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History Grade 10 Exam past Papers and Memos pdf download

Get access to all the grade 10 history exam past papers and memos from previous years to help you prepare for your upcoming test..

Are you looking for the History Grade 10 Exam Papers and Memos? Do you want to get ready for your upcoming school exams? If yes, then this article is for you. Read on to know more about the grade 10 History exam papers, memos and notes. Also, we have listed some of the best study materials to crack your upcoming exams and interviews. Read on to know more.

Preparing for the Grade 10 History exam can be challenging. You need to find resources that not only explain the concepts of each topic but also cover everything you need to know.

The best way to get ready for your upcoming test is by cracking as many practice tests and past papers as you can find. These will help you identify any holes in your knowledge and give you an idea of the scope of the exam so that you can develop a study plan accordingly.

We have listed some useful resources below, where you will find all the information about Grade 10 History exam papers and memos from past years.

Table of Contents

How to access History Grade 10 Exam Papers and Memos

The Department of Basic Education has released the grade 10 History exam papers and memos. We have made them available for download below.

The papers and memos have been made available by the department in order to help learners prepare for their exams. They are an excellent resource to use in conjunction with a study guide or revision course.

We would like to remind learners that these papers and memos are not intended to be used as a sole source of revision. Instead, they should be used as a supplement to other study materials.

The Grade 10 History Papers and Memorandum Pdf can be downloaded below.

List of History Grade 10 2020 Past Papers and Memos

  • HISTORY-P1-GR10-QP-NOV2020_English Download
  • HISTORY-P1-GR10-QP-NOV2020_Afrikaans Download
  • HISTORY-P1-GR10-MEMO-NOV2020_English Download
  • HISTORY-P1-GR10-MEMO-NOV2020_Afrikaans Download
  • HISTORY-P1-GR10-ADDENDUM-NOV2020_English Download
  • HISTORY-P1-GR10-ADDENDUM-NOV2020_Afrikaans Download
  • HISTORY-P2-GR-10-NOV2020-QP-English Download
  • HISTORY-P2-GR-10-NOV2020-QP-Afrikaans Download
  • HISTORY-P2-GR-10-NOV2020-MEMO-English Download
  • HISTORY-P2-GR-10-NOV2020-MEMO-Afrikaans Download

Grade 10 History Papers and Memorandum Additional Resources

To help you prepare for your upcoming exam, we have also compiled a list of helpful History Grade 10 Papers and Memorandum Pdf resources.

  • Department of Basic Education Grade 10 Exams
  • Eastern Cape Papers and Memorandum
  • Free State Papers and Memorandum
  • Gauteng Papers and Memorandum
  • KwaZulu-Natal Papers and Memorandum
  • Limpopo Papers and Memorandum
  • Mpumalanga Papers and Memorandum
  • Northern Cape Papers and Memorandum
  • North West Papers and Memorandum
  • Western Cape Papers and Memorandum

What is a Grade 10 History

Grade 10 History is a course that explores the history of the world. The course begins by examining the origins of civilization and then looks at the major events and movements that have shaped history. Students will learn about the rise and fall of empires, the impact of war and conflict, the role of religion, and the development of art and culture. The course also looks at the major political, economic, and social changes that have taken place over time.

Final words

There are a few things to keep in mind when looking for History grade 10 exam papers and memos.

First, make sure that the papers and memos are from reputable sources. There are a lot of websites out there that claim to have the most up-to-date and accurate information, but many of them are actually scams.

Second, take the time to read through the papers and memos before using them. This will help you to get a better understanding of the material and how it is supposed to be used.

Finally, make sure to practice with the papers and memos before the actual exam. This will ensure that you are fully prepared and will not be caught off guard by any of the questions.

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History Grade 10-12

Page 1: History Grade 10-12

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Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement

Further Education and Training PhaseGrades 10-12

National Curriculum Statement (NCS)

Page 2: History Grade 10-12

CURRICULUM AND ASSESSMENT POLICY STATEMENT GRADES 10-12

Page 3: History Grade 10-12

HISTORY GRADES 10-12

ii CURRICULUM AND ASSESSMENT POLICY STATEMENT (CAPS)

Department of Basic Education

222 Struben StreetPrivate Bag X895Pretoria 0001South AfricaTel: +27 12 357 3000Fax: +27 12 323 0601

120 Plein Street Private Bag X9023Cape Town 8000South Africa Tel: +27 21 465 1701Fax: +27 21 461 8110Website: http://www.education.gov.za

© 2011 Department of Basic Education

ISBN: 978-1-4315-0581-4

Design and Layout by: Ndabase Printing Solution

Printed by: Government Printing Works

Page 4: History Grade 10-12

Our national curriculum is the culmination of our efforts over a period of seventeen years to transform the curriculum bequeathed to us by apartheid. From the start of democracy we have built our curriculum on the values that inspired our Constitution (Act 108 of 1996). The Preamble to the Constitution states that the aims of the Constitution are to:

• heal the divisions of the past and establish a society based on democratic values, social justice and fundamental human rights;

• improve the quality of life of all citizens and free the potential of each person;

• lay the foundations for a democratic and open society in which government is based on the will of the people and every citizen is equally protected by law; and

• build a united and democratic South Africa able to take its rightful place as a sovereign state in the family of nations.

Education and the curriculum have an important role to play in realising these aims.

In 1997 we introduced outcomes-based education to overcome the curricular divisions of the past, but the experience ofimplementationpromptedareviewin2000.Thisledtothefirstcurriculumrevision:theRevised National Curriculum Statement Grades R-9 and the National Curriculum Statement Grades 10-12 (2002).

Ongoing implementation challenges resulted in another review in 2009 and we revised the Revised National Curriculum Statement (2002) to produce this document.

From 2012 the two 2002 curricula, for Grades R-9 and Grades 10-12 respectively, are combined in a single document and will simply be known as the National Curriculum Statement Grades R-12. The National Curriculum Statement for Grades R-12 buildsonthepreviouscurriculumbutalsoupdatesitandaimstoprovideclearerspecificationofwhatis to be taught and learnt on a term-by-term basis.

The National Curriculum Statement Grades R-12 accordingly replaces the Subject Statements, Learning Programme Guidelines and Subject Assessment Guidelines with the

(a) Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statements (CAPS) for all approved subjects listed in this document;

(b) National policy pertaining to the programme and promotion requirements of the National Curriculum Statement Grades R-12; and

(c) National Protocol for Assessment Grades R-12.

MRS ANGIE MOTSHEKGA, MP

MINISTER OF BASIC EDUCATION

Page 5: History Grade 10-12

SECTION 1: INTRODUCTION TO THE CURRICULUM AND ASSESSMENT POLICY STATEMENTS 3

1.1 Background ...................................................................................................................................................3

1.2 Overview ........................................................................................................................................................3

1.3 General aims of the South African Curriculum ..........................................................................................4

1.4 Time allocation ..............................................................................................................................................6

1.4.1 Foundation Phase ................................................................................................................................6

1.4.2 Intermediate Phase ..............................................................................................................................6

1.4.3 Senior Phase.........................................................................................................................................7

1.4.4 Grades 10 -12 .......................................................................................................................................7

SECTION 2: INTRODUCTION TO HISTORY .......................................................................................... 8

2.1 What is History? ............................................................................................................................................8

2.2 SpecificAims .................................................................................................................................................8

2.3 Skills and Concepts ......................................................................................................................................8

2.3.1 Tables of Skills ......................................................................................................................................8

2.3.2 Concepts .............................................................................................................................................10

2.4 Rationale for the organisation of the content and weighting .................................................................10

2.5 Overview of FET topics...............................................................................................................................12

SECTION 3: OVERVIEW OF TOPICS PER TERM AND ANNUAL TEACHING PLANS ..................... 13

3.1 Content for Grade 10...................................................................................................................................13

3.2 Content for Grade 11 ...................................................................................................................................19

3.3 Content for Grade 12...................................................................................................................................25

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2 CURRICULUM AND ASSESSMENT POLICY STATEMENT (CAPS)

SECTION 4: ASSESSMENT IN HISTORY ............................................................................................ 32

4.1 What is Assessment? .................................................................................................................................32

4.1.1 Assessment in History.........................................................................................................................32

4.2 Informal or daily assessment .....................................................................................................................32

4.3 Formal Assessment ....................................................................................................................................33

4.3.1 Cognitive levels and abilities covered during formal assessment .......................................................33

4.4 Programme of Assessment ........................................................................................................................34

4.4.1 Programme of assessment and weighting of tasks.............................................................................34

4.4.2 Examinations.......................................................................................................................................37

4.4.3 Global assessment of essays .............................................................................................................41

4.4.4 Assessment of source-based questions .............................................................................................42

4.4.5 Guidelines for Grade 12 examination papers......................................................................................42

4.5 Recording and Reporting ...........................................................................................................................51

4.5.1 Codes and percentages for recording and reporting ..........................................................................51

4.6 Moderation of Assessment ........................................................................................................................51

4.6.1 Moderation in History ..........................................................................................................................51

4.7 General .........................................................................................................................................................52

Page 8: History Grade 10-12

INTRODUCTION TO THE CURRICULUM AND ASSESSMENT POLICY STATEMENTS FOR HISTORY GRADES 10-12

1.1 Background

The National Curriculum Statement Grades R-12 (NCS) stipulates policy on curriculum and assessment in the schooling sector.

To improve implementation, the National Curriculum Statement was amended, with the amendments coming into effect in January 2012. A single comprehensive Curriculum and Assessment Policy document was developed for each subject to replace Subject Statements, Learning Programme Guidelines and Subject Assessment Guidelines in Grades R-12.

1.2 Overview

(a) The National Curriculum Statement Grades R-12 (January 2012) represents a policy statement for learning and teaching in South African schools and comprises the following:

(i) Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statements for each approved school subject;

(ii) The policy document, National policy pertaining to the programme and promotion requirements of the National Curriculum Statement Grades R-12; and

(iii) The policy document, National Protocol for Assessment Grades R-12 (January 2012).

(b) The National Curriculum Statement Grades R-12 (January 2012) replaces the two current national curricula statements, namely the

(i) Revised National Curriculum Statement Grades R-9, Government Gazette No. 23406 of 31 May 2002, and

(ii) National Curriculum Statement Grades 10-12 Government Gazettes, No. 25545 of 6 October 2003 and No. 27594 of 17 May 2005.

(c) The national curriculum statements contemplated in subparagraphs b(i) and (ii) comprise the following policy documents which will be incrementally repealed by the National Curriculum Statement Grades R-12 (January 2012) during the period 2012-2014:

(i) The Learning Area/Subject Statements, Learning Programme Guidelines and Subject Assessment Guidelines for Grades R-9 and Grades 10-12;

(ii) The policy document, National Policy on assessment and qualifications for schools in the GeneralEducation and Training Band d, promulgated in Government Notice No. 124 in Government Gazette No. 29626 of 12 February 2007;

(iii) The policy document, the National Senior Certificate: A qualification at Level 4 on the NationalQualificationsFramework(NQF),promulgatedinGovernmentGazetteNo.27819of20July2005;

Page 9: History Grade 10-12

4 CURRICULUM AND ASSESSMENT POLICY STATEMENT (CAPS)

(iv) The policy document, An addendum to the policy document, the National Senior Certificate: AqualificationatLevel4ontheNationalQualificationsFramework(NQF),regardinglearnerswithspecialneeds, published in Government Gazette, No.29466 of 11 December 2006, is incorporated in the policy document, National policy pertaining to the programme and promotion requirements of the National Curriculum Statement Grades R-12; and

(v) The policy document, An addendum to the policy document, the National Senior Certificate: AqualificationatLevel4ontheNationalQualificationsFramework(NQF),regardingtheNationalProtocolfor Assessment (Grades R-12), promulgated in Government Notice No.1267 in Government Gazette No. 29467 of 11 December 2006.

(d) The policy document, National policy pertaining to the programme and promotion requirements of the National Curriculum Statement Grades R-12, and the sections on the Curriculum and Assessment Policy as contemplated in Chapters 2, 3 and 4 of this document constitute the norms and standards of the National Curriculum Statement Grades R-12. It will therefore, in terms of section 6A of the South African Schools Act, 1996(ActNo.84of1996,) form the basis for the Minister of Basic Education to determine minimum outcomes and standards, as well as the processes and procedures for the assessment of learner achievement to be applicable to public and independent schools.

1.3 General aims of the South African Curriculum

(a) The National Curriculum Statement Grades R-12 gives expression to the knowledge, skills and values worth learning in South African schools. This curriculum aims to ensure that children acquire and apply knowledge and skills in ways that are meaningful to their own lives. In this regard, the curriculum promotes knowledge in local contexts, while being sensitive to global imperatives.

(b) The National Curriculum Statement Grades R-12 serves the purposes of:

• equipping learners, irrespective of their socio-economic background, race, gender, physical ability or intellectual ability, with the knowledge, skills and values necessary for self-fulfilment, and meaningfulparticipation in society as citizens of a free country;

• providing access to higher education;

• facilitating the transition of learners from education institutions to the workplace; and

• providingemployerswithasufficientprofileofalearner’scompetences.

(c) The National Curriculum Statement Grades R-12 is based on the following principles:

• Social transformation: ensuring that the educational imbalances of the past are redressed, and that equal educational opportunities are provided for all sections of the population;

• Active and critical learning: encouraging an active and critical approach to learning, rather than rote and uncritical learning of given truths;

• High knowledge and high skills: the minimum standards of knowledge and skills to be achieved at each gradearespecifiedandsethigh,achievablestandardsinallsubjects;

• Progression: content and context of each grade shows progression from simple to complex;

Page 10: History Grade 10-12

• Human rights, inclusivity, environmental and social justice: infusing the principles and practices of social and environmentaljusticeandhumanrightsasdefinedintheConstitutionoftheRepublicofSouthAfrica.TheNational Curriculum Statement Grades R-12 is sensitive to issues of diversity such as poverty, inequality, race, gender, language, age, disability and other factors;

• Valuing indigenous knowledge systems: acknowledging the rich history and heritage of this country as important contributors to nurturing the values contained in the Constitution; and

• Credibility,qualityandefficiency:providinganeducationthatiscomparableinquality,breadthanddepthtothose of other countries.

(d) The National Curriculum Statement Grades R-12 aims to produce learners that are able to:

• identify and solve problems and make decisions using critical and creative thinking;

• work effectively as individuals and with others as members of a team;

• organise and manage themselves and their activities responsibly and effectively;

• collect, analyse, organise and critically evaluate information;

• communicate effectively using visual, symbolic and/or language skills in various modes;

• use science and technology effectively and critically showing responsibility towards the environment and the health of others; and

• demonstrate an understanding of the world as a set of related systems by recognising that problem solving contexts do not exist in isolation.

(e) Inclusivity should become a central part of the organisation, planning and teaching at each school. This can only happen if all teachers have a sound understanding of how to recognise and address barriers to learning, and how to plan for diversity.

Thekeytomanaginginclusivityisensuringthatbarriersareidentifiedandaddressedbyalltherelevantsupportstructures within the school community, including teachers, District-Based Support Teams, Institutional-Level Support Teams, parents and Special Schools as Resource Centres. To address barriers in the classroom, teachers should use various curriculum differentiation strategies such as those included in the Department of BasicEducation’sGuidelines for Inclusive Teaching and Learning (2010).

Page 11: History Grade 10-12

6 CURRICULUM AND ASSESSMENT POLICY STATEMENT (CAPS)

1.4 Time Allocation

1.4.1 Foundation Phase

(a) The instructional time in the Foundation Phase is as follows:

SUBJECT GRADE R (HOURS)

GRADES 1-2 (HOURS)

GRADE 3 (HOURS)

Home Language 10 8/7 8/7

First Additional Language 2/3 3/4

Mathematics 7 7 7

Life Skills

• Beginning Knowledge

• Creative Arts

• Physical Education

• Personal and Social Well-being

TOTAL 23 23 25

(b) Instructional time for Grades R, 1 and 2 is 23 hours and for Grade 3 is 25 hours.

(c) Ten hours are allocated for languages in Grades R-2 and 11 hours in Grade 3. A maximum of 8 hours and a minimum of 7 hours are allocated for Home Language and a minimum of 2 hours and a maximum of 3 hours for Additional Language in Grades 1-2. In Grade 3 a maximum of 8 hours and a minimum of 7 hours are allocated for Home Language and a minimum of 3 hours and a maximum of 4 hours for First Additional Language.

(d) In Life Skills Beginning Knowledge is allocated 1 hour in Grades R-2 and 2 hours as indicated by the hours in brackets for Grade 3.

1.4.2 Intermediate Phase

(a) The instructional time in the Intermediate Phase is as follows:

SUBJECT HOURS

Home Language 6

First Additional Language 5

Mathematics 6

Natural Science and Technology 3,5

Social Sciences 3

Page 12: History Grade 10-12

1.4.3 Senior Phase

(a) The instructional time in the Senior Phase is as follows:

Home Language 5

First Additional Language 4

Mathematics 4,5

Natural Science 3

Technology 2

Economic Management Sciences 2

Life Orientation 2

Creative Arts 2

1.4.4 Grades 10-12

(a) The instructional time in Grades 10-12 is as follows:

SUBJECT TIME ALLOCATION PER WEEK (HOURS)

Home Language 4.5

First Additional Language 4.5

Mathematics 4.5

A minimum of any three subjects selected from Group B Annexure B, Tables B1-B8 of the policy document, National policy pertaining to the programme and promotion requirements of the National Curriculum Statement Grades R-12, subject to the provisos stipulated in paragraph 28 of the said policy document.

TheallocatedtimeperweekmaybeutilisedonlyfortheminimumrequiredNCSsubjectsasspecifiedabove,and may not be used for any additional subjects added to the list of minimum subjects. Should a learner wish to offer additional subjects, additional time must be allocated for the offering of these subjects.

Page 13: History Grade 10-12

8 CURRICULUM AND ASSESSMENT POLICY STATEMENT (CAPS)

2.1 What is History?

History is the study of change and development in society over time. The study of history enables us to understand howpasthumanactionaffectsthepresentandinfluencesourfuture,anditallowsustoevaluatetheseeffects.So,history is about learning how to think about the past, which affects the present, in a disciplined way. History is a process of enquiry. Therefore, it is about asking questions of the past: What happened? When did it happen? Why did it happen then? What were the short-term and long-term results? It involves thinking critically about the stories people tell us about the past, as well as the stories that we tell ourselves.

The study of history also supports citizenship within a democracy by:

• upholding the values of the South African Constitution and helping people to understand those values;

• reflectingtheperspectivesofabroadsocialspectrumsothatrace,class,genderandthevoicesofordinarypeople are represented;

• encouraging civic responsibility and responsible leadership, including raising current social and environmental concerns;

• promoting human rights and peace by challenging prejudices that involve race, class, gender, ethnicity and xenophobia; and

• preparing young people for local, regional, national, continental and global responsibility.

2.2 SpecificAims

Thespecificaimsofhistoryaretocreate:

• an interest in and enjoyment of the study of the past;

• knowledge, understanding and appreciation of the past and the forces that shaped it;

• the ability to undertake a process of historical enquiry based on skills; and

• an understanding of historical concepts, including historical sources and evidence.

2.3 Skills and Concepts

2.3.1 Table of skills

History is a process of enquiry.

A rigorous process of enquiry enables learners to acquire the eight skills that are listed in the table below. We also show, in the table, how learners can do so.

Page 14: History Grade 10-12

Skills How skills can be achieved

Understand the range of sources of information available for studying the past.

By collecting information from different kinds of sources in order to provide a more complete picture.

By recognising that the kind of information collected from the various sources provides different perspectivesonanevent.Forexample,byfindingasmanyofthefollowingkindsofsourcesas possible: manuscripts (handwritten diaries, letters and notebooks), printed text (books, newspapersandwebsites),videoorfilm,photographs,drawings,paintingsorcartoons,andoral sources (interviews, stories and songs).

Extract and interpret information from a number of sources.

By selecting relevant information for the topic being investigated or from the question being answered.

By making sense of the information within its context.

Evaluate the usefulness of sources, including reliability, stereotyping and subjectivity.

By deciding on the reliability of the information. Reliability involves whether one can trust the sources, in terms of who created them and the purpose for which they were created. Identifying astereotypeinvolvesrecognisingwidelyheldbutfixedoroversimplified(incorrect)ideasofwhat someone or something is like. Identifying subjectivity involves discovering the extent to which a source represents the particular view or circumstances of its author or creator.

Recognise that there is often more than one perspective of a historical event.

By seeing things from more than one point of view or understanding that there can be two sides to the same story. For example, the experience of everyday life or an important event in history mightbedifferentfromanordinaryperson’spointofviewtothatofaleader.Itcanincludebeing able to imagine oneself being in that time in the past and using information from that time to think like someone from the past. This is often described by the phrase ‘walking in someone else’sshoes’.(Biasistheopposite-itisone-sidedness).

Explain why there are different interpretations of historical events and peoples’actions.

By analysing and weighing up the conclusions reached, or opinions about, events or people in the past. The interpretations may be those made by different historians, textbook writers, journalists, actors or producers, for example, about the same things.

Participate in constructive and focused debate through the careful evaluation of historical evidence.

By participating in debate about what happened (and how and why it happened). Debating involves being able to talk with others about the information from the sources, and also using the information to develop a point of view. It also involves developing formal debating skills.

Organise evidence to substantiate an argument, in order to create an original, coherent and balanced piece of historical writing

By using evidence to back up an argument in a systematic way. Usually this is done by writing an essay, but it may also be done by, for example, making or completing a table, designing a diagram or chart, or preparing a speech. Coherent writing has a narrative that follows a clear order and is organised in a logical way (for example, sequence, explanation, discussion). Original(independent)writingmaycontainaperson’sownopinionorversionofanotherwriter’sopinion. It is balanced if its conclusion is not one-sided or subjective. It can also be done in a debate.

Engage critically with issues of heritage and public representations of the past, and conservation.

By thinking about how the past is remembered and what a person or community or country chooses to remember about the past. It also concerns the way the events from the past are portrayed in museums and monuments, and in traditions. It includes the issue of whose past is remembered and whose past has been left unrecognised or, for example, how a monument or museum could be made more inclusive.

Page 15: History Grade 10-12

10 CURRICULUM AND ASSESSMENT POLICY STATEMENT (CAPS)

2.3.2 Concepts

In the study of History, the following concepts are pertinent:

• Historical sources and evidence: History is not the past itself. It is the interpretation and explanation of information from various sources. Evidence is created when sources are used to answer questions about the past.

• Multi-perspectivity: There are many ways of looking at the same thing. These perspectives may be the result of different points of view of people in the past according to their position in society, the different ways in which historians have written about them, and the different ways in which people today see the actions and behaviour of people of the past.

• Cause and effect: This is the reason for events and the results of them. The consequences of something drive future events and help explain human behaviour.

• Change and continuity: Over a period of time, it is possible to contrast what has changed and what has remained thesame.Closely relatedcontrasts thatareused to teachhistoryare ‘similarityanddifference’,‘relatedtothenandnow’,whichhelptomakesenseofthepastandthepresent.

• Time and chronology: History is studied and written in time sequence. It is important to be able to place events in the order in which they happened. Timelines are often used to develop this concept.

2.4 Rationale for the organisation of the content and weighting

The rationale for content organisation is as follows:

• A broad chronology of events is applied in the Grades 10 -12 content, from the 17th century to the present.

• The comparative approach reveals the interconnectedness between local and world events - what happens in the rest of the world has an effect on what happens in South Africa, and vice versa. A narrative for each Grade is maintained by focusing on key events during that century or those centuries.

• Repetition of topics between Grades 7 -9 and Grades 10 -12 has been removed.

• Content overload has been addressed by cutting down on the number of topics in each grade and streamlining some topics. In Grades 10 and 11, the content coverage is now approximately 70% of what learners were expected to cover according to the NCS.

• In Grade 12, content has been reorganised more logically. However, the minimum number of topics that a NSC candidate has to cover remains the same.

• Learnersgainanunderstandingofhow thepasthas influenced thepresentand thekeyquestion forFETis: How do we understand our world today? In teaching history, it is important to demonstrate the current relevance of the events studied.

Page 16: History Grade 10-12

• Key questions are used to focus each topic. The purpose of this is to remind learners that:

(a) questions convey that history is a discipline of enquiry and not just received knowledge;

(b) historical knowledge is open-ended, debated and changeable;

(c) history lessons should be built around the intrigue of questions; and

(d) research, investigation and interpretation are guided by posed questions.

Weighting of the topics

Topics have equal weighting, except for Topic 1 of Grade 10, which is an introductory overview and therefore smaller than the others, and Topic 4 of Grade 11, which is larger than the others. (This is the reason why there are only 5 topics in Grade 11, while there are 6 each in Grades 10 and 12.)

Grades 10 and 11 have effectively 35 teaching weeks, excluding June and November examinations but including on-going assessment activities.

This allows for an average of six weeks per topic, plus assessment activities including those for the Programme of Assessment (POA).

