phd school meaning

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abbreviation or noun

Definition of phd, examples of phd in a sentence.

These examples are programmatically compiled from various online sources to illustrate current usage of the word 'PhD.' Any opinions expressed in the examples do not represent those of Merriam-Webster or its editors. Send us feedback about these examples.

Word History

New Latin philosophiae doctor

1839, in the meaning defined above

Dictionary Entries Near PhD

Cite this entry.

“PhD.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary , Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/PhD. Accessed 2 Apr. 2024.

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What is a PhD?

• Types of Doctorates
• A Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) is the highest globally recognized postgraduate degree that higher education institutions can award.
• PhDs are awarded to candidates who undertake original and extensive research in a particular field of study.
• Full time PhD programmes typically last three to four years, whilst part time PhD programmes typically last six to seven years.
• A PhD can lead to an academia teaching role or a career in research. A PhD can also equip you with skills suitable for a wide range of jobs unrelated to your research topic or academia.

Definition of a PhD – A Doctor of Philosophy (commonly abbreviated to PhD , Ph.D or a DPhil ) is a university research degree awarded from across a broad range of academic disciplines; in most countries, it is a terminal degree, i.e. the highest academic degree possible.

PhDs differ from undergraduate and master’s degrees in that PhDs are entirely research-based rather than involving taught modules (although doctoral training centres (DTCs) offer programmes that start with a year of lecture-based teaching to help develop your research skills prior to starting your project).

In most English-speaking countries, those that complete a PhD use the title “Doctor” (typically abbreviated to Dr) in front of their names and are referred to as such within academic and/or research settings. Those that work in fields outside of academia may decide not to use the formal doctor title but use post-nominal letters (e.g. John Smith PhD); it’s unusual though for someone to use both the Doctor title and post-nominal letters in their name.

PhD vs Doctorate

A PhD and a professional doctorate are both research-based terminal degrees.

However, where a PhD focuses on original research mostly around theoretical concepts, a professional doctorate focuses on examining existing knowledge to solve real-life, practical problems.

While there is much crossover between the two, a PhD is generally better suited for an individual to wants to advance the knowledge and understanding in their field, and a professional doctorate degree is better suited to a working professional who wants to better be able to apply knowledge and understanding to their field.

What Are the Entry Requirements for a PhD?

To be accepted on to a PhD programme, students usually need to hold at least a high ( 2:1 and above ) undergraduate degree that is related to the field of research that they want to pursue. A PhD candidate may also be expected to hold a Master’s degree , however, this does not mean you must have one, as it is still possible to enrol into a PhD without a Master’s .

Self-funded courses may sometimes be more relaxed in relation to entry requirements. It may be possible to be accepted onto a self-funded PhD programme with lower grades, though these students typically demonstrate their suitability for the role through professional work experience.

Whilst a distance learning project is possible , most PhD candidates will carry out their research over at least three years based at their university, with regular contact with two academic supervisors (primary and secondary). This is particularly the case for lab-based projects, however, some PhD projects require spending time on-site away from university (e.g. at a specialist research lab or at a collaborating institution abroad).

How Long Does a PhD Take?

Typically, full-time PhDs last 3-4 years and part-time PhDs last 6-7 years. However, at the discretion of the university, the thesis writing-up period can be extended by up to four years.

Although most doctoral programmes start in September or October, they are generally much more flexible than taught-courses and can start at any time of the year.

How Much Does a PhD Cost?

Tuition fees for UK and EU students vary between £3,000 and £6,000 per year, with the average tuition fee of £4,712 per year for 2023/24 programmes.

Tuition fees increase considerably for international students, varying between £16,000 to £25,000 per year, with an average tuition fee of £19,600 per year .

Nonetheless, most students will secure PhD funding in the form of studentships, scholarships and bursaries to help pay for these fees. These funding opportunities can either be partial, which cover tuition fees only, or full, which cover both tuition fees and living expenses.

UK national students can also apply for Doctoral Loans from Student Finance England if they are unable to secure funding.

Finding a PhD has never been this easy – search for a PhD by keyword, location or academic area of interest.

What Does a PhD Involve?

To be awarded a PhD, a doctoral student is required to produce a substantial body of work that adds new knowledge to their chosen field.

A PhD programme will typically involve four key stages:

Stage 1: Literature Review

The first year of a PhD involves attending regular meetings with your supervisors and carrying out a search on previously published work in your subject area. This search will be used to produce a literature review which should set the context of the project by explaining the foundation of what is currently known within the field of research, what recent developments have occurred, and where the gaps in knowledge are. In most cases, this will be an extension of your research proposal should you have produced one as part of your application. The literature review should conclude by outlining the overarching aims and objectives of the research project. This stage of setting achievable goals which are original and contribute to the field of research is an essential first step in a successful PhD.

The supervisor is the main point of contact through the duration of a PhD – but remember: they are there to mentor, not to teach, or do it for you . It will be your responsibility to plan, execute and monitor your own work as well as to identify gaps in your own knowledge and address them.

Stage 2: Research

The second year (and prehapse some of your third year) is when you work on your research. Having identified novel research questions from your review of the literature, this is where you collect your data to help answer these questions. How you do this will depend on the nature of your doctoral research: for example, you may design and run experiments in a lab alongside other PhD students or visit excavation sites in remote regions of the world. You should check in regularly with your supervisors to update them and run any ideas or issues past them.

Have the structure and chapters of your thesis in mind as you develop and tackle your research questions. Working with a view of publishing your work will be very valuable later on.

Stage 3: Write up of Thesis

The next key stage of a PhD is writing a doctoral thesis , which typically takes from anywhere between three months to one year. A thesis is a substantial body of work that describes the work and outcomes of the research over the previous two to three years. It should tell a detailed story of the PhD project – focusing on:

• The motivations for the research questions identified from the literature review.
• The methodologies used, results obtained, and a comprehensive analysis and discussion of the findings.
• A detailed discussion of the key findings with an emphasis on the original contributions made to your field of research and how this has been impactful.

There is no universal rule for the length of a PhD thesis, but general guidelines set the word count between 80,000 to 100,000 words.

For your thesis to be successful, it needs to adequately defend your argument and provide a unique or increased insight into your field that was not previously available.

Stage 4: Attending the Viva

A viva voce , most commonly referred to as just a ‘ viva ‘, is an interview-style examination where the PhD student is required to engage in a critical appraisal of their work and defend their thesis against at least two examiners. The examiners will ask questions to check the PhD student has an in-depth understanding of the ideas and theories proposed in their thesis, and whether they have developed the research skills that would be expected of them.

The viva is one of the final steps in achieving a PhD, and typically lasts at least two hours, but this duration can vary depending on the examiners, the university and the PhD project itself.

Once you have done the viva – you’re on the home stretch. You will typically be asked to make some amendments to your thesis based on the examiner’s feedback. You are then ready to submit your final thesis for either:

• PhD – If you pass the requirements you will be awarded a PhD degree (most common outcome),
• MPhil – If you failed to meet requirements for a PhD, you may be downgraded to an MPhil degree (uncommon outcome),
• Fail – No award is given, typically for cases of plagiarism (extremely uncommon outcome).

What Is It Like to Undertake a PhD?

We’re often asked what it is like to undertake a PhD study. Unfortunately, this isn’t a simple answer to this question as every research project is different.

To help give insight into the life of a PhD student, we’ve interviewed PhD students at various stages of their programmes and put together a series of PhD Student Interviews . Check out the link to find out what a PhD is like and what advice they have to offer you.

What Are the Benefits of A PhD?

A PhD is the highest globally recognised postgraduate degree that higher education institutions can award. The degree, which is awarded to candidates who demonstrate original and independent research in a particular field of study, is not only invaluable in itself, but sets you up with invaluable skills and traits.

Career Opportunities

First, a PhD prepares you for a career in academia if you wish to continue in this area. This takes form as a career in the Higher Education sector, typically as a lecturer working their way to becoming a professor leading research on the subject you’ve studied and trained in.

Second, a PhD also enables the opportunity for landing a job in a research & development role outside of the academic environment. Examples of this include laboratory work for a private or third sector company, a governmental role and research for commercial and industrial applications.

Transferable Skills

Finally, in possessing a PhD degree, you can show to employers that you have vital skills that make you an asset to any company. Three examples of the transferable skills that you gain through a PhD are effective communication, time management, and report writing.

• Communication – presenting your work in written and oral forms using journal papers and podium presentations, shows your ability to share complex ideas effectively and to those with less background knowledge than you. Communication is key in the professional environment, regardless of the job.
• Time management – The ability to prioritise and organise tasks is a tremendous asset in the professional industry. A PhD holder can use their qualification to demonstrate that they are able to manage their time, arrange and follow a plan, and stick to deadlines.
• Report writing – Condensing three years of work into a thesis demonstrates your ability to filter through massive amounts of information, identify the key points, and get these points across to the reader. The ability to ‘cut out the waffle’ or ‘get to the point’ is a huge asset in the professional industry.

Aside from the above, you also get to refer to yourself as a Doctor and add fancy initials after your name!

What Can I Do After a PhD?

