of times, instructors and students tend to separate "thinking," "researching," and "writing" into different categories that aren't necessarily very well connected. ... Reviewed by Marie Lechelt, ESL/English ...
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This book is part of the English for Research series of guides for academics of all disciplines who work in an international Þ eld. This volume focuses on how to write a research paper in English, though the majority of guidelines given would be appropriate for any language. It is designed both for inexperienced and experienced authors.
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• A research paper. In most cases, you will receive guidance from the professor on the scope of the research paper. It is likely that you will be expected to consult sources other than the assigned readings. Hollis is your best bet for book titles, and the MLA bibliography (avail-able through e-resources) for articles. When reading
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The students who exhibited a high English writing proficiency level stood at 37.5% and 92.3% in W1, 41.7% and 100% in W2, and 29.4% and 100% in W3 for control and experimental groups, respectively. ... The gaps that follow from the findings of this research on the free-writing journal method could benefit from further research. This study was ...
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About this book. Publishing your research in an international journal is key to your success in academia. This guide is based on a study of over 1000 manuscripts and reviewers' reports revealing why papers written by non-native researchers are often rejected due to problems with English usage and poor structure and content.
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Research Paper – Structure, Examples and Writing Guide

Research Paper

Structure of Research Paper

Introduction

Literature Review

How to Write Research Paper

Research Paper Example

Applications of Research Paper

When to Write Research Paper

Purpose of Research Paper

Characteristics of Research Paper

Advantages of Research Paper

Limitations of Research Paper

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

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11.1 The Purpose of Research Writing

Reasons for Research

Research Writing and the Academic Paper

Research Writing at Work

Writing at Work

Steps of the Research Writing Process

Step 1: Choosing a Topic

Step 2: Planning and Scheduling

Step 3: Conducting Research

Step 4: Organizing Research and the Writer’s Ideas

Step 5: Drafting Your Paper

Step 6: Revising and Editing Your Paper

Key Takeaways

The Process of Research Writing

Formats Available

Table of Contents

Ancillary Material

About the Contributors

Contribute to this Page

What Is Research?

The Essential Building Blocks of Research Writing

ENGL002: English Composition II

Course Syllabus

Unit 1: Research and the Writing Process

Unit 2: Researching: How, What, When, Where, and Why

Unit 3: Reviewing and Analyzing Your Sources

Unit 4: Putting Your Source Material to Work

Unit 5: Writing the Research Paper and Acknowledging Your Sources

Unit 6: Polishing Your Research Paper

Study Guide

Course Feedback Survey

Certificate Final Exam

3.4: What Is Research Writing?

The Essential Building Blocks of Research Writing

English for Writing Research Papers

Pisa, Italy

About this book

Buying options

Other ways to access

Table of contents (20 chapters)

Word order and sentence length

Research on correlation between English writing self-efficacy and psychological anxiety of college students

Introduction

Literature review

English writing self-efficacy

English writing motivation

English writing self-efficacy and psychological anxiety

Research methodology

Participants

Instruments

English writing psychological anxiety questionnaire

English writing motivation questionnaire

Reliability and validity tests

Questionnaire distribution and data analysis

Results and discussion

The status quo of college students’ English writing psychological anxiety

Correlation between college students’ English writing self-efficacy and psychological anxiety

Conclusion and implication