In Grade 10, we suggest the following scheduling:

• Topic 1: 3 weeks;

• Topics 2, 3, 4, 5, 6: 6 weeks each; and

• Heritage assignment: 2 weeks.

In Grade 11, we suggest the following scheduling:

• Topics 1, 2, 3, 5: 6 weeks each;

• Topic 4: 10 weeks; and

• Research assignment: 1 week.

ForthepurposesoftheGrade12finalexamination,certainaspectsofthetopicsaredesignatedforessayorsource-basedquestions. Teachers must be guided by this in the way they teach the content, and in the way that candidates are prepared for the examination.

Grade 12 effectively has 25 teaching weeks in the year, excluding the June and September examinations, but including on-going assessment activities. This allows for four weeks per topic, plus assessment activities, including those for the POA.

In Grade 12, we suggest the following scheduling:

• Topics 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6: 4 weeks each.

Page 17: History Grade 10-12

12 CURRICULUM AND ASSESSMENT POLICY STATEMENT (CAPS)

2.5 Overview of FET topics

Topic no. Title Page

1 The world around 1600

2 Expansion and conquest during the 15th -18th centuries

3 The French Revolution

4 Transformations in southern Africa after 1750

5 Colonial Expansion after 1750

6 The South African War and Union

1 Communism in Russia 1900 to1940

2 Capitalism and the USA 1900 to 1940

3 Ideas of race in the late 19th and 20th centuries

4 Nationalisms : South Africa, the Middle East and Africa

5 Apartheid in South Africa 1940s to 1960s

1 The Cold War

2 Independent Africa

3 Civil Society protests 1950s to 1990s

4 Civil resistance 1970s to 1980s in South Africa

5 The coming of democracy in South Africa, and coming to terms with the past

6 The end of the Cold War and a new global world order 1989 to present.

Page 18: History Grade 10-12

ThekeyquestionforGrades10to12is‘Howdoweunderstandourworldtoday?’

3.1 Content for Grade 10

How had the world been transformed by the late 19th century?

PHASE: GRADES 10-12

TERM 1: GRADE 10

Topic 1: The world around 1600

What was the world like around 1600?

Background and focus

At this stage, it was not at all clear that Europe would come to dominate the world. The intention is to provide a broad comparative overview of some of the major empires at this time with Europe, which was not an empire. Societies were dynamic and undergoing change - although the change was slower at that stage than after European expansion (Topic 2). In allunits,includetheroleofwomeninsociety.Thestudiesofthethreeempiresshouldincludeaccountsofthefirstcontactswith Europe before conquests, when relationships were still balanced.

This consists of a broad comparative overview:

China:aworldpowerinthe14thand15thcenturies(1368to1644):

• the Ming dynasty: government and society;

• travelandtrade:shipbuilding,navigation(compass),Chinesemarinersmappingtheworld;tradeandinfluencealongtheAsiansearoutes;treasurefleetexpeditionsofZhengHefrom1405to1433;

• scientificandculturalachievementsoftheMingdynasty;and

• China looks inwards after 1433.

Songhai:anAfricanEmpireinthe15thand16thcenturies(around1340to1591)

• the Songhai Empire under Sonni Ali: government and society;

• travel and trade in Songhai at the height of its power (Arab, Italian and Jewish merchants at Timbuktu);

• learning and culture; and

• fall of the Empire: Moroccan invasion of 1591.

India(Mughal)(1526to1858):

• the Mughal Empire: government and society;

• trade in the Indian Ocean and Islamic world;

• astronomy and technology (seamless celestial globe);

• architecture in the 16th and 17th centuries: the Taj Mahal; and

• Britain and the end of the Mughal Empire.

Europeansocieties:

• feudal societies;

• the black death: plagues and the consequences;

• travel and trade across Europe and the Baltic Sea;

• art, science and technology: the Renaissance; and

• changes in feudalism: emerging middle classes.

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Topic 2: European expansion and conquest during the 15th to 18th centuries

How did European expansion change the world?

This topic follows on from the previous one. Having looked at a period when it was not clear that Europe would dominate the world, this topic now explores how and why, in less than two centuries, Europe was able to colonise large parts of the world. The focus is on the early processes of colonisation and the consequences on the colonised societies, on ideas of racial superiority and on the balance of power in the world. This should be a broad overview.

• The reasons why European expansion was possible.

Case studies

The following case studies are included in this section:

• America: Spanish conquest; and

• Africa: Portugal and the destruction of Indian Ocean Trade; and the Dutch East India Company.

Each of the case studies include:

• the processes of conquest and colonialism;

• how colonisation led to the practice of slavery;

• the impact of slave trading on societies; and

• the consequences on the indigenous societies and in the world.

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TERM 2: GRADE 10

Topic 3: The French Revolution

How did the French Revolution lay the foundations for modern democracies?

Whilecolonialismandslaveryflourishedinthe18thcentury,thefoundationsofmoderndemocracywerealsobeingestablished.It is important to consider the ideas of liberty, equality, fraternity and individual freedom in the late 18th century, and to understand what these meant in societies of the time. The conditions in France that caused the revolution in 1789 should be put into context regarding why revolutions did not occur in a reforming monarchy such as the United Kingdom, or in Russia.

The following is to be covered in this topic:

France in 1789:

• what is a revolution?

• the conditions in France that made a revolution probable by 1789.

The causes and the course of the revolution:

This includes:

• casting off the ancient regime: the new ideas of liberty, equality, fraternity and individual freedom; and the meaning of these in the context of the late 18th century;

• thesignificanteventsduringtheRevolution;

• the role of ordinary people in the Revolution;

• the impact of the revolutionary ideas on the rest of the world; and

• the reasons for international opposition to the revolutionaries in France.

Napoleon, the reaction against democracy and the modernisation of France

Case study: the spread of revolutionary aspirations:

• ideasoflibertyandslaveryintheFrenchcolonies:HaitiandToussaintL’Ouverture.

• the legacy of the French Revolution in the 19th century and today.

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Topic 4: Transformations in southern Africa after 1750

What transformations took place in southern Africa after 1750? Debates about the emergence of new states

Southern Africa experienced transformation in the 18th and 19th centuries. This was the period that became known as the ‘mfecane’.Thisunitreflectsresearchthathelpsustounderstandhowandwhytransformationoccurredatthistime.Shakawasregardedasbeingthemajorcauseofconflictduringthisperiod.However,historiansaremovingawayfromtheideaofmfecane/difaqane,whichislinkedtooutdated,colonial-eraideasofthecentralityofthe‘warsofShaka’.Warsanddisruptionstookplace,butmostofthemwerenotcausedbyShakaandtheZulu.Thisunitinvestigatestherecentresearchandexploresthe ways in which historical myths are constructed.

• What was South Africa like in 1750?;

• Political changes from 1750 to 1820

- interior: expansion of southern Tswana chiefdoms; and

- intheeast:theriseoftheNdwandwekingdomunderZwide;

• Political revolution between 1820 and 1835

- intheeast:break-upoftheNdwandwekingdomandriseoftheZulustateanditsconsolidationunderDingane;

- northern interior: rise of the Ndebele kingdom under Mzilikazi;

- southern interior: role of Boer, Kora and Griqua raiders; emergence of Sotho kingdom under Moshoeshoe and his relations with his neighbours; and

- other states and paramountcies: Gaza, Swazi, Pedi, Mpondo, southern Tswana.

How has Shaka been remembered?

• how Shaka has been portrayed - past and present (or representations of Shaka);

• sources/evidence for our histories of Shaka; and

• why was Shaka portrayed in this way?

Notes for this unit

TheNdwandwekingdomwas thedominant force in theeast from1750 to1820.Thekingdom’s rolehasbeenneglectedbecauseitshistoryhasbeenovershadowedbythesuccessorZulustate.Historiansofthisperiodfeelthatitisimportantthatthe Ndwandwe be put included in our study of the history of this time.

Accordingtothenewview,theZulukingdomemergesasoneofseveralimportantAfricanstates.Itwastheproductratherthanthe cause of a long period of political upheaval. Mzilikazi is usually seen as a refugee from Shaka. More accurately, he moved awaytoescapeupheavalscausedbytheNdwandwe-MthethwaZuluwars.Thecareerofhismigrant,predatorykingdomwasfarmoredisruptivethanthatoftheZulukingdom.

The Gaza kingdom under Shoshangane in southern and central Mozambique is another state that has been neglected in South Africanhistory,eventhoughitexercisedconsiderableinfluenceonthehistoryofwhatarenowtheMpumalangaandLimpopoprovinces. In terms of the geographical area that this kingdom occupied, it was the biggest of the African states of this period.

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TERM 3: GRADE 10

Topic 5: Colonial expansion after 1750

How did colonial expansion into the interior transform South Africa?

The focus is on the impact that the demands of the emerging capitalist economy in Britain had on societies in southern Africa. During this period, southern Africa was drawn into the world economy. A link can be made with the French Revolutionary wars, with Britain having taken control of the Cape in 1795, as well as the consolidation of British control and the impact this had after1806.ReviewhowtheslavetradestimulatedBritain’sIndustrialRevolution,enablingittodevelopthetechnologiesofcolonialism. A broad understanding rather than detail is needed.

Co-operationandconflictontheHighveldfocusesonthefragilityoftheBoerRepublicsandtheconflictsandalliancesbetweenthe Boers and the Highveld chiefdoms, in particular with Moshoeshoe. Moshoeshoe emerges at this time as a skilful tactician, balancing military strategy with a policy of generosity in victory, diplomacy and negotiation in his dealings with other African leaders, as well as the Boer trekkers, the British colonisers and the missionaries. Moshoeshoe is celebrated in praise poetry as a military strategist, diplomat, negotiator, reconciler and nation builder.

Britain takes control of the Cape

• indigenous population: driven out or drawn into the labour force;

• changing labour patterns: Ending of the slave trade (1807) and slavery (1834) at the Cape and control of labour;

• expanding frontiers and trade;

• Boer response to British control: trekking into the interior; and

• Xhosaresponses:co-operationandconflict,includingtheCattleKilling.

The Zulu kingdom and the colony of Natal

• the need for a controlled labour force: indentured Indian labourers (sugar); also labourers for railways and coal; and

• theAnglo-Zuluwars.

Co-operationandconflictontheHighveld

• the Boer Republics, and the Basotho kingdom under Moshoeshoe, as a case study.

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Topic 6: The South African War and Union

How did the period 1899–1910 shape 20th century South Africa?

This topic investigates the ways in which the politics and culture of the Boer Republics clashed with the modernising thrust of the Uitlanders on the rapidly growing Reef in the late 19th century. Study of the section on the South African War from 1899 to 1902needstoreflectrecentresearch.ThetopicendswiththeUnionsettlementin1910.TheUnionlaidthefoundationforwhiteco-operation at the expense of black South Africans (in terms of franchise and land). It resulted in the consolidation of white rule, and thereby paved the way for a system of racial capitalism. The Land Act was the precursor (forerunner) to Apartheid land settlement, which resulted in forced removals, with their social and economic consequences.

Background to the South African War: mining capitalism (broad overview)

The following are included:

• South Africa on the eve of the war - review the developing of mining and the impact mining had on the Witwatersrand;

• influxofcapitalanddevelopmentofminingcompaniesandstockexchange,aswellastechnologies;

• Britain’spositionastheworld’sinternationalfinancier;

• emergence of classes: capitalists, the middle class and workers;

• the forming of a migrant labour system that had deep and far-reaching repercussions for South Africa and the entire region;

• creation of a racially divided industrial labour force - the legislation of job reservation and low black wages, creating structural insecurity for white workers and breeding racism; and

• the responses of African societies to the demand for labour.

The South African War from 1899 to 1902

This section includes the following topics:

• build up to the War:

- Britain’sincreasinginterestinSouthAfricawiththediscoveryofminerals;and

- politicalandeconomicstruggleforcontrolofthegoldfields.

• two phases of the War (broad overview);

• scorched earth policy;

• British concentration camps - experiences of Afrikaners;

• role and experiences of women in the war;

• role and experiences of black South Africans in the War; and

• the end of the war: peace negotiations

The Union of South Africa 1910 (a brief overview)

The Natives Land Act of 1913

This section includes:

• economic and social impact - Sol Plaatje; and

• the precursor of the Apartheid pattern.

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3.2 Content for Grade 11

How do the concepts imperialism, capitalism, communism, racism and nationalism define the century 1850 to 1950?

TERM 1: GRADE 11

Topic 1: Communism in Russia 1900 to 1940

How was communism applied in Russia under Lenin and Stalin?

In this topic, as well as the next, the rise of the two economic systems that dominated the 20th century: communism and capitalism is analysed. This topic aims to provide an understanding of Marxism, socialism and various forms of communism in the context of the Soviet Union. The 1905 Revolution can be regarded as the prelude (lead-up) to the 1917 Bolshevik Revolution: Trotsky was involved in setting up the St Petersburg soviet in 1905. Lenin observed the events from exile and adapted his own revolutionary theory.

• What is communism?;

• The writings of Karl Marx;

• 1905 revolution: the issues that led to the revolution;

• The link between the1905and1917 revolutions:massparticipation ofworkers andpeasants;Trotsky’s role; and theinfluenceonLenin’srevolutionarytheory;

• The February and October revolutions of 1917: political, economic and social causes;

• The civil war and war communism;

• Lenin seizes control of the state; the Party as the vanguard (head) of the proletariat;

• Lenin’sinterpretationofMarxism:Marxism-Leninism;

- The NEP: the adaptation of Marxism;

• Women and the Russian Revolution;

• Death of Lenin and the power struggle: national versus internationalism (Trotsky and Stalin);

• Stalin’sinterpretationofMarxism-Leninism;

- collectivisation and industrialisation;

- political terror - purges and show trials of the 1930s.

- theeffectofStalin’sStalin’spoliciesontheSovietpeople;

- women in the Soviet Union under Stalin; and

• the coming of the Second World War.

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Topic 2: Capitalism in the USA 1900 to 1940

How did the Great Depression in the USA bring about a crisis of capitalism?

Having looked at socialism in the previous topic, we now investigate capitalism as it developed in the USA. We consider the crisisofcapitalismthatoccurredasaresultoftheGreatDepression.Atthetimeofconception,Roosevelt’sNewDealwascriticised by some for bringing in socialism. Learners must analyse these criticisms, which relate to the New Deal Programmes thatweresetuptobringaboutrelief,recoveryandreform.CouldRoosevelt’sformofstateinterventiontocreatejobs,aswellasthe welfare system he set up, be considered socialist reform, and did he thereby undermine the capitalist system in the USA?

This section includes the following:

• the nature of capitalism in the USA - entrepreneurial and competitive; with rugged individualism; free market; and with minimal state control over business;

• theAmericandreamofindividualpossibilities-‘ragstoriches’;

• capitalist boom of the 1920s: strengths and weaknesses in the US economy;

• USA society in the 1920s;

• Wall Street crash of 1929: reasons for and economic and social impact;

• election of Roosevelt: offering a New Deal;

• analysis of the New Deal: legislation and programmes for relief, recovery and reform;

• opposition to the New Deal: analysis of the criticism;

• assessment of the New Deal: to what extent did it weaken or strengthen USA capitalism;

• outbreak of the Second World War and the economic recovery of the USA;

• impact of and responses to the crisis of capitalism in the USA in other parts of the world, such as Germany and Japan; and

• conclusion: the cyclical nature of capitalism.

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TERM 2: GRADE 11

Topic 3: Ideas of Race in the late 19th and 20th centuries

What were the consequences when pseudo-scientific ideas of Race became integral to government policies and legislation in the 19th and 20th centuries?

This topic the theories of race and eugenics that were widespread in the 19th century, how these ideas developed and how different counties applied them.The unscientific bases onwhich these theories rested have been discredited bymoderngenetic research: there are no racial differences between people. The theories were a social construct. The danger of these theories when they became part of what was accepted as common sense knowledge, or accepted wisdom, needs to be highlighted: prejudice, stereotyping, loss of dignity, dehumanising of people and their use to justify colonialism, discrimination and genocide on the basis of race in many parts of the world.

Notions of race were applied in different ways, as the two case studies illustrate. We consider whether Australia applied eugenicspoliciestowardsindigenousAustralians.Eugenicsfocuseson‘breedingthebestwiththebest’.InAustraliatherewasapolicyofassimilation,of‘breedingoutblackness’inwhatwerethentermed‘half-caste’children.InGermany,ontheotherhand, racial laws and eugenics policies were intended to achieve a racially pure German master race. This raises issues of how ‘nation’isdefined:Whobelongstoanationandwhoisexcluded?Bywhichmeansaresomepeopleexcluded?

Theories and practice

The following are included in this section:• notions about the hierarchies of race in the 19th century;• explanation of eugenics: positive (family planning) and negative eugenics (selective breeding);• modern understanding of race: human genome project; and • practices of race and eugenics in the USA, Australia, Namibia and South Africa (broad overview).

Case study: Australia and the indigenous Australians

The following are included in this section:• background: the colonisation of Australia; • racetheoriesinAustraliaintheearly20thcentury:debatesaround‘racialsuicideandracialdecay’;• white immigration policies and children from Britain sent to Australia after the Second World War; and• thestolengeneration: treatmentof ‘mixedrace’children:DrCecilCookandA.O.Neville-assimilationprogrammesfor

‘breedingblacknessout’.

Case study: Nazi Germany and the holocaust

The following are included in this section:• Hitler’sconsolidationofpowerfrom1933to1934;• Nazi racial ideology: drawn from colonial anthropologists in Namibia and eugenics in the USA;• The creation of a racial state in Germany:

- definingtheGermannationinrelationtothe‘other’;and - applying racial and eugenics laws and policies - purifying the nation;

• Groups targeted by the Nazis: - Jews, Roma and Sinti (gypsies), dark-skinned German people: and

- Communists,Socialists,SocialDemocrats,andtradeunionleaders,Jehovah’sWitnessesandthousandsaccusedof‘asocial’orcriminalbehaviour,aswellashomosexualpeople;and

• Choices that people made:

- perpetrator, bystander, resister, rescuer and the nuances between them - can a perpetrator be at the same time a rescuer; what makes a bystander become either a perpetrator or a rescuer?;

- responsesofpersecuted:exile,accommodationanddefiance;

- from persecution to mass murder: the Final Solution;

- the creation of labour and extermination camps; and

- forms of justice: the Nuremberg Trials.

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Topic 4: Nationalisms - South Africa, the Middle East and Africa

When is nationalism beneficial and when is it destructive?

This topic investigates the two faces of nationalism: the positive and negative. The concept of nationalism needs to be studied as a phenomenon that changed form during the Second World War, but has a long history. The origins of nationalism lie inEurope, including the unification of Italy andGermanyand the revolutions of 1830and1848.The focus should be onunderstanding where nationalism comes from, in this topic.

European empires provoked the emergence of nationalism in Africa through colonisation and the destruction of identities. For indigenous people, nationalism was a system of self-defence, whereby they aimed to unify commonly oppressed peoples.

NationaliststrugglesinmanyregionswereinfluencedbytheColdWar.WheninvestigatingArabandJewishnationalismintheMiddle East, learners must be aided in their understanding of nationalisms in this region from both perspectives.

What is nationalism?

• the origins of nationalism: a brief overview of the modern origins of nationalism in Europe

• nationalism’slinkwiththeIndustrialRevolution

• the rise of the middle class, which tended to initiate nationalist movements

• the theory of nationalism as an imagined community.

Case study: South Africa

Rise of African nationalism

• the African Peoples Organisation and the formation of the South African National Natives Congress (SANNC, renamed ANC in 1924) in 1912, and the call to unite the African peoples of South Africa in the light of the Union of South Africa and the Land Act; alliance of professional people and traditional leaders, speaking on behalf of all South Africans;

• influenceofWorldWarII-theAtlanticCharterandABXuma’sAfricanclaims,aswellasthereturningsoldiers;

• different types of African nationalism - Africanism of the ANC Youth League and the PAC split, following the Freedom Charter,whichwidenedthedefinitionofthe‘nation’inthe1950sandbeyond;aswellastheroleof‘nationalreconciliation’and‘nation-building’afterNelsonMandela’sreleasefromprison.

Rise of Afrikaner nationalism

• the rise of Afrikaner nationalism;

• the Afrikaans language movement, social and cultural movements (FAK, Broederbond and the media), as well as the programmeofeconomicaffirmativeactioninthe1920sand1930s;

• definitionoftheVolk, its relation to class and race issues in education, labour and religion; and

• nationalism in power - towards Apartheid.

Case study: The Middle East

• nationalisms: origins of Arab nationalism and Jewish nationalism;

• the Balfour Declaration;

• origins and establishment of the state of Israel after the Second World War and the 1948 War;

• different interpretations of the war: the Palestinian and Israeli perspectives on the 1948 War;

• broader Arab nationalism in the region: Jordan, Egypt and Syria;

• thequestionofPalestine-conflictofnationalistaspirationsbetweenPalestineandIsrael;and

• theArab-Israeliconflict-theissueofrefugees;militaryoccupationoftheWestBank;responsesofIsraelisandPalestinians;Intifadas and peace processes between 1979 and 2000; as well as the roles of USA, Palestinian and Israeli leaders.

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Case study: From ‘Gold Coast’ to Ghana

• early nationalism among the educated elite - 1930s intellectuals began to give a socialist interpretation to their nationalist aspirations; there was a growth of trade unionism among city workers;

• resistance tactics - 1937 nationwide strike of cocoa farmers and boycott of British goods;

• influenceoftheSecondWorldWaronnationalism;

• growth of mass-based movements after the Second World War - trade union movements, traders and ex-servicemen; support for educated minority;

• KwameNkrumah:Pan-AfricanismandtheinfluenceofMarcusGarvey,WEBduBoisandGeorgePadmore;andAfricansocialism; and

• theConventionPeoples’Party;1957independence;andNkrumahbecomesPrimeMinister;and

• Ghana’sbeginningasanindependentnation.

Review: The positive and negative features of nationalism

In this section includes:

• debates about nationalism, and critiques - the role of nationalism during the struggle; how did nationalist movements behave when in power?; why does nationalism persist?;

• the positive face of nationalism - unifying fragmented, fractured societies through a sense of belonging and identity;

• bydefinition,nationshaveborders;and

• destructive face of nationalism: identity, exclusion, xenophobia, war and ethnic cleansing ( post-1990 Eastern Europe).

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TERM 4: GRADE 11

Topic 5: Apartheid South Africa 1940s to 1960s

How unique was Apartheid?

This topic is connected to Topic 3. When learners answer the question about the uniqueness of Apartheid, they should discuss segregation policies that are outlined in this section.Apartheid, however,was a policy that economically benefittedwhiteSouth Africans at the expense of black South Africans. The labour movement at the time emphasised class rather than race, buttheNationalPartyoverwhelminglywantedtoreplaceitwiththeterm‘race’.InovercomingApartheid,thereneedstobean understanding of the strategies of resistance by South Africans, drawn from various and diverse social movements (for example,Gandhi’smovement,CPSA,thetradeunionsofthe1940sand1950s,theUnityMovement,streetcommitteesandindigenous culture of collective co-operation). The strategies include passive resistance, non-cooperation, consumer boycotts, stayaways, strikes, civil disobedience and the formation of alliances. These strategies are also seen within a broader world contextofresistancetoinequalityandinsufficientcivilrights.

• Introduction - the global pervasiveness of racism and segregation in the 1920s and 1930s;

• Segregation after formation of the Union:

- 1920s and 1930s - how did segregation lay the foundations for Apartheid?;

- segregation policies in the 1930s and 1940s (broad overview);

• National Party victory 1948:

- what was Apartheid?;

- how did Apartheid different from segregation?; and

- why did the National Party adopt the policy of Apartheid?;

• legalising Apartheid - the creation of the Apartheid state, including the laws against multi-racial labour unions and the banning of the Communist Party in South Africa;

• overcoming Apartheid - the nature of internal resistance to Apartheid before 1960;

• from petitions to the Programme of Action - orientation towards mass mobilisation; strengthening the ANC by forming alliances;

• how this resistance was part of a wider global resistance to racism, the erosion of human rights and civil liberties;

• the response of the Apartheid state: repression in the 1950s;

• what was the impact of the Sharpeville massacre?;

• armedconflict;

• Rivonia Trial (1964) and its consequences (resistance driven underground);

• review-‘Apartheid’becomesaninternationalword;puttingSouthAfricawithinabroaderworldcontextinrelationtotheuniqueness of Apartheid.

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3.3 Content for Grade 12

What is the nature of the post-Second World War world?

TERM 1: GRADE 12

Topic 1: The Cold War

How did the Cold War period shape international relations after the Second World War?

AftertheSecondWorldWar,therewasastrugglebetweentwoworldpowers.Whywasitcalledthe‘Cold’War?Thereasonlies in the threat of new and even deadlier weapons of nuclear technology that prevented outright open warfare. The Cold War wascharacterisedbyconflictthroughproxywars,themanipulationofmorevulnerablestatesthroughextensivemilitaryandfinancialaid,espionage,propaganda,rivalryovertechnological,andspaceandnuclearraces,andsport.Besidesperiodsoftense crisis in this bi-polar world, the Cold War deeply affected the newly independent countries in Africa and the liberation struggles in southern Africa from the 1960s until the 1990s, when the USSR was dismantled.

