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The Major Leadership Theories

The 8 Major Theories of Leadership

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Amy Morin, LCSW, is a psychotherapist and international bestselling author. Her books, including "13 Things Mentally Strong People Don't Do," have been translated into more than 40 languages. Her TEDx talk, "The Secret of Becoming Mentally Strong," is one of the most viewed talks of all time.

Karen Cilli is a fact-checker for Verywell Mind. She has an extensive background in research, with 33 years of experience as a reference librarian and educator.

Verywell / Brianna Gilmartin

"Great Man"

Contingency

Situational
Participative
Relationship

What Kind of Leader Are You?

What is it that makes some people excel in leadership roles? Leadership theories seek to explain how and why certain people become leaders. Such theories often focus on the characteristics of leaders, but some attempt to identify the behaviors that people can adopt to improve their own leadership abilities in different situations.

Early debates on the psychology of leadership often suggested that such skills were simply abilities that people were born with. In other words, these theories proposed that certain people were simply "born leaders." Some more recent theories propose that possessing certain traits may help make people nature leaders, but that experience and situational variables also play a critical role.

A Closer Look at Leadership Theories

As interest in the psychology of leadership has increased over the last 100 years, a number of different leadership theories have been introduced to explain exactly how and why certain people become great leaders.

What exactly makes a great leader? Do certain personality traits make people better suited to leadership roles, or do characteristics of the situation make it more likely that certain people will take charge? When we look at the leaders around us—be it our employer or the President—we might find ourselves wondering exactly why these individuals excel in such positions.

People have long been interested in leadership throughout human history, but it has only been relatively recently that a number of formal leadership theories have emerged. Interest in leadership increased during the early part of the twentieth century.

Early leadership theories focused on what qualities distinguished between leaders and followers, while subsequent theories looked at other variables such as situational factors and skill levels. While many different leadership theories have emerged, most can be classified as one of eight major types.

"Great Man" Theories

Have you ever heard someone described as "born to lead?" According to this point of view, great leaders are simply born with the necessary internal characteristics such as charisma, confidence, intelligence, and social skills that make them natural-born leaders.

Great man theories assume that the capacity for leadership is inherent—that great leaders are born, not made. These theories often portray great leaders as heroic, mythic, and destined to rise to leadership when needed. The term "Great Man" was used because, at the time, leadership was thought of primarily as a male quality, especially in terms of military leadership.

Such theories suggest that people cannot really learn how to become strong leaders. It's either something you are born with or born without. It is very much a nature ( as opposed to nurture ) approach to explaining leadership.

Trait Theories

Similar in some ways to Great Man theories, trait theories assume that people inherit certain qualities and traits that make them better suited to leadership. Trait theories often identify a particular personality or behavioral characteristics shared by leaders. For example, traits like extroversion , self-confidence, and courage are all traits that could potentially be linked to great leaders.

If particular traits are key features of leadership, then how do we explain people who possess those qualities but are not leaders? This question is one of the difficulties in using trait theories to explain leadership.

There are plenty of people who possess the personality traits associated with leadership, yet many of these people never seek out positions of leadership. There are also people who lack some of the key traits often associated with effective leadership yet still excel at leading groups.

Contingency theories of leadership focus on particular variables related to the environment that might determine which particular style of leadership is best suited for the situation. According to this theory, no leadership style is best in all situations.

Leadership researchers White and Hodgson suggest that truly effective leadership is not just about the qualities of the leader, it is about striking the right balance between behaviors, needs, and context.

Good leaders are able to assess the needs of their followers, take stock of the situation, and then adjust their behaviors accordingly. Success depends on a number of variables including the leadership style, qualities of the followers, and aspects of the situation.

Situational Theories

Situational theories propose that leaders choose the best course of action based upon situational variables. Different styles of leadership may be more appropriate for certain types of decision-making.

For example, in a situation where the leader is the most knowledgeable and experienced member of a group, an authoritarian style might be most appropriate. In other instances where group members are skilled experts, a democratic style would be more effective.

Behavioral Theories

Behavioral theories of leadership are based upon the belief that great leaders are made, not born. Consider it the flip-side of the Great Man theories. Rooted in behaviorism , this leadership theory focuses on the actions of leaders, not on mental qualities or internal states. According to this theory, people can learn to become leaders through teaching and observation.

Participative Theories

Participative leadership theories suggest that the ideal leadership style is one that takes the input of others into account. These leaders encourage participation and contributions from group members and help group members feel more relevant and committed to the decision-making process. In participative theories, however, the leader retains the right to allow the input of others.

Management Theories

Management theories, also known as transactional theories , focus on the role of supervision, organization, and group performance. These theories base leadership on a system of rewards and punishments. Managerial theories are often used in business; when employees are successful, they are rewarded and when they fail, they are reprimanded or punished.

Relationship Theories

Relationship theories, also known as transformational theories, focus upon the connections formed between leaders and followers. Transformational leaders motivate and inspire people by helping group members see the importance and higher good of the task.

