concept map for research paper

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Developing a Research Topic: Concept Mapping

• Concept Mapping
• Developing Keywords for Searching
• Boolean, Truncation, and Wildcards
• Topic Ideas
• Writing a Research Question

Concept Map / Mind Mapping

What is a concept map.

A concept map is a visual representation of what you know about a topic. Concept maps help you organize your thoughts and explore the relationships in a topic.  Use a concept map to organize and represent what you know about a topic. Explore the connections between elements of the topic. 

Why use a concept map?

Concept maps can be used to develop a research topic. They are a useful brainstorming tool.

Concept maps can be used to study. Mapping what you know about a subject and examining the relationships between elements help you develop a greater understanding of the material.

How do I create a concept map?

• On a whiteboard
• Any way that works for you!

How do I organize the map?

Most of the time you start with the central idea, topic, or subject. Then you branch out from that central point and show how the main idea can be broken into specific subtopics. Each subtopic can also be broken into even more specific topics,

Make a Research Appointment

Click Make a Research Appointment to schedule a meeting with a librarian!

Organize what you know by subtopic in a topic map.

Use the topic map to define your research topic.

For example: geography - local travel - rail - variants - rail systems - designs & availability - emissions - research & evidence

Make a topic statement or research question. 

I am researching the environmental impact of using commuter rail systems in cities.

How does using commuter rail systems in cities affect the environment?

Concept Map, Mind Mapping

Example concept map.

• Next: Developing Keywords for Searching >>
• Last Updated: Sep 18, 2023 11:56 AM
• URL: https://libguides.valdosta.edu/research-topic
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6 ways to use concept mapping in your research

Joseph Novak developed concept mapping in the 1970s and ever since, it has been used to present the construction of knowledge. A concept map is a great way to present all the moving parts of your research project in one visually appealing figure. I recommend using this technique when you start thinking about your new research topic all the way through to the end product, and once you submitted your thesis, dissertation or research article, you can use concept mapping to plan your next project. If you prefer to watch the video explaining the 6 steps, scroll down.

What is the purpose of concept mapping?

You may wonder what the purpose of a concept map is. A concept map shows the different “ideas” which form part of your research project, as well as the relationships between them. A concept map is a visual presentation of concepts as shapes, circles, ovals, triangles or rectangles, and the relationships between these concepts are presented by arrows. Your concept map will show the concept in words inside a shape, and the relationship is then presented in words next to each arrow, so that each branch reads like a sentence. What is the difference between a mind map and a concept map? A mind map is different from a concept map in that a mind map puts much less emphasis on the relationship between concepts.

How to use a concept map in your research

Don’t wait to put your concept map together until only after you have, what you consider, “all the knowledge” and have read “all the literature” (anyway, with two million research articles published each year, will that day ever come?). In the very early stages, when you start thinking about your research project, draw your concept map to get your thoughts organised. Then, as you become more and more abreast with the research out there, modify your concept map.

The process of creating a concept map is an iterative one and you will find that it feels like you have drawn and redrawn the map over and over so many times that you wonder if you are ever going to get to a final version. This process in itself is a learning experience and is vital to sort the concepts out for yourself. If you have clarity in your own head, it is easier to explain what your research is all about to someone else. In addition, including a concept map into a dissertation, thesis, or research article (where relevant) makes it easier for the reader (including the examiner or reviewer) to understand what your research project is all about. There are several instances in your research journey where a concept map will come in handy.

#1 Use a concept map to brainstorm your research topic

When you are conceptualising your research topic, create a concept map to put all the different aspects related to your research topic onto paper and to show the relationships between them. This will give you a bird’s eye view of all the moving parts associated with the chosen research topic. You will also, most probably, realise that the topic is too broad, and you’ll be able to zoom in a bit more to focus your research question better. But before you settle on a specific research question, do a bit of reading around the topic area. Your concept map will show you which keywords to search for.

#2 Use a concept map when planning the search strategy for your literature review

Jumping right into those databases to do a search for articles to include in your literature review can really take you down the deepest darkest rabbit hole. One of those where you find an appropriate article, then gets suggested a few related articles and then you find another few related articles to the related articles, and after 4 hours you can’t even remember what your actual focus was. To avoid this situation, draw your concept map first. You can use the concept map you drew when you brainstormed your research topic to give you guidance in terms of the keywords to search for. Planning your search strategy before you jump in will ensure that you remain on the well-lit path.

#3 Add a concept map to your completed literature review chapter

As you read more about your research topic, you’ll get a better idea of the relationships between the current concepts, and you’ll find more concepts to add to your concept map. Adapt your concept map as you go along, and once you have the final version of your literature review, add your concept map as a figure to your literature review chapter. This will give the reader a good overview of your literature review and it will make their hearts happy because we all know how nice it is to be rewarded with a picture after reading pages and pages of text.

#4 Use a concept map to plan your discussion

Once you completed your data analysis and interpretation, developing a concept map for your discussion will give you clarity on what to include in your discussion chapter or section.

#5 Add a concept map to your completed research project

Once you have completed your entire research project and you want to show how your findings filled a gap in the literature, you can indicate this by modifying the concept map which you created for our literature review. This is a great way to show how your research findings have added to the existing concepts related to your research topic.

#6 Use a concept map to show your research niche area

You can use a concept map to visually present your own research niche area and as your career progresses and you create more knowledge in a specific niche, you can add to your concept map.

How to make a concept map for research

Go to a place where there are very few distractions, a place that is conducive to letting those creative juices flow freely. Seeing that we all function differently, shall I rather say, a place which you perceive as having few distractions. It may be in a park, in your garden, at a restaurant, in the library or in your own study.

Take out a blank piece of paper and start thinking about your research project. Of course, you can do it on a blank page on your laptop as well. One of my students used sticky notes with each sticky note presenting a concept, and with smaller strips of sticky notes showing the relationships between concepts. You can even get all fancy and use concept mapping software. But as a start, a blank piece of paper is more than enough.

Jot down all the ideas that come to mind while you answer the following questions: What is your research about? Why is your research important? What gap does your research fill? What problem will your research solve? What influences your research outcome? Just jot all your thoughts down. Then, once you have all your thoughts on paper, see if you can identify some relationships between the concepts which you noted down. What comes before what? What is a consequence of what? What is associated with what?

Once you are happy with what you have put together, present it to a friend, preferably at a time when both of you are not in a hurry to get somewhere. At a bar with loud music may not work well, and on a first date may also not be a good idea. Explain what is going on in the concept map and give your friend a chance to ask some questions. As you explain it to someone, as well as through fielding your friend’s questions, it will start to make more sense to you, and you will most probably move some concepts around and add new ones. Repeat this process with someone else when you feel you need some more input.

If you are planning to feature your concept map in your thesis, dissertation or research article, now is the time to turn your rough concept map into something more presentable. One can easily get totally lost when it comes to choosing software to create a concept map. Some of the software out there is paid for while others give you a free version for some basic concept mapping. Be careful of that software which only gives you free access for 30 days, remember, you are going to change your concept map quite a few times as time goes on. If you prefer to use software which you are already familiar with, why not just do it in PowerPoint or Word? On the other hand, Lucidchart is really user-friendly. Watch the video below to see how easy it is to create a concept map with Lucidchart. Explore a few options and see what works for you, but be careful, this exploration can take you down that 4-hour rabbit hole and when a proposal submission deadline is looming, that rabbit hole is a dark place to be in.

We'd like to acknowledge Coffee Machine Cleaning  for the image of the coffee cup and notebook used in this blog post. 

Examples of concept maps

Here are a few examples of concept maps that show the concepts and the relationship between the concepts well. Click on the image to visit the original source. Go and enjoy developing a concept map for your research!

One last thing before you go, for more valuable content related to academic research, subscribe to the Research Masterminds YouTube Channel  and hit the bell so that you get notified when I upload a new video. If you are a (post)graduate student working on a masters or doctoral research project, and you are passionate about life, adamant about completing your studies successfully and ready to get a head-start on your academic career, this opportunity is for you! Join our awesome membership site - a safe haven offering you coaching, community and content to boost your research experience and productivity. Check it out!  https://www.researchmasterminds.com/academy . 

Example 1 Little Red Riding Hood

Example 2 Nursing Management

Example 3 Operations Management

Example 4 Cup of Coffee

Example 5 Flexibility

Example 6 Human Body Systems

Example 7 Simple Concept Map Template

If you prefer to watch the video, here it is:

Leave a comment

How To Write a Research Paper

• 1. Understand the Assignment
• 2. Choose Topic & Write Thesis Statement
• 3. Create Concept Map & Keyword List

Create a Concept Map

Make a list of keywords / search terms.

• 4. Research Your Topic
• 5. Create an Outline
• 6. Write the Paper
• Assignment Calculator

Create a concept map of your topic. A concept map is a visual diagram that shows the relationship between different ideas related to your topic.

To create a concept map:

• Who is affected?
• Who is affected? -- Children, Men, Women
• Causes -- Genetics, Poor diet, Sedentary lifestyle
• Effects -- Poor mental health, Poor physical health, Low self-esteem
• Prevention -- Better diet/nutrition, More exercise/physical fitness, Better medical interventions
• The sub-sub topic Poor Diet be broken further into -- More fast food, Bigger portion sizes, Higher caloric intake, etc.

Selecting the right keywords is important when you begin searching. Keywords are the most important parts of your topic and are necessary to properly communicate with the different research tools you'll be using. Here are some tips to choosing keywords:

• Never use whole sentences or long statements
• Nouns usually make the best keywords
• Keep adding, subtracting, and replacing keywords you use to find a variety of results
• Expand your list by using synonyms, subject terms, and more specific concepts

Below are some examples of education-related keywords to help you get started:

After you have chosen your keywords, you'll want to combine them to form a search statement . You can combine words using "AND" in between. Have more than one word as a keyword? Put quotations around it. This will tell the database or search engine that you using a phrase and not just individual words. Here are few examples drawn from the above keyword list:

→ "academic achievement" AND "class size"

→  education AND children AND "parental involvement"

→  "teacher-student ratios" AND "public schools"

• Choosing Search Terms

• << Previous: 2. Choose Topic & Write Thesis Statement
• Next: 4. Research Your Topic >>
• Last Updated: Oct 31, 2023 9:15 AM
• URL: https://libguides.seminolestate.edu/researchpaper

• Research Guides

Literature Review: A Self-Guided Tutorial

Using concept maps.