One of the most desirable postdoctoral fields is working within independent Research and Development (R&D) labs and new emerging companies. Both industries, especially R&D labs, have dedicated groups of PhD graduates who lead research activities, design new products and take part in crucial strategic meetings. Not only is this a stimulating line of work, but the average salaries in R&D labs and emerging start-ups are lucrative. In comparison, an undergraduate with five years of experience within their given field will, on average, likely earn less than a new PhD graduate taking on a R&D position.

It’s a common misunderstanding that PhDs only opens the door for an academic career such as university lecturers and training providers. Although obtaining a PhD opens these doors, the opportunities extend far beyond educational roles. In fact, recent data from the UK’s Higher Education Statistics Agency (HESA) indicates only 23% of PhD graduates take a position in educational roles . This low percentage is primarily because PhD graduates have a wide range of skills that make them suitable for a broad spectrum of roles. This is being seen first hand by the increasing number of PhD graduates who are entering alternative roles such as research, writing, law and investment banking.

How Do I Find a PhD?

We appreciate that finding a PhD programme to undertake can be a relatively daunting process. According to Higher Education Student Statistics , over 22,000 PhDs were awarded in 2016/17 within the United Kingdom alone. Clearly there are a huge number of PhD programmes available. This can sometimes be confusing for prospective doctorates, particularly when different programmes are advertised in different places. Often, it is difficult to know where to look or where to even start. We’ve put together a list of useful sources to find the latest PhD programmes:

• A great place to start is with our comprehensive and up-to-date database of available PhD positions .
• Assuming you are still at university, speak to an existing PhD supervisor within your department.
• Attend as many postgraduate open days as you can. Whilst there, speak to current PhD students and career advisors to get an awareness of what PhDs are on offer.
• Visit the postgraduate section of university websites and the PhD Research Council section of the UKRI website.

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Frequently asked questions

What is a phd.

A PhD, which is short for philosophiae doctor (doctor of philosophy in Latin), is the highest university degree that can be obtained. In a PhD, students spend 3–5 years writing a dissertation , which aims to make a significant, original contribution to current knowledge.

A PhD is intended to prepare students for a career as a researcher, whether that be in academia, the public sector, or the private sector.

Frequently asked questions: Graduate school

In the US, most graduate school applications require you to include:

• Transcripts from previous educational institutions
• Standardized test scores (such as the GRE or MCAT)
• A graduate resume
• 2–3 letters of recommendation
• A statement of purpose

Some programs may ask you to write a personal statement in addition to, or instead of, a statement of purpose. You may also be asked to an interview .

Always carefully read the application instructions for the specific program you’re applying to.

Most medical school programs interview candidates, as do many (though not all) leading law and business schools.

In research programs, it depends—PhDs in business usually do, while those in economics normally do not, for example.

Some schools interview everyone, while others only interview their top candidates. Look at the websites of the schools you’re applying to for more information on whether they conduct interviews.

In addition to thinking about your answers for the most commonly asked grad school interview questions , you should reach out to former and current students to ask their advice on preparing and what sort of questions will be asked.

Look back through your resume and come up with anecdotes that you could use for common questions, particularly those that ask about obstacles that you overcame. If you’re applying for a research program, ensure that you can talk about the previous research experience you’ve had.

You should also read as much research in your field as possible. Research the faculty at the schools you’re applying to and read some of their papers. Come up with a few questions that you could ask them.

Graduate schools often ask questions about why you are interested in this particular program and what you will contribute.

Try to stay away from cliche answers like “this is a good program” or “I got good grades in undergrad” and focus instead on the unique strengths of the program or what you will bring to the table. Understand what the program is looking for and come up with anecdotes that demonstrate why you are a good fit for them.

Different types of programs may also focus on different questions:

• Research programs will often ask what topics you’d like to research and who you would like to work with, as well as specific questions about your research background.
• Medical schools are interested in your personal motivation, qualities such as integrity and empathy, and how you’d respond to common ethical dilemmas.
• Business schools will focus on your past work experience and future career prospects, and may be particularly interested in any experience you have managing or working with others.

Some students apply to graduate school straight from undergrad, but it’s also common to go back to school later in life. The ideal time to do so depends on various financial, personal, and career considerations . Graduate school is a big commitment, so you should apply at a time when you can devote your full attention to it.

Your career path may also determine when you should apply. In some career fields, you can easily progress without a graduate degree, while in others—such as medicine, business, and law—it’s virtually impossible to move up the career ladder without a specific graduate degree.

Most graduate school applications for American graduate programs are due in December or January for a September start.

Some types of programs, especially law school, are rolling applications, meaning that the earlier you apply, the earlier you’ll hear back. In this case, you should aim to apply as early as possible to maximize your chances.

Medical school follows a completely separate timeline with much earlier deadlines. If you’re applying for medical school, you should speak to advisors at your university for more information.

A good starting point to aim for is about 18 months before you would start the program, or 6–9 months before the applications are due.

In the first few months of the process, research programs and study for any standardized exams you might need.

You can then begin writing your personal statements and statements of purpose , as well as contacting people to write your letters of recommendation . Ensure that you give recommenders plenty of time to complete their letters (ideally around 2–4 months).

In the US, the graduate school application process is similar whether you’re applying for a master’s or a PhD . Both require letters of recommendation , a statement of purpose or personal statement , a resume or CV , and transcripts. Programs in the US and Canada usually also require a certain type of standardized test—often the GRE.

Outside the US, PhD programs usually also require applicants to write a research proposal , because students are expected to begin dissertation research in the first year of their PhD.

A master’s degree usually has a higher upfront cost, but it also allows you to start earning a higher salary more quickly. The exact cost depends on the country and the school: private universities usually cost more than public ones, and European degrees usually cost less than North American ones. There are limited possibilities for financial aid.

PhDs often waive tuition fees and offer a living stipend in exchange for a teaching or research assistantship. However, they take many years to complete, during which time you earn very little.

This depends on the country. In the United States, you can generally go directly to a PhD  with only a bachelor’s degree, as a master’s program is included as part of the doctoral program.

Elsewhere, you generally need to graduate from a research-intensive master’s degree before continuing to the PhD.

This varies by country. In the United States, PhDs usually take between 5–7 years: 2 years of coursework followed by 3–5 years of independent research work to produce a dissertation.

In the rest of the world, students normally have a master’s degree before beginning the PhD, so they proceed directly to the research stage and complete a PhD in 3–5 years.

A master’s is a 1- or 2-year graduate degree that can prepare you for a variety of careers.

All master’s involve graduate-level coursework. Some are research-intensive and intend to prepare students for further study in a PhD; these usually require their students to write a master’s thesis . Others focus on professional training for a specific career.

It’s best to ask in person if possible, so first reach out and request a meeting to discuss your graduate school plans.

Let the potential recommender know which programs you’re applying to, and ask if they feel they can provide a strong letter of recommendation . A lukewarm recommendation can be the kiss of death for an application, so make sure your letter writers are enthusiastic about recommending you and your work!

Always remember to remain polite. Your recommenders are doing you a favor by taking the time to write a letter in support of your graduate school goals.

This depends on the program that you are applying for. Generally, for professional programs like business and policy school, you should ask managers who can speak to your future leadership potential and ability to succeed in your chosen career path.

However, in other graduate programs, you should mostly ask your former professors or research supervisors to write your recommendation letters , unless you have worked in a job that corresponds closely with your chosen field (e.g., as a full-time research assistant).

Choose people who know your work well and can speak to your ability to succeed in the program that you are applying to.

Remember, it is far more important to choose someone who knows you well than someone well-known. You may have taken classes with more prominent professors, but if they haven’t worked closely with you, they probably can’t write you a strong letter.

The sections in your graduate school resume depend on two things: your experience, and the focus of the program you’re applying to.

Always start with your education. If you have more than one degree, list the most recent one first.

The title and order of the other sections depend on what you want to emphasize. You might include things like:

• Professional experience
• Voluntary and extracurricular activities
• Publications
• Awards and honors
• Skills and certifications

The resume should aim for a balance between two things: giving a snapshot of what you’ve done with your life so far, and showing that you’re a good candidate for graduate study.

A resume is typically shorter than a CV, giving only the most relevant professional and educational highlights.

An academic CV should give full details of your education and career, including lists of publications and presentations, certifications, memberships, grants, and research projects. Because it is more comprehensive, it’s acceptable for an academic CV to be many pages long.

Note that, outside of the US, resume and CV are often used interchangeably.

No, don’t include your high school courses and grades. The education section should only detail your college education.

If you want to discuss aspects of high school in your graduate school application, you can include this in your personal statement .

A resume for a graduate school application is typically no more than 1–2 pages long.

Note, however, that if you are asked to submit a CV (curriculum vitae), you should give comprehensive details of all your academic experience. An academic CV can be much longer than a normal resume.

Always carefully check the instructions and adhere to any length requirements for each application.

If you’re applying to multiple graduate school programs, you should tailor your personal statement to each application.

Some applications provide a prompt or question. In this case, you might have to write a new personal statement from scratch: the most important task is to respond to what you have been asked.

If there’s no prompt or guidelines, you can re-use the same idea for your personal statement – but change the details wherever relevant, making sure to emphasize why you’re applying to this specific program.

If the application also includes other essays, such as a statement of purpose , you might have to revise your personal statement to avoid repeating the same information.

The typical length of a personal statement for graduate school applications is between 500 and 1,000 words.

