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Historical Geology

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Nebular theory and the formation of the solar system

In the beginning….

How and when does the story of Earth begin? A logical place to start is with the formation of the planet, but as you’ll soon see, the formation of the planet is part of a larger story, and that story implies some backstory before the story, too. The purpose of this case study is to present our best scientific understanding of the formation of our solar system from a presolar nebula, and to put that nebula in context too.

Nebular theory

The prevailing scientific explanation for the origin of the Earth does a good job of not only explaining the Earth’s formation, but the Sun and all the other planets too. Really, it’s not “the Earth’s origin story” alone so much as it is the origin story of the whole solar system . Not only that, but our Sun is but one star among a hundred million in our galaxy, and our galaxy is one of perhaps a hundred million in the universe. So the lessons we learn by studying our own solar system can likely be applied more generally to the formation of other solar systems elsewhere, including those long ago, in galaxies far, far away. The vice versa is also true: Our understanding of our own solar system’s origin story is being refined as we learn more about exoplanets, some of which defy what we see in our own system; “ hot Jupiters ” and “ super-Earths ,” for instance, are features we see in other star systems but not our own.

When we use powerful telescopes to stare out into the galaxy, we observe plenty of other stars, but we observe other things too, including fuzzy looking features called nebulae. A nebula is a big cloud of gas and dust in space. It’s not as bright as a star because it’s not undergoing thermonuclear fusion, with the tremendous release of energy that accompanies that process. An example of a nebula that you are likely to be able to see is in the constellation Orion. Orion’s “belt,” three stars in a row, is a readily identifiable feature in the northern hemisphere’s night sky in winter. A smaller trio of light spots “dangle” from the belt; this is Orion’s sword scabbard. A cheap pair of binoculars will let you examine these objects for yourself; you will discover that the middle point of light in this smaller trio is not a star. It is a nebula called Messier 42.

Nebulae like Messier 42 are common features of the galaxy, but not as common as stars. Nebulae appear to be short-lived features, as matter is often attracted to other matter. All that stuff distributed in that tremendous volume of space is not as stable as it would be if it were all to be drawn together into a few big clumps. Particles pull together with their neighboring particles under the influence of various forces, including “static cling” or electrostatic attraction. This is the same force that makes tiny dust motes clump up into dust bunnies under your couch!

Now, electrostatic force is quite strong for pulling together small particles over small distances, but if you want to make big things like planets and stars out from a nebula, you’re going to need gravity to take over at some point. Gravity is a rather weak force. After all: every time you take a step, you’ve overcoming the gravitational pull of the entire Earth. But gravity can work very efficiently over distance, if the masses involved are large enough. So static cling was the initial organizer, until the “space dust bunnies” got large enough, then gravity was able to take over, attracting mass to mass. The net result is that the gajillions of tiny pieces of the nebula were drawn together, swirling into a denser and denser amalgamation. The nebula began to spin, flattening out from top to bottom, and flattening out into a spinning disk, something between a Frisbee and a fried egg in shape:

Once a star forms in the center, astronomers call the ring of debris around it a protoplanetary disk. Two important processes that helped organize the protoplanetary disk further were condensation and accretion.

Condensation is the process where gaseous matter sticks together to make liquid or solid matter. We have evidence of condensation in the form of small spherical objects with internal layering, kind of like “space hailstones.” These are chondrules, and they represent the earliest objects formed in our solar system. (Occasionally, we are lucky enough to find chondrules that have survived until the present day, entombed inside certain meteorites of the variety called chondrites.)

Chondrules glommed onto other chondrules, and stuck themselves together into primordial “rocks,” building up larger and larger objects. Eventually, these objects got to be big enough to pull their mass into an round shape, and we would be justified to dub them “planetesimals.” Planetesimals gobbled up nearby asteroids, and smashed into other planetesimals, merging and growing through time through the process of accretion. The kinetic force of these collisions heated the rocky and metallic material of the planetesimals, and their temperature also went up as radioactive decay heated them from within. Once warm, denser material could sink to their middles, and lighter-weight elements and compounds rose up to their surface. So not only were they maturing into spheroidal shapes, but they were also differentiating internally, separating into layers organized by density.

Meteorites that show metallic compositions represent “core” material from these planetesimals; core material that we would never get to glimpse had not their surrounding rocky material been blasted off. Iron meteorites such as the Canyon Diablo meteorite below (responsible for Arizona’s celebrated Meteor Crater) therefore are evidence of differentiation of planetesimals into layered bodies, followed by disaggregation: a polite way of saying they were later violently ripped apart by energetic collisions.

If you were to somehow weigh the nebula before condensation and accretion, and again 4.6 billion years later, we’d find the mass to be the same. Rather than being dispersed in a diffuse cloud of uncountable atoms, the condensation and accretion of the nebula resulted in exactly the same amount of stuff, but organized into a smaller and smaller number of bigger and bigger objects. The biggest of these was the Sun, comprising about 99.86% of all the mass in the solar system. Four-fifths of the remaining 0.14% makes up the planet Jupiter.  Saturn, Neptune, and Uranus are huge gas giants as well. The inner rocky planets (including Earth) make up a tiny, tiny fraction of the total mass of the whole solar system – but of course, just because they are relatively small, that doesn’t mean they are unimportant!

The process of accretion continues into the present day, though at a slower pace than the earliest days of the solar system. One place you can observe this is in the asteroid belt, where there are certain asteroids that are basically nothing more than a big 3D pile of space rocks, held together under their own gravity. Consider the asteroid called Itokawa 25143, for instance:

Only about half a kilometer long, and only a few hundred meters wide, Itokawa doesn’t even have enough gravity to pull itself into a sphere. If you were to land on the surface of Itokawa and kick a soccer-ball-sized boulder, it would readily fly off into space, as the force of your kick would be much higher than the force of gravity causing it to stay put.

Another example of accretion continuing to this day is meteorite impacts. Every time a chunk of rock in space intersects the Earth, its mass is added to that of the planet. In that instant, the solar system gets a little bit cleaner (fewer leftover bits rattling around) and the planet gets a little more massive. A spectacular example of this occurred in 1994 with Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9, a  comet which had only been discovered the previous year. Jupiter’s immense gravity broke the comet into chunks, and then swallowed them up one after another. Astronomers on Earth watched with fascination as the comet chunks, some more than a kilometer across, slammed into Jupiter’s atmosphere at 60 km/second (~134,000 mph), creating a 23,700°C fireball and enormous impact scars that were as large as the entire Earth. These scars lasted for months.

This incredibly dramatic event perhaps raises the hair on our necks, seeing the violence and power of cosmic collisions. It’s a reminder that Earthlings are not safe from accretionary impacts even today – as the dinosaurs found out. For the purposes of our current discussion, though, bear in mind that the collision was really a merger between the masses of Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 and the planet Jupiter, and after the dust settled, the solar system had one fewer object left off by itself, and Jupiter gained a bit more mass. This is the overall trend of the accretion of our solar system from the presolar nebula: under gravity’s influence, the available mass becomes more and more concentrated through time.

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A star is born

Because the Sun is so massive, it is able to achieve tremendous pressures in its interior. These pressures are so high, they can actually force two atoms into the same space , overcoming their immense repulsion for one another, and causing their two nuclei to merge. As two atoms combine to make one more massive atom, energy is released. This process is thermonuclear fusion. Once it begins, stars begin to give off light.

The ability of stars to make big atoms from small ones is key to understanding the history of our solar system and our planet. Planet Earth is made of a wide variety of chemical elements, both lightweight and heavy. All of these elements must have been present in the nebula, in order for them to be included in Earth’s “starting mixture.” Elements formed in the Sun today stay in the Sun, fusing low-weight atoms into heavier atoms. So all the elements on Earth today came from a pre-Sun star. We can go outside on a spring day and enjoy the Sun’s warmth, but the carbon that makes up the skin that basks in that warmth was forged in the heart of another star, a star that’s gone now, a star that blew up.