• Literature Reviews: A Recap
• Peer Review
• Reading the Literature
• Developing Research Questions
• Considering Strong Opinions
• 2. Review discipline styles
• Super Searching
• Finding the Full Text
• Citation Searching This link opens in a new window
• When to stop searching
• Citation Management
• Annotating Articles Tip
• 5. Critically analyze and evaluate
• How to Review the Literature
• Using a Synthesis Matrix
• 7. Write literature review

Concept maps or mind maps visually represent relationships of different concepts. In research, they can help you make connections between ideas. You can use them as you are formulating your research question, as you are reading a complex text, and when you are creating a literature review. See the video and examples below.

How to Create a Concept Map

Credit: Penn State Libraries ( CC-BY ) Run Time: 3:13

• Bubbl.us Free version allows 3 mind maps, image export, and sharing.
• MindMeister Free version allows 3 mind maps, sharing, collaborating, and importing. No image-based exporting.

Mind Map of a Text Example

Credit: Austin Kleon. A map I drew of John Berger’s Ways of Seeing in 2008. Tumblr post. April 14, 2016. http://tumblr.austinkleon.com/post/142802684061#notes

Literature Review Mind Map Example

This example shows the different aspects of the author's literature review with citations to scholars who have written about those aspects.

Credit: Clancy Ratliff, Dissertation: Literature Review. Culturecat: Rhetoric and Feminism [blog]. 2 October 2005. http://culturecat.net/node/955 .

• << Previous: Reading the Literature
• Next: 1. Identify the question >>
• Last Updated: Feb 22, 2024 10:53 AM
• URL: https://libguides.williams.edu/literature-review

Concept Mapping for Research Projects

Introduction

What is concept mapping in research, what is the purpose of concept mapping, examples of concept maps, how are concept maps used in research, benefits of a concept map, what is the concept mapping process.

Concept mapping is a straightforward yet powerful technique that offers a bird's eye view of scientific knowledge and connections between ideas. Through concept mapping, research can be systematically arranged to allow researchers to analyze complex topics, making it easier to see how different concepts relate to one another.

It transforms abstract thoughts into a clear, visual representation of scientific knowledge, acting as a practical tool for bridging brainstorming and detailed data analysis . Concept mapping is especially beneficial for uncovering relationships between concepts that may not be immediately obvious.

This article outlines what the concept mapping process entails, its purposes, and its advantages. It also provides a step-by-step guide on creating concept maps for your research project, supplemented with examples.

Concept mapping for qualitative studies is a valuable tool that allows researchers to visualize the relationships between different ideas, concepts, or pieces of information. It involves creating a diagram that showcases how various elements are interconnected, often revealing patterns, hierarchies, and associations that might not be evident through text alone. The map starts with a central idea or question and branches out to show how subsidiary ideas connect to it and to each other.

This technique is grounded in the cognitive sciences, reflecting how the brain organizes and structures knowledge. By mapping out concepts, researchers can more easily comprehend the scope of a project, identify gaps in knowledge, and determine the direction of their inquiry. It serves not just as a method for organizing thoughts but also as a tool for critical thinking and analysis.

In the context of research, concept mapping can be used at various stages of a project. Initially, it can help in formulating a research question or questions by visually exploring the key themes and variables involved. Throughout the research process, concept maps can be adapted and expanded to incorporate new findings and insights, making them dynamic tools for understanding and communication.

Moreover, concept mapping fosters collaboration among research team members, providing a shared visual language that can bridge disciplinary divides. It can visually present complex ideas, making discussions more productive and helping to align the team’s understanding and approach.

A concept map shows scientific knowledge in an organized manner. Moreover, it serves as a multifaceted tool designed to enhance comprehension, communication, and collaboration in research. At its core, concept mapping aims to clarify complex ideas and relationships, making abstract concepts more accessible and understandable. This clarity is achieved by visually representing ideas, which helps researchers and stakeholders alike grasp the breadth and depth of a project more intuitively.

One primary objective of concept mapping is to foster critical thinking and analytical skills regarding a particular research topic. By visually laying out the connections between concepts, researchers are encouraged to explore and question the nature of these relationships, potentially uncovering new insights or identifying underlying assumptions. This process promotes a more thorough examination of the subject matter, encouraging a deeper engagement with the material.

Furthermore, using concept maps can aid in the identification of gaps in knowledge. By organizing concepts visually, it becomes easier to spot areas that are underexplored or lacking in evidence. This can guide future research directions, ensuring that efforts are focused on filling these gaps and advancing understanding of the topic.

Another significant purpose of concept mapping is to enhance collaboration among researchers. By providing a clear and shared visual representation of a project’s structure, concept maps facilitate communication among team members, regardless of their disciplinary backgrounds. This shared understanding helps to align research efforts, streamline decision-making processes, and encourage collaborative problem-solving.

Concept maps are versatile tools that can be applied across diverse research areas to clarify complex ideas and foster deeper understanding. Below are conceptual examples from different domains, showcasing how concept maps can be tailored to specific research needs.

Environmental science

Imagine a study that employs mind mapping to focus on the impacts of climate change on coastal ecosystems. Researchers could use concept mapping to illustrate the intricate relationships between species, habitats, and environmental stressors. The map might center on "Coastal Ecosystems," branching out to related concepts like "Sea Level Rise," "Salinity Changes," and "Species Migration." This visual representation could help in understanding the multifaceted effects of climate change, guiding conservation efforts and policy development.

In exploring factors that influence student motivation, educational researchers might create a concept map to visualize connections between the classroom environment, teaching methods, and student engagement. Key elements such as "Active Learning," "Feedback," and "Classroom Climate" could be linked to impact "Student Motivation." This concept map could serve as a foundation for strategies to boost engagement and learning outcomes, demonstrating concept mapping's applicability in educational interventions.

Health sciences

For a study on Alzheimer's disease progression, a concept map could delineate complex pathways leading to neuronal degeneration. Featuring "Alzheimer's Disease" at its center, branches could extend to "Genetic Factors," "Environmental Influences," and "Biochemical Processes." This approach might identify potential therapeutic targets and help address health challenges.

Technology and business

Researching how small businesses adopt new technologies could involve a concept map exploring decision-making factors. The central theme "Technology Adoption" might connect to "Cost-Benefit Analysis," "Organizational Culture," "Market Trends," and "Regulatory Environment." This method could capture the multifaceted nature of technology adoption decisions, aiding in the development of supportive strategies for small businesses.

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Concept maps are utilized in research to facilitate a range of critical activities, from the initial stages of project planning to the dissemination of research findings. Their use enhances the clarity, organization, and effectiveness of research efforts in several key ways.

At the outset of a research project, a concept map can help in defining the scope and objectives. Researchers can use a concept map to identify and visually represent the main themes and questions their project will address. This early visualization aids in pinpointing the focus areas and can highlight potential research questions or hypotheses that warrant further exploration.

Throughout the research process, concept maps serve as dynamic tools for organizing and synthesizing information. As new data is collected and analyzed, the concept map can be updated to reflect new insights, connections between concepts, and emerging patterns. This ongoing adjustment helps researchers maintain a clear overview of their project, ensuring that their data analysis remains structured and focused.

Concept maps also play a crucial role in identifying relationships between variables and in revealing gaps in existing knowledge. By laying out the known connections and highlighting areas with limited information, researchers can more easily identify where further investigation is needed, guiding the direction of subsequent research efforts.

In terms of collaboration and communication, concept maps are invaluable. They provide a visual language that can be shared among team members and stakeholders, facilitating discussions and ensuring that all parties have a common understanding of the project’s framework and findings.

Finally, when presenting research outcomes, concept maps can effectively summarize and convey complex information to diverse audiences. They can be used in reports, presentations, and publications to illustrate the study’s structure, findings, and implications clearly and concisely, making the research accessible to both academic and non-academic audiences.

Concept maps offer a range of benefits that enhance the research process, making complex information more manageable and comprehensible. These benefits can be broadly categorized into improving understanding, facilitating communication, and aiding in the planning and organization of research.

Enhancing understanding

Concept maps help distill complex ideas into visual formats, making abstract concepts more tangible. By laying out the relationships between different pieces of information, these maps enable researchers to see patterns and connections that might not be obvious in textual form. A concept map can lead to a deeper understanding of the subject matter, as it encourages the identification of relationships, hierarchies, and networks within the research topic.

Facilitating communication

One of the key advantages of concept maps is their ability to act as a communication tool among research team members and with external stakeholders. They provide a shared visual language that can help in explaining ideas clearly and succinctly, bridging knowledge gaps between individuals with different expertise or backgrounds. This common ground is especially valuable in multidisciplinary research teams, where understanding each others' perspectives is crucial for collaborative success. Moreover, concept maps can be effective in presentations or publications by conveying findings and theories in a more engaging and understandable way.

Aiding planning and organization

In the context of research planning and organization, concept maps serve as an invaluable tool for structuring projects and outlining research strategies. They allow researchers to visually map out the scope of their study, identify key components and variables, and organize their approach to data collection and analysis. This can support a more efficient use of resources and time, as potential overlaps or gaps in research can be identified early in the process. Furthermore, concept maps can be used to track progress over time, providing a clear overview of how individual pieces of research contribute to the overall project goals.