These leaders are focused on the performance of group members, but also want every person to fulfill their potential. Leaders with this style often have high ethical and moral standards.

Try our fast and free quiz to find out your usual leadership style.

There are many different ways of thinking about leadership, ranging from focusing on the personality traits of great leadership to emphasizing aspects of the situation that help determine how people lead.

Like most things, leadership is a highly multi-faceted subject and it is a mixture of many factors that help determine why some people become great leaders. Learn more about some of the things that make people strong leaders is one way of potentially improving your own skills.

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Gill, R. (2011). Theory and practice of leadership. London: SAGE Publications.

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Leadership Theories and Examples

Trait leadership, definition/characteristics.

The timeframe in which the theory was popular is between the 1880s and the middle of the 1940s. According to it, one can be born a leader; thus, no further efforts would contribute to the development of the needed skills (Nahavandi, 2015). Trait leadership theory takes into consideration only particular characteristics of people who have succeeded as leaders, without regard for context (such as whether those qualities were worked on and what environment contributed to those personality traits). According to Nahavandi (2015), the people of the time believed that “innate qualities shape human personality and behavior” (p. 50). Other factors that may influence one’s probability of becoming a leader were disregarded. One reason for such beliefs is the social and historical setting in which the majority of the population could not become a leader of an organization.

A variety of tests, similar to IQ testing was created to identify prospective leaders (Nahavandi, 2015). Although the researchers did establish that executives have common characteristics that contribute to their success, no universal trait would make one a good leader.

Due to the nature of the theory, it is impossible to point out a particular leader that would be an example of it. It is because the approach presents a point of view on the topic. Considering this, a good model that represents such beliefs is a monarchy. A typical outlook in this system is that a king or a queen who rules a country and is a good leader should have children who will be in their place once the monarch is diseased. Thus, the belief is that the children of a successful leader are born with the ability to rule a country. For instance, the monarchs of Great Britain still have a high social status and are considered leaders of the nation, although their actual political influence is limited. The same view can be applied to any other successful person. In the trait leadership theory, it is possible that a child of a leader would possess the same characteristics that the parent. However, social factors (such as good education provided by successful ancestors, or the ability to learn a specific skill from them) are not considered.

Behavioral Leadership

This theory was developed right after the trait leadership and was commonly applied until the early 1970s. The focus has shifted from personal characteristics to one’s behavior. The approach has changed from considering inherent qualities as a need for leaders in a military industry has become more evident (due to World War II). Thus, what a person was doing became more critical than what qualities he or she possessed. Therefore, the common belief was that a human who performs the same tasks that a successful leader does would be able to lead others as well. According to Nahavandi (2015), the behavioral theory offers several advantages to those who want to study successful leaders. Most importantly, behaviors can be examined, thus, making it possible to identify what a particular individual does in a specified setting. In addition, it is possible to apply techniques to measure the efficiency of one’s actions. Finally, the knowledge gained from these studies can be used to teach another person how to behave as a leader. Nahavandi (2015), states that the researchers identified “democratic, autocratic, and laissez-faire leadership” as part of the theory (p. 56). Therefore, behavioral leadership offered a more advanced outlook on the issue, while providing a method for becoming a leader.

As with trait leadership, the behavioral theory offers a point of view on how leaders become successful in their endeavors. Thus, an example that illustrates this leadership style would be someone who does not have personality traits that would assist him or her in becoming a good leader. However, the person is motivated and determined to learn from people that apply various approaches to manage people properly. Thus, this person identifies several leaders that are successful in the field of his or her work. Next, the behavior of these people is observed (such as the way they talk to others and how they make decisions). Additionally, the person can read books on the topic and practice the required skills. Eventually, he or she will acquire the knowledge necessary to manage people efficiently.

Contingency Leadership

The contingency theory is an advancement to previous outlooks on leadership, as it synthesizes the behavior of a person and a particular setting in which the situation is evolving. Thus, an effective leader would be someone who has a required set of skills and knowledge that can be applied in a particular situation (Nahavandi, 2015). The method implies that one individual can be an effective leader in some settings while in a different environment he or she will be unable to resolve issues and manage people. In addition, an important aspect in question is utilizing the resources to make a particular group’s work efficient (through knowledge and skills). According to Nahavandi (2015), one is motivated by two factors – maintaining a relationship with employees or accomplishing a task, which can be measured by the least-preferred coworker scale. A variety of other factors can contribute to a successful outcome, such as the perception that the followers have. One of the implications of the theory is that the particular style of leadership that a person applies cannot be modified, thus, if a person is not a suitable leader for a particular case, he or she would not succeed. This statement is the primary limitation of the theory, as no adaptation approach is offered. Therefore, the theory takes into account the motivation and the environment of a person.