The origins of the Cold War (Overview; source-based questions; a broad narrative)

• End of World War II (introduction) - why did a Cold War develop?

• USSR and USA and the creation of spheres of interest:

- installation of Soviet-friendly governments in satellite states;

- USA’spolicyofcontainment:TrumanDoctrineandMarshallPlan;

- Berlin Crises from 1949 to 1961 (broad understanding of the crises); and

- opposing military alliances: NATO and Warsaw Pact (broadly);

• containment and brinkmanship: the Cuban crisis (as an example of containment and brinkmanship); and

• who was to blame for the Cold War? (interpretation; differing points of view)

Extension of the Cold War

Case study: China (examined each year as an option to Vietnam.)

How did China rise as a world power after 1949?

• introduction: establishment of Communist China in 1949 and events leading up to 1949 (not examinable);

• cultural revolution;

• Chinese relations with the Soviet Union and the USA from 1949 to 1973 (clash of ideologies rather than individual events);

• China’schangingrelationshipswithneighbouringstates-Tibet,India,VietnamandTaiwan;

• towhatextentwasChinaestablishedasasuperpowerbythetimeofMao’sdeath?;

• explain why China tried to improve relations with the USA after 1970; and

• conclusion-impactofChina’seconomicliberalisationonrelationswiththerestoftheworldsinceMao’sdeathuntilthepresent.

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Case study: Vietnam (Examined each year as an option to China)

How was a small country like Vietnam able to win a war against the USA? (1954 to 1975)

This section includes :

• background - overview of the struggle against colonial powers prior to the second World War; and

• the period immediately after the war in Vietnam.

Stages in the War:

• 1957 to 1965 - Struggle in Vietnam between the South Vietnamese army and the communist-trained rebels (also known as the Viet Cong);

• 1965 to 1969 - North Vietnamese-USA struggle (including the nature of the Vietnamese war against the USA);

• the war from a Vietnamese and USA perspective;

• the war as a global issue;

• 1969 to 1975 - USA withdrawal from Vietnam (the impact on USA politics; student movements; link to Topic 3); and

• Conclusion : How the war is remembered today in the USA and Vietnam?

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Topic 2: Independent Africa

How was independence realised in Africa in the 1960s and 1970s?

This topic compares two forms of states that emerged from nationalist movements in the 1960s. The Congo was used as a tool in the Cold War. This left a legacy that continues today. Tanzania developed as a socialist state, implementing ideas of African socialism. The focus is on the political, economic, social and cultural successes and challenges that countries faced in Africa after independence, illustrated by the Congo and Tanzania.

Whatweretheideasthatinfluencedtheindependentstates?

• This section includes different forms of government (political ideologies and economies), such as African socialism, capitalism, democracy and one-party states

Comparative case studies (1960 to 1980) as examples to illustrate the political, economic, social and cultural successes and challenges in independent Africa (1960 to 1980). The case studies are not meant to be seperately examined.

• the Congo (became a tool of the Cold War); and

• Tanzania (African socialism)

The successes and challenges faced by independent Africa?

• the kind of states that emerged - their aims and visions (political ideologies);

• political including:

- types of leaders: Lumumba, Mobuto Sese Seko, Nyerere (What are the qualities of a good leader?);

- legacies of colonialism;

- types of government; and

- political stability and instability;

• economic including:

- types of economies (as third world countries)

• social and cultural including:

- benefitsofindependence;

- education; and

- Africanisation.

What was the impact of the internal and external factors on Africa during the time?

Africa in the Cold War: USSR, USA, Cuba, China and South Africa

Case study: Angola

The case study will include:

• introduction: how Africa was drawn into the Cold War (broadly);

• competingspheresofinfluence-trade,conflictandaid;

• Angola: colonialism and independence (broad overview);

• outbreak of civil war in 1974

- MPLA and UNITA

• reasons for and nature of involvement in Angola (USSR, USA, Cuba, China and South Africa);

• impact on regional stability;

• significanceoftheBattleofCuitoCuanavale1987and1988;

• the changing nature of international relationships after 1989

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TERM 2: GRADE 12

Topic 3: Civil society protests 1950s to 1970s

What forms of civil society protest emerged from the 1960s to 1990?

The Second World War had been fought to attain democracy but it did not deliver lasting peace or a better society. After the war,womeningrowingeconomieswerebeginningtodopaidworkoutsidethehome,youthweremorecriticaloftheirparents’generation and increasingly became aware of injustices, racism and human rights violations; a counter culture started to emerge.

Thesectiononwomen’s identity inSouthAfrica isclosely linkedwith thestudyofApartheid inGrade11 (Topic5). In thissection, learners should analyse the civic action taken in the context of the overall theme of this topic.

Introduction: Overview of civil society protests

• Women’sliberationandfeministmovementsinthe1960sand1970s:amiddleclassmovementinindustrialisedcountries;

• Women’sidentityinSouthAfricafromthe1950sto1970s–blackwomenseethemselvesfirstasblack,andwhitewomenseethemselvesfirstaswhite;tradeunionism,womenworkers,theireconomicroleintheruralareasandintheinformalsector; as political anti-pass campaigners, initiatives taken within the liberation struggle, including the middle class Black Sash;

• the peace movements: disarmament; students and anti-war movements; and

• civil rights movements.

Case Study: the US Civil Rights Movement

• Reasons and origins of the Civil Rights Movement in the USA (background information only);

• Therole,impactandinfluenceofMartinLutherKingJunior;andtheinfluenceofpassiveresistance(Gandhi)onMartinLuther King;

• Forms of protest through civil disobedience: Montgomery bus boycott, sit-ins, marches including to Lincoln Memorial, Birmingham campaign and Selma-Montgomery marches;

• School desegregation: case study (Little Rock, Arkansas); and

• Short-term and long-term gains.

Case Study: the Black Power Movement

• Reasons for the movement;

• Black Panther;

• Roles of Stokely Carmichael and Malcolm X; and

Overview of the progress, if any, that was made towards equality and civil rights by the civil rights and Black Power movements.

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TERM 2: GRADE 12Topic 4: Civil Resistance in South Africa 1970s to 1980

What was the nature of the civil society resistance after the 1960s?

We continue studying the narrative of resistance to Apartheid that we began Grade 11. As this period was also covered in Grade 9, the focus here is on the Black Consciousness movement and the ideas of Steve Biko. The events of 1976 should notbecoveredin-depth,butaspartofthedebatesaroundtheinfluenceoftheBlackConsciousnessMovementonpupilsinschools and, in particular, on the Soweto uprising. The Soweto uprising is not studied in full here, because it was it was covered in Grade 9.

The pressure on the Apartheid government in the 1980s links the wide-ranging internal resistance with the anti-Apartheid movements outside of South Africa.

Introduction (not for exam purposes)• Nature of the Apartheid state in the 1970s and 1980s; and

• Opposition - underground, in prison and in exile.

The challenge of Black Consciousness to the Apartheid state

• The nature and aims of Black Consciousness;

• theroleofSteveBikowith theemphasisonhis ideasandwriting(personalcomplexesareconfining;peopleempowerthemselves);

• Black Consciousness Movement (BCM);

• BlackConsciousnesswasatfirstperceivedbythegovernmentasinaccordwithApartheidtheoriesof‘ownaffairs’;thechallenge posed by the ideas of Black Consciousness to the state;

• The1976Sowetouprising(nottheeventsbutthedebatesaboutwhetherornotthestudentswereinfluencedbyBlackConsciousness thinking); and

• The legacy of Black Consciousness on South African politics.

The crisis of Apartheid in the 1980s

Government attempts to reform Apartheid

• Contradictions of Apartheid emerge; the pass system breaks down; labour movements become more powerful; the economy is dependent on black labour;

• The 1982 urban Bantu Authorities Act - attempt to give more power to local councillors in the townships; the tricameral system.

Internal resistance to reforms:

• Growing power of trade union movement from 1973 - black workers rediscover their power of labour; rapidly growing membership; political alliance formed with communities and liberation movements; and

• ResponsetoBotha’s‘reforms’-newmethodsofmobilisation;labour’s‘rollingmassaction’;masscivicactiontomakethecountry ungovernable (role of civics, UDF, Mass Democratic Movement, End Conscription Campaign and Black Sash).

International response

• International anti-Apartheid movements ;

- Anti-Apartheid movements in Britain and Ireland;

- Activities of the movements: sports boycott; cultural boycott; academic boycott; consumer boycott; disinvestment; sanctions; release Mandela campaign; role of the international trade unions; and

- Supportfortheanti-ApartheidstruggleinAfrica-frontlinestates(Angola,Botswana,Mozambique,Tanzania,ZambiaandZimbabwe).

The beginning of the end:

• The South African economy in trouble: South Africa felt the bite of international sanctions, disinvestment as as well as boycotts that coincided with internal mass resistance.

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30 CURRICULUM AND ASSESSMENT POLICY STATEMENT (CAPS)

TERM 3: GRADE 12

Topic 5: The coming of democracy in South Africa and coming to terms with the past

How did South Africa emerge as a democracy from the crises of the 1990s, and how did South Africans come to terms with the Apartheid past?

This topic focuses on the debates around the negotiating process between the ANC and the government; the stalemate in the struggle (in the context of the end of the Cold War); the compromises made on both sides; the need for reconciliation; the context of violence that threatened the negotiating process and the success of the negotiations, which was not the work of one person but rather a team effort on both sides. It concludes with the choices made in the process of coming to terms with the past, and includes investigating:

• why SA chose the TRC process and

• a consideration of its alternatives.

The negotiated settlement and Government of National Unity

• The beginning of the solution: secret negotiations with the ANC-in-exile and negotiations with Mandela; 1989 to 1991: unbanning of organisations; release of political prisoners; release of Mandela; debates around negotiations, including talks abouttalksandChrisHani’sobjectiontothetalks;CODESAI;theroleofthelabourmovementinnegotiations;andtheANCgiving up the armed struggle;

• Breakdownofnegotiations:‘Whitesonly’referendum-DeKlerksolution;violenceinthe1990sanddebatesaroundtheviolence; CODESA breaks down; Record of Understanding; Joe Slovo and the Sunset Clause;

• Multi-partynegotiationprocessresumes:formalmulti-partynegotiationsresumed;murderofChrisHani;significancetotheprocess; date of elections set;

• Ongoingviolence:attemptstoderailnegotiationsflaresupafteragreementsarereached;AWBinvasionofWorldTradeCentre; St James Massacre; killing at the Heidelberg Tavern;

• Final road to democracy in 1994: violence again; fall of Mangope and Gqozo and the Bophuthatswana shootings; Inkatha Freedom Party March to Shell House and Shell House Massacre; the Constitution and the Bill of Rights; Freedom Front and IFP join elections; 27 April elections and the Government of National Unity.

How has South Africa chosen to remember the past?

The Truth and Reconciliation Commission.

• Reasons for the TRC;

• Various forms of justice: retributive justice and the Nuremberg trials in post-War Germany; restorative justice and the TRC hearings;

• The debates concerning the TRC:

- positive aspects: TRC as an instrument of reconciliation;

- amnesty provisions and problems with amnesty;

- focus on human rights of 1980s and ignoring institutional violence and the human rights abuses of Apartheid; and

- reparations; and

• responsesofpoliticalpartiesandreasonsfortheresponsestotheTRCandthefinalreportoftheTRC:NationalParty,Inkatha Freedom Party and African National Congress.

Remembering the past: memorials

• How has the struggle against Apartheid been remembered? (Appropriate museum or memorial, examples include Freedom Park at national level, Thokoza monument at local level.)

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Topic 6: The end of the Cold War and a new world order 1989 to the present

How has the world changed since the 1960s?

ThefirstsectionfocusesontheextenttowhichGorbachev’sreformsmightbeseenasthetriggertothedisintegrationoftheUSSR,andtheneedtobalanceGorbachev’sinfluencewiththeothereventsinEasternEuropeatthetime,particularlyPoland.WhywasitthatPolandwasabletogainsignificantconcessionsfromtheSovietUnion?ThissectionalsoincludesastudyofthesignificanceofthefalloftheBerlinWall,especiallyforthedisintegrationoftheSovietUnion.

How did events in Europe - together with the other pressures on the Apartheid government (in Topic 4) - contribute to the ending of Apartheid?

The topic next examines the new world order that emerged after the fall of the Soviet Union. This section should be dealt with broadly rather than in great detail. Learners need to understand emerging economic trends and the responses to contemporary events.

The end of the Cold War: The events of 1989

• Gorbachev’sreformsintheSovietUnion;

• Eastern Europe:

- eventsinPoland-significanceof‘Solidarity’;

- thesignificanceofeventsinPolandforthedeclineofSovietinfluenceinEasternEurope;and

- Germany: the fall of the Berlin Wall;

• thedisintegrationoftheSovietUnion-towhatextentwereGorbachev’sreformsresponsible?;and

• a turning point in South Africa - the collapse of the Soviet Union and its impact on SA; Cuito Cuanavale and its impact; De Klerk - the unbanning of organisations and release of political prisoners in 1989; and Nelson Mandela in 1990.

A new world order

• definingglobalisation;

• balance of power and impact on Africa: North-South and South-South relations;

• dominance of global Western capitalism: USA; Bretton Woods, IMF and World Bank; World Trade Organisation; IT revolution; Civil society resistance to global capitalism;

• emergingeconomiesanddifferentformsofcapitalism:BRICS(Brazil,Russia,IndiaandChinaandSouthAfica);

• SouthAfrica’ssuccessinavoidingoutrightcivilwarandPresidentMandela’spolicyofreconciliationinspiretheworld,buttheprocessofliberationinSouthAfricaisunfinished:

- challenges of poverty and gross inequality, redress of past injustices, nation building and temptations of a liberation movement in power; the developmental state is one attempt to solve these problems; and

• responses to globalisation, heralding an age of economic insecurity - nationalism, localisation (such as the breakup of former Yugoslavia); extremism (such as religious fundamentalism, including the Christian right wing and Islamic fundamentalism; 9/11 and its consequences; the war on terror, Iraq), as well as environmental movements.

Conclusion (not for examination purposes)

This includes a discussion on What have we learnt from history? How has studying the past helped us to draw lessons for present-day society? To what extent can we understand why people behaved the way they did? Has history taught us more aboutthe‘humancondition’?

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32 CURRICULUM AND ASSESSMENT POLICY STATEMENT (CAPS)

4.1 What is Assessment?

Assessmentisacontinuous,plannedprocessofidentifying,gatheringandinterpretinginformationtogaugelearners’performance, and can take various forms. It involves four steps: generating and collecting evidence of achievement; evaluatingthisevidence;recordingthefindings;andusingthisinformation.Performanceinformationhelpsteachersandotherinvolvedpartiestounderstandandtherebyassistthelearner’sdevelopmentinordertoimprovetheprocessof learning and teaching.

Assessment should be both informal (Assessment for Learning) and formal (Assessment of Learning). In both cases, regular feedback should be provided to learners to enhance the learning experience.

4.1.1 Assessment in history

Inhistory,assessmentisalwaysbasedoncontentknowledgeandskills(basedontheSpecificAims).Tasks,projects,tests or examinations must always assess both aspects.

Assessment in history usually involves writing. This means that learners should be taught writing skills and they should be helped to practise them. Oral work, speaking, debating and drama can also, however, be assessed, and are sometimes very valuable for revision or preparation for written work.

Learnersoftenexperiencedifficulty inwriting longpieces,suchasessays.Theyneedtobetrainedtoselect the information they want to include (only to choose what is relevant), to arrange the information (to put it in a logical order, together with other information) and to connect information (to present a reasonable sequence of facts, or an effective argument).

Thequalityof learners’work inhistorydepends largelyonthecarewithwhichtheir tasksandquestionsareset.Learners should be given precise and detailed instructions, both to tell them what they must do and to tell them where theycanfindtheinformationtheyneed.Itisoftenagoodideatobreakdownbigquestionsintoanumberofsmallerones, or steps.

Plagiarism(usingsomeoneelse’sworkandpretendingitisyourown)isaparticularprobleminthestudyofhistory,whether it involvessomeoneother than the learnerdoing thework,a learnercopyinganother learner’swork,orcutting and pasting from the internet. It is essential that learners be trained to indicate when they quote something and to provide references. Likewise, teachers need to set the example by always giving the references for information and sources that they use.

4.2 Informal or Daily Assessment

Assessmentforlearningisdonetocontinuouslycollectinformationonalearner’sachievement.Thisinformationisused to improve his or her learning.

Informalassessmentreliesonadailymonitoringoflearners’progress.Thisisdonethroughobservations,discussions,practical demonstrations, learner-teacher conferences, informal classroom interactions, and so on. Informal assessment sometimes takes the form of simply stopping during the lesson to observe learners or to discuss with

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them how learning is progressing. Informal assessment provides feedback to the learners and informs planning for teaching. It need not be recorded and can be marked by learners or teachers. The results of daily assessment tasks arenottakenintoaccountforpromotionandcertificationpurposes. Informalassessmentshouldnotbeseenasseparate from learning activities taking place in the classroom.

Self assessment and peer assessment actively involves learners in assessment. This is important, as it allows learnerstolearnfromandreflectontheirownperformance.

4.3 Formal Assessment

All assessment tasks that make up a formal programme of assessment for the year are regarded as formal assessment. Formalassessmenttasksaremarkedandformallyrecordedbytheteacherforprogressionandcertificationpurposes.All formal assessment tasks are subject to moderation for the purpose of quality assurance and to ensure that appropriate standards are maintained.

Formal assessment provides teachers with a systematic way of evaluating how well learners are progressing in a grade and in a particular subject. Examples of formal assessments include tests, examinations, practical tasks, projects, oral presentations, demonstrations and performances. Formal assessment tasks form part of a year-long formal programme of assessment in each grade and subject.

The forms of assessment used should be age and development-level appropriate. The design of these tasks should cover the content of the subject and include a variety of tasks designed to achieve the objectives of the subject.

4.3.1 Cognitive levels and abilities covered during formal assessment

Formal assessments must cater for a range of cognitive levels and abilities of learners, as shown below:

Cognitive Levels Source-based assessment questions and tasks

LEVEL 1 (L1) • Extract evidence from sources

LEVEL 2 (L2) • Explain historical concepts

• Straightforward interpretation of the sources

• What is being said by the author or creator of the source? What are the views or opinions on an issue expressed by a source?

• Compare information in sources

LEVEL 3 • Interpret and evaluate information and data from sources

• Engage with questions of bias, reliability and usefulness of sources

• Compare and contrast interpretations and perspectives within sources and by authors of sources

4.3.2 The weighting of the cognitive levels across the different grades

Grade Level 1 Level 2 Level 3

Grade 10 40% 40% 20%

Grade 11 30% 50% 20%

Grade 12 30% 40% 30%

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34 CURRICULUM AND ASSESSMENT POLICY STATEMENT (CAPS)

4.4 Programme of Assessment

The programme of assessment is designed to spread formal assessment tasks in all subjects in a school throughout a term.

4.4.1. Programme of Assessment and weighting of tasks

Grade10:weighting

Term 1 Term 2 Term 3 Term 4

2 tasks 2 tasks 2 tasks 1 task

• Source-based and/or essay task (10%)

• Standardised test, which includes a source-based question and an essay (20%)

• Heritage investigation (oral history is also considered heritage) with a research component to teach research skills (20%)

• Mid-year examination (20%)

• Standardised test (20%)

• End-of-year examination (150 marks)

25% of total year mark = 100 marks75% of total year mark =

Grade10:markallocation

TERM 1 TERM 2 TERM 3 TERM 4

• Source-based and/ or essay task

50 marks (reduced to 10)

• Standardised test which includes a source-based question and an essay.

50 (essay) + 25 (source-based) = 75 (reduced to 20)

• Heritage investigation (oral history is also considered heritage) with a research component to teach research skills 50 marks (at least) (reduced to 20)

• Midyear examination 100 marks (reduced to 20)

• Source-based and/or essay task

• Standardised test

50 + 50 = 100 (reduced to 20)

• End-of-year examination

(150 marks)

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Setting up a heritage assignment

Follow these steps:

1. Class and individual discussions about appropriate monument, museum, tradition, community or chosen heritage example or oral history as heritage.

2. Formulate a key question

3. Do research in the school library, local library or on the internet, if available, about heritage on the particular topic chosen, or provide learners with the sources. Learners must make a selection from the sources that are appropriate for their topic.

4. Learners need to make notes during their research, and they must record information in their own words. Teachers must be particularly vigilant that learners do not simply download and use information from the internet without reworking it. Their assignments must include a list of references consulted.

5. Teachers must provide a clearly worded task for the learners. The task must include time frames for each stage of the assignment and the assessment criteria that will be used for assessment. The dates within the timeframes will include a date for planning to be completed; a date for rough work to be completed; date for finalproduct.Teacherswillchecktheworkateachstage.

6. The assignment needs to include the ideologies and debates about heritage, linked to the particular monument or topic chosen. The chosen topic or example must is used to illustrate these debates.

PHASE: FET GRADE 10

Heritage assignment (compulsory)

The focus and resources for the assignment are heritage sites, museums, monuments, oral histories, commemorative events, family and community traditions and rituals, local history, school history and family history. The content detail is not specifiedinordertoprovidethechoicetostudylocal,regionalornationalexamplesofheritage.

What is heritage?

Theword‘heritage’canbeusedindifferentways.Oneuseofthewordemphasisesourheritageashumanbeingsandconcerns human origins in Africa. Another use of the word relates to the ways in which people remember the past, through heritage sites, museums, through the construction of monuments and memorials and in families and communities (oral history). Some suggest that heritage is everything that is handed down to us from the past.

Thecontentdetailisnotspecifiedinordertoprovidethechoicetostudylocal,regionalornationalexamplesofheritage.

Possible themes for assignments, which learners should consider, include:

• what is meant by heritage and public representations?;

• memory and oral histories as heritage;

• the importance of the conservation of heritage sites, monuments and memorials;

• debates about heritage issues and the ways in which the past is represented, for example at heritage sites, in museums, monuments and memorials and in families and communities;

• the ways in which memorials are constructed in different knowledge systems, for example monuments, ritual sites and grave sites; and

• African origins of humankind as world heritage.

The assignment should include a research component in order to teach research skills in Grade 10.

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36 CURRICULUM AND ASSESSMENT POLICY STATEMENT (CAPS)

Grade11weighting

• Standardised test 1, which includes a source-based section and an essay

• Research or oral history task

• Mid-year examination

• Source-based or essay task

• Standardised test 2

Grade11markallocation

• Standardised test 1 which includes a source-based section and an essay.

100 marks (reduced to 20)

50 (at least) (reduced to 20)

• Midyear examination 150 (reduced to 20)

• Source-based and /or essay task

• Standardised test 2 100 marks (reduced to 20)

• End-of-year examination 300 marks

3 tasks 2 tasks 2 tasks

• Source-based task (or essay; learners must do one of each)

• Research assignment (can also be done in the second term)

• Standardised test which includes a source-based section and an essay. (Ideally both sections will be tested at the same time.)

• Essay task (or source-based task; learners must do one of each)

• Mid-year examination (2 papers of 2½ hours) (2 topics from each paper to be covered by June; four questions set in each paper: 2 essays and 2 source-based questions; learners answer 2 questions, 1 essay and 1 source-based question on each paper)

• Standardised test, which includes a source-based section and an essay (ideally, both sections will be tested at the same time)

• September examination (2 papers) • Final external examination

25% of total year mark = 100 marks 75% of total year mark = 300 marks

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WeightingoftheassessmenttasksforGrade12

ASSESSMENT ACTIVITY Weighting Raw marks Converted marks

Mid-year examination 20%2 papers: 100

marks = 200 marks20

September examinations 30%2 papers: 150

marks = 300 marks30

Two standardised tests 2 x 10 %50 marks each =

100 marks20

Research assignment 20% 100 marks 20

Source-based and essay writing tasks (2 x 5%)

50 marks each = 100 marks

Total CASS mark 100

Final Exam mark 300

Total mark 400

4.4.2 Examinations

The suggested format for Grade 10 examinations is as follows.

MID-YEAR AND END-OF-YEAR EXAMINATIONS

Examination Marks

One two-and-a-half-hour (2½) paper mid-year:

Two questions to be answered. Each question counts 50 marks. Learners must answer one essay and one source-based question.

One three-hour paper at the end of the year:

Learners will be required to answer three out of four questions. Each question counts 50 marks, Learners must answer one source-based, one essay and one other question (either essay or source-based).

Topics for the papers will be selected by the teachers.

Topics examined in June need not be repeated for examinations at the end of the year.

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38 CURRICULUM AND ASSESSMENT POLICY STATEMENT (CAPS)

The suggested format for Grade 11 examinations is as follows.

One paper mid-year:

One three-hour paper consisting of at least three questions. Each question counts 50 marks. Learners answer three questions.