Different programs have different requirements, so always check if there’s a minimum or maximum length and stick to the guidelines. If there is no recommended word count, aim for no more than 1-2 pages.

A statement of purpose is usually more formal, focusing on your academic or professional goals. It shouldn’t include anything that isn’t directly relevant to the application.

A personal statement can often be more creative. It might tell a story that isn’t directly related to the application, but that shows something about your personality, values, and motivations.

However, both types of document have the same overall goal: to demonstrate your potential as a graduate student and s how why you’re a great match for the program.

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Scribbr specializes in editing study-related documents . We proofread:

• PhD dissertations
• Research proposals
• Personal statements
• Admission essays
• Motivation letters
• Reflection papers
• Journal articles
• Capstone projects

Scribbr’s Plagiarism Checker is powered by elements of Turnitin’s Similarity Checker , namely the plagiarism detection software and the Internet Archive and Premium Scholarly Publications content databases .

The add-on AI detector is powered by Scribbr’s proprietary software.

The Scribbr Citation Generator is developed using the open-source Citation Style Language (CSL) project and Frank Bennett’s citeproc-js . It’s the same technology used by dozens of other popular citation tools, including Mendeley and Zotero.

You can find all the citation styles and locales used in the Scribbr Citation Generator in our publicly accessible repository on Github .

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If you’re nearing the end of college or you’ve completed college, you’ve probably heard the term “graduate school” thrown around by your peers and teachers. In fact, you’ve probably heard all kinds of graduate-school related terms, like “graduate degree,” “Masters,” “PhD,” and more.

But what is a graduate degree? What is a PhD? What is a doctoral degree? What’s a doctorate? We’ll demystify it all here. (Hint: those last three are all the same thing.)

In this article, we’ll discuss what graduate school is, what graduate degrees you can get, and the difference between graduate and professional school. Then we’ll move on to discussing the benefits and drawbacks of graduate school, funding graduate programs, and how to apply to grad school.

What Is Graduate School?

What is grad school? Well, it’s not so much a specific “school” as a catchall term for some types of academic programs.  Graduate degree programs offer advanced training (beyond a bachelor’s degree) in a specific academic discipline. They very much focus on advancing your subject-specific academic knowledge as opposed to preparing you for a specific career or job. Graduate degree programs often include opportunities to complete original research in the field.

There are a few different types of graduate degrees. We’ll review them in the next section.

What Is a Graduate Degree? The 3 Main Types

There are, generally speaking, three kinds of graduate degrees offered by graduate schools: the Master of Arts, the Master of Science, and the Doctor of Philosophy (PhD). The MA and MS offer additional schooling in a discipline beyond a bachelor’s degree. A PhD is the most advanced degree in a given academic field. (Note that this is not true of professional fields—we will discuss the difference in the next section.)

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Master of Arts (MA)

What is a Master’s Degree? The Master of Arts is the typical Master’s graduate program for humanities and social science disciplines. They can be fairly general—for example, an MA in Communication or Anthropology, or even Humanities. They can also be highly specialized, like an MA in Folklore or an MA in History of the Book (a real degree!).

Some MA degrees lead specifically to a PhD, while others stand on their own. There are graduate programs designed for those with no prior academic exposure to a field, while others provide further training to those who studied the discipline (or a closely related one) as undergraduates. Some offer original research opportunities, while others focus more on instruction.

Depending on the specific discipline and program, an MA degree generally lasts 1-2 years for a full-time student. Select fields or disciplines may offer a 3-year Master of Arts.

Master of Science (MS)

The Master of Science is the typical Master’s graduate program for scientific and quantitative disciplines. Like the MA, the MS can be fairly general in its focus, like an MS in Biology or Computer Science. They can also be incredibly specialized, like an MS in Predictive Analytics or Agricultural Economics.

Also like the MA, some are designed for those with bachelor’s degrees in the discipline. Others are designed for those trying to get exposure to a new field. Some more closely focus on the student completing original research, while others focus more on delivering in-depth instruction.

An MS degree also generally lasts 1-2 years for a full-time student. In some select fields/programs, it may take 3 years.

Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

What is a PhD? PhD stands for Doctor of Philosophy. The PhD is the most advanced degree in a given academic discipline. It’s also known as a doctorate or a doctoral degree.

As the most advanced degree in an academic field, it’s considered a terminal degree. The Doctor of Philosophy prepares students to do academic work in their discipline —research and teaching—and for positions at universities and research institutions.

PhD programs generally expect students to have some preexisting academic training in the discipline or a related field, usually from the student’s undergraduate degree. Most PhDs will not expect incoming students to have Master’s degrees, although some might. However, students with an MA or MS in the discipline might be able to complete the PhD more quickly because they may not need to complete as much coursework.

Furthermore, most PhD programs do expect applicants to have some form of previous research experience and preferably some academic publishing credits. They may not require the student to have the experience and publishing credits in the same discipline as the PhD, but almost all PhD programs will expect some amount of previous research and academic publication experience.

The structure of a PhD typically involves some amount of preliminary coursework, followed by a written and oral exam in the discipline. Then students will begin research and work on their PhD dissertation, an original research project. Throughout this time, students generally teach and/or work as research assistants to make money.

How many years is a doctorate degree? A PhD can take anywhere from three years (if you have a master’s degree and write extremely fast!) to eight years (if you have a lot of coursework to complete and a particularly obscure dissertation topic). But the time it usually takes to complete a PhD is in the 4-6 year range.

Graduate vs. Professional School

You may notice a huge number of degrees you could pursue after your undergraduate degree missing from the list of degrees above—like the MD, the MBA, the MPH, the MFA, the JD, the MEd, and many others.

This is because those degrees are professional degrees.

So what’s the difference between a graduate degree and a professional degree? A graduate degree provides advanced training in an academic discipline. A professional degree provides advanced training for a specific profession. For example, a JD trains you to become a lawyer. An MD trains you to become a doctor. So while a graduate degree focuses on an academic discipline or area of inquiry, a professional degree focuses on professional training.

We should be clear that these are not hard-and-fast distinctions. The line between what is a graduate program and what is a professional program is not always crystal-clear. Many institutions will refer to some (or all) of their advanced degrees as graduate degrees, without distinguishing between graduate and professional schools.

Additionally, professional degrees can lead to academia, and graduate degrees can lead to professional careers. For example, an MFA can prepare students both for academic teaching and inquiry and for professional careers as artists. While an MPH trains you to work as a public health professional, many MPHs go on to work for research institutions or receive PhDs and go into academia. Many professional schools offer MS or MA degrees (for example, a business school may offer an MS in Business Informatics). Additionally, some graduate schools offer MA or MS degrees that primarily focus on building professional skills and contacts.

Gray areas aside, the general distinction is that professional degrees focus on building career and professional skills, while graduate degrees focus on building your knowledge in a particular discipline and your skill in academic inquiry.

5 Top Benefits of Graduate School

Now that we’ve answered the question, “what is graduate school,” you may find yourself wondering: Is grad school worth it? Should I go to graduate school?

Here are five potential benefits to graduate school:

Preparation to Work in Academia

A major reason to go to graduate school—particularly to earn a PhD—is to position yourself to work in academia. If you want to be a professor at a university, you will need a PhD. For lecturer or researcher positions at small or community colleges, an MA or MS may be sufficient.

But in general, if you want to teach at a college level and work on research in a given discipline, a graduate degree of some kind is pretty much necessary.

Higher Earning Potential and Expanded Job Prospects (Sometimes)

A graduate degree will often increase your earning potential. More relevant training typically means more pay in that field. You’ll also be eligible for more jobs, like more senior research positions.

However, you shouldn’t assume that a graduate degree will always expand your job prospects and increase your pay. An MA in Middle English may not really lead to much of anything except increased debt, simply because there’s just not a high demand for people with MAs in Middle English. So, that training isn’t likely to be considered valuable enough for you to earn more or be a more attractive job applicant.

Be sure to do some research into the discipline you are interested in so that you have a realistic idea of how it will expand your job prospects and pay, if at all.

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Pivoting Your Skills

Say your undergraduate degree was in English Literature, but now you want to be a sociologist. Getting a master’s degree is a great way to get training in a new discipline you haven’t had much exposure to. Armed with your shiny new master’s degree and associated skills, you’ll be able to work in a field that was previously closed to you.

Get Published

If you need to develop research skills and publish some academic papers, getting an MA or MS can be a good move. This is particularly true if you want to pursue a PhD and need to beef up   your research experience and publication credits. Getting a master’s in a discipline related to your prospective PhD can be a huge help here. It will also help you build contacts to serve as recommendations.

Strengthen an Application to Professional School

In a similar vein, you may want to get an MA or MS to strengthen an application to professional school. Any research and publication credits you amass there, as well as a strong GPA or good recommendations, will help you stand out.

For example, maybe your heart is set on being a doctor but your undergraduate grades aren’t quite at the level you’d like, or you simply want to stand out more. Really excelling in an MS program can boost your application.

2 Potential Drawbacks to Graduate School

We’ve listed the benefits—but don’t put in your application yet. There are also some potential drawbacks to graduate school to consider. We’ll list two of the most major drawbacks here.