This exploding star was the source of the nebula where we began this case study: it’s the backstory that occurred before the opening scene. Our solar system is like a “haunted house,” where billions of years ago, there was a vibrant, healthy main-sequence star right here, in this part of the galaxy. Perhaps it had planets orbiting it. Perhaps some of those planets harbored life. We’ll never know: the explosion wiped the slate clean, and “reset” the solar system for the iteration in which we live. The ghostly remnants of this time before our own still linger, in the very stuff we’re made from. This long-dead star fused hydrogen to build the carbon in our bodies, the iron in our blood, the oxygen we breathe, and the silicon in the rocks of our planet.

This is an incredible realization to embrace: everything you know, everything you trust, everything you are , is stardust.

Age of the solar system

So just when did all this happen? An estimate for the age of the solar system can be made using isotopes of the element lead (Pb). There are several isotopes of lead, but for the purposes of figuring out the age of the solar system, consider these four: 208 Pb, 207 Pb, 206 Pb, and 204 Pb.

208 Pb, 207 Pb, 206 Pb are all radiogenic: that is to say, they stable “daughter” isotopes that are produced from the radioactive “parent” isotopes. Each is produced from a different parent, at a different rate:

204 Pb is, as far as we know, non-radiogenic. It’s relevant to this discussion because it can serve as a ‘standard’ that can allow us to compare the other lead isotopes to one another. Just as if we wanted to compare the currencies of Namibia, Indonesia, and Chile, we might reference all three to the U.S. dollar. The dollar would serve as a standard of comparison, allowing us to better see the value of the Namibian currency relative to the Indonesian currency and the Chilean currency. That’s what 204 Pb is doing for us here.

This is a plot showing the modeled evolution of our three radiogenic lead isotopes relative to 204 Pb. It is constrained by terrestrial lead samples at the young end, and projected back in time in accordance with our measurements of how quickly these three isotopes of lead are produced by their radioactive parents. Of course, if we go back far enough in time, we run out of samples to evaluate. The Earth’s rock cycle has destroyed all its earliest rocks. They’ve been metamorphosed, or weathered, or melted – perhaps many times over! What would be really nice is to find some rocks from the early end of these curves – some samples that could verify these projections back in time are accurate.

Such samples do exist! But they are not from the Earth so much as “from the Earth’s starting materials.” If the nebular theory is correct, then a few leftover scraps of the planet’s starting materials are found in the solar system’s asteroids. Every now and again, bits of these space rocks fall to earth, and if they survive their passage through the atmosphere, we may be lucky enough to collect them, and analyze them. We call these space rocks “meteors” as they streak through the atmosphere, heating through friction and oxidizing as they fall. Those that make it all the way to Earth’s surface are known as “meteorites.” They can be often be distinguished by their scalloped fusion crust, as with this sample:

Meteorites come in several varieties, including rocky and metallic versions. It is very satisfying that when measurements of these meteorites’ lead isotopes are added to the plot above, they all fall exactly where our understanding of lead isotope production would have them: at the start of each of these model evolution curves. Each lead isotope system tells the same answer for the age of the Earth, acting like three independent witnesses corroborating one another’s testimony. And the answer they all give is 4.6 billion years ago (4.6 Ga). That’s what 208 Pb says. That’s what 207 Pb says. And that’s what 206 Pb says. They all agree, and they agree with the predicted curves based on terrestrial (Earth rock) measurements. This agreement gives us great confidence in this number. The Earth, and meteorites (former asteroids), and the solar system of which they are all a part, began about 4.6 billion years ago…

…But what came before that?

The implications of meteorites

In 1969, a meteorite fell through Earth’s atmosphere and broke up over Mexico. A great many pieces of this meteorite were recovered and made available for scientific analysis. It turned out to be a carbonaceous chondrite, the largest of its kind ever documented. It was named the Allende ( “eye-YEN-day” ) meteorite, for the tiny Chihuahuan village closest to the center of the area over which its fragments were scattered.

One of the materials making up Allende’s chondrules was the calcium feldspar called anorthite. Anorthite is an extraordinarily common mineral in Earth’s crust, but the Allende anorthite was different. For some reason, it has a large amount of magnesium in it. When geochemists determined what kind of magnesium this was, they were surprised to find that it was mostly 26 Mg, an uncommon isotope. The abundances of 25 Mg and 24 Mg were found to be about the same level as Earth rocks, but 26 Mg was elevated by about 1.3%.  And after all, magnesium doesn’t even “belong” in a feldspar. The chemical formula of anorthite is CaAl 2 Si 2 O 8 – there’s no “Mg” spot in there. Why was this odd 26 Mg in this chondritic anorthite?

One way to make 26 Mg is the break-down of radioactive 26 Al. The problem with this idea is that there is no 26 Al around today . It’s an example of an extinct isotope: an atom of aluminum so unstable that it falls apart extremely rapidly. The half-life is only 717,000 years. But because these chondrules condensed in the earliest days of the solar system, there may well have been plenty of 26 Al around at that point for them to incorporate. And Al, of course, is a key part of anorthite’s Ca Al 2 Si 2 O 8 crystal structure.

So the idea is that weird extra 26 Mg in the chondrule’s anorthite could be explained by suggesting it wasn’t always 26 Mg: Instead, it started off as 26 Al ,and it belonged in that crystal’s structure. However, over a short amount of time, it all fell apart, and that left the 26 Mg behind to mark where it had once been. If this interpretation is true, it has shocking implications for the story of our solar system.

To understand why, we first need to ask, what came before the nebula? What was the ‘pre-nebula’ situation? Where did the nebula come from, anyhow?

It turns out that nebulae are generated when old stars of a certain size explode.

These explosions are called supernovae (the plural of supernova). The “nova” part of the name comes from the fact that they are very bright in the night sky – an indication of how energetic the explosion is. They look like “new” stars to the casual observer. Supernovae occur when a star has exhausted its supply of lightweight fuel, and it runs out of small atoms that can be fused together under normal conditions. The outward-directed force ceases, and gravitationally-driven inward-directed forces suddenly dominate, collapsing the star in upon itself. This jacks up the pressures to unbelievably high levels, and is responsible for the nuclear fusion of big atoms – every atom heavier than iron is made instantaneously in the fires of the supernova.

That suite of freshly-minted atoms included a bunch of unstable isotopes, including 26 Al.

And here’s the kicker: If the 26 Al was made in a supernova, started decaying immediately, and yet enough was around that a significant portion of it could be woven into the Allende chondrules’ anorthite, that implies a very short amount of time between the obliteration of our Sun’s predecessor, and the first moments of our own. Specifically, the 717,000 year half-life of 26 Al suggests that this “transition between solar systems” played out in less than 5 million years, conceivably in only 2 million years.

That is very, very quickly.

In summary, the planet Earth is part of a solar system centered on the Sun. This solar system, with its star, its classical planets, its dwarf planets, and its “leftover” comets and asteroids, formed from a nebula full of elements in the form of gas and dust. Over time, these many very small pieces stuck together to make bigger concentrations of mass, eventually culminating in a star and a bunch of planets that orbit it. Asteroids (and asteroids that fall to Earth, called meteorites), are leftovers from this process. The starting nebula itself formed from the destruction of a previous star that had exploded in a supernova. The transition from the pre-Sun star to our solar system took place shockingly rapidly.

Further reading

Marcia Bjornerud’s book Reading the Rocks . Basic Books, 2005: 226 pages.