An example of a contingency leader would be a military official, as the theory was developed by observing such individuals. According to the approach, the executive that should supervise a particular organization should possess a specific set of skills and knowledge that would help him or her successfully manage a team. Thus, the primary objective is to find a person who has suitable characteristics, as those are the determinants of success. In addition, the leader should identify whether the primary purpose is the relationship with the employees or achieving the set goal. In the case of a military worker, the primary objective would be to perform a task correctly.

Skills Leadership

According to this leadership model, successful executives utilize a particular set of skills in their everyday decision-making process that determines their efficiency. Similar to the behavior theory, the skills leadership approach implies that anyone can be a leader, as the needed characteristics can be acquired. Thus, through examining how executives apply various skills, one can advance in his or her endeavors. Schoemaker, Krupp, and Howland (2013) state that six essential skills ensure one can manage people and organizations properly. Although there have been a variety of studies on the topic with different results, the authors identify ” the abilities to anticipate, challenge, interpret, decide, align, and learn” as crucial (para. 1). It can be argued that different industries and companies may require different knowledge and approaches; these skills present essential requirements for leaders. They imply that a person can analyze a particular setting, make proper decisions, and most importantly learn to adapt to different situations. The skill leadership model is useful as it states that anyone can be a leader and that skills that executives use can be determined and studied. However, the limitation of the method is that some people may be more inclined to possess or learn individual skills; thus, it may be difficult for some to acquire specific characteristics.

An illustration of a skills approach leader is someone who possesses an understanding that certain qualities can be acquired through training and studies. When such a person strives to become a leader of an organization, he or she may observe what essential skills are applied by the current executives. For example, they may utilize advanced communication to manage teams. Through the examination, a skill-oriented leader would try to develop those characteristics to improve the current capabilities. An observation of particular qualities would present an opportunity to identify specific approaches instead of copying the behavior of a successful manager. Thus, a skill-oriented individual would be able to become a leader with a personal style and possession of required skills that can be applied to manage people.

Situational Leadership

Situational leadership is similar to the contingency theory as both consider the environment of an organization that the leader is managing. However, the approach does not merely examine the effects of the situation on a leader; it states that one must adjust the skills and leadership style to carry out the tasks correctly. Thus, the followers should be able to have a leader who can adapt to their behavior, not vice versa. In addition, these changes can be continuous (even if the leader is in the same company), as the outside factors may be changing. According to McCleskey (2014), the ability to analyze a particular setting is the key to becoming an excellent situational leader. Such executives can be task-oriented or people-oriented, depending on their approach. The theory has similarities with both the behavioral and contingency model. McCleskey (2014) states that there are a variety of issues with the situational approach, including “three flaws with … dealing with its consistency, continuity, and conformity” (p. 118). Situational leadership synthesizes a variety of approaches while suggesting that flexibility is the essential quality of a good executive. Thus, anyone can be a leader in any situation if he or she conducts proper analysis and utilizes adequate approaches to manage people in a specific setting.

An example of a situational leader is someone who adapts to the environment. It is especially essential for modern-day executives as the contemporary world is continually changing (through technological advancements). Thus, such a leader would examine a particular organization to identify what structure it has, and how the employees are managed. In addition, he or she would study the outside environment to identify factors that influence the company. Finally, the leader would choose a specific approach that would be suitable for the case. In addition, he or she would utilize flexibility to adapt to changes in the internal or external environment of an organization.

McCleskey, J. A. (2014). Situational, transformational, and transactional leadership and leadership development. Journal of Business Studies Quarterly, 4(5), 117-130.

Nahavandi, A. (2015). The art and science of leadership (7th ed.). New Jersey, NY: Pearson.

Schoemaker, P. J., Krupp, S., & Howland, S. (2013). Strategic leadership: The essential skills. Harvard Business Review. Web.

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Analyzing Different Leadership Theories in Essays

Leadership theories offer various perspectives on how leaders guide, influence, and inspire others. In academic essays, analyzing these theories provides insights into the multifaceted nature of leadership. This article delves into several prominent leadership theories, exploring their unique contributions to understanding leadership dynamics.

Trait Theory of Leadership

The Trait Theory suggests that certain inherent traits make a leader effective. Qualities such as confidence, communication skills, and integrity are often highlighted. Essays focusing on this theory might examine historical figures, assessing how their personal characteristics contributed to their leadership success.

Behavioral Theories of Leadership

Behavioral theories shift focus from innate traits to learned behaviors. The Democratic Leadership style, for instance, encourages participation and collective decision-making. Contrastingly, the Autocratic style involves centralized control. Essays can compare these styles in different organizational contexts.

Contingency Theories of Leadership

Contingency theories posit that the effectiveness of a leadership style is contingent upon the situation. The Fiedler Contingency Model, for example, suggests that task-oriented leaders excel in highly controlled or chaotic environments, while relationship-oriented leaders thrive in stable conditions. An essay might analyze a leader’s adaptability to changing scenarios.