The process of creating a concept map involves several structured steps that guide researchers from the initial exploration of a topic to the development of a comprehensive visual display of their ideas and findings. This process can be divided into key phases: starting with a literature review , drafting an initial mind map, and refining the concept map into a final version.

Conducting a literature review

The first step to creating a concept map is to conduct a thorough literature review. This stage is crucial for gathering existing knowledge on the topic, identifying key concepts, theories, and relationships that have been previously established. The literature review helps in framing the main idea or question that will be at the center of the concept map. It provides a solid foundation of information from which researchers can begin to build their map, ensuring that it is grounded in established research and theory.

Drafting an initial map

With a clear understanding of the topic from the literature review, the next step is to start drafting an initial concept map. This can begin as a simple mind map, with the main idea at the center and primary concepts branching out from it. Researchers can then add layers of detail, linking related concepts and indicating the nature of their relationships. This initial draft is a flexible tool, allowing for easy adjustments as new ideas emerge or as the structure of the map evolves.

Refining the concept map

The last phase involves refining the initial draft into a final version of the concept map. This step may require multiple revisions, as researchers review their concept map for clarity, coherence, and completeness. It's an opportunity to ensure that all relevant concepts are included and accurately represented. The final version should clearly convey the main idea, its supporting concepts, and their interconnections. This polished concept map can then be used for various purposes, such as the basis for a research project, a visual aid in a blog post, or a tool for communication within a research team.

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ATLAS.ti assists you with the entire research process, from initial mind maps to findings. See how with a free trial.

The Ultimate Guide to Concept Maps: From Its Origin to Concept Map Best Practices

This concept map tutorial is to help you master the technique of using concept maps, whether it is for your education or for your business.

In this concept map guide, you will find insight into,

What is a Concept Map?

Origin of concept maps.

• The Characteristics of a Concept Map

How to Draw a Concept Map

• How Do You Fine-tune a Concept Map
• Concept Map Templates

Uses of Concept Maps

• What are Some Common Mistakes to Avoid When Creating a Concept Map
• Concept Map Best Practices

Concept maps are a graphical tool that is used to visualize meaningful relationships among concepts. It’s used as a knowledge representation tool, meaning they basically represent the knowledge structure that we humans store in our minds about a certain topic.

Both simple and complex concept maps consist of two things: concepts and relationships among them.

Concept maps were the outcome of a research done in the 1970s at Cornell University by Joseph Novak – an American Educator and Research Scientist – and his research team.

In order to study how children understand basic science concepts, they studied and interviewed many children. However, they found it difficult to identify the changes in the ways children understood science concepts with the detailed interview transcripts alone.

The need to find a better solution to represent children’s conceptual understanding led to the development of the concept map in 1972.

Since then it has been used extensively not only in the fields of education and research but also in business.

The Key Characteristics of a Concept Map

Not all diagrams that have words/ phrases inside nodes are concept maps. Concept maps have specific characteristics that distinguish themselves from other diagrams that are used to represent knowledge. And they are,

Nodes are the circles or the boxes that are used to represent a concept or an idea. These may vary in size, according to their hierarchy on the map; for example, more general nodes at the top of the map may be bigger than the more specific nodes that follow them.

Cross-Links

Concept maps consist of concepts in different domains.  And the relationships between these different domains of knowledge are shown with cross-links.

Linking Words

Or linking phrases if it contains more than a word. These describe the type of relationship between the two concepts and appear on the line connecting them.

Hierarchical Structure

Usually, concept maps are organized hierarchically. This means the most general and inclusive concepts are placed at the top of the map. Those that are more specific are positioned below them. Accordingly, hierarchical concept maps are read from top to bottom.

However, the structure of a concept map is not limited to this structure, it could take a free-form approach too – starting from the center and spreading outwards.

Propositional Structure

A concept map illustrates a set of meaningful propositions about a topic.

Every two concepts (in some cases more than two,) along with the linking phrases, form a meaningful sentence, otherwise known as a proposition.

Focus Question

Generally, a concept map should be woven around a focus question, which is the problem or the issue the concept map seeks to resolve. The better the focus question, the richer the concept map will be.

Underlying Theory

Concept maps are based on Ausubel’s Assimilation theory . This is built around the fact that new knowledge can be learned effectively by linking it to what is already known. Concept maps are seen as a methodological tool of this theory.

Generate new ideas and add structure to your thoughts with concept maps. Explore connections between concepts to better understand them with Creately.

Create a Concept Map

You can either draw a concept map on a piece of paper or on a concept mapping software. Either way, stick to the following steps when you are drawing one.

Step 1: Pick a Topic

The first step is to identify a topic you need to study with your concept map. This could be an idea, a question or an issue.

For example, let’s say you are interested in SEO or Search Engine Optimization.

Step 2: Do a Quick Brainstorm

What are the facts, ideas, concepts, themes, queries etc. that come to your mind when you think about this topic? Note these down as you brainstorm around the topic you have selected. Remember to keep these as concise as possible.

Step 3: Start to Draw the Map

It’s recommended to start a concept map from the top and develop it downward, although you can put down your topic at the center and expand it outwards. Either way make sure that the central topic stands out from the rest (use a bigger node, a different color etc.).

Step 4: Connect the Concepts

Now it’s time to connect what you have brainstormed to the central topic and to each other. Remember, the more important the idea, the closer it should be to the top or the center.

As you identify these connections put down the linking words or phrases to indicate the relationship between the two concepts you are linking.

Once the direct connections between concepts have been identified, look for crosslinks that link together concepts from different areas or domains.

Step 5: Anything Missing?

Scrutinize what you have created to make sure that you haven’t missed anything and that the relationships you have identified make sense.

How Do You Fine-tune a Concept Map?

Fine-tuning the concept map is a crucial step when effectively visualizing complex information. Below are some key pointers to follow.

• Begin by reviewing the entire map to identify areas needing improvement or some adjustments.
• Refine the central idea, if necessary, to ensure that the central idea accurately represents the main topic of the concept map.
• If there are long labels, simplify them using specific or descriptive keywords that represent the concept or idea of the map. This will help to reflect the content of each node accurately.
• Evaluate whether any nodes should be added or removed depending on their relevance and redundancy. Look to see if any additional concepts or ideas should be included.
• Review the connections to ensure they correctly represent the relationships between the concepts. If necessary, add or remove connections or adjust the placement of nodes to reflect the connections better.
• Test the map! Test the map with others for feedback, especially on its accuracy and effectiveness.

Editable Concept Map Examples and Templates

Here are some concept map diagram templates you can edit right away on Creately. Click the image to open it in the editor. Make changes according to your needs and export them as images, PNG, PDF, or JPEG.

Concept Map Example 1

Concept Map Example 2

Concept Map Example 3

Concept Map Example 4

Concept Map Example 5

Concept Map Example 6

Concept Map Example 7

Although first introduced to the field of education, concept maps have gained popularity across a number of other fields over the last few decades.

Concept Maps in Education

In the field of education, concept maps are used as both a learning tool and an evaluation tool to assess student learning.

• Foster meaningful learning by helping create connections between what students already know and new knowledge they acquire
• Organize knowledge around a subject for quick analysis
• Assess students’ understanding to see where their knowledge needs improvement
• Conduct effective brainstorming around a topic
• Present complex concepts in an easily digestible way
• Organize instructional material for courses or curricula
• Can be used as a basis for discussion among students
• Help identify valid and invalid ideas held by students
• Help promote creative and critical thinking among students
• Can be used as an alternative to traditional note-taking and writing assignments

Concept Maps in Business

By design, concept maps are apt for business analysis. In the field of business, concept maps are popularly used to preserve, generate and share knowledge.  

• To facilitate team brainstorming sessions to come up with new strategies, new business concepts etc.
• Support creative and result-oriented approach towards business development
• Can be used as a systematic way to share expert business ideas, insights etc. with others
• Help with planning and drafting business documents, business presentations etc.

Concept Maps in Qualitative Research

Concept maps in qualitative research are used as a methodical research strategy.

• Can be used to plan a research project
• Can help reduce voluminous text-based data into a manageable form without losing the meaning
• Identify interconnections between concepts in a study and analyze themes
• Analyze the information provided by interviewees in a study; help the researcher maintain the meaning of the interview
• Present findings in an effective way

What are Some Common Mistakes to Avoid when Creating a Concept Map

When creating your concept map, avoid the below common mistakes that will undermine the map’s effectiveness.

• Overcomplicating. This will make the map too complex or difficult to understand.
• Focusing too much on the details. Getting bogged down with too many details will derail you from the main focus with too much irrelevant and unnecessary information.
• Not using a hierarchy. Without a hierarchy, the concept map will be too complicated to follow and disorganized.
• Not using consistent formatting. It will be difficult to read or understand without consistent formatting and symbols throughout the map, leading to confusion and misunderstandings.
• Being too rigid by not making changes as and when necessary to reflect new information or insights.
• Not testing the map for effectiveness to help identify areas that may need further improvement.

Concept Mapping Best Practices

Start with a clear central idea.

Begin the concept map with a clear yet concise central idea representing the main topic or theme. The central idea should be easily understood, and it should also be the focal point of the map.

Stick with the Hierarchical Structure

Concept maps organized according to the hierarchical structure are easier to read. As the most general concepts go at the top and the more specific ones coming below them, it can easily be read from top to bottom.

Keep a Single Root Concept

A concept map can have two root concepts, but limiting it to one helps the learner easily identify how concepts are constructed. On the other hand, having two root concepts may make it confusing.

Use Meaningful Keywords

Use meaningful and specific keywords to label the concepts. The labels should be descriptive and accurately represent the content of each node.

Color Code Your Concept Maps

Colors help distinguish concepts in different domains immediately. This does not only make it easier to read the map but when it comes to recalling information, color coding plays a vital role.

Add Visual Cues to the Map

Add visual cues such as symbols and images if necessary to highlight important information and to make the concept map more engaging and visually appealing.