Jennifer A. Johnson (2019), “ Populating the periodic table: Nucleosynthesis of the elements ,” Science. 01 Feb 2019 : 474-478.

Lee, T., D. A. Papanastassiou, and G. J. Wasserburg (1976), Demonstration of 26 Mg excess in Allende and evidence for 26 Al , Geophysical Research Letters , 3(1), 41-44.

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Chapter Contents

• 1 In the beginning…
• 2 Nebular theory
• 3 A star is born
• 4 Age of the solar system
• 5 The implications of meteorites
• 7 Further reading

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46 The Nebular Theory: Other Important Evidence

Introduction to Astronomy Copyright © by Lumen Learning is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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September 29, 1917

17 min read

The Origin of the Solar System

An Outline of the Three Principal Hypotheses

By Harold Jeffreys

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THE question of the origin of the solar system is one that has been a source of speculation for over a hundred years; but, in spite of the attention that has been devoted to it, no really satisfactory answer has yet been obtained. There are at present three principal hypotheses that appear to contain a large element of truth, as measured by the closeness of the approximation of their consequences to the facts of the present state of the system, but none of them is wholly satisfactory. These are the Nebular Hypothesis of Laplace, the Planetesimal Hypothesis of Chamberlin and Moulton, and the Capture Theory of See. Darwings theory of Tidal Friction is scarcely a distinct hypothesis, but is mentioned separately on account of its application to all of the others. The main features of these hypotheses will be outlined in the present paper. The Hypothesis of Laplace.According to Laplace, the solar system formerly consisted of a very much flattened mass of gas, extending beyond the orbit of Neptune, and rotating like a rigid body. In consequence of radiation of energy this slowly contracted, and in so doing gained so much in angular velocity that the centrifugal force at the equator became greater than gravity, and a ring of matter was left behind along the equator. Further contraction would detach a series of rings. These were then expected to break up in such a way that each produced a gaseous planet. This might later evolve in the same way as the original nebula, thus producing satellites. The criticisms of this hypothesis in its original form are very well known, and will only be summarized here. Forest ranger beating out a fire in one of the National Forests in Oregon FIGHTING FOREST FIRES [See page 200] The angular momentum of the system when the gaseous central body extended to the orbit of any planet can be calculated, and is not nearly sufficient to cause detachment of matter. Poincare showed that this objection could be met if the nebula were initially highly heterogeneous, with all but gAtj of its mass in the central body. The matter left behind would not form definite rings; for a gas has no cohesion, and consequently the separation of matter along the equator would be continuous and lead to another gaseous nebula, not rotating like a rigid body. A ring could not condense into a planet. According to the latest work of Jeans, viscosity is inadequate to make a mass of gas as large as a Lapla- cian nebula rotate like a rigid body. No satellite could revolve in a shorter time than it takes its primary to rotate: this condition is violated by Phobos, the inner satellite of Mars, and by the particles constituting the inner edge of Saturn's ring. All satellites should revolve in the same direction as their primaries rotate: this condition is violated by one satellite of Saturn and two of Jupiter. The second, third, and fourth objections seem quite unanswerable at present. The theory of Gravitational Instability, due to Jeans, is an attempt to pass directly from the symmetrical nebula to an unsymmetrical one with a secondary nucleus, without the ring as an intermediate stage. It will be noticed that Laplace's hypothesis implies that all the planets were formerly gaseous, and hence must have been liquid before they became solid. The question of the course of evolution of a gaseous mass initially heterogeneous with several strong secondary condensations has not hitherto been considered; such a mass would be free from at least the first four of the objections offered to the standard forms of Laplace's hypothesis, and its history would serve as a hypothesis intermediate between this and the Planetesimal Hypothesis. The Planetesimal Hypothesis.This hypothesis has been formulated by Chamberlin and Moulton1 to avoid the serious defects of the Nebular Hypothesis. It really consists of two separate assumptions, either of which could be discarded without necessarily invalidating the other. The first of these involves the close approach of some wandering star to the sun. This would raise two tidal projections at opposite sides of the sun, and if the disturbance was sufficiently violent, streams of matter would be expelled from them. On account of the perturbations of their paths by the second body, these would not fall back into the sun, but would go on revolving round it as a system of secondary nuclei, with a large number of very fine particles also revolving round the sun; each particle, however small, would revolve independently, so that the system would in this respect resemble the heterogeneous nebula mentioned at the close of the last paragraph. The mathematical investigation of this hypothesis would be extremely difficult, but there seems to be no obvious objection to it. It will be seen that the nuclei would be initially liquid or gaseous, having been expelled from the sun. Thus this hypothesis implies a formerly molten earth. The smaller particles would soon become solid, but the gaseous part initially expelled and not under the influence of a secondary nucleus would remain gaseous, although its density would be very small. The orbits would be highly eccentric. The second part of the hypothesis deals with the latef- evolution of the secondary nuclei. Its authors believe that these would steadily grow by picking up the smaller particles, which are called planetesimals, and in the process they would have the eccentricities of their orbits reduced. That this is qualitatively correct can easily be proved mathematically. There is, however, a serious objection to its quantitative adequacy. Consider any arbitrary planetesimal. Its chance of colliding with another planetesimal in a definite time is proportional to the sum of the surfaces of the planetesimals, while its chance of colliding with a nucleus is proportional to the sum of the surfaces of the nuclei. Further, if the eccentricities of the planetary orbits are to be considerably affected by accretion, the mass picked up by each planet must be at least as great as the original mass of the planet. Now the more finely divided the matter is, the more surface it exposes, and hence before accretion the mass picked up must have presented a much larger surface than the planet did. Hence collisions between planetesimals must have been far commoner than collisions between planets and planetesimals. Further, as the velocity of impact must have been comparable with an orbital velocity on account of the high eccentricity of the orbits, the colliding planetesimals must in nearly all cases have turned to gas; for it is known that meteors entering the earth's atmosphere at such velocities are volatized. Hence nearly all of the planetesimals must have turned to gas before the nuclei could be much affected by accretion. We are thus back to the heterogeneous gaseous nebula. If the planetesimals moved initially in nearly circular orbits this objection does not arise, but it can then be shown that the product of the mass and the orbital eccentricity of each nucleus would diminish with the time. It can thus be seen that Jupiter could never have been smaller than Uranus is now. There is no obvious objection to this form of the hypothesis, but there is no reason to suppose that solid planetesimals did originally move in nearly circular orbits.2 A further hypothesis that has come to be associated with the present one, although not an essential part of it, is the belief that the earth has always been solid. There are many serious difficulties in the way of this. The mode of formation of the nuclei described in the first part of the Planestesimal Hypothesis implies that they were initially liquid or gaseous. This is not, however, a direct objection; one part of the hypothesis might be true and the other false, as they are not interdependent. Only one satisfactory explanation of the elevation of mountains by the folding of the earth's crust has been offered; this attributes it to a horizontal compression at the surface. Now, if a solid earth grew by the addition of small particles from outside, these would be deposited in a layer on the surface, in a perfectly unstrained condition. Thus, during the whole process of growth the same surface condition would always hold, namely, that there is no horizontal compression at the surface, however much deformation may take place within. Hence any stresses available for mountain- building must have been accumulated after accretion ceased; if the theory that the earth was formerly molten should be proved to give insufficient surface compression to account for known mountains, then a fortiori the theory of a permanently solid earth gives insufficient compression, as the available fall of temperature is less. 3. It is by no means clear that a solid earth growing by accretion would remain solid. A particle falling from an infinite distance to the earth under the earth's attraction alone would develop a velocity almost enough to volatilize it on impact, and the actual velocities must have been considerably greater than this, as the planetesimals would have a velocity relative to the earth before entering its sphere of influence. If, then, the particles required to form the earth were all brought together at once, the resulting body would be gaseous. On the other hand, if the accretion were spread over a long enough time, heat would be radiated away as fast as it was produced, and the body would remain solid. In the absence of a criterion of the rate of growth it is impossible to state whether an earth growing by accretion could remain solid or not. Holmes3 has found that the hypothesis of a cooling earth, initially in a liquid state, leads to temperatures within the crust capable of accounting for igneous activity, whereas the view that the earth is now in a steady state, its temperature gradient being maintained wholly by radio-activity, is by no means certain to lead to adequate internal temperatures. Assuming the former fluidity of the earth, he has developed a wonderfully consistent theory of the earth's thermal state. The present writer, using Holmes's data, finds4 that the available compression of the crust is of the same order of magnitude as that required to produce the existing mountain-ranges. 2Monthly Notices of R.A.S. vol. lxxvn. 1916. It seems, then, that whatever we may assume about the origin of the earth, the hypothesis that it has at some stage of its existence been liquid or gaseous agrees best with its present state. The hypothesis of Laplace, however modified, implies the former fluidity of the earth, and so does the standard form of the Planetesimal Hypothesis. The Capture Theory of See.hLike the Planetesimal Hypothesis, this has been developed during the present century to avoid the objections that have been offered to that of Laplace. The main features of the two theories are very similar. Both involve the idea of a system of secondary nuclei revolving in independent orbits about the primitive sun, with sparsely distributed small particles between them, and the impacts of the small particles on the nuclei are supposed in course of time to act on the orbits of the latter in the same way as a resisting medium; namely, the eccentricities of the orbits tend to diminish, and satellites tend to approach their primaries. The Capture Theory is not, however, stated in so precise a form as the Planetesimal Theory. It is not definitely stated whether all the small particles would revolve in the same direction or not. If they did, then there would be little or no secular effect on the mean distance of a planet. If, however, they moved indifferently in the direct and retrograde senses, then their collective effect would be the same as that of a medium at rest, and the friction encountered by the planets in their motion would cause them to approach the sun. The fact that such a secular effect is stated by See to occur implies that the particles at any point are not on an average supposed to move with the velocity appropriate to a circular orbit at that point, so that the conditions would be such as to ensure that collisions between them would be violent. The small particles are described by the somewhat vague term of “cosmical dust”; if this means that they were solid, the Capture Theory, like the Planetesimal Theory, fails on the ground that the collisions between the small particles would cause the system to degenerate to a gaseous nebula long before any important effect had been produced on the nuclei. If, on the other hand, they were discrete molecules, then the system would be a heterogeneous gaseous nebula at the commencement, and this objection does not apply. It is clear, however, that the planets cannot have entered the system from outer space, for then their orbital planes would be inclined to one another at large angles, which the subsequent action of the medium could scarcely affect, whereas actually all the major planets keep very close to the ecliptic. All must, then, be regarded as having always been members of the solar system, however much their orbits may have changed. They are supposed to be derived from the secondary nuclei of a soiral nebula. The most important difference between the Planetesimal and Capture theories lies in the history attributed to the satellites. In the former, each satellite is supposed to have always been associated with its present primary, having been near it when originally expelled from the sun. In the Capture Theory, primaries and satellites are both supposed to have initially moved independently round the sun in highly eccentric orbits. If, in the course of its movement”, a small body came sufficiently near a large one, and had a sufficiently small relative velocity, then a permanent change would take place in the character of its orbit, and it is possible that, under the influence of the resisting medium, this would ultimately lead to its becoming a satellite. The mechanism of the process has not been worked out in detail, and, in view of the extremely complicated nature of the problem, it would be very dangerous to predict whether it is feasible. All the satellites in the system are supposed to have been captured in this way by their primaries. In both hypotheses the satellites are considered to have approached their primaries after becoming associated with them owing to the secular effect of the resisting medium. 