Transformational and Transactional Leadership Theories

Transformational leaders inspire followers to transcend their self-interests for the greater good, often leading to significant changes within an organization. Transactional leaders, on the other hand, focus on routine transactions, rewarding performance and correcting deviations. Essays could explore the impact of these leadership styles on employee motivation and organizational change.

Servant Leadership Theory

Servant Leadership turns the traditional power hierarchy upside down, emphasizing the leader’s role as a servant to their followers. This theory promotes a leader’s ethical responsibility and focuses on empowering and uplifting others. An essay might reflect on the long-term effects of servant leadership on community development.

In conclusion, leadership theories provide frameworks for analyzing the complex nature of leadership in essays. By understanding the nuances of each theory, one can better appreciate the diverse approaches leaders take to guide their followers towards common goals.

Critically Evaluating Theories Against Real-World Examples

When assessing leadership theories, it is crucial to juxtapose them with real-world examples. This critical evaluation can reveal the practical applicability and limitations of each theoretical approach. For instance, an essay might scrutinize how the Trait Theory aligns with the leadership of contemporary business moguls, questioning whether traits alone suffice for effective leadership.

Behavioral theories can be evaluated by examining case studies of organizations that have implemented specific leadership styles. Essays could investigate how democratic leadership practices influence employee satisfaction and productivity, or how autocratic leadership affects organizational agility and employee morale.

Contingency theories can be put to the test by analyzing leaders who have navigated complex crises. Essays can explore whether leaders who adapted their style to the situation were more successful than those who did not. This analysis can extend to transformational and transactional leadership by evaluating their effectiveness in various industries and cultural settings.

Servant leadership theory provides a rich ground for analysis through its embodiment in non-profit organizations and social enterprises. Essays can reflect on the long-term societal impacts of servant leadership and its role in fostering inclusive and ethical organizational cultures.

Ultimately, essays that critically evaluate leadership theories against real-world examples not only enhance academic discourse but also contribute to the development of more nuanced and effective leadership practices.

Integrating Theories into Your Leadership Narrative

Leadership theories are not just academic concepts; they can be woven into the very fabric of one’s personal leadership narrative. Integrating these theories into practice involves self-reflection and a deep understanding of one’s values, goals, and the context in which one leads. This section explores how individuals can incorporate these theories into their leadership journey.

For those aligned with Trait Theory, this might involve a conscious effort to develop and embody the traits identified as markers of successful leadership. Essays could discuss personal development plans that focus on cultivating these traits over time.

Adherents of Behavioral Theories might reflect on their leadership behaviors and how they align with their organizational culture and team dynamics. Essays can narrate instances where specific leadership behaviors led to positive outcomes or lessons learned from behavioral misalignments.

Leaders who resonate with Contingency Theories may share stories of adaptability and flexibility, highlighting moments when a shift in leadership style was necessary to navigate through challenges. Essays can provide a narrative on the decision-making processes that led to these pivotal changes.

Those inspired by Transformational or Transactional Leadership Theories can recount experiences where they motivated teams towards a vision or managed performance through structured systems. Essays can delve into the strategies employed and the impacts these had on achieving organizational objectives.

Practitioners of Servant Leadership can illustrate how serving others has been central to their leadership approach. Essays can describe the journey of putting team members’ needs first and how this philosophy has influenced their leadership effectiveness and team cohesion.

By integrating leadership theories into one’s narrative, leaders can create a compelling story that not only reflects their personal leadership philosophy but also serves as a guide for others to follow. It is through these lived experiences that the true essence of leadership is captured and conveyed.

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http://orcid.org/0000-0003-0110-2378 Clare Felicity Jane Price-Dowd
People Directorate , NHS England and Improvement , Leeds , West Yorkshire , UK
Correspondence to Dr Clare Felicity Jane Price-Dowd, People Directorate, NHS Improvement, Leeds LS1 4HG, West Yorkshire, UK; clare.price-dowd{at}improvement.nhs.uk

Understanding of personal leadership style has been shown to be a key part of effective leadership practice. It has been a topic of interest for many decades as we have tried to understand, and replicate, what makes those considered to be ‘great leaders’ so successful. This article gives a brief introduction to different leadership ‘theories’, leadership ‘styles’ and the effect they have on the ‘climate’ in organisations. Having an understanding of the different approaches can help leaders be more effective through comprehending how and why they do what they do, as well as helping them identify where and when they need to adapt their style. By considering how our understanding of leadership has evolved, it is possible to show how effective leadership is not linked to one approach. It is a combination of knowledge, attitudes and behaviours with a focus on both the task in hand and concern for those undertaking that task. Furthermore this understanding supports impactful personal development, which creates positive climates in organisations where compassionate and inclusive leadership behaviours can, and do result in better outcomes for staff and patients.

effectiveness
leadership assessment
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https://doi.org/10.1136/leader-2020-000218

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Introduction

Who, when flipping through a publication has not been tempted by the ‘personality quiz’, hoping to get the ‘mostly A, B or C’ that indicates we have the attributes for long and successful careers or lots of friends? While this level of ‘knowing how we are’ could be dismissed as flippant, when it comes to leadership, understanding our personal approach can be invaluable. If you asked people around you ‘what sort of leader do you think you are?’ they would most likely answer in the singular ‘I lead by example,’ ‘I build relationships with people,’ or ‘I don't tolerate underperformance’. They are unlikely to say ‘I do this here, and that on other occasions’ yet the most effective leaders are those who attune to their context, consciously adapt their practice and have an awareness of how their own style effects others. This article introduces the different theories and styles of leadership and how they can be used to create positive work climates. The key terms are given in table 1 .