Considerable Expenses

Graduate degrees are expensive! Tuition and fees can easily run past $20,000 a semester at a private university, not to mention living expenses. You may have to take out pretty massive loans to cover all of this, so it’s important that you carefully consider how graduate school will increase your earning potential or job prospects. In more esoteric fields, the expense may not ever pay off in realized earnings. This shouldn’t necessarily dissuade you from pursuing a graduate degree but it is something to be aware of.

However, some programs will cover all or most of your tuition. You’ll also most likely be able to work part-time while completing graduate work, which will help offset expenses. For most PhD candidates, and some masters students, part-time work as teaching staff or research assistants is built into the program.

If you’re completing a part-time master’s degree, you can also maintain a full-time job while you complete the coursework.

Finally, keep in mind that the expense of tuition isn’t the only cost—while you’re in graduate school, you could be making a full salary employed in the workforce. In some cases, your PhD might lead to a higher salary, but it’ll take multiple years for you to recover the full salaries that you lost out on while you were in school.

Poor Job Prospects

There are some graduate disciplines that simply don’t lead to many job opportunities. For example, there are far more philosophy PhD graduates than tenure-track positions in university philosophy departments. In fact, academia in general is hyper-competitive, so unless you are attending a top program, getting an academic job at the end may be almost ludicrously difficult.

Especially if you are paying for the graduate degree yourself, if there isn’t much in the way of job offers at the end, the degree may be a poor investment. This is something to research before committing to the course.

Funding: How to Pay for Graduate School

Finding graduate school funding can be difficult. There are, in general, a lot more people who want to go to school than there is money available to fund them. Funding in the forms of grants, fellowships, and scholarships for master’s programs in particular tends to be incredibly competitive. There are few fellowships and scholarships available at this level, though there is more funding available for students in high-demand STEM fields like engineering and computer science.

On the flip side, it’s more likely that you’ll receive partial or full funding for PhD work. But PhD programs are far, far more competitive for admission than master’s programs.

Sometimes you can be admitted to a PhD program without any funding. (This is called a self-funded PhD.) This is not likely to pay off in the long run unless you have some fairly sizable independent income or savings, as you will almost certainly rack up debt in the hundreds of thousands of dollars. The return-on-investment in this case may not be very high, especially given how competitive it is to get a tenure-track position.

Funding for a given program is likely to be some combination of loans, grants and fellowships, and research or teaching positions. Even if you are a fully funded PhD student, you won’t receive a whole lot of money—generally just enough to cover expenses.

In general, people don’t go to graduate school to make the big bucks, but because they have a very intense passion for the discipline.

Applying to Graduate School: How to Get Into Grad School

If you’ve decided to apply to graduate school, what do you need to be a successful candidate? This will of course vary from program to program, but you’ll need a few general qualifications.

Good GRE Score

You’ll need a GRE score that’s reasonably competitive for the programs you’re interested in. (See more on what’s a good GRE score here ). This will usually involve a high score in the more relevant section of the GRE. So for a math or science graduate degree, you’ll need a high Quant score. For a humanities or social sciences degree, you’ll need a high Verbal score.

Relevant Experience and/or Publication Credits

You’ll need to have the requisite relevant experience for admission. For master’s programs, this can take the shape of some kind of work experience, undergraduate experience, research experience, and/or publication credits. However, for PhD programs, you’ll almost certainly need research experience and academic publication credits to be a competitive applicant. The experience and publications won’t necessarily have to be directly within the discipline you are applying in, but you will need them to show that you have academic chops.

Strong Undergraduate Record

A strong undergraduate record makes for a stronger application. Barring that, solid work or research experience and/or strong grades in another master’s or professional degree can also help you get admitted to the program(s) of your choice.

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Good Recommendations

Highly positive recommendations, especially from notable people within the field, can provide a real boost to your application. You want recommenders who can speak to your interest in the field as well as your suitability for academic work. If you’re an undergraduate at the time of application, professors you’ve worked with are the best option. If you’re a recent graduate, a combination of professional and academic recommendations will probably best capture your skills. And if you have been out of school for some time, your recommendations may be primarily professional, which is fine.

Clear Articulation of Your Interests and Goals

It’s also important that your application clearly communicates why you’re interested in further training in the discipline and what you plan to do with that training. If you can articulate a real passion for the field and clear goals, and you can connect those things to elements of the specific program you are applying to, your application will be much stronger.

Summary: What Is Graduate School?

“Graduate school” is a catchall term for academic programs that provide training in a specific academic discipline or field beyond the undergraduate level.

There are three primary kinds of graduate degrees:

• Master of arts degrees typically provide further training in the humanities and social sciences.
• Master of science degrees usually provide further training in the sciences and quantitative fields.
• PhDs, or doctorates in philosophy, provide the most advanced training available in a given academic discipline. PhDs prepare you to work in academia.

Graduate school is different from professional school. Professional school describes academic programs beyond an undergraduate degree that train you to work in a specific professional field. For example, lawyers get JDs, and doctors get MDs. There are some gray areas between graduate and professional school, but the general distinction is that graduate school furthers your knowledge of an academic field and professional school trains you for a specific career or class of careers.

Here are some of the main benefits of graduate school:

• Graduate degrees are necessary for work in academia.
• Some fields may give you higher earning potential and expanded job prospects.
• You can gain skills in a new area or discipline than your undergraduate degree.
• Graduate school can help you get research experience and publication credits.
• A graduate degree can help you strengthen your application to professional school.

Here are some of the main drawbacks to graduate school:

• Graduate school is expensive!
• Some graduate degrees won’t give you expanded job prospects or a better salary, making them a poor investment.

It can be difficult to get funding for graduate school. You are more likely to get funding for a PhD than a master’s degree, but PhDs are also more competitive. Overall, most people don’t go to graduate school specifically because they are looking for a very lucrative career.

 If you want to go to graduate school, here’s how to make yourself a strong applicant:

• Get a good GRE score
• Have relevant experience and/or publication credits
• Have a strong undergraduate record
• Secure glowing recommendations
• Clearly articulate your interests and goals in the discipline

That’s our overview of graduate school, folks!

What’s Next?

What GRE score do you need for graduate school? Check out our expert analysis of average GRE scores by school and average GRE scores by major . Or maybe you don’t need to take the GRE to get into grad school at all!

If you are taking the GRE, you want to maximize your chances of success. So consider when to take the GRE  and how to make a GRE study plan .

Think you may need to retake the GRE ? Here’s a surefire way improve your GRE scores .

Ready to improve your GRE score by 7 points?

Author: Ellen McCammon

Ellen is a public health graduate student and education expert. She has extensive experience mentoring students of all ages to reach their goals and in-depth knowledge on a variety of health topics. View all posts by Ellen McCammon

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What is Graduate School? The Ultimate Guide

Everyone seems to be going to grad school these days. In today’s hyper-competitive job market, an undergraduate degree is often no longer enough, and you’ll need an advanced degree to pursue the career of your dreams.

So what is graduate school exactly? And what do you need to know before choosing a grad course and putting in your application?

Table of Contents

What is Graduate School?

Graduate programs are offered as advanced courses at many universities, as well as dedicated graduate colleges. Before we dive deeper into what is graduate school, let’s first be clear on what a graduate program is.  

W hat is a Graduate Program?

In simple terms, a grad program offers a focused, advanced level of study in a specific professional or academic discipline.

You’ll need to fulfill certain requirements to successfully apply for a graduate program. In most cases , you’ll need to first complete a bachelor’s degree before you can go to grad school. 

Some grad courses have a specific degree as a prerequisite. For example, for a doctorate, you’ll generally need to first complete a master’s degree in that discipline.

Different Graduate Programs

The term “graduate school” can cover different types of courses and a wide array of subjects. 

The main types of graduate programs are:

• Doctorates (also known as PhDs or doctoral degrees) – This is the most advanced type of degree possible and can be undertaken in any academic discipline.
• Master’s degrees – An advanced degree usually lasting two years, which is either designed to lead to a doctorate or as a terminal degree for a particular profession. As with a PhD, a masters can also be in a range of academic disciplines, including a Master of Arts (M.A.), Master of Science (M.S.), and Master of Business Administration (MBA), among many others.
• Professional degrees – These give you the specialist knowledge and skills you need to become a professional in a particular field, such as law or medicine .

How Long is Graduate School?

Graduate degrees vary in length depending on the course, but doctorates are by far the longest. Completing a PhD usually takes between five and seven years, and can take up to eight years. According to the National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics , the median time that students took to finish a doctorate was 5.8 years in 2019.

On the other hand:

• Most law school programs last for three years, with some accelerated two-year courses.
• Business school generally lasts two years, with some one-year accelerated programs available.
• Medical school, dental school, and pharmacy school all take four years, not including residency which doctors must complete after graduation.

How Much Does Grad School Cost?

The cost of grad school can vary widely depending on what course you choose, and whether you choose a public or private institution. According to moneyunder30 , the average tuition for a master’s degree is around $30,000 a year at a public university and $40,000 a year at a private institution. Some courses can be significantly more expensive, though you can apply for grants or financial aid to make the fees more affordable.

Is Grad School Right for Me?

The truth is that grad school simply isn’t for everyone. Although there are many advantages of grad school, it does involve a significant investment of both time and money. It’s important to carefully consider the below factors before deciding to sign up for a graduate program.