3”Padio-activity and the Earth's Thermal History,” Geol. Mag. FebruaryMarch 1915, June 1916. *Phil. Mag. vol. xxxii. Dec m':er 1916. *>The Capture Theory of Cosmical Evolution, by T. J. J. See The Theory of Tidal Friction.All the theories so far mentioned agree in the fact that each commences with a particular distribution of matter, and tries to predict the course of the changes that would follow if this were left to itself. The success or failure of such hypotheses to lead to a system resembling the present solar system is the measure of their truth or falsehood. The method is thus essentially one of trial and error, and when a theory is found unsatisfactory, the next step is to modify it in such a way as to avoid the defects that have been detected. In this way a succession of different hypotheses may be Obtained, each giving a better representation of the facts than the previous one. Destructive criticism may thus be of positive value. Such a method must necessarily yield the truth very slowly, and must further involve a large number of assumptions concerning the initial conditions; in addition, the set of initial conditions that leads to the correct final state may not be unique. The Theory of Tidal Friction, due to Sir G. H. Darwin,6 is of a totally different character. It? starts with the present conditions, and by means of a single highly plausible hypothesis obtains relations that the properties of the system must have satisfied at any epoch, provided only that this is not too remote for the calculation to be possible, and that no unknown causes have operated that could invalidate the work. The initial conditions thus obtained are then unique, and the only way of disproving the hypothesis would be to discover some new agency of sufficient magnitude to upset the course of the involution. Whatever hypothesis may ultimately be found to account for the present solar system, the Theory of Tidal Friction must therefore form a part of it. The physical basis of the theory is very simple. The attractive force due to the moon is always greatest on the side of the earth nearest to it, and least on that farthest away, while its value at the center of the earth is intermediate. The center of the earth being regarded as fixed, then, the moon tends to cause the parts of the earth nearest to and farthest from it to protrude, thus forming a bodily tide. If the earth were perfectly elastic, the high tide would always occur with the moon in the zenith or nadir; no energy would be dissipated, and there would be no secular effect. If, however, it is viscous the tides would lag somewhat, and their attractions on the moon would, in general, produce a calculable secular effect on the moon's motion and the rotation of the earth. The only case where viscosity would produce no secular effect is when the deformed body rotates in the same time as the deforming one revolves. The tide then does not move round relatively to the body, but becomes a constant fixed deformation, directly under the deforming body, and ceases to produce a secular effect. In the ultimate steady state of a viscous system, then, the viscous body will always keep the same face turned towards the perturbing one. In the solar system system there are certainly two examples of this condition, and no other explanation of it has been advanced. Mercury always keeps the same face towards the sun, and the moon towards the earth; with less certainty it is believed that the same is true of Venus and the satellites of Jupiter. Now if the viscosity of a substance be zero, that substance is a perfect fluid, and there can be no dissipation of energy inside it. If, on the other hand, it be infinite, then we have the case of perfect elasticity, and again there can be dissipation. If the viscosity steadily increase from 0 to infinity, then the rate of dissipation of energy when the same periodic stress is applied increases to a maximum and then diminishes again to zero. The balance of probability seems to imply that the earth was formerly fluid, and, if this can be granted, the fact that most of it is now almost perfectly elastic at once indicates that dissipation of energy by tidal friction must have been important in the past. On this hypothesis Sir G. H. Darwin traced the system of the earth and moon back to a state where the moon was close to the earth, the two always keeping the same face towards each other, and revolving in some time between three and five hours. The lunar orbit was practically in the plane of the equator; the initial eccentricity is uncertain, as it depends altogether on the actual variation of the viscosity with the time. Scientific Papers, vol. ii. The question that next arises is, what was the condition just before this? The natural suggestion is that the two bodies formed one mass. The cause of the separation is, however, open to some doubt. It has been thought that the rapidity of the rotation would be enough to cause instability, in which case the original body might break up into two parts. Moulton, on the other hand, has shown that the actual rotation could not be so rapid as to make the system unstable. It is more likely that Darwin's original suggestion is correct, namely, that at the epoch considered the period of rotation was nearly double the period of one of the free vibrations of the mass; consequently the amplitude of the semidiurnal tide would be enormous, and might easily lead to fission in a system not possessing much strength. The Prevalence of Direct Motion in the Solar System. On all of the theories of the origin of the solar system that have here been described it is necessary that the planets should revolve in the same direction. On the Planetesimal Theory this would be the direction of the motion of the perturbing body relative to the sun at the time of the initial disruption. In addition to this, however, all the planets except probably Uranus and Neptune have a direct rotation, and all the satellites except those of these two planets and the outer ones of Jupiter and Saturn have a direct revolution. The fact that three satellites revolve in the opposite direction to the rotation of their primaries is in flagrant contradiction to the original form of the Nebular Hypothesis. It was, however, suggested by Darwin that all the planets might have originally had a retrograde rotation, and that the friction of the solar tides has since reversed the rotation of all except the two outermost. Jupiter and Saturn would then be supposed to have produced their outer satellites before the reversal took place, and the others afterwards. An objection to this theory has been raised by Moulton, who points out that the secular retardation of the rotation of Saturn due to solar tides is only about tsooo of that of the earth, so that there probably was not time for this to occur. On the other hand, this retardation is proportional to the seventh power of the diameter of the planets: if we can grant then that these planets were formerly much more distended than at present, the viscosity remaining the same, the available time may be adequate. At the same time, solar tidal friction may be adequate to explain the facts that one of the satellites of Mars and the particles at the inner edge of Saturn's ring revolve more rapidly than their primaries rotate, which would not be the case on the unmodified Nebular Hypothesis. Direct rotation and revolution of satellites on the Planetesimal Theory are shown by Moulton to be probable as a result of a very ingenious argument involving the mode of accretion. Whether it is quantitatively adequate is not proved, and the present writer would prefer to regard these motions as having been direct since the initial disruption. Let us suppose, for instance, that disruption would occur when the disruptive force had reached a definite fraction of surface gravity. It can easily be seen that both are proportional to the diameter of the disturbed body, and hence their ratio is independent of it. Other things being equal, then, a nucleus of any size would be equally likely to be broken up and give a set of dependent nuclei, which would then revolve round it in the direct sense. Secondary nuclei expelled at the same time and close together would remain together, and their relative motion might be in either sense. Thus we should expect both direct and retrograde revolution, but the former would predominate. The fact that the retrograde satellites are on the outside of their systems is to be attributed partly to the greater stability of retrograde orbits of larger size and partly to the fact that they would experience less resistance from the medium. Capture may be possible; in the present state of our knowledge we can neither affirm nor deny it. Direct rotation is presumably to be attributed to the attraction of the disturbing body on the tidal protuberance before and during expulsion, and to secondary nuclei with direct motions falling back into the parent body. Subsequent evolution would take place in a similar way to that indicated by Darwin. The Hypothesis of a Heterogeneous Nebula.A system of nuclei revolving in a tenuous gaseous nebula would experience a viscous resistance from it, and hence would probably evolve in much the same way as See has indicated in the Capture Theory; accretion must probably be almost negligible, so that the original nuclei must have had nearly their present masses. The original eccentricities of the orbits of both planets and satellites would be considerably reduced; the inclination to the plane of the ecliptic would be small at the commencement, and would remain so; if the medium revolved the effect on the major axes of the orbit, and hence on the periods, would probably be small. Direct satellites would approach their primaries, and retrograde ones would ultimately be left on the outskirts of their subsystems. Given suitable initial conditions, then, a system might be developed that would bear a strong resemblance to the existing solar system. The resisting medium itself would gradually degenerate and approach the sun on account of its internal friction; the zodiacal light may be the last remnant of it. It may, however, be regarded as certain that there has been no large amount of resisting matter near the earth's orbit for a very long time; there has probably been ample time for the evolution of the earth and moon to take place from the state that Darwin traced them back to. The moon was then probably formed from the earth by the disruptive action of the solar tides; but, as this would be a resonance effect, increasing in amplitude over thousands of vibrations, whereas the formation of a system of nuclei in the way suggested by Moulton would take place at once, there need be no surprise that the former event led to a single satellite of of the mass of the primary, while the latter formed several, the largest having a mass of tTjjfu of its primary. The unsymmetrical nebula here considered might have been produced in the manner described in the last section. A symmetrical nebula becoming gravitationally unstable would lead to an unsymmetrical one, as was proved by Jeans, but it is difficult to see how the phenomenon of retrograde and direct motions occuring to the same subsystem could occur on this hypothesis. On the whole, then, the most plausible hypothesis seems to be that a gaseous neubla with a system of secondary and tertiary nuclei was formed round the sun by tidal disruption owing to the close passage of another star, and that this has been subsequently modified by gaseous viscosity, and at a later stage by tidal friction. The moon was probably formed from the earth by solar tidal disruption, this method being abnormal in the system, and the later evolution of the earth and moon has been dominated by bodily tidal friction.