Two papers at the end of the year:

The Grade 11 papers will consist of two papers of three hours each. The mark allocation will be 150 for each of the question papers.

Questions are set on all sections. Three questions must be answered in each paper.

Paper 1: 150 marks. Each question counts 50 marks.

Paper 2: 150 marks. Each question counts 50 marks.

In each of the papers, learners must answer one source-based question, one essay question and one other question.

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Format of Grade 12 examinations

This examination includes two papers; each paper has six questions: three source-based questions (one set on each topic) and three essay questions (one set on each topic). Candidates must answer three questions: one source-based question, one essay question and one other question in each paper. Candidates may answer an essay and a source-based question on the same topic.

Allocation of content per question paper

The mark allocation is 50 marks per question, with a total of 150 marks per paper.

SOURCE-BASED QUESTIONS

Question 1 The Cold War: How did the Cold War period shape international relations after the Second World War?

Question focus: Origins, Cold War in Europe and the Cuban crisis

Question 2 Independent Africa: How was independence realised in Africa in the 1960s and 1970s?

Question focus: Africa in the Cold War

Question 3 Civil society protests, 1950s to 1970s: What forms of civil society protest emerged from the 1960s to 1990?

Question focus: Civil rights and Black Power movements

Question 4 The Cold War: How did the Cold War period shape international relations after the Second World War?

Question focus: China and Vietnam (candidates to choose one)

Question 5 Independent Africa: How was independence realised in Africa in the 1960s and 1970s?

Question focus: Successes and challenges faced by the Congo and Tanzania

Question 6 Civil society protests from the 1950s to the 1970s: What forms of civil society protest emerged from the 1960s to 1990?

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40 CURRICULUM AND ASSESSMENT POLICY STATEMENT (CAPS)

Question 1 Civil resistance, 1970s to 1980s: What forms of civil society protest emerged from the 1960s to 1990?

Question focus: The challenge of Black Consciousness in the 1970s

Question 2 The coming of democracy in South Africa and South Africans coming to terms with the past: How did South Africa emerge as a democracy from the crises of the 1990s and come to terms with the Apartheid past?

Question focus: Negotiated settlement and the TRC

Question 3 The end of the Cold War and a new world order: How has the world changed since the 1960s?

Question focus: A new global world order

ESSAY QUESTION

Question 4 Civil resistance, 1970s to 1980s: What forms of civil society protest emerged from the 1960s to 1990?

Question focus: The crisis of Apartheid in the 1980s and nature of resistance

Question 5 The coming of democracy in South Africa, and South Africans coming to terms with the past: How did South Africa emerge as a democracy from the crises of the 1990s, and how did South Africans come to terms with the Apartheid past?

Question focus: Negotiated settlement and government of national unity

Question 6 The end of the Cold War and a new world order: How has the world changed since the 1960s?

Question focus: The end of the Cold War and the events of 1989

Assessment of essay questions

Essays must have a formal structure that includes an introduction, which introduces the point of view or the explanation; a main body, which develops an argument; and a conclusion. Credit will be given for this structure. Candidates will be asked to discuss explain or assess the accuracy of a statement, or to express an opinion.

Candidates will be assessed on their ability to

• demonstrate thorough knowledge and understanding of the topic; use relevant information to answer the question;

• plan and structure an essay;

• use evidence to support an argument;

• develop and sustain an independent and well-balanced argument; and

• write logically, coherently and chronologically

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4.4.3 Global assessment of essays

PRESENTATION

LEVEL 7Well-planned and structured essay. Good synthesis of information. Developed an original, well-balanced and independent line of argument with the use of evidence, sustained and defended the argument throughout.

LEVEL 6Well-planned and struc-tured essay. Relevant line of argument. Evidence used to defend the argument.

LEVEL 5Well-planned and structured essay. Developed a clear argument. Conclusions drawn from evidence. Independent conclusion. Evidence used to support the conclusion.

LEVEL 4Planned and constructed an argument. Evidence used to support argument. Conclusions reached based on evidence.

LEVEL 3Shows some evidence of a planned and constructed argument. Attempts to sustain a line of argument. Conclusions not clearly supported by evidence.

LEVEL 2Attempts to structure an answer. Largely descriptive, or some attempt at developing and argument.

LEVEL1Little or no attempt to structure the essay.

LEVEL 7Question has been fully answered. Content selection fully relevant to line with argument.

47 - 50 43 - 46

LEVEL 6Question has been answered. Content selection relevant to the line of argument.

43 - 46 40 - 42 38 - 39

LEVEL 5Question answered to a great extent. Content adequately covered and relevant.

38 - 39 36 - 37 34 - 35 30 - 33

LEVEL 4Question is recognisable in answer. Some omissions or irrelevant content selection.

30 - 33 28 - 29 26 - 27

LEVEL 3Content selection does relate to the question, but does not answer it, or does not always relate to the question. Omissions in coverage.

26 - 27 24 - 25 20 - 23

LEVEL 2Question inadequately addressed. Sparse content.

20 - 23 18 - 19 15 - 17

LEVEL 1Question inadequately addressed or not at all.Inadequate or irrelevant content.

15 - 17 0 - 13

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42 CURRICULUM AND ASSESSMENT POLICY STATEMENT (CAPS)

4.4.4 Assessment of source-based questions

Sources will be grouped around a key question. The context of the sources will be provided so that learners can use the sources to answer questions. Contextualisation includes the author or creator of the source, the title of the publication in which the source appeared, and the date and place of publication. Learners will therefore have the information to enable them to discuss the reliability or usefulness of each source. All people in cartoons or photographswillbeidentified.Eachsourcewillbeasinglesource;nosourceswillbecombinedintoacompositesource.

Candidates will be assessed on their ability to:

• demonstrate thorough knowledge and understanding of the topic;

• extract information from sources;

• interpret information from sources;

• identify and compare different perspectives within sources and between sources;

• explain the different perspectives within the sources in the context of the period studied;

• draw conclusions about the reliability and usefulness of sources; and

• synthesise information from a range of sources.

4.4.5 Guidelines for Grade 12 examination papers

Format of the question paper: Example

There are two question papers. Each question paper consists of the question paper and an addendum containing sources. Each paper has six questions: three source-based questions and three essay questions. Learners must answer three questions: one source-based, one essay and one other question. Learners may answer two questions on the same topic.

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HISTORY PAPER 1 MARKS: 150 TIME: 3 HOURS

Instructions and information

1. This question paper consists of SIX (6) questions

Questions 1 and 4

The Cold War: How did the Cold War period shape international relations after the Second World War?

Questions 2 and 5

Independent Africa: How was independence realised in Africa in the 1960s and 1970s?

Questions 3 and 6

Civil society protests, 1950s to 1970s: What forms of civil society protest emerged from the 1960s to 1990?

2. Each question counts 50 marks.

3. Candidates are required to answer THREE questions, ONE (1) source-based question, ONE (1) essay question and ONE (1) other, either an essay or a source-based question.

4. Learners may answer two questions on the same topic.

5. When candidates answer questions, they are required to demonstrate application of knowledge, skills and insight

6. Rewriting of the sources as answers will be to the disadvantage of candidates.

7. Write neatly and legibly.

___________________________________________________________________________________________

SECTION A: SOURCE-BASED QUESTIONS

Question 1: The Cold War - origins, Cold War in Europe and the Cuban Crisis

Question 2: The coming of democracy in South Africa, and coming to terms with the past - The negotiated settlement and the TRC

Question 3: Civil society protests, 1950s to 1970s - civil rights and Black Power movements

SECTION B: ESSAY QUESTIONS

Question 4: Cold War - China or Vietnam

Question 5: Independent Africa - successes and challenges

Question 6: Civil society protests - US civil rights and Black Power movements

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44 CURRICULUM AND ASSESSMENT POLICY STATEMENT (CAPS)

An example of possible source-based questions

In this section, we provide an example of a source-based question.

SECTION A: SOURCE-BASED QUESTIONS - 50 MARKS

1.1 Study Sources 1A, 1B and 1C to answer the following questions:

1.1.1 Refer to Source 1A. What were …? (3)

1.1.2 Read through Source 1B. Why …? (4)

1.1.3 Refer to Sources 1A and 1B. How do these sources differ in.....? (4)

1.1.4 Look carefully at Source 1C. What is the message the cartoonist …? (4)

1.1.5 Towhatextentdoesthecartoonistreflect...?Explainyouranswer. (6)

1.1.6 Inwhatwaysisthecartoonist’sview(Source1C)supportedbytheothertwosources? (6)

1.1.7 It has been argued that ... Comment critically on this argument by referring to Source 1C, as well as your own understanding of the period. (8)

(1.1.5, 1.1.6 and 1.1.7 are examples of a paragraph question.)

1.2 Study Sources 1D and 1E.

1.3 Study Sources 1F and 1G.

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Allocation of content to essay and source-based questions:

Topic Content Question number and type of questions

The Cold War

How did the Cold War period shape international relations after World War II?

The origins of the Cold War (Overview– a broad narrative)

• EndofSecondWorldWar(introduction)–whydidaColdWardevelop?

- Installation of Soviet friendly governments in satellite states

- USA’spolicyofcontainment:TrumanDoctrine;MarshallPlan

- BerlinCrises1949–1961(broadunderstandingofthecrises-overview)

- Opposing Military alliances: NATO and Warsaw Pact (broadly)

• Containment and brinkmanship: the Cuban crisis (as an example of containment and brinkmanship)

• WhowastoblamefortheColdWar?(Interpretation–differingpointsofview–needstobehighlightedintheintroductoryoverviewtoGrades10-12)

PAPER 1Questions 1 and 4

Source-based questions

Extension of the Cold War: case studies

(Either China or Vietnam)

CHINA (examined each year as an alternative to Vietnam)

HowdidChinariseasaworldpowerafter1949?

• Introduction: Establishment of Communist China in 1949: events leading up to 1949 (not examinable)

• Cultural revolution

• Chinese relations with the Soviet Union and the USA from 1949 to 1973 (clash of ideologies more than individual events)

• China’s changing relationships with neighbouring states: Tibet, India,Vietnam, Taiwan

• To what extent was China established as a superpower by the time of Mao’sdeath?

• Explain why China tried to improve relations with the USA after 1970

• Conclusion:impactofChina’seconomicliberalisationonrelationswiththerestoftheworldsinceMao’sdeathuntilpresent.

Essay question

VIETNAM (examined each year as an alternative to China)

HowwasasmallcountrylikeVietnamabletowinawaragainsttheUSA?(1954–1975)?

• Background: overview of the struggle against colonial powers prior to WW2

• Immediate post-war period in Vietnam

Stages in the war:

• 1957–1965StruggleinVietnambetweentheSouthVietnamesearmyandcommunist-trained rebels (also known as the Viet Cong)

• 1965–1969 North Vietnamese-USA struggle (include the nature of theVietnamese war against the USA)

• The War from a Vietnamese and USA perspective

• The War as a world issue

• 1969–1975 USA withdrawal from Vietnam (Impact on USA politics –studentmovements–linktoTopic3)

• Conclusion: How the war is remembered today in the USA and Vietnam?

Page 51: History Grade 10-12

46 CURRICULUM AND ASSESSMENT POLICY STATEMENT (CAPS)

Independent Africa

Whatweretheideasthatinfluencedtheindependentstates

• Forms of government: political ideologies and economies - African Socialist/capitalist/Democratic /one-party states

Comparative Case studies (1960 -1980) as examples: The focus of the case studies is to provide examples of the processes discussed under the successes and challenges of independent Africa. The case studies are not meant to be separately examined.

• Congo (Became a tool of the Cold War)

The successes and challenges faced by the countries:

• The kind of states: their aims/visions (political ideologies)

• Political

- Types of leaders: Lumumba, Mobuto Sese Seko, Nyerere (What are the qualities of a good leader?)

- Legacies of colonialism

- Types of government

- Political stability and instability

- Types of economies (as third world countries)

• Social and cultural

- Benefitsofindependence

- Education

- Africanisation

(ideasthatinfluencedin-dependent states included as introduction to the topic)

• Introduction: how Africa was drawn into the Cold War (Broadly)

• Competingspheresofinfluence:trade,conflict,aid

• Angola: colonialism and independence (Broad overview)

• Outbreak of civil war 1974

• Reasons for and nature of involvement in Angola (USSR, USA, Cuba, China, South Africa)

• Impact on regional stability

• SignificanceoftheBattleofCuitoCuanavale1987/1988

• The changing nature of international relationships after 1989

Page 52: History Grade 10-12

Civil society protests 1950s- 1990s

What forms of civil society protest emerged from the 1960s to 1990

Overview of civil society protests:

• Women’s liberationand feministmovements in the1960sand1970s:amiddle class movement in the industrialised countries.

• Women’sidentityinSouthAfricafromthe1950sto1970s:tradeunionism,workers, their economic role in the rural areas and in the informal sector; as political anti-pass campaigners, initiatives taken within the liberation struggle including the middle class Black Sash

• The peace movements: Disarmament; Students and anti-War movements

• Civil rights movements

Quest ions 3 and 6

SBA (School based as-sessment) Task

Case Study:

The US Civil Rights Movement

• Reasons and origins of Civil Rights Movement in the USA (background information only)

1. Role,impactandinfluenceofMartinLutherKingJr

- Theinfluenceofpassiveresistance(Gandhi)onMartinLutherKing

• Forms protest through civil disobedience: Montgomery bus boycott, sit-ins, marches including to Lincoln Memorial, Birmingham campaign, Selma-Montgomery marches

• School desegregation: case study Little Rock, Arkansas

• Short-term and long-term gains

Black Power Movement

• Reasons for the movement

• Black Panther

• Roles of Stokely Carmichael and Malcolm X

Conclusion: This includes an overview of the progress, if any, that was made towards equality and civil rights by the civil rights and Black Power movements.

Source-based and essay questions

Page 53: History Grade 10-12

48 CURRICULUM AND ASSESSMENT POLICY STATEMENT (CAPS)

Civil Resistance 1970s-1980s: South Africa

What was the nature of resistance by the civil society movements after the 1960s?

Introduction (Not for exam purposes)

• Nature of the apartheid state in the 1970s and 1980s

• Opposition: underground, in prison and in exile

The challenge of Black Consciousness to the apartheid state

• The nature and aims of Black Consciousness

• The role of Steve Biko with the emphasis on his ideas and writing (personal complexesareconfining–peopleempowerthemselves)

• Black Consciousness Movement (BCM)

• BlackConsciousnessat firstperceivedby thegovernmentas inaccordwith apartheid theories of ‘own affairs; the challenge posed by the ideas of Black Consciousness to the state

• The1976Sowetouprising–briefly,relatingtotheinfluenceofBCMonthestudents

The crisis of apartheid in the 1980s

Government attempts to reform apartheid

• The 1982 urban Bantu Authorities Act attempt to give more power to local councillors in the townships; the tricameral system

Internal resistance to reforms

• Growing power of Trade Union Movement from 1973: black workers rediscovered their power of labour; rapidly growing membership; political alliance formed with communities and liberation movements

• Response to Botha’s “reforms”: new methods of mobilisation; labour’s‘rollingmassaction’;masscivicactiontomakethecountryungovernable(role of civics, UDF, Mass Democratic Movement, End Conscription Campaign

• International anti-apartheid movements

- Anti-Apartheid Movements in Britain and Ireland

- Activities of the Movements: sports boycott; cultural boycott; academic boycott; consumer boycott; disinvestment; sanctions; release Mandela campaign

- Support for the anti-apartheid struggle in Africa: Frontline states (Angola.Botswana,Mozambique,Tanzania,ZambiaandZimbabwe)

Beginning of the end

• South African economy in trouble feels the bite of international sanctions, disinvestment and boycotts coinciding with internal mass resistance

• Secret negotiations with the ANC-in-exile and negotiations with Mandela

Essay questions

Page 54: History Grade 10-12

The coming of democ-racy to SA and coming to terms with the past

How did South Africa emerge as a democracy from the crises of the 1990s and come to terms with the apartheid past?

• Beginningofnegotiations1990–1991:Unbanningoforganisations;Debatesaroundnegotiations:talksabouttalks,includingChrisHani’sobjectiontothe talks; CODESA I; Role of the labour movement in negotiations; ANC gives up the armed struggle

• Breakdownofnegotiations:“Whitesonly”referendum(March)–deKlerksolution;Violenceinthe1990s–debatesaroundtheviolence;CODESAbreaks down; Record of Understanding; Joe Slovo and the Sunset Clause

• Multi-party negotiation process resumes: Formal multi-party negotiations resumed inApril;Murder of Chris Hani – significance to the process –date of elections set; ongoing violence; Attempts to derail negotiations; AWB invasion of World Trade Centre; St James Massacre; killing at the Heidelberg Tavern

• Final road to democracy 1994: Violence again - Fall of Mangope and Gqozo and the Bophuthatswana shootings; Inkatha Freedom Party March to Shell House and Shell House Massacre; The Constitution and the Bill of Rights; Freedom Front and IFP join elections; 27 April election; The Government of National Unity

The Truth and Reconciliation Commission

• Various forms of justice: retributive justice and Nuremberg; restorative justice and the TRC.

• Reasons for the TRC

• The debates concerning the TRC

- Positive aspects: TRC as an instrument of reconciliation

- Amnesty provisions and problems with amnesty

- Focus on gross human rights of 1980s and ignoring institutional violence and the whole human rights abuses of apartheid

- Reparations

• Responses of political parties and reasons for the responses to the TRC and the final report of theTRC:NationalParty, InkathaFreedomParty,African National Congress

Page 55: History Grade 10-12

50 CURRICULUM AND ASSESSMENT POLICY STATEMENT (CAPS)

The end of the Cold War and a new global world order

• Gorbachev’sreformsintheSovietUnion

• Eastern Europe

- EventsinPoland–significanceof‘Solidarity’

- SignificanceofeventsinPolandforthedeclineofSovietinfluenceinEastern Europe

- Germany: The fall of the Berlin Wall

• ThedisintegrationoftheSovietUnion:towhatextentwereGorbachev’sreforms responsible?

• Turning point in South Africa: the collapse of the Soviet Union and its impact on SA; Cuito Cuanavale and its impact; De Klerk and the unbanning of organisations and release of political prisoners in 1989 and Nelson Mandela in 1990

• What is globalisation?

• Balance of power and impact on Africa: North-South and South-South relations

• Dominance of global capitalism: USA; Bretton Woods, IMF and World Bank; World Trade Organisation; Civil society resistance to global capitalism; IT revolution

• Emerging economies and different forms of capitalism: BRICS: Brazil. Russia, India, China and South Africa

• South Africa’s success in avoiding outright civil war and PresidentMandela’s policy of reconciliation inspire the world, but the process ofliberationinSouthAfricaisunfinished:

- Challenges of poverty and gross inequality, redress of past injustices, nation building and temptations of a liberation movement in power - the developmental state is one attempt to solve these problems

• Responses to globalisation, heralding an age of economic insecurity: nationalism, localisation (for example, the break up of former Yugoslavia); extremism (for example, religious fundamentalism such as the Christian rightandIslamicfundamentalism-9/11andtheconsequences–thewaron terror, Iraq); environmental movements.

Page 56: History Grade 10-12

4.5 Recording and Reporting

Recordingisaprocessduringwhichtheteacherdocumentsalearner’sperformancelevelinaspecificassessmenttask. The teacher thereby indicates learner progress towards the achievement of the knowledge, as prescribed in the CurriculumandAssessmentPolicyStatements.Recordsofalearner’sperformanceshouldprovideevidenceofhisor her conceptual progression within a grade, as well as his or her readiness to progress or to be promoted to the next grade. Records of learner performance should also be used to verify the progress made by teachers and learners in the teaching and learning process.

Reporting is a process of communicating learner performance to learners, parents, schools and other stakeholders. Learnerperformancecanbereportedinanumberofways,includingreportcards,parents’meetings,schoolvisitationdays, parent-teacher conferences, phone calls, letters and class or school newsletters. Teachers in all grades report in percentages against the subject.

The various achievement levels and their corresponding percentage bands are shown in the table that follows.

4.5.1 Codes and percentages for recording and reporting

Rating code Description of competence Percentage

7 Outstanding achievement 80 - 100

6 Meritorious achievement 70 - 79

5 Substantial achievement 60 - 69

4 Adequate achievement 50 - 59

3 Moderate achievement 40 - 49

2 Elementary achievement 30 - 39

1 Not achieved 0 - 29

Teachers record actual marks against the task by using a record sheet; however, they report percentages against the subjectonthelearners’reportcards.

4.6 Moderation of Assessment

Moderation ensures that the assessment tasks are fair, valid and reliable. Moderation should be implemented at school, district, provincial and national levels. Comprehensive and appropriate moderation practices must be in place for the quality assurance of all subject assessments.

4.6.1 Moderation in history

Moderators should pay particular attention to the instructions for tasks and projects, as well as to the wording of questions in examinations, and they should ask: Is it absolutely clear what learners are expected to do? Can it be explained better? Is there further information that will assist learners to complete the tasks or question? They should also insist that references are provided for all sources used.

The table for the Global Assessment of Essays, which is provided for Grade 12 examinations, should be adapted and used for the marking of all written work and projects in all three grades, whenever possible. If rubrics are used, teachers should ask: Is it necessary to use a rubric, as many tasks and projects can be marked better using a marking scheme? If a rubric is necessary, does it adequately measure the achievement of the task or project?

Page 57: History Grade 10-12

52 CURRICULUM AND ASSESSMENT POLICY STATEMENT (CAPS)

Moderators should ensure that assessment tasks and projects comply with the following:

• Theyincludeinformationaboutwhereandhowlearnersarerealisticallyexpectedtofindinformation

• They warn learners to avoid plagiarism; and

• They provide instructions for how references are to be written

4.7 General

This document should be read in conjunction with:

4.7.1 National policy pertaining to the programme and promotion requirements of the National Curriculum Statement Grades R-12; and

4.7.2 The policy document, National Protocol for Assessment Grades R-12.

Page 58: History Grade 10-12

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Moshoeshoe Essay Exam Guide for History Grade 10

Moshoeshoe Essay Exam Guide for History Grade 10

This page contains Moshoeshoe Essay Exam Guide for History Grade 10 Learners (South Africa):

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In the Essay, candidates should include the following aspects in their response:

Table of Contents

Essay Introduction

Candidates need to explain how Moshoeshoe came to power and led to the Basotho nation or any other relevant introduction.

Body Elaboration Key Points about King Moshoeshoe:

  • Left his father’s home to set up his own chiefdom
  • 1824 – his followers were attacked by the Tlokoa
  • Forced to flee to Thaba Mosiu
  • His chiefdom began to grow
  • Gave them land
  • By 1840 – had 40 000 followers
  • Faced various challenges from Griqua and the Koras, white trekboers and Voortrekkers, missionaries and the British
  • 1843 – Moshoeshoe concluded a treaty with the British governor – agreed on a border for the Sotho kingdom
  • British went against the treaty
  • Led to fighting between the British and the Sotho
  • Twice the Sotho defeated the British
  • Bloemfontein Convention signed
  • British gave up their land to the Voortrekkers
  • Led to a series of wars between the OFS and the Sotho
  • More wars continued
  • Moshoeshoe asked British for protection
  • 1868 – Moshoeshoe agreed that the Sotho kingdom could become a British colony called Basutoland
  • Any other relevant response

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History Grade 10 - Topic 6 Contextual Overview

 A. The Mineral Revolution ↵

In this section we will briefly discuss the discovery of gold in the Witwatersrand and the Gold Rush.  We will also discuss how the mining industry developed and how the discovery of gold in the Witwatersrand impacted the area and all of its inhabitants.  These impacts are important to understand as it gives one an insight of how some economic, social and political divisions were created and how this impacted the future generations.