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Evolution of leadership theory and understanding of style

A desire to understand what makes a successful leader is not new. For centuries there has been debate about what differentiated leaders from non-leaders, and leaders from followers. In a comprehensive review of leadership theories by Stogdill, 1 a number of categories were identified and in the 80+ years since Lewin et al 2 published their theory on patterns of behaviour in 1939, we have seen an evolution from trying to identify ‘common traits’ based on inherent characteristics of ‘great men and women’ through to the what we now understand to be the successful combination of person, place and approach. Looking further into this evolution, although this is not a comprehensive list, it is possible to group the stages of development as follows:

Trait theory—for example as seen in the work of Carlyle 3 and Stodgill 1 is concerned with the type of person that makes a good leader and the innate qualities and associated leadership traits they have. A meta-study by the Centre for Excellence in Management and Leadership 4 identified over 1000 leadership traits in the literature, which they distilled to 83 more or less distinct attributes. While no specific trait or combination was found to guarantee success, trait theory did help in identifying qualities that are helpful when leading others such as integrity and empathy.

Later, behavioural theory identified what good leaders do—effectively how they ‘lead well’. Examples include the Tannenbaum and Schmidt continuum 5 —seven stages of reducing control namely Tells, Sells, Suggests, Consults, Joins, Delegates and Abdicates; the Action-Centred Leadership Model of Adair 6 which sets out the three responsibilities of the leader—‘achieving the task, managing the team and managing individuals’ and the Blake Mouton Managerial Grid 7 also referred to as ‘The Power to Change’ which outlines two behavioural dimensions: Concern for Results and Concern for People.

Situational and contingency theory: looks at the leader in the context of where they lead. By considering how the leader’s success is directly influenced by their environment, it became possible to identify the conditions that support or constrain leaders as seen in work including Feidler 8 Vroom and Yetton 9 Yukl 10 ; Hersey and Blanchard 11 ; Thompson and Vecchio. 12

Transactional theories—as seen in the work of Weber 13 and later by Bass, 14 focuses on the leader getting results by using process and structures while applying reward and penalty in response. Within this are power and influence theory, exchange and path-goal theory by House 15 16 which concentrate on the relationship between leader and led as a series of trades or ‘leader-member exchanges’.

In more recent years, while the transactional and positive view of hero leadership has never entirely gone away, the notion of ‘Hero to Host’ 17 which describes the move to transformational and ‘new wave’ styles outlined by Burns 18 Bass 14 and Kouzes and Posner 19 among others. Transformational leadership not only serves to enhance the motivation, morale, satisfaction and performance of followers, but also sees the leader role model compassionate and inclusive behaviours, which are valued. In ‘Good to Great’ by Collins, 20 the Level 5 leader is described as possessing both indomitable will, but also humility and is often self effacing and shy, the opposite of what we might have previously described as leadership traits!

Relevance for leaders

Every day, leaders in healthcare must constantly analyse complex situations, engage, motivate, empower and delegate. Many leaders now operate within complex adaptive systems—organisations that are an interconnected whole of many parts, which may and may not function effectively together depending on changing circumstances. This calls for leadership skills and behaviours that can move between each required activity with seemingly effortless ease and without loss of effectiveness.

Having an appreciation of different theories and styles also helps us identify our reaction to these changing situations. In considering the global COVID-19 pandemic, the leadership behaviours required, and experienced, may be different to anything encountered before. The effect of leadership in this situation is profound and will have a lasting impact. Displaying command behaviours may be necessary but uncomfortable, while teams may not be used to being directed with minimal consultation. Sustained pressure may have a negative effect, but it does not follow that leadership behaviours slide into being disrespectful or non-inclusive—it is about the leaders focusing on the task and ensuring individuals and teams are clearly instructed on the part they have to play; consulted where possible and informed of when and when they need to do as instructed.

However, knowing about ‘how we are’ is only part of the picture, equally important is understanding the effect we have on other. Goleman 21 found that the one of the biggest mistakes leaders make was to default to a style of personal choice rather than responding with the most appropriate in the situation, while Blanchard 22 suggests that 54% of leaders only ever apply one preferred leadership style regardless of the situation. The result is that almost half of the time, leaders are using the wrong style to meet their current objective or lead the people around them well.