Benefits of Going to Grad School

So you have an idea of what graduate school is, but why would you want to go to grad school?

Many people choose a graduate program because the qualification is essential for their career. For example, if you want to become a doctor or a lawyer, you’ll need to go to grad school. Similarly, if you’re interested in becoming an academic, you’re unlikely to be successful if you don’t have a PhD.

Besides advancing your career, attending graduate school has a number of other benefits:

• It allows you to develop high-level research, analytical, and critical thinking skills.
• It gives you excellent networking opportunities that will help you to advance your career.
• Even if not strictly necessary for your chosen career, a graduate degree may give you better opportunities for advancement and higher salaries.
• You’ll be able to pursue your passion about a particular subject.
• There are many part-time and online grad courses that you can balance with your work commitments, and your employer may sponsor you to gain a relevant qualification.

What’s the difference between grad school and college?

Besides the type of degree that you’ll study at graduate school, there are some other key differences between grad school and college.

The meaning of grad school is that the students are typically already graduates – most graduate programs have a bachelor’s degree as a prerequisite. This has certain implications. Firstly, your professors will expect you to meet higher academic standards than they did during your undergraduate degree. Grad school is not just about learning facts and repeating them in exams or papers. Instead, you will be expected to do your own research and come up with your own ideas and theories.

Graduate studies are also more focused. As part of a bachelor’s course, you usually take classes in a range of disciplines to gain entry-level knowledge on many subjects. Grad school is the time to concentrate on one particular topic and dig into it to a much deeper level. This means that you should already be pretty sure of the career you want to pursue, while college allows you to try different things out and explore different study and career options. On the other hand, at grad school you will become an expert in your field of choice.

Finally, graduate schools are typically smaller and more selective than undergraduate colleges. On the upside, you will be part of a smaller, higher-quality cohort of students. This allows for more student interaction, as well as closer attention from your professionals and tutors. However, this also makes grad school generally more difficult to get into compared to college.

What’s the difference between graduate school and professional school?

Graduate courses can be broken down into two main classifications – academic and professional. 

Broadly speaking, for an academic graduate program you will need to create an original and in-depth piece of research. 

On the other hand, professional courses are all about learning the specific skills and knowledge you’ll need for a certain profession. These programs often include work experience such as internships or placements. Some graduate programs are a combination of academic and professional approaches.

Academic disciplines include:

• Sciences, such as chemistry, physics, and biology
• Social sciences, such as psychology , sociology, and anthropology
• The humanities, such as history , art, and languages

Professional disciplines include:

Essentially, a professional school is a type of grad school. However, some people make the distinction between the two, classifying only advanced academic studies as graduate school, and the rest as professional school. It’s really only a question of terminology – both are advanced courses which share a number of characteristics and advantages!

How to Prepare for Graduate School

Once you’ve decided that grad school is the way you want to go, you’ll need to choose where you want to study. More importantly, you’ll need to put in an application and have it accepted!

How to Choose the Right Graduate School for You

There is a huge range of different graduate courses and programs available, so how do you choose the right one for you? These questions should help you to narrow down your search and find a grad school that will give you the skills, knowledge, and qualifications you need to build your dream career.

What is the school’s reputation?

Choosing a grad school with a strong reputation is critically important. Not only does a good reputation reflect a high standard of teaching and facilities, but your qualification will be highly regarded by future employers. Before deciding on a grad school, be sure to do some research into their reputation.

Public versus private school

Public graduate schools receive public funding so are generally much cheaper than private schools, which rely on tuition fees to run. However, this is not a hard and fast rule – some private schools can be cheaper than certain public schools.

How big is the school?

Private schools typically have smaller class sizes, meaning you’ll get more attention for your professors and build relationships with other students. On the other hand, larger schools can offer better networking opportunities.

Do you want an academic or professional grad course?

Whether you choose a professional or academic graduate course will depend largely on the future career you want. However, you should also consider the way these courses are run. Academic graduate courses usually involve a high degree of research, and often you’ll need to create an in-depth dissertation.

On the other hand, professional grad courses focus more on skill building and typically include a work experience component. Think about which style of learning you prefer, and which is more likely to make you successful.

How to Apply for Grad School

Graduate programs are smaller and more selective than their undergraduate counterparts, and therefore look for a higher level of applicant. Of course, applying for an undergraduate course at Harvard or Stanford will be tougher than some grad schools. However, generally speaking you will have to work harder on your grad school application than did for your undergraduate course.

Applying for grad school usually requires:

• A competitive admissions test or entry exam
• A strong academic record demonstrated through excellent academic transcripts
• Recommendations from academic or professional referees
• Writing a statement of purpose showing why you want to take the course
• An application fee (in addition to the course fees)

The exact requirements will depend on the course and the institution you choose. Some grad schools will also ask for a sample of your academic writing, an example of project work, your portfolio, or your resume/CV. Be sure to check these with the grad school you want to apply to, and give yourself plenty of time to get your application together ahead of the deadline!

In fact, you should give yourself at least one academic year to research graduate courses and pull together everything you’ll need for your application. So if you want to go straight from college to grad school, it’s a good idea to start this process at the end of your junior year.

Final Thoughts

We hope you now have all the answers to the question: “what is graduate school?” and how to make the best decisions to set yourself up for a brighter future. 

Although going to grad school is not for everyone, it can provide you with invaluable skills, in-depth knowledge, and qualifications — and lets you pursue your dream career!

If you’re interested in learning more, check out our top tips for getting into Ivy League grad school and our guide on how many grad schools you should apply to .

The GradCafe Editor

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Meaning of graduate school in English

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• business school
• center of excellence
• charter school
• coeducational
• conservatory
• elementary school
• grade school
• grant-maintained school
• prep school
• preparatory school
• reform school
• reformatory
• secondary school
• senior high school
• special school

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The ‘Hidden Curriculum’ of Mental Health in Higher Education

• Posted April 1, 2024
• By Ryan Nagelhout
• Career and Lifelong Learning
• Counseling and Mental Health
• Higher Education Leadership
• Student Achievement and Outcomes

As mental health remains a crucial and evolving aspect of teaching students across all levels of education, Professional Education at HGSE has developed programming to help educators evaluate the institutional supports and programs behind caring for student mental health.

One of those programs, Mental Health in Higher Education: A Theory-to-Practice Approach for Student Well-Being , aims to confront the complex challenge managing student mental health presents in higher education. Led by Lecturer Alexis Redding , the four-week virtual institute features a theory-grounded approach to mental health topics in an effort to provide educators clarity around the wide variety of mental health challenges seen in student populations.

“One of the principles of our program is that there is no one-size-fits-all solution when it comes to the college mental health crisis,” says Redding, faculty co-chair of HGSE’s higher education concentration. “Instead, we will give our participants the opportunity to learn from experts in the field who each offer a set of key questions to consider as they craft a tailored solution to meet the need at their home institution.”

Redding explained one of the goals of the curriculum is to bring “a new approach to thinking about student well-being” by using experts across a variety of educational disciplines. Rather than present a uniform set of solutions, the programming offers “a set of key questions to consider” that will help educators find solutions that match their own culture, existing programming, and resources available.

The program features a long list of education experts, including HGSE faculty such as Senior Lecturer Richard Weissbourd , director of Making Caring Common, and Emily Weinstein , executive director and co-founder of the Center for Digital Thriving. Other guests providing insight for the program include the Jed Foundation Chief Medical Officer Laura Erickson-Schroth, faculty director of Boston University’s Newbury Center Anthony Jack and Ball State professor and author Amanda Latz.

“When you look at our faculty, every person has an entirely different vantage point on student mental health and will help us consider a different aspect of the student journey,” Redding says. “We will follow the arc of what students experience from before they even get to college through the job search and graduation. Along the way, we will think critically about the issue of belonging on campus, basic needs security, and students who have been traditionally underserved.”

The vast perspectives considered, and mental health factors explored, allow participants to go beyond the numbers and data to gain new insights and avoid the “hidden curriculum” — assumptions of common knowledge about mental health that can create barriers between educators and student needs.

“This approach will allow them to create solutions that fit their institutional culture, existing programming, and the availability of resources,” Redding said. “Every participant will leave the program with a concrete set of questions to ask related to each of our topics, resources to use, and models of practice that they can consider for inspiration.”

Registration for Mental Health in Higher Education closes on April 3.

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Educator of the Month, April 2024: Katherine Knowles

Michigan State University is fortunate to have passionate educators who are committed to enhancing the experience of their students and who help to provide the best education possible.

The Graduate School is featuring some of these educators – graduate and postdoc educators – every month to share their unique stories and perspectives on what it means to be a dedicated educator, how they’ve overcome educational challenges, and the ways they have grown through their experiences.

For April 2024, we are featuring Katherine Knowles, a doctoral candidate in the Department of English. In her writeup, Katherine shares that failure is not something to be afraid of and how it makes her a better educator.

What does it mean to be an educator at a university?

To be an educator at university, particularly as a graduate student, ultimately means being open to change. Flexibility and adaptability are the most important traits I’ve developed over my time as a teaching assistant at MSU. I have taught a variety of different courses, ranging from large humanities lecture courses that fulfill university general education requirements, to smaller, seminar-sized English courses.