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This Section is divided into the following discussion points:

  • Discovery of Gold in the Witwatersrand
  • The Development of the Mining Industry
  • Foreign Investors and Mining Companies
  • Deep Level Mining
  • Impact of the Discovery
  • Urbanization
  • The Migrant Labour System
  • Emergence of Classes
  • The South African War

1. Discovery of Gold in the Witwatersrand:

During the late 19th century, various gold strikes (discovery of gold) occurred in areas in America, Australia, Asia and southern Africa. [1]   However, the discovery of gold in the Witwatersrand in 1886 was arguably one of the most significant discoveries as it supplied a great portion of the World’s gold in the 19th and early 20th centuries. [2]   The first gold reef in the Witwatersrand was discovered by a man called George Harrison. [3]   Harrison was travelling between a farm called Wilgespruit and a farm called Langlaagte to visit a friend, George Walker.  On his way, Harrison found an outcrop of rock and after crushing the rock, he discovered a “tail of gold”. [4]   This outcrop turned out to be a part of the reef that was later called the “Main Reef” and turned out to set off the beginning of the South African “Gold Rush” in 1886. [5]   The gold fields in the Transvaal colony and surrounding area was the “largest single producer of gold in the world”. [6]

2. The Development of the Mining Industry

2.1 Foreign Investors and Mining Companies

When speaking about investment and capital surrounding the early gold-mining industry of Johannesburg, it is important to keep in mind that the world’s largest source of diamonds was discovered in Kimberley in 1866.  This event set off the ‘diamond rush’ of South African in the 1870’s and meant that a mass number of diggers and investors were already attracted to the northern parts of South Africa.  A prime example of an investor is De Beers South Africa, which was owned by Cecil John Rhodes and became the largest diamond producer and distributor in the world. [7]   Furthermore, there were large coal deposits in Natal (which at the time, was one of the neighboring colonies of the Transvaal).  Consequently, the fact that the discovery of gold and diamonds happened so narrowly apart, as well as the added availability of large coal deposits in neighboring areas, meant that there was an increasing economic and politic interest in these areas. [8]  

The fact that diamonds were discovered only a decade before gold, also meant that there were working structures already in place that could support the knowledge, skill and investment required to manage and develop successful mining companies.  For example, when news reached Cecil John Rhodes in Kimberley in July 1886, other diamond investors decided to diversify their funds and invest in the gold mining industry as well.  Consequently, the first large gold mining company was formed in September 1886 and by 1888 there were approximately forty-four companies in the gold mining industry. [9]   By 1899 there was approximately £75 millions of foreign investment. [10]

2.2 Deep-Level Mining

When the larger gold reefs were first discovered, it was thought that the gold-bearing conglomerates were relatively shallow and close to the surface.  However, there was a sudden realization that these conglomerates sunk deep below the Rand’s surface. [11]   Although some companies decided to continue mining the shallower outcrops, it became evident that the production and great turn-over resided with the deep-level mining projects. [12]   These deep-mining companies required a large sum of investment as they required shafts, machinery and explosives to access the gold in the rocks.  Interestingly, these companies also had to use certain chemicals to treat the gold out of the stone. [13]

3. Impact of the Discovery of Gold in the Witwatersrand:

The discovery of gold on the Witwatersrand occurred more than a decade after the discovery of diamond in Kimberley in 1870.  This was also the largest source of diamonds in the world at the time. [14]   The discovery of gold also went hand-in-hand with the discovery of large coal deposits in the Natal colony, consequently setting off a “tripartite” discovery of resources which would eventually impacted the entire political, economic and social organization of South Africa. [15]   Some of these impacts will be briefly discussed in the sub-sections below.

3.1 Urbanization and the Beginning of the City of Johannesburg

Before the major gold reefs was discovered on the Witwatersrand in 1886, there were approximately only 600 white farmers in the region. [16]   However, the discovery sparked a mass migration of thousands of young men and within less than a year after the discovery approximately 7000 people were in the region. [17]   Approximately a decade after the discovery of gold on the Witwatersrand, 75 000 citizens from the United Kingdom immigrated to South Africa. [18]   This number also includes numerous other tented mining camps that sprung up in proximity to other discoveries and sources of small bodies of water. [19]   For example, in the Eastern side of the area small mines (followed by small settlements) started developing, leading to the further development of areas such as Springs, Brakpan and Benoni.  Similarly, in the Western parts of ‘the Rand’ mining towns such as Roodepoort, Krugersdorp and Randfontein developed. [20]   These smaller satellites (smaller cluster of towns) started merging into bigger areas (conurbations), which eventually led to the foundation of the City of Johannesburg on 4 October 1886. [21]   This gold rush led to an absolute influx of people including gold diggers, mining-capitalists and prospectors – leading to Johannesburg quickly becoming one of the youngest major cities in the world and the only major city that was not in close proximity to a large body of water. [22]

history grade 10 essays pdf download term 3

3.2 The Migrant Labour System

The workers that flocked to the Witwatersrand were predominantly from rural areas and were classified as “temporary workers”. [23]   They were regarded as “temporary workers” because the Political and Mining authorities of southern Africa created a labour system that focused on bringing cheaper labour from rural areas in southern Africa. [24]   These workers came from various areas all over Africa which included: areas within the South African borders, men from independent territories such as Botswana, Lesotho and Swaziland and then men who were from other countries such as Mozambique, Angola, Zambia and Tanzania. [25]   This Migrant Labour System can be classified as a rotary system  that meant that workers were employed for 18 month contracts and had no certainty of whether their contracts would be extended or not – hence why they were referred to as temporary workers. [26]   After their 18 months expired, these workers had to migrate back to their areas of origin.  These workers were convinced to take mining jobs because they had to pay “hut tax” that was enforced in 1884 and at this time mining was the most ‘stable’ source of income as the rural lands were relatively unproductive compared to other areas that were reserved for the ‘Europeans’. [27]  

The Witwatersrand Labour Organization and the Native Recruiting Corporation

This system was officially implemented as early as 1900 when the recruitment Centre, “The Witwatersrand Labour Organization” (WNLA) was authorized to recruit workers from various rural areas. [28]   The WNLA was especially used during the remainder of the South African War.  The South African War had an interesting impact on the Migrant Labour cycle, as it caused the near shutdown of most mines which in return meant that thousands of young black men found themselves jobless in a foreign country and were forced to return to their homes. [29]   Consequently, the labour shortage meant that the WNLA had to find other ways to supply Mining Companies with workers.  Therefore, in 1904 a Chinese Immigrant Labour system was introduced, but was short-lived as by 1910 the last Chinese worker left the country. [30]   Another recruiting agency, the “Native Recruitment Corporation” (NRC), was started in 1912. [31]   It is worth mentioning that in 1977 these two recruitment agencies merged to form the “Employment Bureau of Africa (TEBA), which is currently responsible for recruiting South African mine workers. [32]  

Reasons for the Migrant Labour System

There are a few reasons why this Migrant Labour System was implemented by both the Government and the Mining Companies.  Firstly, permanent residence was prohibited by the government as they aspired to keep the races separate. [33]   Therefore, most workers were simply placed in informal camps that could easily be separated by race.  This method of separation is regarded as a significant front-runner of the regulations and policies that were later implemented in the Apartheid years. [34]   Secondly, the Mining Companies also benefited greatly from this system as they were absolved from providing long-term care for workers and therefore, sparing costs and capitalizing on the circular migrant labour system. [35]   Unfortunately this meant that thousands of mine-workers passed away from diseases such as tuberculosis, pneumonia and “diarrheal diseases”. [36]  

Impact of the Migrant Labour System

 The Migrant Labour System implemented on the gold mines had various significant impacts on the development and structure of South Africa.  One of the main impacts was that this Labour System could be regarded as a forerunner for Apartheid.  The Labour System made it incredibly easy to keep races apart and to enforce segregation on various groups.  Furthermore, by only temporarily allowing non-white races to enter “white areas” most black South Africans were forced to remain in a rural-based economic position. [37]   Consequently, a deep Economic Class structure developed due to the Migrant Labour System.  This will be discussed in more detail below.

The Migrant Labour System also had a profound effect on certain social aspects and dynamics of the mine workers.  For example, most of these men (of all races) were usually forced to live in single-sex hostels and were only able to visit their families on certain occasions. [38]   Women were left to till the farms and raise their families alone.  Furthermore, because there were very few women on the mining properties, a significant amount of men turned to the use of prostitution and in many cases turned to alcohol and substance abuse. [39]

The Maximum Average Wage System

As briefly, discussed above, the Migrant Labour System played a significant role on the development and systems put in place by the Gold Mining Companies and Chamber of Mines – especially in the sense that it dictated most of the profit and income that could be made off of mining gold.  Therefore, in 1913 the state and the Chamber of Mines developed and enforced a system that prohibited mining companies from increasing their wages in order to “lure workers away” from other companies. [40]   This meant that family dynamics were significantly broken up and men became relatively irrelevant on the rural lands. [41]

3.3 Emergence of Classes

Capitalists:

The “Capitalist” Class is also referred to as the “entrepreneurial” class.  This class predominantly consisted of the Uitlanders that migrated from Britain. [42]   These entrepreneurs mostly consisted of Uitlanders because most of the Boers or Afrikaaners did not have the capital or knowledge to invest into the gold mining industry at the time. [43]   This was significantly due to the effects of the South African War.  The Scorched Earth Policy and Concentration Camp systems (which will be discussed in much more detail in the article below) implemented by British officials meant that the Boers did not have the financial stability to become big investors post-war.  Many of them Afrikaaners employed as semi-skilled workers.

Middle Class:

The ‘Middle Class’ consisted if the mining specialists and semi-skilled miners.  As mentioned above, the semi-skilled miners were usually of Afrikaaner demographic.  This was also not by accident; these positions were reserved for white South Africans.  Because the Afrikaaners did not necessarily have the capital to fall in the ‘Entrepreneural’ category or had the skills to be occupy specialist categories, the skilled job opportunities were reserved for the white Afrikaaners.  This was officially enforced by legislation known as “Job Reserveation’. [47]  

The Afrikaaners came from rural farms, where some of them also spoke languages such isiZulu and seTswana which enabled a communication link between the Mining Capitalists and the ‘unskilled labourers’. [48]   The skilled-labourers were permitted to stay in the white housed areas near the mines.

Mineworkers:

The mineworkers were classified as the ‘unskilled’ class and consisted of the black Africans that were recruited by organizations such as WNLA and NRC.  These mine workers were required to attain the gold from the reefs that were situated thousands of meters into the earth. [49]   These labourers were temporarily housed in same-sex hostels on the mining the mining properties. [50]   As briefly mentioned above, these miners were subjected to a Maximum Wage System which meant that these miners only earned a certain salary with no hopes of earning more.  Consequently, these workers remained in a lower economic standing than that of the English and Afrikaans-speaking white South Africans. 

3.4 The South African War

Before discussing how the discovery of gold led to the outbreak of the South African War, it is extremely important to note that there are various causes for the South African War.  These causes are discussed in more detail in the article below.  However, for the sake of discussing the mineral revolution, it is important to understand how the discovery of gold led to one of the biggest wars in Southern African History.  In a broader sense the outbreak of the war was caused due to increasing tension between the independent Boer States (the Transvaal and the Orange Free State) and the British Colonial Powers.  One of the causes of this tension was the Transvaal government’s policies concerning Uitlander (predominantly English-speaking prospectors in the Transvaal) franchise. [51]   It is important to take note that the Witwatersrand is located in the Transvaal, which at the time was one of the Boer Independent Republics.  Although the policy surrounding franchise affected only a few of the Uitlanders, as they were simply in the Transvaal to mine for gold, the British officials felt it necessary to change the policy in the hope of achieving of a long-term goal – which was to gain more political control over the Transvaal and it’s gold minds and neighbouring diamond mines.  For a more detailed explanation as well as causes, please refer to the sub-sections below.

 B. The South African War (1899-1902) ↵

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In this Article we will discuss the following:

  • The Build-up to the South African War (1899-1902)
  • The South African War (1899-1902) and its various phases
  • The Scorched Earth Policy
  • The Concentration Camps used during the War by the British
  • The Role and Experience of Black South Africans during the War
  • The End of the War and its Peace Negotiations

1. The Build-up to the South African War (1899-1902):

When discussing the build-up to the South African War (1899-1902), it is important to understand that there were various causes that led to the outbreak of the war.  Some of these occurrences or causes occurred in the first few decades of the 19th century. Furthermore, these causes are still debated today, much like they were debated throughout the South African War itself. [52]   It is in this regard that one should understand that it is beneficial to note that the conflict between the British and the Boers started well before the outbreak of the South African War of 1899-1902 and that one should have a brief background of the general relationship and occurrences between the British and the Boers since the start of the 19th century.  Therefore, this conflict, as well as the factors leading up to the war, will briefly be discussed in the article below.

Early Conflict between the British Settlers and the Dutch-Speaking Farmers:

As briefly mentioned above, the conflict between the Boers and the British started well before the South African War.  This conflict started shortly after circa 1795 when the British arrived in the Cape Colony in southern Africa and started to colonize the area. [53]   When the British started to colonize, expand their influence in the area and implement British rule, the area was already predominantly inhabited by Dutch-speaking farmers. [54]   Consequently, increasing tension occurred between the rural descendants of the Dutch Settlers and the British rules implemented in the Cape Colony. [55]   Tension significantly rose due to the gradual forced anglicization (changing of spoken or written elements of another language to English) of the Colony, the gradual emancipation of slaves that occurred in the 1830’s and the need for independence from the British due to fundamental divergence between the two groups. [56]   Therefore, in the attempts to gain independence from British Rule in the Cape Colony, approximately 14 000 Boers left in a series of groups (with an almost equal number of mix-raced dependents) and trekked to the interior of southern Africa in what is called the Great Trek. [57]

As the Voortrekkers (Dutch-speaking ‘pioneers’ that participating in the Great Trek) started making their way to the interior of southern Africa and crossing the Orange River, they started to divide into various groups with different destinations and ideals.  One group of Voortrekkers settled in Natal, but were forced to re-join the other Voortrekkers after the British annexation of Natal in 1843. [58]   The other two groups settled and established the independent Boer Republics of Transvaal (which was known as the Zuid-Afrikaansche Republic) and the Orange Free State in 1852 and 1854, respectively. [59]   These two establishments of the two independent republics was recognized by Great Britain in said years at the Sand River and Bloemfontein conventions respectively. [60]   It is also after the establishment of the Republics where the word “Boers” was significantly used to refer to the Dutch-speaking farmers that settled in the two republics. [61]

For several years, the Boers were able to keep relative independence from British Rule in the Cape Colony.  However, with the discovery of diamonds in the late 1860’s, the British started to expand their influence and control into the interior of southern Africa with the annexation of Basutoland in 1868. [62]   Furthermore, the 4th Earl of Carnarvon, Henry Herbert (who was also appointed the Secretary of State for the Colonies), along with the British Government wanted to form a confederation of all British colonies, independent Boer Republics and all independent African groups in southern Africa under British rule in a surge for neo-imperialism. [63]   With this aspect in mind, it should also be mentioned that the Boer Republic in the Transvaal was relatively politically and economically unstable.  For example, the war between the Boers and the Pedi in North-Eastern Transvaal caused extremely high, and in many cases unaffordable, taxes that the burgers (Boer people) could not pay. [64]  

Therefore, when Sir Theophilus Shepstone and 25 supporting British men arrived in the Transvaal on 22 January 1877, they  managed to eventually annex the Transvaal on 12 April 1877 without enforcing any aggressive action. [65]   However, although the annexation of the Transvaal  was initially met with non-violence from the Boers, the majority of Boer were dissatisfied and attempting to resort back to an independent republic.  This dissatisfaction grew and after various attempts and pleas to remain an independent republic, in November 1880 the first open conflict between the Boers and the British occurred in Potchefstroom – leading to the almost inevitable, Anglo-Boer War of 1880-1881 (or also known as, the Transvaal Rebellion).

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The First Anglo-Boer War (1880-1881)

The first open conflict that occurred between the British and the Boers in November 1880 that set off the beginning of the Transvaal Rebellion, was due to P.L. Bezuidenhout, refusing to pay “extra” taxes on his wagon as he claimed that he already paid taxes to the British colonial office. [66]   This act of refusal caused the British to confiscate Bezuidenhout’s wagon and decided to auction the wagon off. [67]   The auctioning of the wagon was put to an end when a group of Boers rebelled and claimed the vehicle by dragging it away and returning it to Bezuidenhout.  Following the event, the British requested that the 58th Regiment return to the Transvaal to depict a sense that rebellion would not be tolerated. [68]   Unfortunately for the British in the Transvaal, the majority of British militant aid was heavily preoccupied by the Cape Colony with the outbreak of the Gun War between British Colonialists and Basutoland (now Lesotho, who gained independence from the British crown in 1966). [69]

On 8 December 1880, approximately 10 000 Boers gathered at Paardekraal, near Krugersdorp where a triumvirate of leaders; Paul Kruger ,  Piet Joubert  and M. W. Pretorius were appointed.  On 13 December 1880 the leaders proclaimed the restoration of the Transvaal Republic and three days later raised their Vierkleur flag at Heidelberg, thus rejecting British authority. [70]   Thereafter, four significant battles and sieges took place during the First Anglo-Boer War.  The Boers issued terms of a truce on 14 March 1881 and on 30 March they received confirmation that it had been accepted.  After peace had been negotiated a British royal commission was appointed to draw up the Transvaal’s status and new borders. These decisions were confirmed and formalized at the Pretoria Convention that took place on 3 August 1881. [71]   This convention meant that although the Transvaal was to be an Independent Republic, the Transvaal would be kept a state under British suzerainty (which means that Britain retained some control over the foreign affairs and internal legislation of the ‘independent’ Boer Republic. [72]   These conditions were deemed unacceptable by the Boers and therefore, in 1883 the new President of the Transvaal, Paul Kruger, left for London to review the initial terms of the Pretoria Convention. [73]

Consequently, in 1884 the London Convention was signed. The Transvaal was given a new western border and adopted the name of the Zuid-Afrikaanse Republiek (ZAR). Although the word suzerainty did not appear in the London Convention, the ZAR still had to get permission from the British government for any treaty entered into with any other country other than the Orange Free State. The Boers saw this as a way for the British government to interfere in Transvaal affairs and this led to tension between Britain and ZAR. [74]   It is important to note that the word “suzerainty” is significantly important when discussing the reasons for the outbreak of the South African War of 1899.  This is mainly due to the conflict that will increase between the British and the Boers after the discovery of gold in 1886.

The Discovery of Gold in 1886:

After the discovery of gold on the Witwatersrand in 1886, the Transvaal became a significant political and economic threat to British and their fight for the expansion of supremacy in southern Africa. [75]   This is mainly due to the Transvaal-government’s policies concerning the accessibility to the newly found goldfields.  For example, in 1890 the Transvaal’s government, led by President Kruger, decided to restrict the franchise of those who were considered Uitlanders (predominantly English-speaking prospectors in the Transvaal). [76]   Consequently, only citizens who have stayed in the Transvaal for 14 years were able to vote in upcoming presidential and Volksraad elections.  Although, this effected very few Uitlanders (as they were only interested in access to the gold mines), this decision increased negative sentiments between the British and the Transvaal. [77]   Furthermore, the Transvaal’s government implemented various concessions on the accessibility of mining activities, which led to increasing conflict between the British and the Transvaal.

One of the biggest wedges between the two groups, was the decision of the Transvaal government to increase rates on the part of the newly completed railway that ran through the Transvaal’s territory. [78]   The British answered this demonstration by transporting goods to the Vaal River and then using wagons to the Transvaal in order to avoid paying taxes.  Consequently, the Transvaal blocked access to their territory by closing the drifts. [79]   In addition to the Drift crisis , the Kruger government had been putting pressure on the mining companies in the form of taxes, and they maintained monopolies over items such as the dynamite needed for deep-level blasting. [80]   This caused British businessman and imperialist, Cecil John Rhodes , and his associate, Dr Leander Starr Jameson, to begin planning an uprising of Uitlanders in Johannesburg, and the Reform Movement in an attempt to overthrow the government by taking up arms. [81]   Joseph Chamberlain (British statesman, colonial administrator and politician) also played a significant role in the conspiracy to overthrow the Boer government with an uprising as he was in communication with Rhodes during the planning of the uprising. [82]   This uprising is known as the Jameson Raid and plays an extremely important role in the build-up to the South African War.

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The Jameson Raid:

The raid was launched on 29 December 1895, when Jameson and armed forces crossed the border from Bechuanaland (Botswana). Jameson, however, had been too hasty.  Earlier, while Jameson waited on the border, the Uitlander leaders in Johannesburg were arguing among themselves about the kind of government to be put into place after the invasion.  Many of the Uitlanders had no interest in violent uprising.  Consequently, Rhodes decided to call off the raid, but by that time it was too late as Jameson and his party had already crossed into the Transvaal.  Communication was lacking and plans were botched when all telegraph lines were not cut as had been planned.  Consequently, the Boers received warning of the attack and knew where to find Jameson’s troops before they reached Johannesburg.  Jameson was forced to surrender on 2 January 1896 at Doornkop near Krugersdorp. The raid had been a failure. [83]  

The prisoners were handed over to their own government and the Uitlander leaders who had been part of the plot were put to trial in Johannesburg.  Some of them were condemned to death, but the sentences were later reduced to large fines.  Rhodes was forced to resign as the premier of the Cape Colony and the political problems between Afrikaans and English-speaking people became worse than ever in the colony.  Although the British Imperial officials have been discussing the eventual overthrow of the Transvaal Government well before the events of the Jameson Raid, the Jameson Raid made it overtly (openly) clear of British intentions and sentiments towards the Boer Republics. [84]   It is important to understand the dynamics between British and Boer as it gives one an important perspective of the build-up to the South African War.

Opposing sympathies from Britain:

After the occurrences of the Jameson Raid, Chamberlain began to openly voice his frustrations over the Boer control of the Transvaal and the possible loss of British supremacy in the northern parts of southern Africa. [85]   Alongside this, there was a separation in Britain between those who were sympathetic of the idea of an independent Boer State and Nation and those who supported the idea of a war between Britain and the Boers to secure British imperial power over southern Africa. [86]   To gain a better understanding of the opposing sides, one can used the petitions that were signed during this time as an example.  In 1899, 21 000 Uitlanders signed a petition against Kruger’s rule in the Transvaal.  This petition was countered by 23 000 signatures from Uitlanders who were in support of Kruger and a non-war resolution. [87]   With this in mind, it becomes evident that there was a clear faction between those who wanted to get rid of Boer rule by means of a war and those who did not want a war and were content with Boer rule over the Transvaal.

An Ultimatum:

By September, Chamberlain had persuaded the British cabinet to accept the prospect of war.  He drafted an ultimatum and reinforcements sailed for South Africa.  Chamberlain increased the number of British troops stationed in South Africa.  By October 1899 20,000 troops were stationed in Natal and the Cape, and more troops were on the way. [88]   On 9 October an ultimatum was handed over to a British agent that stated that the British were to remove their troops that were stationed at the Transvaal border. [89]   However, from a British perspective, because the Boers refused to grant franchise to the Uitlanders nor granting civil rights to the African Natives; [90] the British continued to build up forces and on 11 October the British rejected the ultimatum as presented by the Boers and war was declared.

2. The South African War (1899-1902) and its phases

A Brief Overview of the War

The South African War occurred from 11 October to 31 May 1902.  The war is more appropriately referred to as the “South African War” instead of the “Second Anglo-Boer War” because the war’s participants not only included British and Boer soldiers, but also thousands of black South Africans, as well as thousands of soldiers from British contingents such as Canada, Australia, Ireland and New Zealand.  The South African War was also known as one of the largest wars of its time as it featured approximately 500 000 British soldiers, 88 000 Boers, approximately 10 000 black men accompanying the Boers and approximately 100 000 black men accompanied the British during the war. [91]

The war also represented a foreshadowing of what modern warfare in the 20th century would look like.  For example, both the Boers and the British made use of modern weaponry such as machine guns (Maxine gun), quick-firing rifles with magazines and new types of explosive with a wider range of damage (lyddite). [92]   The war is also significantly known for the Boer’s method of warfare, namely “guerrilla warfare”, which is to become a key method of warfare in other wars such as the First World War and Vietnam War. [93]   The war is also significantly known for the British’s use of concentration camps to imprison thousands of Boer civilians (mainly women and children ), as well as thousands of black South Africans .  These topics will be discussed in more detail throughout this article.

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The Phases of the War

  • The Boer Offensive:

The South African War consisted of three main phases.  The first phase is called the “Boer Offensive” and is characterized by the success of Boer soldiers with their sudden and unexpected offensives against the British soldiers. [94]   These successful sieges against the British occurred in Ladysmith, Mafeking and Kimberley and later at Stormberg, Magersfontein, Colenso and Spionkop – which marked a week that the British referred to as “Black Week” (10 to 15 December 1899). [95]   The victories over the British soldiers during “Black Week” marks a significant turning point in the trajectory of the war, as these ‘humiliation’ defeats (as British media portrayed it) greatly influenced the British’s decision to replace General Buller with Major-General Lord Kitchener on 16 December 1889. [96]   This factor is significant as Kitchener played a pivotal role in deciding to use the Scorched Earth Policy and Concentration Camps in the attempt to secure victory over the Boers.

  • The British Offensive:

After “Black Week” the British decided to send for extensive reinforcements.  The second phase of warfare is called “The British Offensive” and is characterized by the British success over the Boer soldiers.  On 10 January 1890 thousands of British soldiers, alongside Lord Kitchener and Lord Robert arrived in the Cape Colony. [97]   These imperial troops eventually relieved towns such as Ladysmith and Kimberley (freeing Joseph Chamberlain who was trapped in siege in Kimberley for approximately 124 days) in February and Mafeking in May. [98] Furthermore, on 13 March Lord Roberts occupied Bloemfontein and formally annexed the Orange Free State by renaming it the Orange River Colony. [99]   On the 31 May, the British entered Johannesburg and managed to conquer Pretoria on 5 June.  The Transvaal was officially annexed by the British Crown and British Colonial Secretary Joseph Chamberlain announced that “the war is over”. [100]   Unfortunately, this was far from the truth and the war would still continue for almost two years.