The danger here is trying to be the most popular leader and everyone’s favourite, rather than developing an authentic repertoire of skills. If you have never considered your leadership style or the types of leadership behaviours you have there are a number of tools to help such as the National health Service Healthcare Leadership Model. Based on research of the behaviours of effective leaders, Storey and Holti 23 defined nine domains (Inspiring shared purpose: leading with care: evaluating information: connecting our service: sharing the vision: engaging the team: holding to account: developing capability and influencing for results) against which can leaders can self assess and gain pointers on how to strengthen their style.

Relevance for the work environment

Research by KornFerry Hay Group 24 shows an up to 70% of variance in climate and an up to 30% increase business performance can be directly attributable to the climate leaders create through their style of leadership. This includes feeling included, supported and having a role that is meaningful. To help leaders create a positive climate, Goleman 21 defined six leadership styles—see table 2 —which he then correlated with the type of climate each created for those around them. Those able to deploy the styles in the left column have been shown to create high performing teams in positive climates.

Leadership Styles and the climate they support (adapted from Goleman 21 )

These are not the only leadership styles: others include Autocratic leadership where leaders/managers make the decisions and employees follow orders as previously stated; laissez-faire leadership where the manager empowers employees but gives them few rules to follow with little oversight or direction: bureaucratic leadership where hierarchies and job titles to determine responsibilities and rules and servant leadership which focuses on the needs of employees, seeing them as the organisation’s most important resources and often treating them as clients, but only the six here were included by Goleman.

The effects of the leadership styles displayed and the effects they have on the climate within organisations has far reaching impact for team members. The ability to flex your leadership style and create a positive climate has been shown to create greater job satisfaction and pride in work, greater collaboration and creativity. Having an awareness of the effects of personal style, is therefore an essential part of a leaders toolkit and something every leader should have awareness of

In practice

Delivering health and care is highly complex and effective leadership calls for a match of style and approach to context and presenting challenge. Leadership styles is not a neat category of things, the increasingly interconnected world with ever-evolving technology has dictated a need for leaders who can adapt effortlessly as the situation dictates. Daniel Goleman 21 likens leading to being a golfer—one game but choosing the right club, at the right moment, for the next shot. Lets think about what this could look like: again, thinking about the COVID-19 pandemic the deteriorating clinical condition requires a leader who draws on all their experience, interprets the situation, takes control and ‘tells’ in order to get the best outcome for the patient—transactional and it’s wholly appropriate. At other times, that same leader will need to take time to build relationships and coach others in order to give the best care possible.

We all have a natural tendency towards our preferred style and when under pressure, there is evidence that we ‘revert to type’, relying on the most comfortable part of our personality to see us though. Unfortunately this means using fewer of the leadership skills that usually provide balance. Skilful, mature leadership is about leading ourselves as much as leading others. This level of understanding our style helps us recognise triggers that support adopting the right style for the given situation.

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Different situations require different leadership style and each style can be considered a tool in itself. How we lead needs to be a combination of concern for the task in hand and also the people undertaking it, as both individuals and collectively as teams. We have looked briefly at small number of the plethora theories and styles that can help us understand how we lead. Leaders who understand themselves and can move effortlessly between a range of styles in response to changing situations have been found to have more positive outcomes for their teams and patients.

Stogdill RM
Lippitt R ,
Carlyle T ,
Tannenbaum R ,
Blanchard K
Thompson G ,
Wheatley M ,
KornFerry Hay Group
Newstrom JW ,
Griffin MA ,

Twitter @clarepricedowd

Contributors CFJP-D completed all part of this paper:

Funding The authors have not declared a specific grant for this research from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.

Competing interests None declared.

Patient consent for publication Not required.

Provenance and peer review Not commissioned; externally peer reviewed.

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Leadership Development: Experiences and Theories Report

Mission statement, execution of leadership, conflict management, avenues for improvement, review of leadership style and the action plan.

This essay illustrates my leadership skills through a discussion about my abilities, experiences, motivations, and their relation to known theories on effective leadership. I define leadership as the ability to provide guidance to self and others by maintaining communication, having and demonstrating skills necessary for performing tasks, and motivating people to pursue a goal that is higher than their self-interests.

My background is humble and stable. I see it as a foundation of my leadership abilities. I come from an extended family that has the characteristics of leadership across many areas. I can relate to leadership examples in sports, education, work, and family affairs.

I have garnered enough experience to know my strengths and weaknesses when working with people. This provides the motivation for working on self-improvement. I have worked for long hours on summer jobs and have been under supervision in some cases. I also worked under short deadlines and was able to maintain a high discipline record at school and the workplace.

The foundations of discipline come from home, where my parents were strict in raising my siblings and me according to the morals of society. I also worked as part of a team in the sporting department. This experienced opened me to the understanding of personal differences and their impact on successful execution of tasks.