Connect Related Ideas

Add visual cues such as symbols and images to highlight important information and make the concept map more engaging and visually appealing.

Make Sure Linking Phrases Make Sense

Two concepts and a linking phrase should make a meaningful sentence. This could be a word, phrase or sometimes even a symbol such as + or %. In any case, make sure that your concept map reads well.

Be Consistent

Use consistent formatting, symbols, and color codes throughout the concept map to make it easier to read and understand.

Always Base Your Concept Map on a Focus Question

Having one single question to answer will help you better structure your concept map and keep yourself from deviating from your focus.

Keep it Simple

If possible, avoid using complex sentences or too much text. Instead, use simple phrases or keywords to communicate the main ideas and connections.

Link to Further Resources

If you are drawing your concept maps with a concept mapping software, you have the ability to make it more resourceful. When mentioning concepts, you can add active links to your concept maps allowing the reader to study the idea more thoroughly.

Review and Revise

One thing to remember is that concept maps can be changed and updated regularly as needed. This will help to refine your ideas and to identify new connections between concepts.

Feed Back on the Comprehensive Concept Map Tutorial

In this concept map tutorial we have covered, everything – whether you are a stranger to concept mapping or have used it before – you should know when it comes to concept map diagrams. If you are ready to go ahead and draw your concept map, start with the Creately Concept Map Maker .

And don’t forget to leave your feedback!

Join over thousands of organizations that use Creately to brainstorm, plan, analyze, and execute their projects successfully.

FAQs About Concept Maps

More related articles.

Amanda Athuraliya is the communication specialist/content writer at Creately, online diagramming and collaboration tool. She is an avid reader, a budding writer and a passionate researcher who loves to write about all kinds of topics.

How to Make Research Concept Map: Explain with Examples

If you’re on a research team and want to organize and illustrate what you know about a topic, creating a research concept map is a smart way to go. It’s a technique for brainstorming research topics or narrowing down a broad notion into a more focused one. Concept maps can also be used to assist you to establish keywords for database searching or to help you come up with a thesis statement for your assignment. Keep reading to learn more about this great technique as well as the procedures for making one.

How to Make Research Concept Map?

What is a concept map, stages in making a research mind map, how to create research concept map online, importance of utilizing a concept map.

A mind map about research is a visual representation of your understanding of a subject. Concept maps help in the organization of your thoughts and the exploration of relationships within a topic. To organize and illustrate what you know about a topic, make an idea map. They essentially represent the knowledge that we people hold in our minds regarding a certain subject.

Make a topic idea – Determine your research mind map topic area by considering what you may possibly research in this area.

Perform a preliminary search – You must now determine whether you have sufficient resources to complete your investigation. Are those resources readily available? Is your topic too broad or too narrow?

Define the research problem or hypothesis – You should be able to establish the boundaries of your research now that you’ve done some preliminary investigation. Consider phrasing your research question as just a question to aid you in writing.

Conduct thorough research – According to a concept map regarding research, Conducting thorough research is one of the recognized resources for the problem or topic.

Begin drafting your report – Start your initial draft with the principal purpose of your report if you’ve described it. If not, submit a one-sentence summary that answers the following question: What is your report’s story?.

Check the draft report for errors -Finally, the report is updated and double-checked at this stage, and research mind map example diagrams and other visual aids are added.

Create professional-looking mind maps with GitMind . This tool is an online brainstorming and graphic design tool that allows users to easily build visualizations such as research concept map models, flowcharts, and other graphic representations. Additionally, this program provides free editing options while also allowing users to send their outputs by URL and edit them wherever they are. Having stated that, the detailed processes for creating a research concept map utilizing this program are provided below.

• First, go to GitMind’s official website and click the “Get Started” button to start.

• Choose the “Mindmap” tab and hit the “New Mindmap” button to start making a mindmap.

• From there, you can start customizing your concept map for research.

• Once done, click the “Save” button to save the modification, also if you can share your outputs via the URL link by simply hitting the “Share” button.

Both speakers and people learning new material might benefit from concept mapping. People can frequently absorb ideas far more rapidly with a research mind map than they can by reading them inside an article or book. This visual way of presenting information that makes it quickly understandable. Because of its simplicity and highlighting of crucial aspects, people can easily read thru a conceptual framework for quick comprehension of the complete system. This can be incredibly useful in a variety of situations, such as a work event when attendees must quickly examine the benefits of new initiatives.

All in all, concept mapping can truly help the organization of a presentation in a logical manner. Visualizations are logical by nature and emphasize clarity as well as order. Presenters are guided to create brief, logical presentations by forcing this structure on them. Even if the user isn’t presenting the research concept map during the presentation, a presenter may build a concept map as a way of arranging his presentation notes. Furthermore, software such as GitMind makes constructing a concept map much easier.

Related posts:

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What is a Concept Map?

A concept map helps you organize what you know about your topic. It is a lot like brainstorming because it helps to get information out of our heads and challenges us to identify important concepts and ideas. However, unlike brainstorming, concept mapping asks us to define how these essential components relate to each other. It results in maps that are structured and complex, but also more informative.

Your map will include key events, people, places, time periods, and ideas, as well as their relationships to one another. All concepts are linked together with words or phrases that define the relationship. Make a concept map to:

• see connections between ideas
• narrow your topic
• generate questions to guide your research

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Introduction to Academic Reading and Writing: Concept Map

• Concept Map
• Select a Topic
• Develop a Research Question
• Identify Sources
• Thesis Statements
• Effective Paragraphs
• Introductions and Conclusions
• Quote, Paraphrase, Summarize
• Synthesize Sources
• MLA and APA
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Concept Maps

Create a concept map using your annotations and highlights of the text .

Define your map’s focus question and topic.  Your focus question guides your map in a certain direction.  What is the purpose of what you read? Your topic is  what  you are reading about.  

Create a list of relevant concepts, thoughts and implications of your topic as you read.  , think about the relationships between these concepts and begin to organize the list of concepts from broad to specific.  you can set a topic at the center, with supporting points and details branching outwards, or you can create a hierarchy, with  the  topic at the top and its components below.   , add links and cros s -links  between related concepts   and  label these links with words or phrases to  clarify  the relationship between concepts., color code, add symbols, and personalize to your map so that is meaningful to you..

Check out these free online Concept Mapping tools:

• Lucid Chart

Video by McLaughlin Library, University of Guelph, 2017 .

Concept Map Example

Map by Penn State University , Concept Maps iStudy Tutorial

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Concept Mapping

A concept map (also called a mind map) is a tool that you can use to help brainstorm a research topic or help you narrow down a general idea into a more focused idea. Concept maps can also be used to help you come up with a thesis statement for your assignment or to help you develop keywords that you can use in your database searching. 

Concept maps also help you see connections between some of your ideas and show you how many different directions you can take your research based on a single idea.

How to create a Concept Map

The great thing about concept maps is that they can look however you'd like and can be done either on a piece of paper or even done online. Some free online concept mapping tools are MindMup , Creately , and Lucidchart , although there are many other tools available.

Start with your main idea in the center of your map. Then to start building out your map, use the 5Ws + How (Who, What, When, Where, Why, and How) to start thinking about related concepts. For example, why is this topic so important? Who is influenced by your topic? Where did your topic take place?

Example Concept Map

The general topic of your paper, the All Community Colleges Should be Tuition Free  goes in the center of your page.

Using the 5Ws + How, you have built out a concept map, to give you a better sense of which directions your paper can go. For example, based on your concept map, you might decide to narrow down your topic to who is impacted by community colleges being tuition free or how free tuition makes education more accessible.

• Community members
• Strengthens the workforce.
• Makes education more accessible.
• Current issue.
• Spartanburg Community College
• More community members have the ability to go to college.
• Free tuition helps ease the financial burden of going to college.
• State funding.

Helpful Resources

• Concept Mapping Handout This printable handout can help you get started on a concept map.
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Concept Mapping

• What is Concept Mapping?
• Concept Mapping Tools
• Concept Mapping How-to
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Introduction

What is concept mapping .

Concept mapping is a useful tool/skill that can be applied to the research process

"Concept maps are graphical tools for organizing and representing knowledge. They include concepts, usually enclosed in circles or boxes of some type, and relationships between concepts indicated by a connecting line linking two concepts. Words on the line, referred to as linking words or linking phrases, specify the relationship between the two concepts."

Concept Map Example

The above concept map examples are from a paper by Novac & Canas (2008) on how to construct concept maps and the theory underlying them. The below example is from professor Vandana Singh from the Physics and Earth Sciences department at Framingham State University.

Novak, J. D., & Canas, A. J. (2008).  The Theory Underlying Concept Maps and How to Construct and Use them  (p. 36). Pensacola, FL: Institute for Human and Machine Cognition.  Retrieved from http://cmap.ihmc.us/docs/theory-of-concept-maps

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Handbook of Social Sciences and Global Public Health pp 1–25 Cite as

Concept Mapping Method

• Sharanya Napier-Raman 2 ,
• Scott Rosas 3 ,
• Syeda Zakia Hossain 2 ,
• Elias Mpofu 2 , 4 , 5 ,
• Mi-Joung Lee 2 ,
• Pranee Liamputtong 6 ,
• Tinashe Dune 7 &
• Virginia Mapedzahama 7  
• Living reference work entry
• First Online: 28 January 2023

75 Accesses

This chapter introduces group concept mapping and illustrates the merit of this methodology for global public health research. Group concept mapping is a mixed-methods participatory research approach that integrates qualitative conceptual data and rigorous multivariate statistical analysis, transforming abstract conceptual data into visual representations or “maps.” The participatory nature of group concept mapping as well as its fully integrated mixed-methodology makes it a particularly useful methodology for public health research. Group concept mapping is a collaborative group process that seeks to build consensus between disparate perspectives within a group. It provides researchers with actionable, participant-determined research outcomes. Group concept mapping has been applied in social research across a range of disciplines, including public health, yet remains underutilized by health researchers. This chapter offers a guide for conducting the methodology, detailing the six key steps in group concept mapping: planning, generation, structuring, analysis, interpretation, and utilization. To illustrate group concept mapping in action, the chapter presents a case study using this methodology to examine the sexual and reproductive health decision-making of migrant and refugee youth in Australia. This case study provides evidence of the utility of group concept mapping for examining the complex social issues of public health research.