  • Guerrilla Warfare:

After the annexation of Bloemfontein and Pretoria, approximately 14 000 Boers decided to lay down their arms and surrender to the British forces. [101]   These Boers were referred to as hensoppers (surrenderers) by other Boers and were referred to as “protected Burghers” by the British.  Another faction of these Boers was referred to as verraaiers and represented the faction of Boers who did not only give up their arms but decided to join the British troops in hopes of ending the war.  The Boers that decided to not give up their arms, were referred to as the bittereinders (fighting to the bitter end).  The bittereinders were led by Boer generals such as Louis Botha , Christiaan de Wet , Jan Smuts and Jacobus de la Ray . [102]  

This phase is referred to as the Guerrilla Warfare phase because the bittereinders used tactics such as dividing into smaller groups and used these groups to capture supplies, sabotage British communication and transportation, as well as initiating various raids. [103]   Because these groups were so small and familiar with the terrain, they were able to evade British capture.  In response, Kitchener initially decided to place rolls of barbed wire and numerous blockhouses across the railways in the attempt to restrict the movement of the Boers. [104]   Approximately, 8 000 blockhouses were set up. [105]   However, when this method failed to put a stop to the bittereinders, Lord Roberts turned to the “Scorched Earth Policy”. 

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3. The Scorched Earth Policy

Lord Roberts issued a proclamation on 16 June 1900, stating that, for every attack on a railway line the closest homestead would be burnt down.  This was the start of the scorched earth policy.  When this didn’t work, Roberts issued another proclamation in September stating that all homesteads would be burnt in a radius of 16 km of any attack, and that all livestock would be killed or taken away and all crops destroyed.  This policy was intensified dramatically when Lord Kitchener took over from Roberts as commander in November 1900.  Homesteads and whole towns were burnt down even if there was no attack on any railway.  In this way almost all Boer homesteads – about 30 000 in all – were razed to the ground and thousands of livestock killed.  The two republics were entirely devastated. [106]

Meanwhile the Boer leaders were reorganizing their commandos after some major setbacks. One action was to remobilize the Boers who had laid down their arms.  Roberts felt he should protect his oath takers and gather them in refugee camps. The first two were established in Bloemfontein and Pretoria in September 1900.  But the scorched earth policy had led to more and more Boer women and children being left homeless. Roberts decided to bring them into the camps too. They were called the “undesirables” – families of Boers who were still on commando or already prisoners of war. [107]   These camps are what is known as the concentration camps of the South African War.

4. The Concentration Camps

When Lord Kitchener took over from Lord Roberts, Kitchener decided to expand on Roberts’ concentration camp system.  Kitchener did this so that the Boers who were still on commando (bittereinders) could not receive any supplies, food or weapons from the farms.  Kitchener also hoped that these Boers would eventually surrender as they would be reunited with their families again. [108]   Due to poor administration (low quality in food, unhygienic living conditions and inadequate medical care), approximately 28 000 Boer women and children died. [109]   These deaths were a combination of malnutrition, illness and brute force.  It is also very important to mention that there were also separate concentration camps for black South Africans (which will be discussed in detail in the following chapter), where approximately 20 000 black South Africans died. [110]

Towards the end of 1900, the poor conditions of the concentration camps started to reach the British public and especially the liberal party.  This news also reached philanthropist Emily Hobhouse and drove her to attempt to find ways to relieve the Boer women and children in the British concentration camps. [111]   Hobhouse decided to set up the Relief Fund for South African Women and Children, which was aimed to provide the Boer women and children with provisions such as food and clothing. [112]   After visiting the concentration camps herself and witnessing first-hand the poor conditions in which the women and children were living, Hobhouse decided to advocate for better living conditions to the British administration at these camps.  Unfortunately, the British were desperate in their attempts to end this costly war and Hobhouse’s requests were ignored or denied. 

Hobhouse decided to travel back to Britain and advocate for the improvement of conditions in these concentration camps.  Hobhouse reported to structures such as the liberal opposition of the British government, as well as other organizations. [113]   Eventually, the British government decided to send Dame Millicent Garret Fawcett, the president of the National union of Women’s Suffrage Societies in 1897, to the concentration camps in July 1901. [114]   After the members of this committee visited the concentration camps, they decided to send back a report to England in which they agreed with Hobhouse’s evaluation and recommended that the British administration drastically make improvements to the living conditions at the camp. [115]

5. The Role and Experience of Black South Africans during the War

As briefly mentioned throughout the article, the South African War was not only a war between the Boers and the British, but also a war where approximately 10 000 black men accompanying the Boers and approximately 100 000 black men accompanied the British during the war, where 10 000 were armed. [116]   Except for the concentration camps for Boers there were also concentration camps for black South Africans where approximately 115 000 people were imprisoned by the British.  It is also important to mention that the ‘scorched earth policy’ also led to the vast deplanement of thousands of black South Africans.  It should also be mentioned that the war was initially intended to be a “white man’s war” where both the British and the Boers decided that they did not want to involve the black population.

Reasons for the initial intention of a “white man’s war”

The British believed that the Boers would be easily defeated and that any military collaboration from groups of Blacks would not be decisive in winning the war.  In addition, it was commonly believed by both sides that the military methods of the Black people were more brutal than those of white people and that white women and children would not be shown mercy by Black soldiers.  Another reason for not wanting Blacks to be given arms was the fear that this would increase the possibility of Black resistance to white control in the future. [117]  

Republican law forbade the carrying of arms by Blacks, but because many Boers were pressed into service, they allowed their servants to carry arms. Black cooperation in the war enabled a larger number of whites to serve actively in war operations on both sides.  According to the law of the Republics, all males between the ages of 16 and 60 were eligible for war service, and although the law did not refer to race it was generally applied to the white population only. [118]  

Reasons for Black People Entering the South African War

  • British Perspective:

It was estimated that about 100 000 Blacks were employed by the British army and more than 10 000 received arms. The British army used Black workers for carrying dispatches and messages, to take care of their horses and assist in the veterinary department. They also were used to do sanitary work and construct forts. Armed Black sentries guarded blockhouses and were used to raid Boer farms for cattle. 

The British army also provided the Kgatla chief and Kgama of the Ngwato with 6000 and 3000 rounds of ammunition respectively, to defend the Bechuanaland Protectorate. In the Transkei, 4000 Mfengu and Thembu levies were assembled to ward off any attempt at invasion by the Boers or to suppress any Boer uprising. The Boer occupation of Kuruman was initially resisted by a small force of local Coloured and white policemen. In Mafeking, over 500 Blacks took part in the town's defence during the siege and 200 more enrolled as special constables in Hershel to discourage incursions into the area by Free State commandos.  In Natal, the Zulu Native Police were armed with rifles and a number of them were mounted. However, after the war, Blacks who had served as scouts or fighting men were denied campaign medals which they were entitled to.

It is apparent that both sides would deny that armed Blacks served with them, each accusing the other of doing so, However, in April 1902, after much pressure, Lord Kitchener finally admitted that some 10 053 Black men were issued with arms by the British army. The Boers cited the arming of Blacks on the side of the British as one of the major reasons for discontinuing the war.

  • Boer Perspective

Black people assisted at various levels.  Most were assigned to the roles of wagon drivers or servants.  Black people were also used to stand in on farms of Boers who were commandeered to the war.  This is where many black people were largely affected by the ‘scorched earth policy’.  Many were used as "agterryers" who would tend to chores at the camp or see to the horses.  On the battlefield, the 'agterryer' would carry spare ammunition and spare rifles and even load up the rifles to the Boers.  The Tswana people were conscripted by the Boers to help maintain the siege of Mafeking. Many armed Blacks and Coloureds also assisted during the siege of Ladysmith.

  • Black South African Perspective

Black poverty was a major spur to enlistment in the British army.  For many families, the war had disastrous consequences as it disrupted the migrant labour system, a development that deprived them of an income used to buy grain and pay taxes and rent.  Also, the return of thousands of men to the rural areas increased the pressure on food resources in some already overpopulated districts of Natal, Zululand and the Transkei.  In the Transvaal and Orange Free State Britain's scorched earth campaign destroyed the livelihoods of many thousands of black people. 

Experiences of Black South Africans during the war

Many Black people were held in concentration camps around the country.  The British created camps for Blacks from the start of the war.  Entire townships and even mission stations were transferred into concentration camps.  The men were forced into labour service and by the end of the war there were some 115 000 Blacks in 66 camps around the country.

Although very low, maintenance spent on white camps were a lot higher than that spent on the black camps due to the fact that black people had to build their own huts and even encouraged to grow their own food.  Less than a third of Black interns were provided with rations. Black people were practically being starved to death in these camps.  Black people were also not given adequate food and did not have formal medical care.  Those in employment were forced to pay for their food.  Water supplies were often contaminated, and the conditions under which they were housed were appalling, resulting in thousands of deaths from dysentery, typhoid and diarrhea.  The death toll at the end of the war in the Black concentration camps was recorded as 14 154, but it is believed that the actual number was considerably higher.

6. Peace Negotiations and the End of the War

With the devastation as brought on by the ‘scorched earth policy’ and the concentration camp, many Boers wanted the war to end.  However, when Britain offered the Boers and end to the war in March 1901, the Boers rejected the proposal as they were unwilling to give up their independence to the British colonialists. [119]   With another year of devastation Boer leaders such as Louis Botha and Jan Smuts decided to go against the best wishes of most of the bittereinders and opted to sign the “Peace Treaty of Vereeniging” as set out by Lord Kitchener and Lord Milner on behalf of the British government. [120]   Although the British wanted full control over the two Boer Republics, the General Smuts opted the British to agree over the basis of suzerainty [121] (Britain did not have full control over the Republics, but do have the authority over the foreign policies of the Boer Republics).  The treaty therefore, promised Boer self-governance in exchange for efficient management of the gold mines.  The treat also secured an alliance between both the British and the Boers against the black Africans in Southern Africa. [122]   This treaty was signed on 31 May 1902.

For a look at the transcript and signatures of the Treaty of Vereeniging, please click on the following:  the “Peace Treaty of Vereeniging”

 C. The Union of South Africa ↵

The Union of South Africa was established on 31 May 1910 as an all-white parliament focused on enforcing repressive racial laws to solve the poor white problem caused by the South African War. [123] Diseases, droughts and the Scorched Earth Policy, which left over 30 000 Dutch farms burnt to the ground and impoverished after the South African War, were used as justification to establish a racist state. [124]  

This following topic will discuss:

  • The National convention of 1908
  •  The South African Act of 1909 and the denial of franchise to Black South Africans
  • The launch of the Union in 1910.

National Convention 1908

The National convention started in Durban on 12 October 1908 to foster closer relations between the four colonies with regard to policies concerning labour, the relationship of between Britain and South Africa, education, fostering equality between Afrikaans/Dutch and English and the question of extending franchise to Black South Africans. [125] This convention can be considered the prelude to South Africa becoming a Union. All of the colonies that participated in this process were considered self-governing territories. Among the major debates at this convention was the question of whether the unification of the South African Colonies would take on the form of a union or a federation, as well as the economic system that would be implemented and the establishment of legislative procedures.  Finally, this convention also discussed the apportioning of constitutional authority in such a way as to avoid a situation in which the political interests of one group would dominate the other. However, Britain failed to promote the enfranchisement of black South Africans, since they argued that it would not be adequate enough to further African interests as they believed their interests should rather be furthered through developing “native institutions”. [126] This convention in many regards constituted the foundation for the Union of South Africa, as many of the issues discussed and examined would form part of the laws of the eventual Union.

South Africa Act 1909 and the denial of franchise to Black South Africans

The South Africa Act of 1909 legalized the decisions made at the 1908 National Convention by the British Parliament. This Act encompassed the language policy and the denial of franchise to black South Africans. The passing of this act, however, was not made without opposition as the South African delegation known as the Schreiner mission was sent to Britain. [127] W.P. Schreiner, a former minister of the Cape and a lawyer together with J.T. Jabavu, a newspaper editor and Reverend Walter Rubusana, a Congregationalist minister,  sent a Cape Coloured deputation and a Bantu deputation, pleading for the British Empire to confer the right to vote upon all South Africans and to invest more in promoting the rights of Africans. [128] The Schreiner mission was mainly concerned with the impact the unification of the colonies would have on empowering the Union parliament to remove the franchise from persons of colour.

In 1909 Lord Crewe, who became the new Colonial secretary met with the delegates of the four different colonies to discuss the drafted constitution for the Union of South Africa. [129] The drafted constitution was accepted with minor changes. However, even though the constitution was accepted the unification of the four colonies came with a few challenges. The process of forming Union was hampered, since smaller and less wealthy colonies feared that the larger and wealthier ones would dominate them. The Cape colony, in particular, feared that in a union, the other colonies would eliminate Black voters from the voters’ roll, and these voters were the electoral base for many Cape politicians. [130] Natal, on the other hand, wished to retain some of its independence, but eventually relented on this condition.

Finally, after drafting the Constitution, it was vital to decide who would be the new Prime Minister of the first government. Three statesmen were identified, namely Marthinus Steyn, the former president of the Orange Free State, John Merriman, who was the Cape Prime Minister at the time and Louis Botha, president of the Het Volk party in the Transvaal. [131] Louis Botha was finally elected as the first prime minister of the Union of South Africa who served from 1910 to 1919. [132]

Launch of Union 1910

On the 31 May 1910, exactly eight years after the Boers had made peace with the English through the Treaty of Vereeniging, South Africa became a Union. Despite the mistrust in the Boer camp, the Afrikaners, as they now became known, had negotiated and achieved self-determination. [133] The formation of the Union of South Africa changed the entire political landscape of South Africa. [134] The granting of self-governance to the different South African colonies encouraged closer economic ties and brought the vision of a unified South Africa closer to reality. The formation of the Union of South Africa was nothing short of a miracle since it unified the British and the Afrikaners despite the hatred, tensions and damage that the two South African Wars had inflicted on the psyche and landscape of the country. Previously, the Afrikaners tried to escape the British imperialism. The formation of Union was ideal for the Afrikaners, as shown in a letter from Jan Smuts to John X. Merriman in which he stated: “You know, with the Boers, United South Africa has always been a deeply felt political aspiration and it might profitably be substituted for the imperialism that imports Chinese, a foreign bureaucracy and foreign standing army.” [135] It must be admitted that the formation of the Union was a direct result of the Treaty of Vereeniging. By ignoring the wishes of the majority of the population, the formation of the Union of South Africa contributed to the political upheaval and turmoil that would engulf the country for the next eighty years.

Black response to the formation of the Union

The response of the African press to the formation of Union was one of undisguised hostility. Much effort was directed at stalling or changing the draft Act of the South African Union. But despite all efforts, the act was passed through the colonial parliaments.

In response to the South African National Convention, John Tengo Jabavu also convened the Cape Native Convention, which included a group of black delegates from the four provinces in Bloemfontein to oppose the draft of the South African Act. [136]  Jabavu was an important Black politial leader, educationist, and journalist, and he played an important role in the establishment of what was to become the African National Congress. [137] The principle objection of this convention was that Britain would no longer be able to intervene on behalf of the native people and that the relationship between them and the Crown would be broken.

The attempt was doomed to fail, despite the fact that every politically conscious black person was against the terms and not the principal of the Union. The representatives of the National Convention and various colonial governments gave their support to the formation of the Union under terms that virtually ignored the Black population. Despite vocal objections to the terms, the establishment of the Union of South Africa went ahead.

The Formation of the ANC 1912

Preliminary drafts of the Union governments Natives’ Land Act were debated in 1911 and the Mines and Works Act was passed in 1911. [138] These laws and the formation of the Union were important factors leading to the formation of the South African Native National Congress on 8 January, 1912, in Bloemfontein, renamed the African National Congress in 1923. Land dispossession lies at the heart of South Africa’s history and heritage of inequity. The new ANC was created against the backdrop of massive deprivation of Africans’ right to own land.

To read more about the  formation African National Congress in 1912  and the factors leading to the formation.

Although the Colonial Government passed many discriminatory laws against Blacks, the most severe, the 1913 Natives’ Land Act, codified those injustices by preserving the large majority of the Union’s land for the exclusive use of the white minority. [139] The Act effectively meant that access to land and other resources depended upon a person’s racial classification. As Sol Plaatje described the Act entailed that: “natives shall not enter into any agreement or transaction for the purchase, hire, or other acquisition from a person. other than a native, of any right, thereto, interest therein, or servitude there over.” [140] This legislation caused endemic overcrowding, extreme pressure on the land, and poverty. [141]

 D. Sol Plaatje and the 1913 Land Act ↵

This topic discuses:

  • Sol Plaatje and his role in fighting against the 1913 Natives Land Act
  • The economic and social impact of the 1913 Natives Land Act
  • How the 1913 Natives Land Act became the precursor to Apartheid legislation

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Who was Sol Plaatje?

Solomon Tshekeisho Plaatje was born as a Tswana-speaker south of Mafeking in 1878. [142] He distinguished himself as an intelligent student and by the age of 16, when he started working at the Post Office, he achieved the highest mark for the clerical examination in the Cape Colony. [143] When Plaatje turned 21 he became an interpreter at the magistrate’s court where he enabled the British authority to communicate with Africans during the siege of Mafeking (1899 – 1900). As a court interpreter, Sol Plaatje could interpret eight different languages, which included Dutch, English, German and African vernaculars. [144]   During this period Plaatje started writing diaries, recording what had happened during the siege of Mafeking. [145]

Thereafter, Plaatje became a journalist, establishing the first Setswana-English newspaper in 1901, Koranta ea Becoana (Newspaper of the Tswana) in Mafeking. [146] Approximately ten years later, Plaatje moved to Kimberly and established a new newspaper, called Tsala ea Becoana, meaning Becoana’s friend. In April 1913 Tsala ea Becoana was renamed to Tsala ea Batho, which is translated as meaning “Friend of the People”. [147] This title change occurred since Plaatje became aware of the national shift from tribalism to focusing on the nation. [148] Hw

In 1909 Plaatje wrote “Sekgoma – the Black Dreyfus”, an unpublished manuscript that showed his resentment for the British, who after the South Africa War, only gave enfranchisement to the white population. [149] In the 1910 Union of South Africa the Afrikaners controlled South Africa and Sol Plaatje was one of the few Africans who still had a parliamentary vote. This disenfranchisement of the black population caused Plaatje to become involved in “native congress” movement, which aimed to further the Africans in the country. In 1912 he became the first secretary general of the South African National Congress (SANNC), which was later renamed to the African National Congress (ANC). [150]

In 1913 the Land Act was introduced, which entailed that Africans could only own 7% of the land as they were prohibited from buying or hiring 93% of South Africa. According to the Land Act: “natives shall not enter into any agreement or transaction for the purchase, hire, or other acquisition from a person. other than a native, of any right, thereto, interest therein, or servitude there over.” [151] Africans were restricted to living in overpopulated reserves without basic human rights of owning land. This act was also introduced mid-winter and in response to this law, Sol Plaatje travelled by train and then on his bicycle to analyse the impact of the Act on black South Africans. [152] He describes how Africans were forced to choose between losing their ability to own cattle and farm independently but be able to remain tenants on a white man’s farm or to move, which Sol Plaatje described as a “native trek”, in the dead of winter. [153] These natives hoped to move to other farms, where they would be allowed to farm independently, but the Act prohibited white farmers from employing or leasing land to black South Africans. Their search for land and the “native trek” was in vain and resulted in the cattle owned by natives either dying or being sold. [154]

These conditions caused the SANNC resisting against the 1913 Land Act. In 1914 Sol Plaatje and national executives of the SANNC sent a delegation to the British crown. [155] Plaatje urged the queen to veto this law. However, with the start of the First World War, Britain chose not to undermine the Afrikaners legislation for the loyalty of the Afrikaners in the war and thus ignored the SANNC delegation. [156] While the rest of the SANNC members returned to South Africa, Plaatje remained in Britain, hoping to persuade the British crown to veto the Natives Land Act. He continued writing and in 1916 he published two short books named the “Sechuana Provebs” and the “Sechuana Reader” and a longer book titled “Native Life in South Africa. [157] Native Life in South Africa was written in response to the introduction of the Natives Land Act of 1913 and explained the impact of this law on Black South Africans. [158] The book illustrates how Africans were born as “pariah’s in the land of his birth” since Africans were treated as outcasts that had to be avoided and despises at all costs. [159]

In 1919, after the end of World War One, Plaatje returnd to south Africa to lead another delegation to England against the Natives Land Act. [160] These attempts against the Natives Land Act also proved unsuccessful. Thereafter, Plaatje again wrote another book, titled “The Mote and the Beam: An Epic on Sex-Relationship “twixt Black and White in British South Africa”. With the income generated from the sales of this book, Plaatje was able to travel to America for a lecture tour. [161]   In 1921 an edited version of Native Life in South Africa, was published by the NAACP. [162] In 1923 Sol Plaatje returned to South Africa. [163]

During the 1920’s, Sol Plaatje became less involved in politics, since he promoted old black liberalism rather than the radicalism of the ANC. Thereafter, Plaatje focused on translating Shakespearean plays and writing historical novels, such as Mhundi (An Epic of South African Native Life a Hundred Years Ago). [164] In 1932 Plaatje died of pneumonia. At his funeral his daughter stated: “For here was one devoid of wealth but buried like a lord.” [165]

After Sol Plaatje’s death, his work still remained relevant and in 1972 his last literature pièce was published, namely the Mafeking diary he had written at the start of his career as an African interpreter. This diary was titled The Boer War Diary of Sol T. Plaatje: An African at Mafeking. [166]

Sol Plaatje played an active role in furthering the rights of Africans, by giving a voice to a silenced majority and making the Afrikaners and the British aware of the impact of their laws and treatment upon their fellow man.

The 1913 Natives Land Act

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On 19 June, 1913 the Native Land Act was introduced which limited African land ownership to 7%. [167] According to this Act, Africans were not allowed to buy 93% of the land allocated to European settlers and were only allowed to occupy land owned by the settlers as employees. After the Act was approved, Africans were relocated to impoverished homelands and townships. This Act had a vital socio-economic impact on Africans, since they were forced to live in overpopulated and impoverished reserves, which forced many to look for employment far away from their homes to provide for their families. [168]

The Economic Impact of the Natives Land Act

  • The Natives Land Act allowed Africans to only own 7% of the land in South Africa. Africans were denied access to landownership of 93% of the land. [169]
  • Africans were also not allowed to lease land from White settlers. [170]
  • The Act prohibited Africans from competing in the market as independent farmers since they could not buy fertile land from white settlers. [171]
  • Sharecropping was declared illegal under the 1913 Land Act. Prior to the Act, white and African farmers could sow on the same farm on the basis of shares and split the profit. [172]
  • Africans were forced to live in impoverished and overpopulated reserves, which forced them into servitude. [173]
  • The land assigned to Africans were also placed in infertile farming grounds, which continued to impoverish them. [174] One of the commissioners in charge of dividing the ground between white settlers and Africans noted about the Kwelera-Maoiplaats region that it was: “poor soil with a steep and sour pasturage of so limited extent that only a Kaffir, with his limited requirements could be expected to exist upon such terms.” The commissioner thereafter recommended that these grounds be given to Africans. [175]
  • The overpopulated reserves and already infertile grounds give to Africans limited their agricultural production and caused a rise in poverty amongst African farmers. [176]
  • The Apartheid government also refused to give economic aid to the African reserves through loans. African farmers could not compete with the fertile ground nor the technological methods White farmers used. [177]
  • The Natives Land Act contributed to a high poverty rate amongst Africans. [178] Africans, who were once independent farmers or sharecroppers lost their land and were no longer self-employed or able to compete in the market. The Act forced many Africans to leave their homes to search for work and ended up as workers on the diamond and gold mines. [179]

The Social Impact of the Natives Land Act

  • The Natives Land Act enabled the apartheid government to move Africans to reserves, which caused racial segregation between Africans and white settlers. [180] This Act promoted the racist ideology that one race is superior to another through the visible divide it created between Africans and White settlers. The impoverished state of the reserves continued to reinforce the racist ideology that white settlers were better than their African counterparts.
  • The construction of reserves also enabled the apartheid government to remove all rights of Black South Africans, since they aimed to create independent African governments who would be responsible for the governance and development of the reserves. [181] This decision did not truly promote African independence, but rather enabled the apartheid government to ignore the rights and needs of Africans in South Africa.
  • African families were evicted from their homes and ancestral grounds and forced into reserves. African families were rendered destitute. [182] It was also illegal to give landless Africans a place to stay and one could be fined 100 pounds or be imprisoned for disobeying this law. [183]
  • Africans were often forced to kill or sell their livestock, since they did not have enough land on which the animals could feed. [184]
  • African families were also divided since the reserves grounds were overpopulated and infertile which forced family members to go work in the mining sector to provide for the family. [185]

Reactions to the 1913 Natives Land Act

  •  The SANNC was founded to oppose the 1913 Natives Land Act. [186]
  • Sol Plaatje and members of the SANNC investigated the impact of the Natives Land Act and sent a delegation to Prime Minister, Louis Botha in 1914.
  • This appeal failed and a few members of the SANNC, including Sol Plaatje left to Britain to ask for intervention. This attempt also failed.
  • The SANNC continued to oppose the Act and established themselves as fighters against racial discrimination of Black South Africans. [187]
  • Sol Plaatje wrote various books, such as Native Life in South Africa, and established newspapers to oppose the Act and make people aware of the social and economic impact of the Act.