Regardless of the size of the class, I strive to find ways to dismantle hierarchies in the classroom and create space for students to set their own terms and goals. The semester may start with a set plan, but there needs to be space to adjust the course. It is possible to uphold your values as an educator while understanding that not every activity, assignment, or reading works for every student and that you may need to switch paths for your students to help them achieve learning goals.

A big part of this is meeting students where they are. At any university, but especially one the size of MSU, educators interact with a diverse group of students who have had a variety of different life and educational experiences. In any given class, my students might come from rural or urban hometowns and various socioeconomic backgrounds. They may come from any number of countries or be the first in their family to attend college.

Even in the largest of classroom settings, it is my responsibility as an educator to work with my students to create a learning environment that best serves their needs and provides a safe space for them to cultivate their intellectual growth. Some of the most generative moments in the classroom come from creating opportunities to experiment and play by adapting to student interests and strengths.

What challenges have you experienced and how have you grown from them?  

Being an educator is inherently challenging. Although we’d like to think that when we are in the classroom the outside world gets left at the door, this is never the case. In addition to feeling the pressures of striving for academic success, our students are dealing with complex family and work lives that are going to inevitably influence how they approach their undergraduate work. I have grown to better understand that while the classes I teach are not necessarily unimportant, there are always going to be other things in my students’ lives that are more important to them. They may need to prioritize their work or their caregiving responsibilities.

Ultimately, better understanding the challenges my students face has enabled me to view them not as challenges toward my success as an instructor, but as opportunities to improve and expand my pedagogical skillset. While it is important to keep boundaries with students, there is nothing wrong with recognizing them as complex, well-rounded individuals who have individual needs. Keeping channels of communication open and actively cultivating an environment where students feel comfortable approaching you can cut down on many of the challenges one might face as an educator.

Of course, as I started teaching at MSU in Fall 2019, I have encountered a number of challenges that are not unique to me but are unique to our time. The COVID-19 pandemic led to a quick and unprecedented emergency shift to online courses in Spring 2020, and many educators also had to act as learners in order to develop effective online courses for future semesters.

After the violence that took place on campus in Spring 2023, educators had to process their own trauma while simultaneously deploying a trauma-informed pedagogy to help our students. Educators and students alike have been incredibly resilient over the last few years at MSU and, although I wish they didn’t have to be, I will continue to foster meaningful learning environments that can adapt to real-world situations, unprecedented, traumatic, and otherwise.

What value do you see in Teaching Professional Development?  

For many graduate student instructors, we never get any formal education in pedagogy. Although there are courses that focus on pedagogy, I have to go outside of my field and degree program to take them. Yet, a part of many funding packages requires a certain amount of teaching. As such, we often have to seek out opportunities to further improve our pedagogical practice and begin to develop our own system of values as educators.

Fortunately, opportunities to engage with teaching professional development are available. I have attended the beginning of the year TA training offered by the graduate school several times, and I have enrolled in the Certification in College Teaching , which has made me aware of a variety of workshops and talks across campus as well as connected me with my current fellowship with the Center for Teaching and Learning Innovation here on campus. Since I primarily teach students outside of my field, these events have given me the opportunity to develop a pedagogy that is aware of the diversity of both my students and their fields of study, and how I can best serve their needs—rather than defaulting to what may be expected in the more “traditional” English literature classroom.

I also strongly encourage educators to attend conferences related to teaching or find the panel at your national conference that discusses pedagogy. Even if your department is great at helping instructors develop their pedagogy, it is incredibly valuable to learn how educators in different university contexts are approaching the same material. There is always more to learn when it comes to pedagogy, and your development as an educator never ends.

What is one piece of advice you would give other graduate educators?  

Embrace failure and do not be afraid if you don’t know the answer. As a teaching assistant, you might find yourself teaching a class that is not in your subject area, and that’s okay. There are going to be times when you do not know the answer, or where an activity you have planned just doesn’t work out in the way you’ve hoped. Sometimes it may be as simple as technological failure, but as you spend more time in the classroom, the more chances there are for things to go wrong—and they will. But, in a way, that can be incredibly freeing. What is important is how you react to these moments where things don’t go the way you were expecting them to. In doing so, you can model behavior to your students to help them learn how to react positively and constructively when things do not go as planned.

For example, I provide multiple options to complete assignments, allowing students to experiment with different ways to express their arguments, be it via the more traditional essay, or via innovative digital tools and methods. Recently, for example, students in my IAH 206 course submitted artifacts such as websites, multimedia posters, and even podcasts to fulfill their final assignment and meet critical thinking, analysis, and communication goals. This flexibility, while allowing for more hands-on and tailored experiential learning, often includes moments of failure, as experimenting with new methods can add an additional learning curve on top of mastering course content.

To provide an inclusive learning environment that meets students at their own individual levels of technological competency, I build in space for moments in which “failure” is reframed as a learning opportunity. If things don’t go as planned, that doesn’t mean an automatic failure in terms of the grade scale. Rather, it provides the opportunity for me and my students to think through what went wrong—but also what went well, and how to move forward with resilience and with vital earned experience. Failure, I have learned, often provides much more rich engagement with ideas, and allows students opportunities to adjust, adapt to, and augment their approach to work within and without the classroom.

What do you enjoy in your free time? 

In my free time, I really enjoy reading books outside of my field of study and going on walks with my dog. As an educator, researcher, and student, I need to make an active effort in creating work-life balance.

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Chicago’s first school board elections mean crash course time for voters, candidates

Much of the public still knows little if anything about this year’s chicago school board elections. but behind the scenes, candidates and special interest groups are gearing up for this opportunity to shape the city’s education system..

Adam Parrott-Sheffer, a former CPS principal, in front of Ray Elementary in Hyde Park on March 20, 2024. Parrott-Sheffer is one of the early candidates for Chicago’s newly elected school board. Before he can campaign, he says he often has to first explain what he’s running for.

Manuel Martinez/WBEZ

Adam Parrott-Sheffer went to a community forum earlier this month as a candidate for elected office in hopes of shaking hands and listening to voter concerns. He wound up first having to explain the office he’s seeking.

Parrott-Sheffer, a former Chicago Public Schools principal, is one of five people who have filed campaign disclosure documents intending to run for Chicago’s first-ever school board elections this November.

They’re the first of likely dozens who will submit their names to election authorities over the coming weeks. Gov. J.B. Pritzker signed a bill this month establishing that Chicago voters will elect 10 school board members to represent geographic districts this fall, while Mayor Brandon Johnson will appoint another 10 and the school board president. All 21 seats will be up for election in November 2026.

Much of the public still knows little if anything about these elections, as Parrott-Sheffer quickly learned. Delays caused by disagreements in the Illinois General Assembly over the details didn’t help.

But behind the scenes, candidates and special interest groups already are gearing up to take advantage of this new opportunity to shape the city’s education system. Some organizations are conducting candidate training sessions. Others are hosting informational meetings for parents. And at least three political action committees are raising money to support candidates, including a newly formed one led by defeated mayoral candidate Paul Vallas and former charter school executive Juan Rangel.

“I really want to meet the moment,” said Bridget Lee, executive director of a new program that kicked off a fellowship for aspiring candidates. “We're at this inflection point where our city is transitioning from the mayoral-appointed board to the democratically elected board. It's going to be 21 folks, which is also a big change for the city.”

Members of the Chicago Board of Education gather for a meeting at the Chicago Public Schools Headquarters in the Loop in February.

Pat Nabong/Sun-Times

Tuesday was the first day candidates could circulate petitions to get on the ballot. They need 1,000 signatures by June 24. Candidates have to file disclosure notices with the Illinois State Board of Elections before then if they raise more than $5,000.

Parrott-Sheffer, whose campaign has reported $22,030 in contributions so far, said he’s worried a lot of good candidates will be dissuaded from running by the high number of signatures required — double that of City Council campaigns — plus scarce information and the fact that the seats are unpaid.

“As I started to think about that Venn diagram of people who know our schools deeply, send their own children to our schools and have seen the world of schools and know what good board governance is … I realized that the group of people who fit in that circle are pretty small,” he said.

Parrott-Sheffer is a former CPS principal with two sons in CPS schools. He’s now a consultant to school districts through a Harvard University program and plans to run in District 10, which includes Hyde Park and a strip of the South Side along Lake Michigan and the Indiana border.

• Senate backs Mayor Johnson, CTU-backed plan to elect 10 city school board members in November

Trying to figure out how to run for CPS’ new school board

Keith Kysel is another CPS dad thinking of running. He’s been working as a substitute teacher, which he said has given him a way to tour the school district. He has a long list of ideas, from ways to get more school bus drivers to how to retain teachers.

But right now he’s trying to figure out how to run. He went to the March Board of Education meeting to ask some questions. He doesn’t know the exact boundaries of the district he would represent or who is eligible to sign the petitions.

“I don’t see enough information on what needs to be done other than we needed 1,000 signatures,” Kysel said.

The Board of Education has created a webpage with the basics , such as the election map, timeline, eligibility and board member responsibilities.

Dwayne Truss, who was an appointed board member under former Mayor Lori Lightfoot, was gung ho about running but is now questioning the process. He’s particularly worried about the role money will play, dubbing the election the “attack of the PACs.”

“I feel like to get money you are going to have to pick a side,” Truss said. “And the only side I want to pick is for children and family.”