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See Napier-Raman et al. for further details on this study and research findings (forthcoming).

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Sydney School of Health Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia

Sharanya Napier-Raman, Syeda Zakia Hossain, Elias Mpofu & Mi-Joung Lee

Concept Systems, Inc., Ithaca, NY, USA

Scott Rosas

Rehabilitation and Health Services, University of North Texas, Denton, TX, USA

Elias Mpofu

School of Human and Community Development, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa

College of Health Sciences, VinUniversity, Gia Lam District, Hanoi, Vietnam

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Napier-Raman, S. et al. (2023). Concept Mapping Method. In: Liamputtong, P. (eds) Handbook of Social Sciences and Global Public Health. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-96778-9_63-1

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Concept Maps

What are concept maps.

Concept maps are visual representations of information. They can take the form of charts, graphic organizers, tables, flowcharts, Venn Diagrams, timelines, or T-charts. Concept maps are especially useful for students who learn better visually, although they can benefit any type of learner. They are a powerful study strategy because they help you see the big picture: by starting with higher-level concepts, concept maps help you chunk information based on meaningful connections. In other words, knowing the big picture makes details more significant and easier to remember.

Concept maps work very well for classes or content that have visual elements or in times when it is important to see and understand relationships between different things. They can also be used to analyze information and compare and contrast.

Making and using concept maps

Making one is simple. There is no right or wrong way to make a concept map. The one key step is to focus on the ways ideas are linked to each other. For a few ideas on how to get started, take out a sheet of paper and try following the steps below:

• Identify a concept.
• From memory, try creating a graphic organizer related to this concept. Starting from memory is an excellent way to assess what you already understand and what you need to review.
• Go through lecture notes, readings and any other resources you have to fill in any gaps.
• Focus on how concepts are related to each other.

Your completed concept map is a great study tool. Try the following steps when studying:

• Elaborate (out loud or in writing) each part of the map.
• List related examples, where applicable, for sections of the map.
• Re-create your concept map without looking at the original, talking through each section as you do.

Examples of concept maps

Example 1 : This example illustrates the similarities and differences between two ideas, such as Series and Parallel Circuits. Notice the similarities are in the intersection of the 2 circles.

Example 2 : This example illustrates the relationship between ideas that are part of a process, such as a Food Chain.

Example 3 : This example illustrates the relationship between a main idea, such as climate change, and supporting details.

Example 4 : Outlining is a less visual form of concept mapping, but it might be the one you’re most familiar with. Outlining by starting with high-level course concepts and then drilling down to fill in details is a great way to determine what you know (and what you don’t know) when you’re studying. Creating an outline to start your studying will allow you to assess your knowledge base and figure out what gaps you need to fill in. You can type your outline or create a handwritten, color-coded one as seen in Example 5.

Additional study strategies

A concept map is one tool that you can use to study effectively, but there are many other effective study strategies. Check out these resources and experiment with a few other strategies to pair with concept mapping.

• Study Smarter, Not Harder
• Higher Order Thinking
• Metacognitive Study Strategies
• Studying with Classmates
• Reading Comprehension Tips

Make an appointment with an academic coach to practice using concept maps, make a study plan, or discuss any academic issue.

Attend a workshop on study strategies to learn about more options, get some practice, and talk with a coach.

How can technology help?

You can create virtual concept maps using applications like Mindomo , TheBrain , and Miro . You may be interested in features that allow you to:

• Connect links, embed documents and media, and integrate notes into your concept maps
• Search across maps for keywords
• See your concept maps from multiple perspectives
• Convert maps into checklists and outlines
• Incorporate photos of your hand-written mapping

Testimonials

Learn more about how a Writing Center coach uses TheBrain to create concept maps in our blog post, TheBrain and Zotero: Tech for Research Efficiency .

Works consulted

Holschuh, J. and Nist, S. (2000). Active learning: Strategies for college success. Massachusetts: Allyn & Bacon.

If you enjoy using our handouts, we appreciate contributions of acknowledgement.

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SCS 224 (Campus) - Social Science Research Methods

Brainstorming and mind mapping, brainstorming.

Brainstorming is a way to come up with topics or ideas. It allows a person to casually consider multiple topics, ideas, theories, etc. without judgment and to take some ideas further into actual projects or as tools to consider more topics, ideas, theories, etc. MindTools' Brainstorming page has tools and more information about brainstorming.

Mind Mapping

A mind map is a visual representation of your issue or topic. It is a tool that is used to visualize ideas and opportunities for broadening or narrowing down search topics. MindTools' Mind Mapping page has tools and more information on mind mapping.

There are a number of free brainstorming and mind mapping tools available online like Bubbl.us and Popplet . Alternatively, try the mind map available via Credo Reference  (click "Mind Map" on the Credo Reference homepage):

Lit Review Templates

Another way to "map" your literature review sources is to use a chart format. A two chart system would entail creating one chart that lists each source and highlights key descriptors, and a second chart where the overall topic is broken down into sub-topics derived from the "main ideas" from the first chart. Each one of these "sub-topics" or issues then has the specific sources (articles, book chapters, etc.) that explain/support that issue/idea listed next to them. You may relabel the columns in this template and include the number of pages you will devote to each sub-topic in your research paper as required for  Homework #6 in this course SCS224.

• Source Matrix for Literature Review This document consists of 2 charts that work together to map a literature review. The first lists each source with main idea, study population, results/conclusions, limitations, connections. The second chart is laid out by sub-topics with sources delineated for each.

Homework #4 - Concept Map

Assignment: construct a concept map for your research.

Read these sources about literature reviews and concept mapping:

• Research Methods Knowledge Base - Concept Mapping This link opens in a new window  By William M.K. Trochim  
• Building a Conceptual Framework: Literature Review as Process & Product This link opens in a new window   By Judith Burton  

Concept Mapping Resources

• Concept Mapping In: The SAGE Encyclopedia of Educational Research, Measurement, and Evaluation This link open Defines concept mapping, evaluation of them, claims about them, and provides an in-depth student sample of a concept map.
• Concept Mapping In: Encyclopedia of Evaluation This link opens in a new window Discusses Nowak & Gowin's individual-based concept mapping and Trochim's structured conceptualization, a 6-step process, group idea-mapping methodology based on the integration of familiar group processes such as brainstorming and idea sorting with the multivariate statistical methods of multidimensional scaling and hierarchical cluster analysis.

CREDO Mind Maps

The CREDO Reference database is a compilation of "tertiary sources" meaning reference resources like specialized encyclopedias, dictionaries and informational resources that organize, categorize, collect and summarize information from primary and secondary sources. CREDO provides mind maps for various topics, with an accompanying list of sources. With each click on an item in the mind map, a new list of sources is shown as well as a further iteration of the map with concept at the center.

Credo Database Link

Sample Mind Map from CREDO for "Cooperative Housing"

Clicking on any of the outer points of the Mind Map will lead to a new mind map with that concept at the center and a new list of sources.

Remember that the sources in CREDO help you to understand an overall picture of your topic and the issues embedded within it. You will need to research each of these issues to find scholarly sources for your research paper. The CREDO source can help provide ideas for search terms you might use as your pursue research on your topic.

• << Previous: Homework #2 - IRB
• Next: Homework #5 - Annotated Bibliography >>

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How the design and complexity of concept maps influence cognitive learning processes

Felix krieglstein.

1 Psychology of Learning with Digital Media, Institute for Media Research, Faculty of Humanities, Chemnitz University of Technology, Chemnitz, Germany

Sascha Schneider

2 Educational Technology, Institute of Education, Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland

3 Digital Media in Education, Department of Psychology, University of Education, Freiburg, Germany

Günter Daniel Rey

Concept maps are assumed to enhance learning as their inherent structure makes relations between information more salient. Nevertheless, research on how to design concept maps as conducive to learning as possible is still rare. In particular, the salience of spatial arrangement of thematically related concepts within the map as well as the complexity of the map were found to be central design elements that influence learning. This study aimed to examine how the structure (i.e., the salience of the spatial relationship between individual concepts) and the complexity (i.e., number of nodes per sub concept) influence learning. Accordingly, a 2 (low vs. high salience of map structure) × 2 (few vs. many nodes) between-subject design was used ( N  = 122) to examine cognitive processes while learning with a concept map. No significant learning performance differences were found. Concepts maps with a low salience of map structure increased perceptions of disorientation. A serial mediation with learning performances as dependent variable revealed that the salience of the map structure is significantly associated with disorientation and extraneous cognitive load perceptions. By this, current attempts to measure extraneous cognitive load are questioned.

Introduction

When learning complex information, it is primarily important to be able to transfer the various components into a coherent model. When learners struggle to create such relations mentally, learning may be hindered. In particular, learners with rather low prior knowledge often need further help to internalize knowledge which consists of interconnections. Hereby, different instructional methods offer the possibility to structure and present information in an easy-to-understand way. One way to organize knowledge hierarchically in a rather simple and compact way are concept maps (Cañas et al., 2015 ; Novak, 1990 ). In contrast to texts, concept maps represent visualized relationships between thematically-related information units. Therefore, the aim of this study was to gain deeper insights into how the salience of the map structure and the number of nodes per sub-concept affect cognitive learning processes.