The 1913 Natives Land Act: The Precursor to Apartheid

At the start of the nineteenth century the Union of South Africa’s legislation promoted racial segregation. In 1912 the Union of South Africa implemented the Irrigation and Conservation of Water Act (No.8), which limited access to water by giving white settlers riparian water rights. Riparian water rights dictate that people living close to water are prioritized and given more water. [188] The following year the Natives Land Act was introduced as one of the first acts that racially and spatially divided Africans and white settlers. [189]   After the Natives Land Act was implemented, various other acts focused on promoting racial segregation was introduced, such as the Urban Areas Act (1923), the Natives and Land Trust Act (1936) and the Group Areas Act (1950). [190]

  • Urban Areas Act (1923)

After the Native Land Act was accepted in parliament, the Union of South Africa saw a rising need to control the influx of Africans into the cities since the reserves were overpopulated with infertile ground for agricultural production causing many Africans to seek employment by white settlers in the cities. [191] This legislation enabled authorities to provide trading licences to African location residents and illegalized giving Africans freehold property rights. Africans could not be given permanent residency in the cities where they worked, since they were merely allowed to stay temporarily when their work was needed by the white settlers. [192] This influx control of Africans enabled the Union of South Africa to control the movement of Black South Africans through racist legislature. The Natives Land Act only set the stage for the start of many new racist policies, such as the implementation of the 1923 Natives Urban Areas Act (No.21).

  • Natives and Land Trust Act (1936)

In 1936 the Natives and Land Trust Act was introduced, which extended the amount of land Africans could possess from 7% to 13%. [193] While this law minimally increased the amount of land Africans could own, it still promoted the same racist ideology of the 1913 Natives Land Act. Africans were still forbidden to hire or buy land outside of the reserves. [194] The Union of South Africa’s legislation continued to create an impoverished African class in South Africa, while economically and socially uplifting white settler.

  • Group Areas Act (1950)

The 1950 Group Areas Act (No. 41) was implemented to continue creating racially divide between South Africans. According to this Act it was a criminal offence to own land in an area that was set aside for another race. [195] This act had a profound effect on furthering segregation since this law now included “coloureds” as a racial group that had to be separated from White South Africans. This law enabled the government to centralize control over racial segregation, while taking away the municipal autonomy of Africans. [196] The racist ideologies and laws of the Group Areas Act was easily enforced since the act continued to build on the ideas of separate development and native reserves which was introduced through the 1913 Natives Land Act.

  • Natives Act (1952)

The 1952 Natives Act, otherwise called the Abolition of Passes, and Co-ordination of Documents Act forced Africans to wear passes to restrict their freedom of movement in the areas allocated to white settlers. [197]

The Natives Land Act of 1913 was the precursor to Apartheid as it set the stage for Hendrik Verwoerd’s homeland policies, the influx control of Africans through establishing pass laws through the Group Areas Act and forcibly removing Africans from their places of residence in the 1970’s and 1980’s. [198] The 1913 Land Act formed the basis for the following racist acts introduced and accepted in parliament, promoting separate development between races as well as a racial hierarchy in favour of the white man.

This content was originally produced for the SAHO classroom by Ilse Brookes, Amber Fox-Martin & Simone van der Colff

[1] P. Richardson & J.J. van Helten.: “The Development of the South African Gold-Mining Industry, 1895-1918,” The Economic history Review, (37), (3), p. 319.

[2] P. Richardson & J.J. van Helten.: “The Development of the South African Gold-Mining Industry, 1895-1918,” The Economic history Review, (37), (3), p. 320.

[3] A. Turton, C. Schultz, H. Buckle, M. Kgomongoe, T. Malungani & M. Drackner.: “Gold Scorched Earth and Water:  The Hydropolotics of Johannesburg,” Water Resources Development, (23), (2), June 2006, p. 316.

[4] A. Turton, C. Schultz, H. Buckle, M. Kgomongoe, T. Malungani & M. Drackner.: “Gold Scorched Earth and Water:  The Hydropolotics of Johannesburg,” Water Resources Development, (23), (2), June 2006, p. 316.

[5] A. Turton, C. Schultz, H. Buckle, M. Kgomongoe, T. Malungani & M. Drackner.: “Gold Scorched Earth and Water:  The Hydropolotics of Johannesburg,” Water Resources Development, (23), (2), June 2006, p. 316.

[6] P. Richardson & J.J. van Helten.: “The Development of the South African Gold-Mining Industry, 1895-1918,” The Economic history Review, (37), (3), p. 320.

[7] The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica.: “De Beers S.A.” Encyclopaedia Britannica [online], Available at https://www.britannica.com/topic/De-Beers-SA (Accessed on 24 November 2020).

[8] P. Richardson & J.J. van Helten.: “The Development of the South African Gold-Mining Industry, 1895-1918,” The Economic history Review, (37), (3), p. 321.

[9] D.W. Gilbert.: “The Economic Effects of the Gold Discoveries Upon South Africa:  1886-1910,” The Quarterly Journal of Economics, (47), (4), p. 557.

[10] The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica.: “Diamonds, Gold and Imperialist Intervention (1870-1902),” Encyclopaedia Britannica [online], Available at https://www.britannica.com/place/South-Africa/Gold-mining (Accessed on 24 November 2020).

[11] P. Richardson & J.J. van Helten.: “The Development of the South African Gold-Mining Industry, 1895-1918,” The Economic history Review, (37), (3), p. 322.

[12] P. Richardson & J.J. van Helten.: “The Development of the South African Gold-Mining Industry, 1895-1918,” The Economic history Review, (37), (3), p. 322.

[13] D.W. Gilbert.: “The Economic Effects of the Gold Discoveries Upon South Africa:  1886-1910,” The Quarterly Journal of Economics, (47), (4), p. 556.

[14] P. Richardson & J.J. van Helten.: “The Development of the South African Gold-Mining Industry, 1895-1918,” The Economic history Review, (37), (3), p. 321.

[15] P. Richardson & J.J. van Helten.: “The Development of the South African Gold-Mining Industry, 1895-1918,” The Economic history Review, (37), (3), p. 321.

[16] S. Chibba.: “A History of Mining in South Africa,” South Africa [online], Available at https://www.southafrica.net/us/en/travel/article/a-history-of-mining-in-south-africa (Accessed on 24 November 2020).

[17] M.N. Lurie & B.G. Williams.: “Migration and Health in Southern Africa:  100 Years and still Circulating,” Health Psychology and Behavioral Medicine:  An Open Access Journal, p. 35.

[18] P. Richardson & J.J. van Helten.: “The Development of the South African Gold-Mining Industry, 1895-1918,” The Economic history Review, (37), (3), p. 320.

[19] A. Turton, C. Schultz, H. Buckle, M. Kgomongoe, T. Malungani & M. Drackner.: “Gold Scorched Earth and Water:  The Hydropolotics of Johannesburg,” Water Resources Development, (23), (2), June 2006, p. 317.

[20] A. Turton, C. Schultz, H. Buckle, M. Kgomongoe, T. Malungani & M. Drackner.: “Gold Scorched Earth and Water:  The Hydropolotics of Johannesburg,” Water Resources Development, (23), (2), June 2006, p. 317.

[21] A. Turton, C. Schultz, H. Buckle, M. Kgomongoe, T. Malungani & M. Drackner.: “Gold Scorched Earth and Water:  The Hydropolotics of Johannesburg,” Water Resources Development, (23), (2), June 2006, p. 317

[22] J.T. Campbell.: “Johannesburg,” Encyclopaedia Britannica [online], Available at https://www.britannica.com/place/Johannesburg-South-Africa (Accessed on 24 November 2020).

[23] M.N. Lurie & B.G. Williams.: “Migration and Health in Southern Africa:  100 Years and still Circulating,” Health Psychology and Behavioral Medicine:  An Open Access Journal, p. 35.

[24] M.N. Lurie & B.G. Williams.: “Migration and Health in Southern Africa:  100 Years and still Circulating,” Health Psychology and Behavioral Medicine:  An Open Access Journal, p. 35.

[25] J.S. Harington, N.D. McGlashan & E.Z. Chelkowska.: “A Century of Migrant Labour in the Gold Mines of South Africa,” The Journal of the South African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, (1), p. 65.

[26] J.S. Harington, N.D. McGlashan & E.Z. Chelkowska.: “A Century of Migrant Labour in the Gold Mines of South Africa,” The Journal of the South African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, (1), p. 65.

[27] M.N. Lurie & B.G. Williams.: “Migration and Health in Southern Africa:  100 Years and still Circulating,” Health Psychology and Behavioral Medicine:  An Open Access Journal, p. 36.

[28] J.S. Harington, N.D. McGlashan & E.Z. Chelkowska.: “A Century of Migrant Labour in the Gold Mines of South Africa,” The Journal of the South African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, (1), p. 65.

[29] J.S. Harington, N.D. McGlashan & E.Z. Chelkowska.: “A Century of Migrant Labour in the Gold Mines of South Africa,” The Journal of the South African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, (1), p. 66.

[30] J.S. Harington, N.D. McGlashan & E.Z. Chelkowska.: “A Century of Migrant Labour in the Gold Mines of South Africa,” The Journal of the South African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, (1), p. 66.

[31] J.S. Harington, N.D. McGlashan & E.Z. Chelkowska.: “A Century of Migrant Labour in the Gold Mines of South Africa,” The Journal of the South African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, (1), p. 65.

[32] J.S. Harington, N.D. McGlashan & E.Z. Chelkowska.: “A Century of Migrant Labour in the Gold Mines of South Africa,” The Journal of the South African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, (1), p. 65.

[33] M.N. Lurie & B.G. Williams.: “Migration and Health in Southern Africa:  100 Years and still Circulating,” Health Psychology and Behavioral Medicine:  An Open Access Journal, p. 35.

[34] M.N. Lurie & B.G. Williams.: “Migration and Health in Southern Africa:  100 Years and still Circulating,” Health Psychology and Behavioral Medicine:  An Open Access Journal, p. 35.

[35] M.N. Lurie & B.G. Williams.: “Migration and Health in Southern Africa:  100 Years and still Circulating,” Health Psychology and Behavioral Medicine:  An Open Access Journal, p. 35.

[36] J.S. Harington, N.D. McGlashan & E.Z. Chelkowska.: “A Century of Migrant Labour in the Gold Mines of South Africa,” The Journal of the South African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, (1), p. 66.

[37] M.N. Lurie & B.G. Williams.: “Migration and Health in Southern Africa:  100 Years and still Circulating,” Health Psychology and Behavioral Medicine:  An Open Access Journal, p. 36.

[38] M.N. Lurie & B.G. Williams.: “Migration and Health in Southern Africa:  100 Years and still Circulating,” Health Psychology and Behavioral Medicine:  An Open Access Journal, p. 37.

[39] A. Turton, C. Schultz, H. Buckle, M. Kgomongoe, T. Malungani & M. Drackner.: “Gold Scorched Earth and Water:  The Hydropolotics of Johannesburg,” Water Resources Development, (23), (2), June 2006, p. 318.

[40] T.D. Moodie.: “Comprehending Class Compromise in the History of Class Struggle on the South African Gold Mines:  Variations and Vicissitudes of Class Power,” South African Review of Sociology, (41), (3), p. 104.

[41] A. Turton, C. Schultz, H. Buckle, M. Kgomongoe, T. Malungani & M. Drackner.: “Gold Scorched Earth and Water:  The Hydropolotics of Johannesburg,” Water Resources Development, (23), (2), June 2006, p. 318.

[42] A. Turton, C. Schultz, H. Buckle, M. Kgomongoe, T. Malungani & M. Drackner.: “Gold Scorched Earth and Water:  The Hydropolotics of Johannesburg,” Water Resources Development, (23), (2), June 2006, p. 318.

[43] A. Turton, C. Schultz, H. Buckle, M. Kgomongoe, T. Malungani & M. Drackner.: “Gold Scorched Earth and Water:  The Hydropolotics of Johannesburg,” Water Resources Development, (23), (2), June 2006, p. 318.

[44] A. Turton, C. Schultz, H. Buckle, M. Kgomongoe, T. Malungani & M. Drackner.: “Gold Scorched Earth and Water:  The Hydropolotics of Johannesburg,” Water Resources Development, (23), (2), June 2006, p. 318.

[45] D.W. Gilbert.: “The Economic Effects of the Gold Discoveries Upon South Africa:  1886-1910,” The Quarterly Journal of Economics, (47), (4), p. 556.

[46] R.V. Kubicek.: “The Randlords in 1895:  A Reassessment,” Journal of British Studies, (11), (2), p. 85.

[47] A. Turton, C. Schultz, H. Buckle, M. Kgomongoe, T. Malungani & M. Drackner.: “Gold Scorched Earth and Water:  The Hydropolotics of Johannesburg,” Water Resources Development, (23), (2), June 2006, p. 319.

[48] A. Turton, C. Schultz, H. Buckle, M. Kgomongoe, T. Malungani & M. Drackner.: “Gold Scorched Earth and Water:  The Hydropolotics of Johannesburg,” Water Resources Development, (23), (2), June 2006, p. 318.

[49] A. Turton, C. Schultz, H. Buckle, M. Kgomongoe, T. Malungani & M. Drackner.: “Gold Scorched Earth and Water:  The Hydropolotics of Johannesburg,” Water Resources Development, (23), (2), June 2006, p. 318.

[50] A. Turton, C. Schultz, H. Buckle, M. Kgomongoe, T. Malungani & M. Drackner.: “Gold Scorched Earth and Water:  The Hydropolotics of Johannesburg,” Water Resources Development, (23), (2), June 2006, p. 318.

[51] Author Unknown.: “Introduction to the War,” Anglo-Boer War Museum [online],  Available at https://www.wmbr.org.za/view.asp?pg=research&pgsub=intro1&pgsub1=1&head1=Introduction%20to%20the%20War (Accessed on 13 September 2020).

[52] The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica.: South African War, Encyclopaedia Britannica [online].  Available at https://www.britannica.com/event/South-African-War (Accessed on 10 September 2020).

[53] D. Allen.: “Beating them at their own game:  Rugby, the Anglo-Boer War and Afrikaner nationalism, 1899-1948,” The International Journal of the History of Sport, (20), (3), p. 38.

[54] D. Allen.: “Beating them at their own game:  Rugby, the Anglo-Boer War and Afrikaner nationalism, 1899-1948,” The International Journal of the History of Sport, (20), (3), p. 38.

[55] Author Unknown.: “The Great Trek,” ESAT [online], Available at https://esat.sun.ac.za/index.php/The_Great_Trek (Accessed on 11 September 2020).

[56] A.F. Hattersley.: “HISTORICAL REVISION:  LVII. – The Great Trek, 1835-7,” History, NEW SERIES, (16), (61), 1931, pp. 50-52.

[57] The Editors of Encyclopeadia Britannica.: “Great Trek,” Encyclopeadia Britannica [online], Available at https://www.britannica.com/event/Great-Trek (Accessed on 11 September 2020).

[58] The Editors of Encyclopeadia Britannica.: “Great Trek,” Encyclopeadia Britannica [online], Available at https://www.britannica.com/event/Great-Trek (Accessed on 11 September 2020).

[59] The Editors of Encyclopeadia Britannica.: “Great Trek,” Encyclopeadia Britannica [online], Available at https://www.britannica.com/event/Great-Trek (Accessed on 11 September 2020).

[60] Prof. F Pretorius.: “The Boer Wars,” BBC [online], Available at http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/victorians/boer_wars_01.shtml (Accessed on 11 September 2020).

[61] Prof. F Pretorius.: “The Boer Wars,” BBC [online], Available at http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/victorians/boer_wars_01.shtml (Accessed on 11 September 2020).

[62] Prof. F Pretorius.: “The Boer Wars,” BBC [online], Available at http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/victorians/boer_wars_01.shtml (Accessed on 11 September 2020).

[63] Author Unknown.: “First Anglo Boer War,” South African History Online [online], Available at https://www.sahistory.org.za/article/first-anglo-boer-war (Accessed 11 September 2020).

[64] Author Unknown.: “First Anglo Boer War,” South African History Online [online], Available at https://www.sahistory.org.za/article/first-anglo-boer-war (Accessed 11 September 2020).

[65] Author Unknown.: “First Anglo Boer War,” South African History Online [online], Available at https://www.sahistory.org.za/article/first-anglo-boer-war (Accessed 11 September 2020).

[66] Author Unknown.: “First Anglo Boer War,” South African History Online [online], Available at https://www.sahistory.org.za/article/first-anglo-boer-war (Accessed 13 September 2020).

[67] H.R. Haggard.: The History of the Transvaal, p. 123.

[68] H.R. Haggard.: The History of the Transvaal, p. 124.

[69] H.R. Haggard.: The History of the Transvaal, p. 124.

[70] Author Unknown.: “First Anglo Boer War,” South African History Online [online], Available at https://www.sahistory.org.za/article/first-anglo-boer-war (Accessed 13 September 2020).

[71] Author Unknown.: “First Anglo Boer War,” South African History Online [online], Available at https://www.sahistory.org.za/article/first-anglo-boer-war (Accessed 13 September 2020).

[72] Prof. F Pretorius.: “The Boer Wars,” BBC [online], Available at http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/victorians/boer_wars_01.shtml (Accessed on 13 September 2020).

[73] Author Unknown.: “First Anglo Boer War,” South African History Online [online], Available at https://www.sahistory.org.za/article/first-anglo-boer-war (Accessed 13 September 2020).

[74] Author Unknown.: “First Anglo Boer War,” South African History Online [online], Available at https://www.sahistory.org.za/article/first-anglo-boer-war (Accessed 13 September 2020).

[75] Prof. F Pretorius.: “The Boer Wars,” BBC [online], Available at http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/victorians/boer_wars_01.shtml (Accessed on 13 September 2020).

[76] Author Unknown.: “Introduction to the War,” Anglo-Boer War Museum [online],  Available at https://www.wmbr.org.za/view.asp?pg=research&pgsub=intro1&pgsub1=1&head1=Introduction%20to%20the%20War (Accessed on 13 September 2020).

[77] Author Unknown.: “Introduction to the War,” Anglo-Boer War Museum [online],  Available at https://www.wmbr.org.za/view.asp?pg=research&pgsub=intro1&pgsub1=1&head1=Introduction%20to%20the%20War (Accessed on 13 September 2020).

[78] Author Unknown.: “The Jameson Raid,” South African History Online [online], Available at https://www.sahistory.org.za/article/jameson-raid (Accessed on 13 September 2020).

[79] Author Unknown.: “The Jameson Raid,” South African History Online [online], Available at https://www.sahistory.org.za/article/jameson-raid (Accessed on 13 September 2020).

[80] Author Unknown.: “The Jameson Raid,” South African History Online [online], Available at https://www.sahistory.org.za/article/jameson-raid (Accessed on 13 September 2020).

[81] Author Unknown.: “The Jameson Raid,” South African History Online [online], Available at https://www.sahistory.org.za/article/jameson-raid (Accessed on 13 September 2020).

[82] Author Unknown.: “Joseph Chamberlain,” South African History Online [online], Available at https://www.sahistory.org.za/people/joseph-chamberlain (Accessed on 23 September 2020).

[83] Author Unknown.: “The Jameson Raid,” South African History Online [online], Available at https://www.sahistory.org.za/article/jameson-raid (Accessed on 13 September 2020).

[84] J.S. Galbraith.: “The British South Africa Company and the Jameson Raid,” Journal of British Studies, (10), (1), 1970, p. 145.

[85] Prof. M. Swart.: “The Causes of the Boer War,” Historia, (21), (2), 1976, p. 170

[86] Prof. M. Swart.: “The Causes of the Boer War,” Historia, (21), (2), 1976, p. 170

[87] Prof. M. Swart.: “The Causes of the Boer War,” Historia, (21), (2), 1976, p. 170

[88] Author Unknown.: “Joseph Chamberlain,” South African History Online [online], Available at https://www.sahistory.org.za/people/joseph-chamberlain (Accessed on 23 September 2020).

[89] Prof. M. Swart.: “The Causes of the Boer War,” Historia, (21), (2), 1976, p. 171.

[90] Author Unknown.: “The South African War,” National Archives [online], Available at http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/pathways/census/events/britain5.htm (Accessed on 20 October 2020).

[91] Author Unknown.: “Role of Black people in the South African War,” South African History Online [online], Available at https://www.sahistory.org.za/article/role-black-people-south-african-war (Accessed on 20 October 2020).

[92] Author Unknown.: “The South African War,” National Archives [online], Available at http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/pathways/census/events/britain5.htm (Accessed on 20 October 2020).

[93] Author Unknown.: “The Second Boer War (1899-1902),” School History [online], Available at https://schoolhistory.co.uk/notes/the-second-boer-war/ (Accessed on 20 October 2020).

[94] Author Unknown.: “Boer War 1899-1902,” Anglo Boer War [online], Available at https://www.angloboerwar.com/boer-war (Accessed on 20 October 2020).

[95] Author Unknown.: “The Second Boer War (1899-1902),” School History [online], Available at https://schoolhistory.co.uk/notes/the-second-boer-war/ (Accessed on 20 October 2020).

[96] Author Unknown.: “The South African War (1899-1902),” South African History Online [online], Available at https://www.sahistory.org.za/article/south-african-war-1899-1902 (Accessed on 20 October 2020).

[97] Author Unknown.: “The South African War (1899-1902),” South African History Online [online], Available at https://www.sahistory.org.za/article/south-african-war-1899-1902 (Accessed on 20 October 2020).

[98] Author Unknown.: “Boer War 1899-1902,” Anglo Boer War [online], Available at https://www.angloboerwar.com/boer-war (Accessed on 20 October 2020).

[99] Author Unknown.: “Boer War 1899-1902,” Anglo Boer War [online], Available at https://www.angloboerwar.com/boer-war (Accessed on 20 October 2020).

[100] Author Unknown.: “The South African War,” National Archives [online], Available at http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/pathways/census/events/britain5.htm (Accessed on 20 October 2020).

[101] Author Unknown.: “The South African War (1899-1902),” South African History Online [online], Available at https://www.sahistory.org.za/article/south-african-war-1899-1902 (Accessed on 20 October 2020).

[102] The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica.: “South African War,” Encyclopaedia Britannica [online].  Available at https://www.britannica.com/event/South-African-War (Accessed on 21 October 2020).

[103] Author Unknown.: “Boer War 1899-1902,” Anglo Boer War [online], Available at https://www.angloboerwar.com/boer-war (Accessed on 20 October 2020).

[104] The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica.: “South African War,” Encyclopaedia Britannica [online].  Available at https://www.britannica.com/event/South-African-War (Accessed on 21 October 2020).

[105] Author Unknown.: “Boer War 1899-1902,” Anglo Boer War [online], Available at https://www.angloboerwar.com/boer-war (Accessed on 20 October 2020).

[106] F. Pretorius.: “Concentration Camps in the South African War?” South African History Online [online], Available at https://www.sahistory.org.za/archive/concentration-camps-south-african-war-here-are-real-facts-fransjohan-pretorius-conversation (Accessed on 21 October 2020).

[107] F. Pretorius.: “Concentration Camps in the South African War?” South African History Online [online], Available at https://www.sahistory.org.za/archive/concentration-camps-south-african-war-here-are-real-facts-fransjohan-pretorius-conversation (Accessed on 21 October 2020).

[108] F. Pretorius.: “The Boer Wars,” BBC [online], Available at http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/victorians/boer_wars_01.shtml#eight (Accessed on 21 October 2020).

[109] F. Pretorius.: “The Boer Wars,” BBC [online], Available at http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/victorians/boer_wars_01.shtml#eight (Accessed on 21 October 2020).

[110] F. Pretorius.: “The Boer Wars,” BBC [online], Available at http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/victorians/boer_wars_01.shtml#eight (Accessed on 21 October 2020).

[111] Author Unknown.: “Emily Hobhouse,” Anglo Boer War [online], Available at https://www.angloboerwar.com/other-information/16-other-information/1847-emily-hobhouse (Accessed on 21 October 2020).

[112] Author Unknown.: “Emily Hobhouse,” Anglo Boer War [online], Available at https://www.angloboerwar.com/other-information/16-other-information/1847-emily-hobhouse (Accessed on 21 October 2020).

[113] Author Unknown.: “Emily Hobhouse,” South African History Online [online], Available at https://www.sahistory.org.za/people/emily-hobhouse (Accessed on 21 October 2020).

[114] The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica.: “Dame Millicent Garrett Fawcett,” Encyclopaedia Britannica [online], Available at https://www.britannica.com/biography/Millicent-Fawcett (Accessed on 21 October 2020).

[115] Author Unknown.: “Emily Hobhouse,” Anglo Boer War [online], Available at https://www.angloboerwar.com/other-information/16-other-information/1847-emily-hobhouse (Accessed on 21 October 2020).