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8 The Rise and Fall of the Nebular Hypothesis

• Published: August 2023
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The first to explain the origin of the planets and moons was Pierre-Simon Laplace in his 1796 book, Exposition for the System of the World . His theory would dominate science throughout the next century and come to be accepted as a given. He held that the solar system had begun as a hot, rotating gas cloud. As it spun, centrifugal force threw off blobs of gas that coagulated into planets. The planets then repeated the process to create their moons. By the last few decades of the eighteenth century, enough evidence had come to light to call the nebular hypothesis into question, if not to falsify it. This opened the way for three different theories for the origin of the Moon. The fission theory resembled the nebular hypothesis in holding that the gravity of the Sun had pulled off a bulge in the proto-Earth which became the Moon. The co-accretion theory held that the Moon and the Earth had formed near each other and thus were like sister planets. The capture theory imagined that the Moon had started out in some distant region of the solar system but drew near enough to be captured into orbit by the Earth’s gravity.

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Examples Of Planetesimals

The Characteristics of Comets, Meteors & Asteroids

Terrestrial planets, gas giants, comets, moons, and asteroids number among the numerous types of heavenly bodies that make up our solar system. Planetesimals form when clumps of rock and matter start to congeal together; they are thought to be the building blocks of planet formation. They are located in many parts of the solar system, and some astronomers believe they are key to the history of planets and moons. Planetesimal matter such as rock and dust may have combined with gravity to form a number of the masses orbiting the sun.

Planetesimal Particulars

Russian astronomer Viktor Safronov theorized that, during the formation of the solar system, the attractive force of gravity pulled bits from nebulae – clouds of dust, gasses and plasma – together, creating rocky planetesimals of various sizes. If the planetesimals nearest the sun were composed of matter that had high melting points, they may have formed the four inner planets.

A similar conjecture, the Chamberlin–Moulton planetesimal hypothesis, proposed similar ideas of planetesimal objects forming in the accretion around planets.

The outer planets could have come from planetesimals made from different materials that formed dense cores, attracting light gases such as hydrogen and helium. This may have resulted in the four giant planets known as gas giants.

In the early solar system, planets started off as planetesimals and debris started to accrete and form protoplanets. These were times of great chaos and collision, but eventually, full planetary systems were formed from the wreckage.

There are many types of nebular formations and nebulae. The sun likely formed out of a solar nebula, and the left over gases and materials would continue to coalesce into smaller bodies. Everything from meteors to Uranus would eventually form from these remaining building blocks.

Meteors are only classified as meteorites by space agencies like NASA once they make contact with a planet’s surface.