Chicago Teachers Union President Stacy Davis Gates said the union is in the early stages of preparing for elections because its members are also focused on imminent contract negotiations .

Chicago Teachers Union President Stacy Davis Gates.

Ashlee Rezin / Sun-Times file

The CTU’s process will mirror what they do for other elections, she said: Anyone who wants the union’s support will share their views with a committee and make deep connections with the community. The union will then vote on whether to endorse a candidate and grant them access to the resources — primarily on-the-ground volunteers and funding.

“For a very long time, CTU has had space in this city to expose what isn’t in the Chicago Public Schools,” she said. “Now, Chicago will have an opportunity to hear the families and the communities who believe that our schools need more, and they’ll get to debate that.”

Some are questioning whether the CTU and other sister unions and organizations will have enough money to support candidates in 10 school board races after heavily contributing to Johnson’s mayoral campaign last year.

Two PACs run by CTU leaders repaid the union $423,432 between April and October last year for member dues borrowed to help fund political campaigns — including Johnson campaign staff salaries — plus interest.

But Davis Gates said the union has proven it can successfully support candidates with community outreach campaigns while being outspent. And she said she hopes races are affordable enough for the average parent to run.

The CTU PACs pulled in $182,572 in donations from October to December last year and had $207,743 available as of the end of the year.

• CTU negotiations will feature a new battleground this year: Springfield

Education advocacy groups jumping in

Meanwhile Rangel, the former charter school executive, is heading up a nonprofit organization called The Urban Center. Vallas is serving as the head of the group’s PAC, which filed with the Board of Elections earlier this month and has raised $27,400 from Mary Perry and James Perry Jr., a partner with the private equity firm Madison Dearborn Partners.

Rangel said the organization is focused on “organizing communities around a more centrist and common sense agenda that addresses issues of education reform, school choice, options for parents, crime and community safety.” The PAC is reaching out to people who are frustrated with high taxes, the way the migrant issue is being handled and rampant crime, he said.

He hopes this election has the same excitement and momentum as the first Local School Council elections in 1989.

“It only works when people are engaged in actually exercising the rights that they've been given, and so it would be a tragedy if people don't,” Rangel said. “Our job really is to generate excitement around these elections.”

Rangel is the former CEO of the United Neighborhood Organization, or UNO, which once ran the city’s largest charter school network. He was fired in 2013 after the Sun-Times reported UNO had paid millions of dollars to companies owned by the brothers of another UNO executive. The federal Securities and Exchange Commission issued civil securities fraud charges against Rangel in the case. He settled and paid a fine without admitting wrongdoing.

Juan Rangel shakes hands before a news conference in 2013.

John H. White/Sun-Times

The Illinois Network of Charter Schools also plans to be active. President Andrew Broy said the organization will have “sufficient resources” — its two affiliated PACs had about $1.8 million at the end of 2023. The group has previously gotten major financial backing from the billionaire Walton family, heirs to the Walmart fortune.

But Broy acknowledged knocking on doors will be as important as funding. He said charter school parents and supporters will be plenty motivated by the threat from the current city and school district leaders to shift away from school choice .

“I think our membership is fired up about it,” Broy said. “This is a fight we didn't choose, [but] it’s one we'll have to engage because they don't see the world as we do.”

Other organizations are trying to play a more neutral role to educate community members about the elections.

Kids First Chicago, a business-backed parent advocacy group, has partnered with other community organizations to hold candidate information sessions. They’ve also hosted presentations to keep parents informed of updates.

National Louis University meanwhile has kicked off a pre-candidate fellowship to help aspiring candidates and activists understand how the school system works, the history of initiatives and how they’ve played out, said Lee, whose fellowship is out of a program called Academy for Local Leadership.

“I've heard consistently that the learning curve is really, really steep,” she said. “It’s “important to me … that this program can help shorten that learning curve.”

Sarah Karp covers education for WBEZ. Nader Issa covers education for the Chicago Sun-Times.

• After mayoral letter, state Senate president files ‘Mayor Johnson’s plan’ to elect 10 school board members this year
• Mayor Brandon Johnson’s sprint to remake Chicago’s public schools
• Johnson tells state lawmakers he wants 10 school board members elected this year — not all 21

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Two Eberly alumni recognized with 2024 Graduate School Alumni Society Awards

The Graduate School at Penn State recognized four alumni , including two from the Eberly College of Science, with Graduate School Alumni Society Awards at the Graduate School Alumni Recognition Dinner on March 23 at the Penn Stater Hotel and Conference Center.  

2024 Graduate School Early Career Award 

Melanie R. McReynolds , a Howard Hughes Medical Institute Hanna H. Gray fellow and assistant professor of biochemistry and molecular biology at Penn State, was honored with the 2024 Graduate School Early Career Award. The award recognizes alumni who have demonstrated exceptional success in their chosen field within 10 years of earning their graduate degree.  

McReynolds earned a doctorate in biochemistry, microbiology and molecular biology from Penn State. She holds the Dorothy Foehr Huck and J. Lloyd Huck Early Career Chair in Biochemistry and Molecular Biology in the Penn State Eberly College of Science.  

McReynolds specializes in understanding the connection between metabolic stress and aging. She has more than a decade of research, mentoring and teaching experience that she shares with Penn State graduate students and fellow faculty members. She is on the trajectory to establish her independent research group, where her lab will shed light on metabolic aging and disease. McReynolds has been recognized with the inaugural Intersections Science Fellow Award, the University of Utah Rising Star Award in Metabolism, and the Penn State Student Way Paver Award from the Council of Multicultural Leaders.

2024 Lifetime Achievement Award 

Vivian Briones Valenty , founder and president of VB Cosmetics, was honored with the 2024 Lifetime Achievement Award. The award recognizes Graduate School alumni who have achieved exceptional success in their profession and have demonstrated loyalty to the University and the Penn State Alumni Association.  

After graduating from Mapua Institute of Technology (now Mapua University) in the Philippines, Valenty worked at the International Rice Research Institute investigating the chemical properties of rice. A Ford Foundation grant allowed her to pursue graduate studies in chemistry at Penn State, where she earned a doctorate in organic chemistry, specializing in biochemical processes.  

Valenty found her passion working in industry creating specialty chemical products that solved problems in fields such as agriculture, textiles, microelectronics, graphic arts, and finally, cosmetics. Vivian spent an entire year developing a nail topcoat for the professional nail industry. After 300 trial formulations, she produced a sample that dried traditional nail polishes within just six minutes using UV light. This was the world’s first UV topcoat.  

She left the corporate world to manufacture the topcoat and innovate new products under private labels for emerging brands, and she incorporated her company, VB Cosmetics, in 1992.

In 1997, after the Food and Drug Administration released a statement highlighting the dangers of UV-A light used in tanning beds, Valenty spent the next 10 years developing Dazzle Dry, a four-step nail polish system that dries in five minutes without UV light exposure and reactive chemicals, yet wears for more than seven days, and removes like a traditional polish. Dazzle Dry now generates more than $20 million in annual sales and is growing rapidly. Valenty holds several patents involving detergents, electronics, ceramics and cosmetics.

The people, growth, products and social responsibility initiatives of VB Cosmetics have been recognized by the state of Arizona and other government and professional association groups. Valenty’s company donates to nonprofit organizations that support women’s education and in partnership with We Forest, plants one tree for every order placed on its website. To date, VB Cosmetics has planted more than 500,000 trees in India and Africa.

More information about the Graduate School Alumni Society Awards program can be found on the Graduate School website.  

Christian Samay: College community mourns the death of Bucknell University student who was set to graduate later this year

L EWISBURG, PENNSYLVANIA: A Pennsylvania college community is reeling from the tragic death of a student who was set to graduate later this year. According to a letter from school president John C Bravman, Bucknell University student Christian Samay died on the campus on Saturday, March 30.

The circumstances surrounding his death at the school in Lewisburg "are not suspicious," he added. "This is an unspeakable loss for the Bucknell community, and our hearts go out Christian's family and friends," Bravman said in his letter.

Christian Samay's cause of death

According to The Tribune Democrat, The Daily Item and PennLive . com, members of Bucknell's on-campus community were alerted to an investigation at the school's Phi Gamma Delta location on University Avenue on Saturday, March 30. The student was declared dead at 1.50 pm local time, PennLive.com reported.

Samay was a native of Mountain Lakes, New Jersey, according to The Tribune Democrat and USA Today. His cause of death has not yet been released, reports People .

An investigation into the incident is ongoing

According to The Tribune Democrat and The Daily Item, Union County Coroner Dominick Adamo has said an investigation into the student's death is ongoing. Adamo also said an autopsy is scheduled for Tuesday, April 2, as per PennLive.com.

Christian Samay's death was not related to a reported active shooting that occurred on the Bucknell campus

Bravmen said Samay's death was not connected to a reported active shooting that occurred on the Bucknell campus on Friday, March 29.

The university has announced that the report of an active shooter "was a hoax coordinated out of Virginia." Monday's classes were canceled at the university following Samay's death, according to The Daily Item. Counselors and campus chaplains were also made available to the students, Bravman said in his letter.

"I call upon all Bucknellians to support each other In this difficult time, and to keep Christian's family in your prayers," the school president wrote.