Learning with concept maps

A concept map is defined as “a node-link diagram in which each node represents a concept and each link identifies the relationship between the two concepts it connects” (Schroeder et al., 2018 , p. 431) while concepts are illustrated in boxes or oval-shaped forms (Novak & Cañas, 2008 ). To specify the relationship between two or more concepts, connecting lines are used that can be labeled to further define this connection (Cañas et al., 2015 ). For instance, the concepts “Facebook” and “Mark Zuckerberg” could be linked with the label “founded by”. The modern idea to structure information in a concept map originates from Novak et al. in the 1970s (Novak & Gowin, 1984 ). In the literature, similar designations like knowledge maps (O’Donnell et al., 2002 ), node-link maps (Blankenship & Dansereau, 2000 ), or mind mapping (Buran & Filyukov, 2015 ) can be found which deal with the graphical representation of information. Theoretical foundations for the benefit of concept maps can be found in the assimilation theory of meaningful learning (Ausubel, 1963 ). In line with this constructivist approach, meaningful learning only occurs when new ideas and concepts are integrated into already existing knowledge structures (see also Kalyuga, 2009 ). In line with Mayer ( 2002 ), all cognitive processes related to the integration of new information into existing prior knowledge structures can be described as meaningful learning. Learners are therefore considered as active individuals who build up new knowledge on the basis of knowledge already gained (e.g., Bada & Olusegun, 2015 ). Since their development, concept maps have been examined in numerous learning settings to determine the extent to which they offer an advantage over comparable instructional methods.

In general, the learning-promoting effect of concept maps is meta-analytically supported (Nesbit & Adesope, 2006 ; Schroeder et al., 2018 ). In a recent meta-analysis by Schroeder et al. ( 2018 ), the learning-beneficial effect could be confirmed with a moderate effect size ( g  +  = 0.58). Hereby, creating concept maps ( g  = 0.72) offered a bigger benefit for learning than studying concept maps ( g  = 0.43). Concept maps can be seen as an effective learning strategy for two main reasons (Schroeder et al., 2018 ): First, concept mapping promotes meaningful learning. In line with Kalyuga ( 2009 ), integrating and organizing new elements into the learner’s knowledge structures can be defined as knowledge elaboration. This process is supported by the inherent structure of concept maps. Therefore, the concept and sub-concept look of concept maps (e.g., Europe—Germany—Federal States—Saxony) illustrates subordinate and superordinate relationships in a more comprehensible way. Compared to texts involving its grammatical structure, concept maps emphasize the macrostructure of the information more clearly (O’Donnell et al., 2002 ). In this vein, meta-analytical findings from Nesbit and Adesope ( 2006 ) revealed that students with low prior knowledge benefitted most from learning with concept maps. Second, the inherent structure of concept maps makes it possible to distribute the cognitive load across the verbal and visual channels of information processing. Thus, a cognitive overload can be avoided (Schroeder et al., 2018 ; Sweller et al., 2019 ). Moreover, it is assumed that concept mapping reduces extraneous cognitive processing due to its simpler structure than is the case when studying or writing texts. Concept maps are therefore also beneficial for learners with a low verbal ability (Haugwitz et al., 2010 ). A recent review by Machado and Carvalho ( 2020 ) also indicated that inserting concept maps into university teaching contributes to developing critical thinking skills, promotes meaningful learning, and facilitates student collaboration. In this context, concept maps find wide application in several learning topics. For instance, they are used in chemistry (Talbert et al., 2020 ), operations management (Essila et al., 2021 ), and pharmacy courses (Carr-Lopez et al., 2014 ).

Cognitive processes while learning with concept maps

While learning several processes take place within the learner. The most important are cognitive processes which determine learning success in a crucial manner. In this vein, the Cognitive Load Theory (CLT, Sweller, 2010 ; Sweller et al., 2019 ) tries to reconcile human working memory characteristics and the instructional design of multimedia learning environments. Cognitive load can be defined as the cognitive burden which is caused by the learning material in dependence on learners’ prior knowledge (Feldon et al., 2019 ). Cognitive load subsumes two additive types: intrinsic and extraneous cognitive load (Jiang & Kalyuga, 2020 ; Sweller et al., 2019 ). Intrinsic cognitive load (ICL) is determined by task complexity (i.e., the element interactivity) and moderated by learners’ domain-specific prior knowledge (Kalyuga, 2011 ). The complexity of the learning material is described with the element interactivity on a continuum between low and high. In line with Sweller ( 2010 , p. 124) an element can be defined “as anything that needs to be or has been learned, such as a concept or a procedure”. On the other hand, the prior knowledge may influence the ICL (Chen et al., 2017 ) as learners with high expertise have already formed schemata, which helps them to solve a problem without a high working memory load. Due to its relevance for learning the ICL can be equated with productive load (Kalyuga & Singh, 2016 ). In contrast, extraneous cognitive load (ECL) is the burden triggered by information-seeking processes that are caused by a non-optimal design and format of the learning material (Sweller, 2010 ). Extraneous processing may be also caused when the information is spatially or temporally distributed or not presented in a comprehensible order (van Merrienboer & Ayres, 2005 ). If working memory resources are already consumed by ECL processes, not enough resources are available to deal with the intrinsic load. The ECL can be changed actively within the design phase of the learning material (Leahy & Sweller, 2016 ). In line with Kalyuga and Singh ( 2016 ) extraneous processing is not relevant for learning and therefore unproductive.

Instructional materials, such as concept maps, also induce a certain amount of cognitive load. Orientated to previous research in the field of educational psychology, it is primarily important to avoid extraneous processing while learning with concept maps to keep free enough working memory capacities for managing the inherent task difficulty (Paas et al., 2003 ). In line with Tergan ( 2005 ), easily comprehensible concept map structures can reduce searching processes, which are detrimental to learning. In this vein, learning with concept maps can suffer from cognitive overload as well as navigational disorientation (Bleakley & Carrigan, 1994 ). Orienting on Ahuja and Webster ( 2001 ), Amadieu et al. ( 2009 ) as well as Cress and Knabel ( 2003 ), disorientation hinders learning processes in different ways: (1) The learner cannot capture how various concepts within the map are connected; (2) It is more difficult to recognize semantic relationships between the concepts, i.e., which concept is subordinate and which concept is superordinate; (3) The learner is hindered in identifying a path that will function as a guide through the map; and (4) It is sometimes tough to find already read information again. Tergan ( 2005 ) assumes that learning scenarios with “ill-structured” content required additional tools to foster learning. One approach is providing a visible hierarchical structure within the concept map (Amadieu et al., 2015 ). In line with principles of reducing extraneous processing while learning (e.g., spatial contiguity principle to prevent learning-hindering split-attention effects; Schroeder & Cenkci, 2018 ), a visible hierarchical structure within the concept map should lead to better learning performances (DeStefano & LeFevre, 2007 ; Puntambekar & Goldstein, 2007 ). Hierarchy results in a high-quality concept map and was thus expected to support learning (Cañas et al., 2015 ). For this study, an easily identifiable navigation path (adapted from Amadieu et al., 2009 ) characterizes a salient structure within the map. Therefore, a logical and comprehensible navigation through the learning material is fundamentally conducive to learning, not only in concept maps (Dias & Sousa, 1997 ).

Another possibility is the implementation of signaling (highlighting relevant information within the learning material; for a meta-analysis see Schneider et al., 2018 ) which is derived from the CLT. For example, Aguiar and Correia ( 2016 ) could show that adding colors into the concept map, in order to group similar information, reduces extraneous cognitive load. Furthermore, Schneider et al. ( 2021 ) found empirical evidence for the learning-beneficial effect of implementing organization highlighting principles in concept maps. In this vein, signaling corresponding sub-concepts within the map significantly reduced ECL perceptions. However, the simultaneous usage of these principles (e.g., combining signaling with segmentation) also had negative impacts on learning with concept maps.

To sum up, concept maps were found to have positive effects on learning (Machado & Carvalho, 2020 ; Nesbit & Adesope, 2006 ; Novak, 1990 ; Schroeder et al., 2018 ). However, empirically documented recommendations on how concept maps should be optimally designed are still rare and require further examinations (e.g., Schroeder et al., 2018 ).

The present study

This study investigated how the inherent design and complexity of concept maps can be improved in order to support cognitive processes while learning. Hereby, the effectiveness of concept maps depends to a large extent on the spatial arrangement of the individual sub-concepts, respectively the structure of the entire map. In this vein, Machado and Carvalho ( 2020 ) pointed out that students often struggle finding their way through the concept map. Consequently, it may be difficult to integrate the individual sub-concepts and their content into a coherent model.

Also, a salient structured concept map, in which related information is arranged spatially close to each other, should lead to lower ECL and disorientation perceptions. As the saliently structured concept map could promote the learner to find a meaningful reading order (Amadieu & Salmerón, 2014 ), it is assumed that learners are also more learning-efficient regarding their invested learning time. There might be learner who achieved the same score in a learning test but in a different amount of time.

To summarize, the following hypotheses were formulated:

Learners exposed to a concept map with a high salience of the map structure show …

better learning performances

lower ECL perceptions

lower perceived disorientation

higher learning efficiency

than learners exposed to a concept map with a low salience of the map structure

In line with findings concerning element interactivity (Kalyuga, 2011 ), it is assumed that each node of the map can be understood as an element. When thematically and spatially related nodes within the map are assembled to one node, this leads to a lower quantity of elements. When learners are confronted, for example, with three instead of six nodes, they might consider the whole sub-concept as a lower load. The aim is to reduce the element interactivity artificially since the amount of information to be learned remains the same. Just the presentation changes across the factor levels. In a concept map with a higher number of nodes, more separated elements must be connected and learned. Consequently, aggregating thematically related nodes should lead to better learning outcomes. Moreover, when learners are forced to learn with a lower number of nodes, the perceived ICL should decrease because of the reduced element interactivity (Sweller, 2010 ). In terms of disorientation, a lower number of nodes facilitates learning since additional integrating processes of related nodes are reduced. In a similar way, the artificial reduction lead to higher learning efficiency since less time is required to understand the learning content.