Science has been a serious part of my life, as I am naturally inquisitive. As I keep on studying, I realize I am more attracted to the analysis aspect of science and its extension to ordinary relations among humans. My interest in social sciences was sparked by the need to understand the motivating factors for people’s actions. At the same time, I feel that I want to have additional skills to influence people, which has been a factor that I recently adopted into my mission for life.

The most important part of my life is family and friends. I also regard colleagues highly because I cannot accomplish my goals at work without them. Influence plays a key role in shaping my view of the world. That is why I am careful with my associations and guard them tightly. I also understand that I am someone who can do a few things at a time. Therefore, I try to focus my energies on a few projects at a time.

I readily abandon others when I feel they are no longer in agreement with my personal mission statement. I value hard, smart work, and discipline. Therefore, at all times, I seek to display a character of integrity, honesty, and industriousness. I have demonstrated these qualities in the past in my relationships at work and socially. I hope to keep up with the discipline aspect, as it has allowed me to achieve a number of goals that seemed insurmountable at the start.

I am an effective leader because I am self-aware and I have integrity. I present myself congruently as a person worthy of admiration and praise for my personal and professional achievements. I carry myself confidently and maintain a jovial mood with a willingness to mingle with all kinds of people, irrespective of their social or cultural backgrounds.

However, I can only demonstrate the above qualities when I am well aware of my operating environment. I tend to remain indecisive and avoid taking action when I am either unaware of the consequences or I feel that I lack enough authority to perform an action. Thus, I may sometimes appear as aloof of the current situations or uninterested because I mostly think through the facts that make up my present environment, rather than be emotional.

Thus, although I am stable in my decisions, I take long to make them. I also prefer to make decisions alone, after carefully going through the available information and opinions presented by other people. I am not afraid to go against popular opinion with my decisions and choices, but I ensure that I have a valid reason to back my point of view. Consequently, I classify myself as a good listener. Remarks from my teammates at various work assignments and socially in sporting events corroborate this fact.

A good leader must cultivate great relationships with constituents (Gnambs & Batinic, 2013). I would not say that I am perfect in my rapport building and my maintenance of relationships. I recall several incidences where I remained silent, rather than being critical of my colleagues’ actions. This made them feel that I was harboring ulterior motives and preferred to see them fail, rather than help. At the same time, I have also gone out of my way to help repair broken relationships by negotiating with work group members in agreeing to cut their leisure time to help finish a project on time.

I am a persuasive person. A leader with a persuasive character is someone who finds ease in convincing other people to consider what he or she has to offer. Persuasion seeks to make people replace their belief systems with the actor’s ideas. Persuasion happens through many channels that follow self-interest, logical facts, fallacy, inspiration, emotions, shared goals and values, and human relations (Mallia, Windels, & Broyles, 2013).

In my interactions, I have honed the skills of negotiations, which make other people develop a need to adopt my perspective or go with my suggestions. Part of that comes naturally, as I demonstrate the ability to make decisions and stick to them. A leader needs followers for persuasion to occur and be effective (Bean, 2009). Thus, for me to become an effective leader, I need to seek opportunities to show my influence on other people and to grow on that experience.

I am not as empathetic as I would like to be. I feel this can be a downside to my leadership abilities. Empathy is an important characteristic of effective conflict management. According to Bean (2009), being empathetic allows a leader to form lasting relationships and be able to look at situations from different angles, which is necessary in resolving conflicts.

Leaders should not walk over subordinates or abuse their power in other ways to make people act out of fear. Empathy places a cementing role in team cohesion, collaborative work, and customer relationships. It also helps in building social intelligence (Derue, Nahrgang, Wellman, & Humphrey, 2011).

I compensate what I lack in empathy with my entrepreneurial zeal. Rather than be paralyzed by the lack of knowledge concerning a specific challenge, I become proactive in seeking the required information and trying out experiments to inform my subsequent decisions. I exercise my creativity to create social and economic opportunity for organizational or personal gains. This ability continues to develop as I embrace leadership opportunities in school and whenever I am working.

According to Greenberg, McKone-Sweet, and Wilson (2011), it is important for leaders to embrace entrepreneurial qualities. In addition to using functional knowledge in performing detailed analysis, the leader also has to embrace an entrepreneurial mindset and methodology. This allows one to experiment in new environments and come up with new ideas that eventually solve problems that would, otherwise, remain irrevocable (Gehring, 2007).

Based on the qualities described above, I am capable of handling conflict. However, I will need to upgrade my skills in conflict management. At the same time, I have not had opportunities to resolve conflicts. Despite the lack of experience, I have taken measures in the past to prevent conflicts and learned from the experience that personal initiative can help to change circumstances and promote the achievement of common goals for the leader and the followers (Limbare, 2012).

Acceptance is the quality of transformative leaders, because it allows them to be able to move beyond the problem and embrace ways and suggestions that can lead to effective resolution of the problem. I understand that I am on a journey of personal development. All my experiences, both positive and negative, will aid in my personal and professional development.