Christian Samay wanted to pursue a career in investment banking

"Christian Samay demonstrated a strong commitment to pursuing a career in investment banking. Additionally, as reflected in his varied internships at notable financial institutions. In the summer of 2023, he honed his skills at M&T Bank in Baltimore, MD, where he engaged in investment banking activities for a three-month period", an obituary stated.

"Prior to this, he spent three months at KBW in Florham Park, New Jersey. Furthermore, continuing to build his expertise in the field from May to July 2022," it added.

"In addition, his foray into investment banking began with Digital Capital Advisors in New York. Where he spent four months from April to July 2021, immersing himself in the dynamics of digital investment strategies. Thus, Christian's sequential internships showcase his dedication to understanding and excelling in the intricate world of investment banking", the obituary continued. 

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The Morning

A crisis of school absences.

Fewer children are attending school, across rich and poor districts.

By Sarah Mervosh

A few years ago, a troubling phenomenon began to spread in U.S. education: Students were not showing up to school.

This was not particularly surprising. Schools had shut down in the spring of 2020, at the start of the pandemic, and some did not fully reopen until fall 2021. Quarantines for Covid symptoms and exposures were still common. It would take time, many thought, to re-establish daily routines.

What is surprising is how little the numbers have budged since, an issue my colleague Francesca Paris and I explore in depth in a new article published today .

Before the pandemic, about 15 percent of U.S. students were chronically absent, which typically means missing 18 days of the school year, for any reason. By the 2021-22 school year, that number had skyrocketed to 28 percent of students. Last school year, the most recent for which national estimates are available, it held stubbornly at 26 percent.

In interviews, many educators say the problem is continuing this school year.

Perhaps most strikingly, absenteeism has increased across demographic groups, according to research by Nat Malkus, a senior fellow at the American Enterprise Institute. Students are missing more school in districts rich and poor, big and small.

Increase in chronic absenteeism

All students

By child poverty rates

Richest districts

By lengh of school closures

Most remote

Most in-person

By length of school closures

Even the length of school closures during the pandemic was not a particularly useful predictor of absenteeism. On average, districts that were closed longest have experienced similar increases as those that opened sooner.

What is going on here?

I spoke with school leaders, counselors, researchers and parents. They offered many reasons for the absences: illness, mental health, transportation problems. But underlying it all is a fundamental shift in the value that families place on school, and in the culture of education during the pandemic.

“Our relationship with school became optional,” said Katie Rosanbalm, a psychologist and associate research professor at Duke University.

A cultural shift

To some degree, this is a problem facing society at large since the pandemic. Anyone who works in an office with a flexible remote-work policy will be familiar with the feeling: You diligently show up, but your co-workers aren’t there. What’s the point?

Something similar may be going on in schools.

Though school buildings are open, classes are in person and sports and other extracurricular activities are back in full, the stability of school seems to have shifted.

For one thing, teachers are also missing more school , often because of professional burnout or child care challenges — or because, since the pandemic, more people are actually staying home when they’re sick.

Some schools have kept their pandemic policies around online class work, giving the illusion that in-person attendance is not necessary.

And widespread absenteeism means less stability about which friends and classmates will be there. This can beget more absenteeism. For example, research has found that when 10 percent of a student’s classmates are absent on a given day, that student is nearly 20 percent more likely to be absent the following day. “We are seeing disengagement spreading,” said Michael A. Gottfried, a professor at the University of Pennsylvania who has studied this issue.

Sign of other problems

This cultural shift is not simply a hit to perfect attendance records.

The share of students missing many days of school helps explain why U.S. students, overall, are nowhere close to making up their learning losses from the pandemic . Students who are behind academically may resist going to school, but missing school also sets them further back. These effects are especially pernicious for low-income students, who lost more ground during the pandemic and who are more negatively affected by chronic absence.

Absenteeism is also closely linked to other challenges schools have faced since the pandemic, including a rise in student anxiety and behavioral problems.

“The pandemic increased stress in every way in our lives, but it really embedded ourselves in our stress response system — fight, flight or freeze,” Dr. Rosanbalm, the Duke psychologist, said.

An increase in behavioral problems in schools is an example of the “fight” response, she said. On the other hand, she added, “flight is absenteeism.”

For more: A tool in our article lets you see the absenteeism numbers for public school districts in most states.

THE LATEST NEWS

Bankman-fried sentencing.

Sam Bankman-Fried, the cryptocurrency mogul convicted of stealing billions from customers, was sentenced to 25 years in prison .

The sentence is among the longest imposed on a white-collar defendant in recent years. Bankman-Fried was also ordered to forfeit about $11 billion in assets.

Barack Obama and Bill Clinton joined President Biden for a fund-raiser at Radio City Music Hall in New York. Biden also gathered major donors privately .

Donald Trump was also in New York City yesterday. He attended a wake for a police officer who was killed this week during a traffic stop.

A Republican operative who accused Matt Schlapp, the head of a major conservative advocacy group, of groping him dropped his lawsuit after receiving a $480,000 settlement .

Baltimore Bridge Collapse

Workers began clearing debris and dismantling the wreckage in an attempt to reopen the port. A 1,000-ton crane, the largest on the Eastern Seaboard, will help.

How hard did the container ship Dali strike the bridge? Calculations show it could have had the same force as a rocket launch .

The disaster killed six men who were immigrants from Latin America . It has shaken Baltimore’s Hispanic community.

War in Ukraine

The Wall Street Journal reporter Evan Gershkovich has been detained in Russia for a year. Read an interview with his parents .

Vladimir Putin dismissed claims that Russia planned to invade other countries but warned nations against hosting warplanes meant for Ukraine.

If the U.S. abandons Ukraine, that would embolden China to move against Taiwan , Taiwan’s foreign minister said.

The last two coal-fired power plants in New England are set to close . New England will be the second region in the U.S., after the Pacific Northwest, to stop burning coal.

Garbage dumps release methane , a powerful greenhouse gas, at higher rates than previously estimated, a study found.

Other Big Stories

A judge is expected to rule on whether the U.S. government must provide shelter and food to migrant children as they wait in outdoor holding areas .

In California, a $20 minimum wage for fast-food workers , America’s highest, is about to take effect.

Lawsuits accuse two county jails in Michigan of banning in-person family visits for inmates as a way to bolster revenue through phone calls and messages.

An 8-year-old girl was the sole survivor of a bus crash in South Africa that killed 45. The bus fell off a bridge and burst into flames.

The Supreme Court is “traditionalist,” meaning justices interpret the Constitution by enduring political and cultural norms, Marc De Girolami argues.

Antiracism is commendable in art. At universities, it can distort curiosity , John McWhorter writes.

Here are columns by David Brooks on the rise and fall of liberalism and David French on minors using social media .

MORNING READS

Accent chair: See the most influential pieces of furniture from the last 100 years.

Hilarity and wonder: Meta’s glasses are becoming artificially intelligent. We tried them .

Dogs: A German breeding bill could lead to bans for the beloved Dachshund .

Modern Love: “ How I learned to trust (some) men .”

Lives Lived: Linda Bean was a granddaughter of L.L. Bean. She used her wealth to support right-wing causes and politicians, to amass paintings and properties associated with the Wyeth art family and to become an entrepreneur in her mid-60s. She died at 82 .

March Madness: Alabama upset the No. 1 seed North Carolina to reach its first men’s Elite Eight in 20 years.

M.L.B.: Commissioner Rob Manfred said he hoped the league’s investigation into the gambling allegations surrounding Shohei Ohtani’s former interpreter would be “short.”

N.H.L.: A Russian hockey player is expected to finally come to North America after being drafted nearly nine years ago. During the wait, he was arrested and forced into military service .

U.S. Soccer: Korbin Albert, a rising star, apologized yesterday after Megan Rapinoe criticized anti-L.G.B.T.Q. content that Albert had reposted on social media.

Caitlin Clark : The Iowa star was among the 14 players selected for Team USA’s training camp in Cleveland.

ARTS AND IDEAS

A new album: Beyoncé has gone country. Her just-released album, “Cowboy Carter,” has plucked banjos, lines about hoedowns and cameos from Dolly Parton and Willie Nelson.

But “that’s only the half of it,” Ben Sisario writes. The 27-track album is a tour of popular music with a Beatles cover and features from Miley Cyrus and Post Malone. “The album’s range suggests a broad essay on contemporary pop music, and on the nature of genre itself,” Sisario adds. Read more about the album .

More on culture

The music producer Metro Boomin helped shape rap over the last decade. Next week, he is poised to claim his fourth No. 1 album. Here’s a guide to his music .

Alessandro Michele, the designer who brought profits and plenty of buzz to Gucci, was named creative director of Valentino .

Seth Meyers joked about Trump Media’s stock .

THE MORNING RECOMMENDS …

Roast salmon with peas and radishes for a quick dinner .

Jog with these strollers .

Give a good gift to a frequent traveler .

Make over your foyer .

Take our news quiz .

Here is today’s Spelling Bee . Yesterday’s pangram was galumph .

And here are today’s Mini Crossword , Wordle , Sudoku and Connections .

Thanks for spending part of your morning with The Times. See you tomorrow.

Sign up here to get this newsletter in your inbox . Reach our team at [email protected] .

Sarah Mervosh covers education for The Times, focusing on K-12 schools. More about Sarah Mervosh