[116] Author Unknown.: “Role of Black people in the South African War,” South African History Online [online], Available at https://www.sahistory.org.za/article/role-black-people-south-african-war (Accessed on 20 October 2020).

[117] Author Unknown.: “Role of Black people in the South African War,” South African History Online [online], Available at https://www.sahistory.org.za/article/role-black-people-south-african-war (Accessed on 21 October 2020).

[118] Author Unknown.: “Role of Black people in the South African War,” South African History Online [online], Available at https://www.sahistory.org.za/article/role-black-people-south-african-war (Accessed on 21 October 2020).

[119] The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica.: “South African War,” Encyclopaedia Britannica [online].  Available at https://www.britannica.com/event/South-African-War (Accessed on 27 October 2020).

[120] Author Unknown.: “Peace Treaty of Vereeniging – transcript,” South African History Online [online], Available at https://www.sahistory.org.za/archive/peace-treaty-vereeniging-transcript (Accessed on 27 October 2020).

[121] The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica.: “South African War,” Encyclopaedia Britannica [online].  Available at https://www.britannica.com/event/South-African-War (Accessed on 27 October 2020).

[122] The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica.: “South African War,” Encyclopaedia Britannica [online].  Available at https://www.britannica.com/event/South-African-War (Accessed on 27 October 2020).

[123] Bernard Makhosezwe Magubane, The Making of a Racist State: British Imperialism and the Union of South Africa 1875 – 1910, 344

[124] Bottomley, Edward-John, “Transnational Govermentality and the “poor White” in Early Twentieth Century South Africa.” Journal of Historical Geography, (Vol. 54), (2016), 78.

[125] Ronald Hyam, “African Interests and the South Africa Act, 1908 – 1910”, The Historical Journal, (Vol. 13), (No. 1), (1970), pp. 89.

[126] Ronald Hyam, “African Interests and the South Africa Act, 1908 – 1910”, The Historical Journal, (Vol. 13), (No. 1), (1970), pp. 89.

[127] [127] Ibid.

[128] Ibid.

[129] Ibid,32.

[130] Bernard Makhosezwe Magubane, The Making of a Racist State: British Imperialism and the Union of South Africa 1875 – 1910, 275.

[131] Eugene Mark Ashton, “The Historiography of the Formation of the Union of South Africa”, Magister Hereditatis Culturaque Scinetae: Coursework (History), University of Pretoria, 3.

[132] The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica, “Louis Botha”, Encyclopaedia Britannica, (Uploaded: 23 September 2020), (Accessed: 9 November 2020), Available at: https://www.britannica.com/biography/Louis-Botha

[133] Bernard Makhosezwe Magubane, The Making of a Racist State: British Imperialism and the Union of South Africa, 1875 – 1910, 344.

[134] Eugene Mark Ashton, “The Historiography of the Formation of the Union of South Africa”, Magister Hereditatis Culturaque Scinetae: Coursework (History), University of Pretoria, 2.

[135] Ibid, 3.

[136] Author Unknown, “The formation of the SANNC/ ANC”, (Uploaded: 29 June 2011), (Accessed: 9 November 2020), Available at: https://www.sahistory.org.za/article/formation-sanncanc

[137] Author Unknown, “John Tengo Jabavu”, South African History Online, (Uploaded: 17 February 2011), (Accessed: 9 November 2020), Available at: https://www.sahistory.org.za/people/john-tengo-jabavu

[138] Author Unknown, “1911 Mines and Work Act, No. 12”, O Malley the Heart of Hope, (Accessed: 9 November 2020), Available at: https://omalley.nelsonmandela.org/omalley/index.php/site/q/03lv01538/04lv01646/05lv01736.htm

[139] Dodson, A., “The Natives Land Act of 1913 and its legacy”, Forum, (2013), 30.

[140] Sol Plaatje, Native Life in South Africa, 45. 

[141] Dodson, A., “The Natives Land Act of 1913 and its legacy”, Forum, (2013), 30.

[142] Sol Plaatje, Native Life in South Africa, 3.

[143] Ibid.

[144] Author Unknown, “Solomon Thsekisho Plaatje”, South African History Online, (Uploaded: 17 February 2011), (Accessed: 8 September 2020), Available at: https://www.sahistory.org.za/people/solomon-tshekisho-plaatje

[145] Sol Plaatje, Native Life in South Africa, 3.

[146] Author Unknown, “Solomon Thsekisho Plaatje”, South African History Online, (Uploaded: 17 February 2011), (Accessed: 8 September 2020), Available at: https://www.sahistory.org.za/people/solomon-tshekisho-plaatje

[147] Steve Lunderstedt, “Today in Kimberley’s History”,  Kimberly City Info, (Uploaded: 19 April 2018), (Accessed: 2018), Available at: https://www.kimberley.org.za/today-in-kimberleys-history-19-april/

[148] Ibid.

[149] Sol Plaatje, Native Life in South Africa, 4.

[150] Ibid.

[151] Author Unknown, “The Natives Land Act of 1913”, South African History Online, (Uploaded: 6 March 2013), (Accessed: 8 September 2020), Available at: https://www.sahistory.org.za/article/natives-land-act-1913

[152] Alan Dodson, “The Natives Land Act of 1913 and its Legacy”, Forum, (2013), 29.

[153] Ibid.

[154] Alan Dodson, “The Natives Land Act of 1913 and its Legacy”, Forum, (2013), 29.

[155] Sol Plaatje, Native Life in South Africa, 4.

[156] Ibid.

[157] Sol Plaatje, Native Life in South Africa, 5.

[158] Author Unknown, Centenary of Sol Plaatje’s Native Life in South Africa”, the Journalist (Uploaded: 24 February 2016), (Accessed: 8 September 2020), Available at: http://www.thejournalist.org.za/pioneers/centenary-of-sol-plaatjes-native-life-in-south-africa/

[159] Sol Plaatje, Native Life in South Africa, 16.

[160] Ibid, 5.

[161] Ibid. 

[162] Ibid.

[163] Author Unknown, Centenary of Sol Plaatje’s Native Life in South Africa”, the Journalist (Uploaded: 24 February 2016), (Accessed: 8 September 2020), Available at: http://www.thejournalist.org.za/pioneers/centenary-of-sol-plaatjes-native-life-in-south-africa/

[164] Sol Plaatje, Native Life in South Africa, 6.

[165] Peter Rule, “Remembering Sol Plaatje as South Africa’s Original Public Educator”, The Conversation, (Uploaded: 5 October 2016), (Accessed: 8 September 2020), Available at: https://theconversation.com/remembering-sol-plaatje-as-south-africas-original-public-educator-65979

[166] Author Unknown, Centenary of Sol Plaatje’s Native Life in South Africa”, the Journalist (Uploaded: 24 February 2016), (Accessed: 8 September 2020), Available at: http://www.thejournalist.org.za/pioneers/centenary-of-sol-plaatjes-native-life-in-south-africa/

[167] Author Unknown, “1913 Natives Land Act Centenary”, South African Government, (Uploaded: Unknown), (Accessed: 13 September 2020), Available at: https://www.gov.za/1913-natives-land-act-centenary

[168] Ibid. 

[169] Author Unknown, “The Natives Land Act of 1913”, South African History Online, (Uploaded: 27 August 2019), (Accessed: 13 September 2020), Available at: https://www.sahistory.org.za/article/natives-land-act-1913

[170] Ibid.

[171] Author Unknown, “The Natives Land Act of 1913”, South African History Online, (Uploaded: 27 August 2019), (Accessed: 13 September 2020), Available at: https://www.sahistory.org.za/article/natives-land-act-1913

[172] Mtshiselwa, N., & Modise, L. “The Natives Land Act of 1913 engineered the poverty of Black South Africans: a historico-ecclesiastical perspective”, Studia Historiae Ecclesiasticae, (Vol. 39), (2013).

[173] Author Unknown, “1913 Natives Land Act Centenary”, South African Government, (Uploaded: Unknown), (Accessed: 13 September 2020), Available at: https://www.gov.za/1913-natives-land-act-centenary

[174] Ibid.

[175] Ibid.

[176] Author Unknown, “The Natives Land Act of 1913”, South African History Online, (Uploaded: 27 August 2019), (Accessed: 13 September 2020), Available at: https://www.sahistory.org.za/article/natives-land-act-1913

[177] Ibid.

[178] Ibid.

[179] Ibid.

[180] Author Unknown, “The Homelands”, South African History Online, (Uploaded: 17 April 2011), (Accessed: 13 September 2020), Available at: https://www.sahistory.org.za/article/homelands

[181] Author Unknown, “The Homelands”, South African History Online, (Uploaded: 17 April 2011), (Accessed: 13 September 2020), Available at: https://www.sahistory.org.za/article/homelands

[182] Brian Willan, “Sol Plaatje: Witness to the Land Act of 1913”, New Frame, (Uploaded: 29 August 2018), (Accessed: 13 September 2020), Available at: https://www.newframe.com/sol-plaatje-witness-land-act-1913/

[183] The Department of Basic Education, “National Senior Certificate: Grade 10 History Marking Guideline 2017”, (Uploaded: November 2017), (Accessed: 28 October 2020), Available at: https://www.awsumnews.co.za/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/HISTORY-GR10-MEMO-NOV2017_English.pdf

[184] Ibid.

[185] Mtshiselwa, N., & Modise, L. “The Natives Land Act of 1913 engineered the poverty of Black South Africans: a historico-ecclesiastical perspective”, Studia Historiae Ecclesiasticae, (Vol. 39), (2013).

[186] The Department of Basic Education, “National Senior Certificate: Grade 10 History Marking Guideline 2017”, (Uploaded: November 2017), (Accessed: 28 October 2020), Available at: https://www.awsumnews.co.za/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/HISTORY-GR10-MEMO-NOV2017_English.pdf

[187] The Department of Basic Education, “National Senior Certificate: Grade 10 History Marking Guideline 2017”, (Uploaded: November 2017), (Accessed: 28 October 2020), Available at: https://www.awsumnews.co.za/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/HISTORY-GR10-MEMO-NOV2017_English.pdf

[188] Author Unknown, “The Politics behind Water”, South African History Online, (Uploaded: 1 February 2020), (Accessed: 20 September 2020),  Available at: https://www.sahistory.org.za/article/politics-behind-water

[189] Author Unknown, “The Natives Land Act of 1913”, South African History Online, (Uploaded: 27 August 2019), (Accessed: 13 September 2020), Available at: https://www.sahistory.org.za/article/natives-land-act-1913

[190] Ibid.

[191] Author Unknown, “1923. Native Urban Areas Act (No.21), O’Malley: The Heart of Hope, (Uploaded: Unknown), (Accessed: 20 September 2020) Available at: https://omalley.nelsonmandela.org/omalley/index.php/site/q/03lv01538/04lv01646/05lv01758.htm

[192] Ibid.

[193] Author Unknown, “1936. Native Trust and Land Act No. 18”, O’Malley: The Heart of Hope, (Uploaded: Unknown), (Accessed: 20 September 2020), Available at: https://omalley.nelsonmandela.org/omalley/index.php/site/q/03lv01538/04lv01646/05lv01784.htm

[194] Ibid.

[195] Author Unknown, “1936. Native Trust and Land Act No. 18”, O’Malley: The Heart of Hope, (Uploaded: Unknown), (Accessed: 20 September 2020), Available at: https://omalley.nelsonmandela.org/omalley/index.php/site/q/03lv01538/04lv01646/05lv01784.htm

[196] Ibid.

[197] Author Unknown, “Pass laws in South Africa, 1800 – 1994”, South African History Online, (Uploaded: 21 March 2011), (Accessed: 20 September 2020), Available at: https://www.sahistory.org.za/article/pass-laws-south-africa-1800-199

[198] Liz Stanley, “Natives Land Act, 1913”, Whites Writing Whiteness, (Uploaded: 2019), (Accessed: 20 September 2020), Available at: https://www.whiteswritingwhiteness.ed.ac.uk/traces/land-act/

  •   The Mineral Revolution
  • Campbell, J.T.: “Johannesburg,” Encyclopaedia Britannica [online], Available at https://www.britannica.com/place/Johannesburg-South-Africa (Published on 2 September 2020).
  • Chibba, S.: “A History of Mining in South Africa,” South Africa [online], Available at https://www.southafrica.net/us/en/travel/article/a-history-of-mining-in-south-africa (Accessed on 24 November 2020).
  • Gilbert D.W.: “The Economic Effects of the Gold Discoveries Upon South Africa:  1886-1910,” The Quarterly Journal of Economics, (47), (4), August 1933, pp. 553-597.
  • Harington, J.S., McGlashan, N.D. & Chelkowska, E.Z.: “A Century of migrant labour in the gold mines of South Africa,” The Journal of the South African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, March 2004, pp. 65-71.
  • Harington, J.S., McGlashan, N.D. & Chelkowska, E.Z.: “A Century of Migrant Labour in the Gold Mines of South Africa,” The Journal of the South African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, (1), March 2006, pp. 65-71.
  • Kubicek, R.V.: “The Randlords in 1895:  A Reassessment,” Journal of British Studies, (11), (2), May 1972, pp. 84-103.
  • Lurie, M.N. & Williams, B.G.: “Migration and Health in Southern Africa:  100 Years and still Circulating,” Health Psychology and Behavioral Medicine:  An Open Access Journal, Jan 2014, pp. 34-40.
  • Moodie, T.D.: “Comprehending Class Compromise in the History of Class Struggle on the South African Gold Mines:  Variations and Vicissitudes of Class Power,” South African Review of Sociology, (41), (3), pp. 99-106.
  • Richardson, P & Van Helten, J.J.: “The Development of the South African Gold-Mining Industry, 1895-1918,” The Economic history Review, (37), (3), August 1984, pp. 319-340.
  • The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica.: “De Beers S.A.” Encyclopaedia Britannica [online], Available at https://www.britannica.com/topic/De-Beers-SA (Published on 31 March 2020).
  • The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica.: “Diamonds, Gold and Imperialist Intervention (1870-1902),” Encyclopaedia Britannica [online], Available at https://www.britannica.com/place/South-Africa/Gold-mining (Accessed on 24 November 2020).
  • Turton, A., Schultz, C., Buckle, H., Kgomongoe, M., Malungani, T. & Drackner, M.: “Gold Scorched Earth and Water:  The Hydropolotics of Johannesburg,” Water Resources Development, (23), (2), June 2006, pp. 313-335.
  • Yudelman, D.:  The Emergence of Modern South Africa:  State, Capital, and the Incorporation of Organized Labour on the South African Gold Fields, 1902-1939.  David Philip Publisher (Pty) Ltd:  Cape Town, 1984.
  • Allen, D.: “Beating them at their own game:  Rugby, the Anglo-Boer War and Afrikaner nationalism, 1899-1948,” The International Journal of the History of Sport, (20), (3), 2003, pp. 37-57.
  • Author Unknown.: “Boer War 1899-1902,” Anglo Boer War [online], Available at https://www.angloboerwar.com/boer-war (Accessed on 20 October 2020).
  • Author Unknown.: “Emily Hobhouse,” Anglo Boer War [online], Available at https://www.angloboerwar.com/other-information/16-other-information/1847-emily-hobhouse (Accessed on 21 October 2020).
  • Author Unknown.: “Emily Hobhouse,” South African History Online [online], Available at https://www.sahistory.org.za/people/emily-hobhouse (Published on 17 February 2011).
  • Author Unknown.: “First Anglo Boer War,” South African History Online [online], Available at https://www.sahistory.org.za/article/first-anglo-boer-war (Published on 21 March 2011).
  • Author Unknown.: “Introduction to the War,” Anglo-Boer War Museum [online],  Available at https://www.wmbr.org.za/view.asp?pg=research&pgsub=intro1&pgsub1=1&head1=Introduction%20to%20the%20War (Accessed on 13 September 2020).
  • Author Unknown.: “Joseph Chamberlain,” South African History Online [online], Available at https://www.sahistory.org.za/people/joseph-chamberlain (Published on 26 May 2017).
  • Author Unknown.: “Role of Black people in the South African War,” South African History Online [online], Available at https://www.sahistory.org.za/article/role-black-people-south-african-war (Published on 31 March 2011).
  • Author Unknown.: “The Great Trek,” ESAT [online], Available at https://esat.sun.ac.za/index.php/The_Great_Trek (Updated on 13 July 2019).
  • Author Unknown.: “The Jameson Raid,” South African History Online [online], Available at https://www.sahistory.org.za/article/jameson-raid (Published on 21 March 2011).
  • Author Unknown.: “The Second Boer War (1899-1902),” School History [online], Available at https://schoolhistory.co.uk/notes/the-second-boer-war/ (Accessed on 20 October 2020).
  • Author Unknown.: “The South African War (1899-1902),” South African History Online [online], Available at https://www.sahistory.org.za/article/south-african-war-1899-1902 (Published on 8 November 2011).
  • F. Pretorius.: “The Boer Wars,” BBC [online], Available at http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/victorians/boer_wars_01.shtml#eight (Updated on 29 March 2011).
  • Galbraith, J.S.: “The British South Africa Company and the Jameson Raid,” Journal of British Studies, (10), (1), 1970, pp. 145-161.
  • Haggard, H.R.:  A History of the Transvaal.  New Amsterdam Book Company, 1899.
  • Hattersley, A.F.: “HISTORICAL REVISION: LVII. – The Great Trek, 1835-7,” History, NEW SERIES, (16), (61), 1931, pp. 50-54.
  • Katz, E.N.: “Outcrop and Deep Level Mining in South Africa before the Anglo-Boer War:  Re-Examining the Blainey Thesis,” The Economic History Review, (48), (2), 1995, pp. 302-328.
  • Porter, A.: “The South African War (1899-1902):  Context and Motive Reconsidered,” The Journal of African History, (31), (1), 1990, pp. 43-57.
  • Pretorius, F.: “Concentration Camps in the South African War?” South African History Online [online], Available at https://www.sahistory.org.za/archive/concentration-camps-south-african-war-here-are-real-facts-fransjohan-pretorius-conversation (Published on 18 February 2019).
  • Pretorius, F.: “The Boer Wars,” BBC [online], Available at http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/victorians/boer_wars_01.shtml (Published on 29 March 2011).
  • Swart, M.: “The Causes of the Boer War,” Historia, (21), (2), 1976, pp. 168-171.
  • The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica.: “Dame Millicent Garrett Fawcett,” Encyclopaedia Britannica [online], Available at https://www.britannica.com/biography/Millicent-Fawcett (Published on 1 August 2020).
  • The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica.: South African War, Encyclopaedia Britannica [online].  Available at https://www.britannica.com/event/South-African-War (Published on 3 April 2020).
  • The Editors of Encyclopeadia Britannica.: “Great Trek,” Encyclopeadia Britannica [online], Available at https://www.britannica.com/event/Great-Trek (Published on 9 March 2020).
  • The South African Union
  • Author Unknown, “The formation of the SANNC/ ANC”, (Uploaded: 29 June 2011), (Accessed: 9 November 2020), Available at: https://www.sahistory.org.za/article/formation-sanncanc
  • Author Unknown, “John Tengo Jabavu”, South African History Online, (Uploaded: 17 February 2011), (Accessed: 9 November 2020), Available at: https://www.sahistory.org.za/people/john-tengo-jabavu
  • Author Unknown, “1911 Mines and Work Act, No. 12”, O Malley the Heart of Hope, (Accessed: 9 November 2020), Available at: https://omalley.nelsonmandela.org/omalley/index.php/site/q/03lv01538/04lv01646/05lv01736.htm
  • Ashton, E.M., “The Historiography of the Formation of the Union of South Africa”, Magister Hereditatis Culturaque Scinetae: Coursework (History), University of Pretoria.
  • Bernard Makhosezwe Magubane, The Making of a Racist State: British Imperialism and the Union of South Africa 1875 – 1910, South Africa: Africa World Press, 1996.
  • Bottomley, Edward-John, “Transnational Govermentality and the “poor White” in Early Twentieth Century South Africa.” Journal of Historical Geography, (Vol. 54), (2016), 76 – 86.
  • Dodson, A., “The Natives Land Act of 1913 and its legacy”, Forum, (2013), 29 – 32.
  • The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica, “Louis Botha”, Encyclopaedia Britannica, (Uploaded: 23 September 2020), (Accessed: 9 November 2020), Available at: https://www.britannica.com/biography/Louis-Botha
  • Hyam, R., “African Interests and the South Africa Act, 1908 – 1910”, The Historical Journal, (Vol. 13), (No. 1), (1970), 85 – 105.
  • Plaatje, S.,  Native life in South Africa, Before and Since the European War and the Boer Rebellion, Fourth Edition, 1914,  (Uploaded: 26 August 2019), (Accessed: 8 November 2020), Available at: https://www.sahistory.org.za/archive/native-life-south-africa-and-european-war-and-boer-rebellion-sol-t-plaatj
  • The Natives Land Act
  • Author Unknown, “Centenary of Sol Plaatje’s Native Life in South Africa”, the Journalist (Uploaded: 24 February 2016), (Accessed: 8 September 2020), Available at: http://www.thejournalist.org.za/pioneers/centenary-of-sol-plaatjes-native-life-in-south-africa/
  • Author Unknown, “1936. Native Trust and Land Act No. 18”, O’Malley: The Heart of Hope, (Uploaded: Unknown), (Accessed: 20 September 2020), Available at: https://omalley.nelsonmandela.org/omalley/index.php/site/q/03lv01538/04lv01646/05lv01784.htm
  • Author Unknown, “1923. Native Urban Areas Act (No.21), O’Malley: The Heart of Hope, (Uploaded: Unknown), (Accessed: 20 September 2020) Available at: https://omalley.nelsonmandela.org/omalley/index.php/site/q/03lv01538/04lv01646/05lv01758.htm
  • Author Unknown, “Pass laws in South Africa, 1800 – 1994”, South African History Online, (Uploaded: 21 March 2011), (Accessed: 20 September 2020), Available at: https://www.sahistory.org.za/article/pass-laws-south-africa-1800-199
  • Author Unknown, “Solomon Thsekisho Plaatje”, South African History Online, (Uploaded: 17 February 2011), (Accessed: 8 September 2020), Available at: https://www.sahistory.org.za/people/solomon-tshekisho-plaatje
  • Author Unknown, “The Natives Land Act of 1913”, South African History Online, (Uploaded: 27 August 2019), (Accessed: 13 September 2020), Available at: https://www.sahistory.org.za/article/natives-land-act-1913
  • Author Unknown, “The Politics behind Water”, South African History Online, (Uploaded: 1 February 2020), (Accessed: 20 September 2020),  Available at: https://www.sahistory.org.za/article/politics-behind-water
  • Author Unknown, “The Homelands”, South African History Online, (Uploaded: 17 April 2011), (Accessed: 13 September 2020), Available at: https://www.sahistory.org.za/article/homelands
  • Author Unknown, “1913 Natives Land Act Centenary”, South African Government, (Uploaded: Unknown), (Accessed: 13 September 2020), Available at: https://www.gov.za/1913-natives-land-act-centenary
  • Dodson, A., “The Natives Land Act of 1913 and its Legacy”, Forum, (2013), 29.
  • Plaatje, S.,  Native life in South Africa, Before and Since the European War and the Boer Rebellion, Fourth Edition, 1914,  (Uploaded: 26 August 2019), (Accessed: 8 November 2020), Available at: https://www.sahistory.org.za/archive/native-life-south-africa-and-european-war-and-boer-rebellion-sol-t-plaatje
  • Rule, P., “Remembering Sol Plaatje as South Africa’s Original Public Educator”, The Conversation, (Uploaded: 5 October 2016), (Accessed: 8 September 2020), Available at: https://theconversation.com/remembering-sol-plaatje-as-south-africas-original-public-educator-65979
  • Lunderstedt, S., “Today in Kimberley’s History”,  Kimberly City Info, (Uploaded: 19 April 2018), (Accessed: 2018), Available at: https://www.kimberley.org.za/today-in-kimberleys-history-19-april/
  • Mtshiselwa, N., & Modise, L. “The Natives Land Act of 1913 engineered the poverty of Black South Africans: a historico-ecclesiastical perspective”, Studia Historiae Ecclesiasticae, (Vol. 39), (2013).
  • Stanley, L.,  “Natives Land Act, 1913”, Whites Writing Whiteness, (Uploaded: 2019), (Accessed: 20 September 2020), Available at: https://www.whiteswritingwhiteness.ed.ac.uk/traces/land-act/
  • The Department of Basic Education, “National Senior Certificate: Grade 10 History Marking Guideline 2017”, (Uploaded: November 2017), (Accessed: 28 October 2020), Available at: https://www.awsumnews.co.za/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/HISTORY-GR10-MEMO-NOV2017_English.pdf
  • Willan, B., “Sol Plaatje: Witness to the Land Act of 1913”, New Frame, (Uploaded: 29 August 2018), (Accessed: 13 September 2020), Available at: https://www.newframe.com/sol-plaatje-witness-land-act-1913/

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