Pluto's New Category

Pluto was once considered one of the nine planets in earth’s solar system. However, in the latter part of the 20th century, many astronomers believed that Pluto was simply not large enough to be considered a major planet. Some of these scientists began referring to Pluto as a planetesimal. By 2006, most astronomers in the International Astronomical Union generally agreed that Pluto was not a planet, although this was a controversial decision for some scientists and nonscientists. Dropping Pluto from the planetary list was intended as a reclassification rather than a demotion.

Ceres is another famous dwarf planet that resides in the asteroid belt.

In 1943, Irish astronomer Kenneth Edgeworth suggested that undiscovered objects lay near the outer boundary of the solar system. In 1951, Gerard Kuiper offered further evidence to support this idea. In fact, a ring of icy bodies, now commonly known as the Kuiper belt, orbits the sun beyond Neptune. Some of the larger objects in the belt are considered planetesimals or "super comets." Since 1992, many have been identified. Pluto is one of the larger bodies within this grouping. There are countless smaller Kuiper Belt objects, and there may even be larger planets or celestial bodies waiting to be discovered.

Beyond this Kuiper Belt lies an expanse of far-away icy comets, asteroids, and rocky planets called the Oort Cloud. These objects are hard to directly confirm because of their distance and size, but their existence is supported by the appearance of comets and small bodies appearing periodically in the solar system.

Many of the moons orbiting planets are sometimes considered planetesimals. The largest of Neptune’s 13 moons, Triton, falls into this category. One of Saturn’s 53 moons, Phoebe, is a planetesimal, as well as both of Mars’ moons, Phobos and Deimos. In addition, Jupiter has 50 moons, and several of these match the criteria for planetesimals.

There is some debate as to the differentiation of planetesimals and moons. Some of the moons orbiting these planets are thought to be left overs of planetary formation or the protoplanetary disk, but it is hard to determine conclusively.

Venus and Mercury are the only two planets in the solar system without moons.

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• Rochester Institute of Technology: Terrestrial Bodies in the Solar System
• Universe Today: Planetesimals
• NASA: Earth Rocks on the Moon
• Encyclopedia Britannica: Planetesimal
• Universe Today: What Is A Nebula?
• Harvard University: International Comet Quarterly: Is Pluto a giant comet?
• National Geographic: Pluto Not a Planet, Astronomers Rule
• Encyclopedia Britannica: Kuiper Belt
• University of Maryland, Baltimore County: The Kuiper Belt
• NASA: Neptune: Moons
• NASA: Saturn: Moons
• NASA: Jupiter: Moons

About the Author

Living in upstate New York, Susan Sherwood is a researcher who has been writing within educational settings for more than 10 years. She has co-authored papers for Horizons Research, Inc. and the Capital Region Science Education Partnership. Sherwood has a Ph.D. in curriculum and instruction from the University at Albany.

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What Do We Mean by "Outgassing" in the Context of Planetary Geology?

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7.8: The Nebular Theory- Other Important Evidence

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Planetesimal Hypothesis

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Key Takeaways

• The Planetesimal Hypothesis suggested planets formed from small bits of matter (planetesimals) revolving around the sun, originating from gases pulled out by a near-collision with a passing star.
• This theory was accepted for about 35 years but was later debunked after the discovery that gases pulled from stars would expand and dissipate rather than condense, due to weaker gravitational forces outside the star.
• The Planetesimal Hypothesis is no longer considered a viable explanation for the origin of the solar system.

Planetesimal Hypothesis , a theory of the origin of the solar system. It was proposed by Forrest R. Moulton and Thomas C. Chamberlin about 1900. The theory states that the planets were formed by the accumulation of extremely small bits of matterplanetesimalsthat revolved around the sun. This matter was produced when a passing star almost collided with the sun. During the near-collision, hot gases were pulled out of both stars and the gases then condensed. The planetesimal hypothesis was widely accepted for about 35 years.

The greatest flaw in the theory is the assumption that the material drawn out of the stars would condense. The extremely hot gases that make up a star are held together by the gravitational forces within the star. Once the material was pulled away to where the gravitational forces were weaker, it would expand because of its heat. Before condensation could take place, the gases would have almost entirely dissipated. The planetesimal hypothesis is no longer considered a likely explanation of the origin of the solar system.

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10.02: Origin of the Solar System—The Nebular Hypothesis

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Our solar system formed at the same time as our Sun as described in the nebular hypothesis. The nebular hypothesis is the idea that a spinning cloud of dust made of mostly light elements, called a nebula, flattened into a protoplanetary disk, and became a solar system consisting of a star with orbiting planets [ 12 ]. The spinning nebula collected the vast majority of material in its center, which is why the sun Accounts for over 99% of the mass in our solar system.

Planet Arrangement and Segregation

As our solar system formed, the nebular cloud of dispersed particles developed distinct temperature zones. Temperatures were very high close to the center, only allowing condensation of metals and silicate minerals with high melting points. Farther from the Sun, the temperatures were lower, allowing the condensation of lighter gaseous molecules such as methane, ammonia, carbon dioxide, and water [ 13 ]. This temperature differentiation resulted in the inner four planets of the solar system becoming rocky, and the outer four planets becoming gas giants.

Both rocky and gaseous planets have a similar growth model. Particles of dust, floating in the disc were attracted to each other by static charges and eventually, gravity. As the clumps of dust became bigger, they interacted with each other—colliding, sticking, and forming proto-planets. The planets continued to grow over the course of many thousands or millions of years, as material from the protoplanetary disc was added. Both rocky and gaseous planets started with a solid core. Rocky planets built more rock on that core, while gas planets added gas and ice. Ice giants formed later and on the furthest edges of the disc, accumulating less gas and more ice. That is why the gas-giant planets Jupiter and Saturn are composed of mostly hydrogen and helium gas, more than 90%. The ice giants Uranus and Neptune are composed of mostly methane ices and only about 20% hydrogen and helium gases.

The planetary composition of the gas giants is clearly different from the rocky planets. Their size is also dramatically different for two reasons: First, the original planetary nebula contained more gases and ices than metals and rocks. There was abundant hydrogen, carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, and less silicon and iron, giving the outer planets more building material. Second, the stronger gravitational pull of these giant planets allowed them to collect large quantities of hydrogen and helium, which could not be collected by the weaker gravity of the smaller planets.

Jupiter’s massive gravity further shaped the solar system and growth of the inner rocky planets. As the nebula started to coalesce into planets, Jupiter’s gravity accelerated the movement of nearby materials, generating destructive collisions rather than constructively gluing material together [ 14 ]. These collisions created the asteroid belt, an unfinished planet, located between Mars and Jupiter. This asteroid belt is the source of most meteorites that currently impact the Earth. Study of asteroids and meteorites help geologist to determine the age of Earth and the composition of its core, mantle, and crust. Jupiter’s gravity may also explain Mars’ smaller mass, with the larger planet consuming material as it migrated from the inner to the outer edge of the solar system [ 15 ].