To sum up, the following hypotheses were formulated:

Learners exposed to a concept map with lower number of nodes within sub-concepts show …

lower perceived ICL

than learners exposed to a concept map with a higher number of nodes within sub-concepts.

Moreover, a mediation model is proposed under the premise that explicitly the salience of the map structure is associated with the learner's navigational disorientation (DeStefano & LeFevre, 2007 ; Puntambekar & Goldstein, 2007 ; Tergan, 2005 ). Since disorientation is negative for learning it is hypothesized that this perception leads to higher ECL ratings. Following the proposed path, extraneous processing leads to worse learning performance. For this analysis, the retention and comprehension scores were subsumed to the variable learning performance.

The effect of the salience of the map structure on learning performance is serially mediated by disorientation and extraneous cognitive load.

Design and participants

This experiment is based on a two (salience of the map structure; low vs. high) × two (number of nodes; few vs. many) between-subjects factorial design. An a-priori power analysis (using G*Power ; Faul et al., 2007 ) was conducted with a two-factorial between-subject design with two-factor levels each, a moderate effect size of f  = .25 (based on meta-analytical findings regarding concept maps and spatial contiguity; Schroeder & Cenkci, 2018 ; Schroeder et al., 2018 ), a test power of 1−β = .80 and an error probability of α = .05. This analysis recommended a minimum sample size of N  = 128. Overall, 130 students from Chemnitz University of Technology, who received either 1-h course credit or the possibility to participate in a voucher lottery, took part in this experiment. Due to technical problems, eight participants had to be excluded. The remaining 122 students (71.3% female; age: M  = 23.01; SD  = 3.04) were considered for statistical analyses. Each participant was randomly assigned to one of the four aforementioned treatment groups. Mean prior knowledge was 1.33 ( SD  = 1.19) out of 7 points what can be seen as rather low prior knowledge.

Instructional material

Two web pages were prepared for the study. The first webpage introduced the participants to the learning content with some general information about the cell and the question of how many cells in the human body exist. By clicking on the forward button, the participants were directed to the second webpage where the concept map was displayed. The concept maps used in this study were developed with the free software tool CmapTools (cf. Cañas et al., 2004 ). Hereby, the maps dealt with biological facts on the cell. More specific, the map presented components of animal and plant cells (eukaryotes) including their formation and functions. Also, prokaryotic cells were briefly stated whereby in particular, the difference between animal and plant cells was emphasized. The concept map was titled “The Cell”. All concept maps comprised of the same amount of information, only the way of presentation was varied across the experimental conditions. To avoid possible emotional design effects (Brom et al., 2018 ), the map was presented on a white background and the font color was black. Just the centrally placed title was displayed in a beige box. Based on the two experimental factors, participants randomly received one map dependent on their condition. An overview of the four concept maps used in the experiment is displayed in Fig.  1 .

Overview of the four concept maps (conditions) used in the experiment

In terms of the first independent variable, the salience of the structure of the concept map was manipulated. Specifically, a clearly arranged structure should be visible in one condition and an unclear structure in the other condition. The saliently structured concept map leads to easier navigation through the map and to a better understanding of the major and minor components and their semantic relationship. Accordingly, the structure serves as an attention guidance assistant. Lucidly presenting information makes it easier to maintain a meaningful reading order through the concept map. On the other hand, if the map has a less salient structure, it is hardly recognizable how the sub-concepts relate to each other. This is mainly favored by the fact that the individual nodes were distributed as randomly as possible across the map. As a consequence, thematically different nodes are no longer recognizable as such. The learner has to mentally structure the map himself accompanied by many search processes.

Regarding the second independent variable, the two-factor levels differed in the total number of nodes. Concept maps are characterized by the fact that for each node one idea or element is presented. In this study, in the few nodes condition, thematically related nodes (which contains information belonging together) were combined to one node (see Fig.  2 ) by summarizing corresponding nodes leading to the dissolution of individual nodes.

Extract from the concept map (left: many nodes, right: few nodes). Note . Instructional material was translated from German to English for this example

For instance, the concept “regulation of the internal cell pressure” is connected with the two sub-concepts “turgor” (linked via “is also known as”) and “stabilization of the plant” (link via “leads to”). These two sub-concepts can also be combined in one node due to their thematic proximity. By integrating any nodes that belong together, the total number of nodes could be reduced by 35% (see Table ​ Table1 1 ).

Number of nodes for sub-concept of the concept map by condition

For each measure, the reliability indicator Cronbach’s alpha (α) was calculated (Cronbach, 1951 ; Tavakol & Dennick, 2011 ) to ensure the internal consistency of the used measurements. In line with Hulin et al. ( 2001 ), an alpha-value of 0.6 or more can be considered as satisfactory.

Prior knowledge

Learners’ prior knowledge was measured because of its empirically proven influence on cognitive load perceptions and learning performances (Chen et al., 2017 ). Two different task types were used to capture this concept. First, the open-answer question “What is the difference between eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells?” was given to the participants. A list with correct answers was prepared for evaluation which was conducted by two independent raters. The inter-rater reliability (κ = .92) was almost perfect (McHugh, 2012 ). The learners could achieve a maximum of three points. For the second task, the participants were asked to assign the following cell organelles to the correct cell type in which they occur: vacuoles, mitochondria, chloroplasts, and Golgi apparatus. Accordingly, four additional points could be reached for this task, whereby a maximum of seven points was awarded in the entire prior knowledge test. Here, no inter-rater reliability was calculated since only one answer per item was correct.

Disorientation

For deeper insights on whether the learners were able to navigate through the concept map, modified items of the disorientation scale from Ahuja and Webster ( 2001 ) were used (see Table ​ Table2). 2 ). In its original version, this scale is designed to assess the effectiveness of web designs. For this experiment, seven items (α = .93) were adapted for the use of concept maps. Participants had to rate items like “The navigation between the concepts was a problem” on a 7-point scale ranging from (1) “does not apply at all” to (7) “applies completely”.

Modified Disorientation Scale (Ahuja & Webster, 2001 ) used in the experiment

These items were answered on a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (“does not apply at all”) to 7 (“applies completely”)

Cognitive load

In order to evaluate the impact of the manipulated experimental conditions on learners’ cognitive processes, cognitive load was assessed with a questionnaire from Klepsch et al. ( 2017 ). In detail, the German subscales of intrinsic cognitive load (ICL; two items, α = .77, e.g. “For this task, many things needed to be kept in mind simultaneously”) and extraneous cognitive load (ECL; three items, α = .88, e.g., “During this task, it was exhausting to find the important information”) were chosen for this experiment. Each item was rated on a 7-point scale ranging from (1) “not applicable at all” to (7) “fully applicable”.

Learning performance

In order to measure the participants’ learning performance, two tests (retention and comprehension) were conducted. For retention , which can be defined as remembering (Mayer, 2014 ), 14 multiple-choice questions were created (α = .74), that questioned knowledge that was explicitly mentioned in the learning material. All questions consisted of four reply options. The number of correct answers differed among all tasks, however, at least one answer was correct. In consequence, the participants got a point if they recognized an item as correct. Besides, one point was awarded when a false item was not selected. For example, the question “What are the functions of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER)?” was given with the answer options (a) “formation of proteins”, (b) “translation of fatty acids”, (c) “signal transmission”, and (d) “storage of genetic information”. Per question, participants could receive a maximum of four points. Overall, 56 points could be maximally achieved by the participants in the retention test.

To measure comprehension , four open-format questions were formulated (α = .62). The comprehension tasks served to check to what extent learners understand the learning content and were able to apply the knowledge gained in new situations (i.e., meaningful learning; Mayer, 2002 , 2014 ). For example, two sketchy representations (an animal cell and a bacterial cell) were presented to the participants. Learners had to apply their knowledge of cell structure and components to identify the correct cell type. In another task, learners were asked to explain the possible consequences of a defective cell membrane. To be able to answer this question correctly, participants had to apply their knowledge of the functions of this cell organelle. In sum, 13 points could be reached in the comprehension test.

Instructional efficiency

In order to track how efficiently learners used their learning time, efficiency scores were calculated with the following formula (van Gog & Paas, 2008 ):

Learning time (T) and learning performance (P) were z-standardized. After calculation, the efficiency scores ranged from − 2.08 to 1.57 (higher values encode a higher learning efficiency).

Due to the Covid-19 pandemic and related social distancing interventions, the experiment was conducted online via the open-source web conferencing system BigBlueButton . Before the experiment, participants got an email with a link to the online room. The instructor informed the participants that they were to learn with a concept map. The participants were also instructed that they would have to answer questions about the learning content after the learning phase. This was to ensure that learners were aware of the goal of the investigation from the beginning. In addition, the participants were asked for informed consent, and instructed to share their screen. This screen sharing was implemented to check whether participants continuously worked with the learning material and the questionnaires and did not check other websites. No personal data was viewed or recorded. Also, participants were instructed to close all tabs except the study website. During the entire experiment, students were able to contact the experimenter either by microphone or chat message in case of problems. The experiment started with the prior knowledge test. After that, students were directed to the website with the learning material. On this website, participants could freely divide their time. Learning time was logged to analyze possible differences. The average duration was 531.34 s ( SD 339.05 s). After participants’ finished learning, the dependent variables were measured in the following order: (1) disorientation, (2) extraneous und intrinsic cognitive load, and (3) learning tests. In line with ongoing debates that multimedia learning provides rather short-term learning effects in lab experiments (Mayer, 2017 ), this study tries to examine if the learned information can still be retrieved after an intervention. For this purpose, three filler tasks with rather low cognitive load were implemented. The participants had to name the capitals of different countries, solve geometrical problems and sort confused letters into words. These filler tasks lasted about 5 to 10 min. Afterward, the learning performance was measured. At the end, the participants were asked to provide demographic information such as age, gender, and study subject. Overall, the entire experiment took between 35 and 45 min.