I hope to use two methods to become a better leader. The first method will be through learning, while the second one will be through using experiences to hone my skills. I will pursue leadership related courses in my education to enhance my knowledge of people management, conflict resolutions, team leadership, and negotiation.

I hope to use this knowledge to enhance my personal habits and my relationships in professional and social environment. This should then avail opportunities for serving in leadership capacities to allow me to gain more based on my second method of enhancing my leadership abilities.

Documenting my leadership experience will help to monitor personal benchmarks and seek external assistance, especially by mentors. I will, therefore, take notes regarding activities that highlight or challenge my leadership ability. This will help me understand the level of leadership involved in a situation and the amount of effort I will put to perform a task successfully.

The effort could be measured in the number of meetings, communication with the parties involved, critical decisions made, the number of participants involved, and the number of beneficiaries of an intervention (Val, & Kemp, 2012). These avenues for measuring efforts will also guide me when I look for opportunities to improve my skills and experience, with a goal of increasing challenges encountered and overcoming them.

I continue to rely on my instructors, friends, and peers to identify flaws in my leadership qualities and point me in the right direction for improvement. Therefore, I aim to remain open to criticism (Strang, 2005).

My leadership style is transformative. As a transformative leader, I concentrate on the motivation of followers, boosting morale, and enhancing job performance in the process. I connect with people’s sense of identity and apply that to my instruction and guidance on projects or collaborative work. When I am leading a group, I always seek to establish or use an already established identity of the group to form my basis of engagement.

Once I have the identity as my operating cue, I then align character as a role model, demonstrating what I want others to do and the way I would like them to behave. These characteristics of my leadership are similar to the leadership theory’s definition of transformative leadership (Clarke, 2013). I have always put tasks into small steps that are easy to manage and achieve. I do that in reflection of the overall strategy and the goal of an initiative.

According to theory, a transformative leader is individualized, preferring to work with people’s identities. In addition, he or she acts as a mentor. The leader stimulates followers intellectually, encouraging them to be innovative. Such a leader also motivates and has an idealized influence (Clarke, 2013).

However, I can also embrace other leadership qualities to conform to particular situations. Based on the leadership trait theory, I know that I can serve well as an authoritative leader, mainly because of my low empathy characteristics. I can also perform well in situations that require all the three elements of the 3P model of leadership, which are public, private, and personal elements.

According to Scouller (2011), the three levels of leadership is a theory that goes beyond the limitation of past leadership theories by combining them. As such, though I have qualities that qualify me as a transformative leader, I can also develop new qualities and become a different kind of leader fit for other circumstances (Scouller, 2011).

The situational theory, which assumes anyone can change his or her behavior at will to suit follower interests, informs my belief of being capable of handling any leadership task (Vessey, Barrett, & Mumford, 2011). This is an advancement of my understanding of the 3P model of leadership. It is also congruent with my inquisitive personality of wanting to find solutions or model myself into a useful social character for assisting others to accomplish challenging tasks.

Bean, J. (2009). Lessons in leadership. New York, NY: Linus Publications.

Clarke, S. (2013). Safety leadership: A meta-analytic review of transformational and transactional leadership styles as antecedents of safety behaviours. Journal of Occupational & Organizational Psychology, 86 (1), 22-49.

Derue, D. S., Nahrgang, J. D., Wellman, N., & Humphrey, S. E. (2011). Trait and behavioral theories of leadership: an integration and meta-analytic test of their relative validity. Personnel Psychology, 64 (1), 7-52.

Gehring, D. R. (2007). Applying traits theory of leadership to project management. Project Management Journal, 38 (1), 44-54.

Gnambs, T., & Batinic, B. (2013). The roots of interpersonal influence: a mediated moderation model for knowledge and traits as predictors of opinion leadership. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 62 (4), 597-618.

Greenberg, D., McKone-Sweet, K., & Wilson, H. J. (2011). The new entrepreneurial leader: Developing leaders who shape social and economic opportuntity. San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler Publishers, Inc.

Limbare, S. (2012). Leadership styles & conflict management styles of executives. Indian Journal of Industrial Relations, 48 (1), 172-180.

Mallia, K. L., Windels, K., & Broyles, S. J. (2013). An examination of successful leadership traits for the advertising-agency creative director. Journal of Advertising Research, 53 (3), 339-353.

Scouller, J. (2011). The three levels of leadership: How to develop your leadership presence, knowhow and skill. Cirencester, England: Management Books 2000.

Strang, K. D. (2005). Examining effective and ineffective transformational project leadership. Team Performance Management, 11 (3/4), 68-103.

Val, C., & Kemp, J. (2012). Leadership styles. Pathways: The Ontario Journal of Outdoor Education, 24 (3), 28-31.

Vessey, W. B., Barrett, J., & Mumford, M. D. (2011). Leader cognition under threat: “Just the facts”. The Leadership Quarterly, 22 (4), 710-728.

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