Pluto and Planet Definition

The outermost part of the solar system is known as the Kuiper belt, which is a scattering of rocky and icy bodies. Beyond that is the Oort cloud, a zone filled with small and dispersed ice traces. These two locations are where most comets form and continue to orbit, and objects found here have relatively irregular orbits compared to the rest of the solar system. Pluto, formerly the ninth planet, is located in this region of space. The XXVIth General Assembly of the International Astronomical Union (IAU) stripped Pluto of planetary status in 2006 because scientists discovered an object more massive than Pluto, which they named Eris. The IAU decided against including Eris as a planet, and therefore, excluded Pluto as well. The IAU narrowed the definition of a planet to three criteria:

• Enough mass to have gravitational forces that force it to be rounded
• Not massive enough to create a fusion
• Large enough to be in a cleared orbit, free of other planetesimals that should have been incorporated at the time the planet formed. Pluto passed the first two parts of the definition, but not the third. Pluto and Eris are currently classified as dwarf planets

12. Montmerle T, Augereau J-C, Chaussidon M, et al (2006) Solar System Formation and Early Evolution: the First 100 Million Years. In: From Suns to Life: A Chronological Approach to the History of Life on Earth. Springer New York, pp 39–95

13. Martin RG, Livio M (2012) On the evolution of the snow line in protoplanetary discs. Mon Not R Aston Soc Lett 425:L6–L9

14. Petit J-M, Morbidelli A, Chambers J (2001) The Primordial Excitation and Clearing of the Asteroid Belt. Icarus 153:338–347. https://doi.org/10.1006/icar.2001.6702

15. Walsh KJ, Morbidelli A, Raymond SN, et al (2011) A low mass for Mars from Jupiter’s early gas-driven migration. Nature 475:206–209

John Pringle Nichol, the Nebular Hypothesis and Progressive Cosmogony

• First Online: 03 August 2022

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There were two forms of the nebular hypothesis in circulation during the nineteenth century. Both had implications for cosmological development which ran counter to revealed religion and were associated with radical politics. John Pringle Nichol was one of the earliest popularisers of both versions. He had suffered health problems from childhood, and in due course a serious bout of illness coincided with a decision to resign from his clerical position with the Church of Scotland and revert to heterodox theology. Soon afterwards, Pringle became the Professor of Astronomy at the University of Glasgow. He used his new role to promote an ontology which he felt to be compatible with both his religious and his political beliefs. Unfortunately, Nichol experienced a personal financial crisis and a strained relationship with his employer following some ill-advised investments in a failed telescope construction project. To recover his losses, he wrote a series of popular astronomy books in which he promoted his progressive cosmology.

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Alfred Lord Tennyson, ‘The Princess’ in Karen Hodder (ed.), The Works of Alfred Lord Tennyson (Ware: Wordsworth Editions, 1994), 227–303 at 241. Also quoted in: Richard A. Proctor, Saturn and its System (London: Longman, Green, Longman, Roberts, & Green, 1865), 201.

John P. Nichol, The Architecture of the Heavens (London: John Parker, 1850), 113.

John P. Nichol, ‘Art. VI. State of Discovery and Speculation Concerning the Nebulae’, London and Westminster Review , Jul 1836; 3, 2: 390–409 at 406.

William A. Knight, Memoir of John Nichol, Professor of English Literature in the University of Glasgow (Glasgow: James Maclehose, 1896), 9. Professor Knight was the literary executor of John Nichol, the son of John Pringle Nichol. Knight had access to a collection of letters from John to his wife which he had collated in 1861 in the form of ‘Leaves from my Life’. The first chapter of the Memoir consists of this journal, although its contents appear to have been redacted—see the editor’s comment on p. 3.

Simon Schaffer, ‘The nebular hypothesis and the science of progress’ in James R. Moore (ed.), History, Humanity and Evolution: Essays for John C. Greene (Cambridge University Press, 1989), 131–164.

Knight, Memoir , 8.

John P. Nichol, Memorials from Ben Rhydding: Concerning the Place, Its People, Its Cures (London: Charles Gilpin, 1852).

A German word meaning ‘world picture’ which has previously been employed to describe both the cosmological models of physical scientists and the creation stories found in traditional religions. It thus encompasses the two key epistemologies under discussion here.

Coverage of the historiography of the nebular hypothesis can be found in a number of articles including: Stephen G. Brush, ‘The nebular hypothesis and the evolutionary world view’, History of Science , 25 (1987): 245–278, Michael. A. Hoskin, ‘Rosse, Robinson and the Resolution of the Nebulae’, Journal for the History of Astronomy , 21, 4, (Nov., 1990): 331–344, Marilyn. B. Ogilvie, ‘Robert Chambers and the Nebular Hypothesis’, The British Journal for the History of Science , 8, 3 (Nov., 1975): 214–232. Schaffer, ‘nebular’, Simon Schaffer, ‘On astronomical drawing’ in Caroline A Jones and Peter Galison (eds.), Picturing science, producing art (New York: Routledge, 1998), 441–474 and Simon Schaffer, ‘The Leviathan of Parsonstown: Literary technology and scientific representation’, in Timothy Lenoir (ed.), Inscribing Science: Scientific Texts and the Materiality of Communication (Stanford: University Press, 1998), 182–222.

Sara J. Schechner, Time & Time Again: How Science and Culture Shape the Past, the Present and Future (Cambridge MA: Collection of Historical Scientific Instruments, Harvard University, 2014), 14–15.

Ogilvie, ‘Chambers’, 216. Michael J. Crowe, The Extraterrestrial Life Debate 1750–1900: The Idea of a Plurality of Worlds from Kant to Lowell (Mineola NY: Dover Publications, 1999), 97–98, asserts that a number of astronomers dispute the idea that Swedenborg had described an early form of the nebular hypothesis.

Gerald J. Whitrow, ‘The role of time in cosmology’, in Wolfgang Yourgrau & Allen D. Breck (eds.), Cosmology , History and Theology (New York: Plenum Press, 1977), 159–177 at 167.

Ibid., 167–168.

Stanley Jaki, Planets and Planetarians: A History of Theories of the Origin of Planetary Systems (Edinburgh: Scottish Academic Press, 1978), 123–124. The English version of Laplace’s nebular hypothesis appeared in Pierre S. Laplace, (tr. J. Pond) The System of the World (London: Richard Phillips, 1809) Volume II, Book V, Chapter VI, 354–375. Laplace omitted Uranus from his list of known satellite rotations, on page 357.

Simon Schaffer, ‘Herschel in Bedlam: Natural History and Stellar Astronomy’, The British Journal for the History of Science , 13, 3 (Nov., 1980): 211–239.

Stephen G. Brush, ‘The nebular hypothesis and the evolutionary world view’, History of Science , 25 (1987): 245–278, at 251–252.

William Whewell, Astronomy and General Physics Considered with Reference to Natural Theology (London: William Pickering, 1833), 181–191.

Whewell, Astronomy , 190–191.

Schaffer, ‘nebular’, 134–135.

Ogilvie, ‘Chambers’. Philip Lawrence, ‘Heaven and Earth – the relation of the nebular hypothesis to geology’, in Yourgrau and Breck (eds.), Cosmology, 253–281.

John P. Nichol, ‘On some recent discoveries in astronomy’, Tait’s Edinburgh magazine , 4.19, October 1833: 57–64. Nichol, ‘State of Discovery’.

Knight, Memoir , 6.

Schaffer, ‘nebular’, 142–143.

Knight, Memoir , 6–7.

James A. Secord, Victorian Sensation: The Extraordinary Publication, Reception, and Secret Authorship of Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation (University of Chicago Press, 2000), 227.

Schaffer, ‘nebular’, 142–147. NB the London Review was renamed London and Westminster Review in 1836.

John P. Nichol, ‘The Irish Tithe Bill’, Tait’s Edinburgh magazine ; Jul 1837; 4, 43: 402–404 at 403.

J. Willm, The Education of the People: A Practical Treatise on the Realm of Extending Its Sphere & Improving Its Character. With a Preliminary Dissertation on Some Points Connected with the Present Position of Education in This Country by J. P. Nichol, LL. D. (Glasgow: William Lang, 1847), lxii. As noted in Chap. 2 , this opposition to ‘subscription’ was one of the few viewpoints which Nichol would have shared with the natural theologian William Paley (1743–1805).

Thomas Chalmers, On Political Economy in Connection with the Moral State and Moral Prospects of Society (Glasgow: William Collins, 1832). John P. Nichol, ‘Dr. Chalmers’, Tait’s Edinburgh magazine , Nov 1832; 2, 8: 189–195. William Shakespeare, ‘The Tragedy of Julius Caesar’, Act 3, Scene 1.

Nichol, ‘Dr. Chalmers’, 194.

‘Professor Nichol’, The Gentleman’s Magazine: And Historical Review , Nov 1859; 207: 536.

James MacLehose, Memoirs and Portraits of One Hundred Glasgow Men (Glasgow: James MacLehose & Sons, 1886), 249.

Knight, Memoir , xiii.

Frances E. Mineka (ed.), The Earlier Letters of John Stuart Mill 1812–1848 (Volume XII of the Collected Works of John Stuart Mill) (University of Toronto Press, 1963), 245, Letter 117, to John Pringle Nichol, dated 18 December 1834.

‘Suicide of Eyton Tooke, Esq.’, The Observer , 31 January 1830, 3.

Knight, Memoir , 8–9.

MacLehose, Memoirs , 249.

‘Astronomy’, The Scotsman , 28 March 1835, 1. ‘Mr J. P. Nichol.’, The Scotsman , 24 October 1835, 3.

James Coutts, A History of the University of Glasgow; From Its Foundation in 1451 to 1909 (Glasgow: James MacLehose and Sons, 1909), 419.

Knight, Memoir , 51.

‘Professor Nichol’, The Scottish Review ; January 1860: 1–17 at 12.

Knight, Memoir , 118–121. The reference to “Dr. Channing” is attributed by Nichol junior to a “Rev. A. Mackennal”.

Ibid., 301. This comment is also attributed to Mackennal, but the conversation seems to belong to a much later period, that is, 1891–1892.

The University of Aberdeen has been associated over time with a level of sympathy for the Anglican Church and latitudinarian views. See, for example, Ned C. Landsman, From Colonials to Provincials, American Thought and Culture 1680–1760 (Cornell University Press, 1997), 64.

Coutts, History , 388.

Schaffer, ‘nebular’, 149.

Stewart J. Brown, Thomas Chalmers and the Godly Commonwealth in Scotland (Oxford University Press, 1982), 28–29.

Boyd Hilton, The Age of Atonement : The Influence of Evangelicalism on Social and Economic Thought 1785–1865 (Oxford University Press, 2001), 61.

Brown, Chalmers , 114–115, 191–192.

‘Mr J. P. Nichol’, The Scotsman , 24 October 1835, 3. Schaffer, ‘nebular’, 145.

Coutts, History , 388. John Nichol, Thomas Carlyle (London: Macmillan, 1892), 63–73.

Knight, Memoir , 114.

Fred Kaplan, Thomas Carlyle: a biography (Cambridge University Press, 1983), 232.

William Paley, Paley’s Natural Theology , vol II (London: Charles Knight, 1836), 18.

Thomas Chalmers, On the Power, Wisdom and Goodness of God: As Manifested in the Adaptation of External Nature to the Moral and Intellectual Constitution of Man (1833 repr. Glasgow: William Collins, 1839), 30–31.

Hilton, Atonement , 363.

Nichol, ‘State of Discovery’, 406–408.

Crosbie Smith, The Science of Energy: A Cultural History of Energy Physics in Victorian Britain (London: Athlone, 1998), 25–26.

John P. Nichol, The Stellar Universe: Views of Its Arrangements, Motions, and Evolutions (Edinburgh: John Johnstone, 1848), vii–viii. Also see comments on his engagement with occasionalism below.

Schaffer,’ nebular’, 149–150. For Nichol’s views on education and religion, see Willm, Education , xi–lxxxiii.

MacLehose, Memoirs , 252.

Knight, Memoir , 100–121, 58.

‘Professor Nichol’, 5–6.

George Gilfillan, A Second Gallery of Literary Portraits (Edinburgh: James Hogg, 1850), 247.

See discussion in Chap. 8 of the ideas presented in The Stellar Universe .

John P. Nichol, Thoughts on Some Important Points Relating to the System of the World (Edinburgh: William Tait, 1846), viii. The original quotation was subsequently reproduced in a collection of Brown’s lectures: Samuel Brown, ‘The History of Science (1846)’, Lectures on the Atomic Theory and Essays Scientific and Literary . vol 1 (Edinburgh: Thomas Constable, 1858), 299–344 at 332.

Spencer T. Hall, Biographical Sketches of Remarkable People, Chiefly from Personal Recollection, Miscellaneous Papers and Poems (London: Simpkin, Marshall, 1873), 54.

Niamh Brown, ‘Devotional Cosmology: Poetry, Thermodynamics and Popular Astronomy, 1839–1889’, PhD thesis submitted to the University of Glasgow (2016), 45–62.

Schaffer, ‘nebular’, 148.

Secord, Sensation , 466–467, documents Nichol’s negative reaction to the publication of Vestiges and provides a reference to the announcement of his bankruptcy in The Times of 30 March 1842.

Nichol, Stellar , vii–viii, 18.

See Chap. 5 .

John P. Nichol, Views of the Architecture of the Heavens: In a Series of Letters to a Lady (Edinburgh: William Tait, 1837). ‘Dr. Nichol’s Architecture of the heavens (Book Review)’, The Spectator , 22 July 1837; 10, 473: 689–690.

William Herschel, ‘Catalogue of 500 new nebulae’, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society , 1802, 92.2: 477–528. Quoted in S. G. Brush, The Nebulous Earth: The Origin of the Solar System and the Core of the Earth from Laplace to Jeffreys (Cambridge University Press, 1996), 35. Nichol, Architecture , 37–46.

The Spectator reviewer quoted Nichol’s estimate of the distance to the farthest visible objects to be 11,765,475,948,678,678,679 miles. This translates to approximately 2,000,000 light years. Corrected for the current value of the distance to Sirius (which Nichol used as his standard of brightness), the contemporary solution would be 2,580,000 light years. ‘Architecture’, Spectator , 690. The reviewer’s final phrase is an unattributed (but presumably well-known) quotation from James Hutton, Theory of the earth, with proofs and illustrations. In four parts . vol 1 (Edinburgh: William Creech, 1795), 200.

‘Architecture’, Spectator , 690.

See Chap. 4 . Paul Elliott, ‘Erasmus Darwin, Herbert Spencer, and the Origins of the Evolutionary Worldview in British Provincial Scientific Culture’, 1770–1850’, Isis , 94, 1 (March 2003): 1–29.

James A. Secord, ‘Behind the veil: Robert Chambers and Vestiges ’ in Moore (ed.), History , 165–194, at 186. Secord, Sensation , 495–498.

See, for example, ‘Professor Nichol’s Views of the Architecture of the Heavens.’, Chambers’ Edinburgh journal , 29 July 1837: 210–211.

R. Chambers, Letter to A. Ireland (1844) in Secord, ‘Behind the veil’, 171–172.

Coutts, History , 388–389.

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Howard Carlton

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Carlton, H. (2022). John Pringle Nichol, the Nebular Hypothesis and Progressive Cosmogony. In: Cosmology and the Scientific Self in the Nineteenth Century. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-05280-4_6

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nebular hypothesis

Definition of nebular hypothesis

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These examples are programmatically compiled from various online sources to illustrate current usage of the word 'nebular hypothesis.' Any opinions expressed in the examples do not represent those of Merriam-Webster or its editors. Send us feedback about these examples.

Word History

1833, in the meaning defined above

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“Nebular hypothesis.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary , Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/nebular%20hypothesis. Accessed 31 Mar. 2024.

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