IBM SPSS Statistics 27 was used to analyze group differences. For data analyses, multivariate analyses of variance (MANOVAs) and univariate analyses of variance (ANOVAs) were conducted to check for group differences. Follow-up ANOVAs were only calculated if the previously performed MANOVA produced significant effects (Cramer & Bock, 1966 ). For all variance analyses, the group variables, salience of the map structure (low vs. high) and number of nodes (few vs. many) were used as independent variables. For the mediation calculation, the SPSS macro process , written by Hayes ( 2013 ), was used.

Prior knowledge was not included as a covariate since the four groups showed no significant differences ( p  = .17). Besides, there were no significant differences between the four treatment groups in terms of age ( p  = .30) and learning time ( p  = .76). Chi-squared tests revealed no differences with regard to gender ( p  = .95) and subject of study ( p  = .64). Effect sizes for group differences were only reported if they reached statistical significance. Partial eta-squared (η p 2 ) was used as effect size measure with the conventions .01 for a small, .06 for a moderate, and .14 for a large effect (Cohen, 1988 ). Correlations between all dependent variables and prior knowledge are displayed in Table ​ Table3. 3 . In addition, Table ​ Table4 4 shows the mean scores and standard deviations of all dependent variables separated into the four treatment groups.

Correlations between all dependent variables and prior knowledge

* p  < .05, ** p  < .01, *** p  < .001

Mean scores and standard deviations of all dependent variables by experimental group

The minimum and maximum of each scale are given in parentheses. Learning time is stated in seconds

Analyses of variance

To investigate possible effects of the independent variables on learning performances, a MANOVA was conducted using retention and comprehension as dependent variables. A significant main effect was found for the number of nodes, Wilk’s Λ = .94, F (2, 117) = 3.829, p  = .025, η p 2  = .06. The main effect for salience of the map structure ( p  = .381) and the interaction ( p  = .270) did not reach significance. In terms of retention, a follow-up ANOVA was not able to detect a significant effect for the number of nodes ( p  = .252). For comprehension, the effect for the number of nodes was also not significant ( p  = .155). Consequently, hypotheses 1 and 5 had to be rejected.

For the cognitive load types, a MANOVA was conducted with ICL and ECL as dependent measures. Here, no significant main effect for the salience of the map structure ( p  = .119), the number of nodes ( p  = .627) and for the interaction ( p  = .954) was found. Thus, hypotheses 2 and 6 were also rejected.

For perceived disorientation, while learning, an ANOVA was calculated. This analysis found a significant effect of the salience of the map structure; F (1, 118) = 8.938, p  = .003, η p 2  = .07. Accordingly, students in the condition with low salience of the map structure reported their disorientation while learning significantly higher than students in the condition with high salience. This result is in accordance to hypothesis 3. The effect for number of nodes ( p  = .899) as well as the interaction of both factors were not significant ( p  = .560). Accordingly, hypothesis 7 must be rejected.

To analyze learning efficiency, an ANOVA was calculated. Hereby, a significant main effect was found for the salience of the map structure; F (1, 118) = 4.208, p  = .042, η p 2  = .03. It indicates that students confronted with a low salience of structure were more efficient in terms of learning time. The main effect for the number of nodes ( p  = .956) and the interaction failed to reach significance ( p  = .100). Based on these results, the hypotheses 4 and 8 had to be rejected.

Mediation model

More complex models, such as serial mediation, can include more than one mediator (Hayes, 2013 ). For this study, two mediators (disorientation and ECL) were assumed. A serial mediation was calculated since the two constructs were measured with different questionnaires (Kane & Ashbaugh, 2017 ). In line with the statistical test assumptions of the mediation (cf. Hayes, 2018 ), it is assumed that the mediators are in a causal relationship with a temporal precedence.

The serial mediation analysis (see Fig.  3 ) showed that the salience of the map structure had a significant effect on disorientation (a 1 ; β =  − 0.53, SE  = 0.28, p  = .003). Disorientation, in turn, had a significant effect on ECL (d; β = 0.80, SE  = 0.06, p  < .001) and on learning performance (b 1 ; β =  − 0.37, SE  = 0.69, p  = .007). In addition, the effect of the salience on ECL (a 2 ; β = 0.04, SE  = 0.21, p  = .722) was not significant.

Standardized beta coefficients of the serial mediation analysis paths for the mediating effect of disorientation and extraneous cognitive load on the effect of salience of the map structure and learning performance. * p  < .05, ** p  < .01, *** p  < .001

Moreover, the path from extraneous cognitive load to learning performances was not significant as well (b 2 ; β =  − 0.12, SE  = 0.61, p  = .371). The total effect of the salience on learning performances did not reach significance (c; β =  − 0.13, SE  = 1.50, p  = .489). Interestingly, the direct effect of salience of the map structure on learning performances, controlling for disorientation and extraneous cognitive load, was significant (c’; β =  − 0.37, SE  = 1.39, p  = .031), suggesting that the inclusion of the two path variables impacts the effectiveness of the salience of the map structure in terms of learning outcomes. This serial mediation representing a causal chain between salience of the map structure, disorientation, extraneous cognitive load, and learning performances can only be partially confirmed.

General discussion

The central aim of this study was the experimental verification of two design interventions that play a significant role in the design of concept maps. For this purpose, four different versions of a concept map dealing with a biological topic were given to the participants. These maps differed in terms of the salience of structure and the number of nodes per sub-concept.

Regarding retention and comprehension, the absence of statistically significant effects of the independent variables indicates that it is irrelevant for learning whether the concept map is presented with a low or high salience of the structure or with few or many nodes. From a descriptive point of view, there is hardly any difference between the four groups in terms of the two factors. In terms of the cognitive load facets, the same conclusion can be drawn, since significant effects could not be observed. However, the assumed negative effect of perceived disorientation could be confirmed. When participants were confronted with a difficult-to-encode map (low-salience), they felt more disorientated while learning. Besides the statistical significance of this effect, the explained variance of 7%, which corresponds to a medium effect size, indicates that the map structure affects perceived disorientation notably. Furthermore, navigating between the concepts was complicated by the low salience of the map structure. The number of nodes does not influence perceived disorientation. Concerning the efficiency, learners with the rather unstructured concept map (low salience) were more efficient than learners with a high salience indicating that learners took less learning time to achieve the same performance in the test. Possibly the learning tests were “too easy” so that even short learning times resulted in good performances.

Also, the mediation model showed that a low salience of the map structure significantly affects perceived disorientation. In line with findings from hypertext research (e.g., DeStefano & LeFevre, 2007 ; Kim & Hirtle, 1995 ), rather unstructured concept maps caused feelings of disorientation. Problems mainly occur when a high level of disorientation leads to a cognitive overload while learning with concept maps. Following the causal chain, disorientation leads to significantly higher perceptions of the ECL. The high beta coefficient of .80 underlines the strength of this effect. It can be deduced that both disorientation and extraneous processing are a consequence of an inadequate structure within the concept map.

Implications

After analyzing and interpreting the results of this study, some theoretical and practical implications can be drawn.

Implications for practitioners

This study gives some practical insights into designing concept maps in educational settings. Instructional designers should place a primary emphasis on creating concept maps in a way that does not cause feelings of disorientation for the learner. It is particularly important to support learners to find a meaningful reading order through a concept map (Amadieu & Salmerón, 2014 ). If this prerequisite is met, learners will be able to construct a mental model of both the concept map inherent physical structure as well as the semantic representation (Payne & Reader, 2006 ). When learning with graphical visualization tools such as concept maps or mind maps, it should be also possible for learners with low prior knowledge to understand how the individual concepts interact.

Implications for researchers

On the theoretical side, this study gives a first impulse that disorientation can be regarded as a meaningful supplement of our current understanding of extraneous cognitive load. The current prevailing assumption is that this source of cognitive load is affected by relatively unspecific unfavorable instructional processes and design realizations. Mainly, extraneous load perceptions are recorded in experimental studies using questionnaires. Over time, several validated instruments were developed for measuring the different types of cognitive load along with the ECL (Eysink et al., 2009 ; Klepsch et al., 2017 ; Leppink et al., 2013 ). However, these measurements capture extraneous processing while learning relatively unspecific.

Just the measurement from Eysink et al. ( 2009 ) distinguishes the extraneous cognitive load into the dimensions: navigation , design of the learning task, and accessibility of information in order to address the different sources of learning-disrupting factors. Nevertheless, this instrument measures navigation with the question if working within the learning environment was rather easy or difficult. Whether the learner’s navigation impressions while learning are sufficiently captured with an unspecific single item is questionable from a psychometric view. Under the premise that navigation within the material can be seen as a fundamental prerequisite for successful learning, this factor should get more attention in future research. While empirical findings regarding the influence of the structure on concept map effectiveness are still lacking, several studies from the field of hypertext research already examined in which way structure affects learning (e.g., Dee-Lucas & Larkin, 1995 ; McDonald & Stevenson, 1998 ). Moreover, disorientation and extraneous cognitive load correlate very highly with each other. The structure in which information is organized crucially affects learning and can be changed by the instructional designer in order to prevent disorientation perceptions while learning. In this vein, the learners perceived navigational disorientation (Amadieu & Salmerón, 2014 ) could be measured when learning materials display knowledge in a certain spatially and semantic arrangement. For instance, one or more of the following items could be useful, but require factor-analytical examinations (for a beginner’s guide see Yong & Pearce, 2013 ):

• “It was difficult to get an overview of the structure of the learning material.”
• “The structure within the learning material made it difficult for me to deduce how the individual pieces of information are related”.
• “While learning I had the feeling of getting lost in the learning material.”
• “It was difficult to put the individual pieces of information together to form a big whole.”
• “The structure made it difficult to find important information quickly.”

Limitations and further directions

From a methodological point of view, it must be noted that the sample is not representative in its composition since participants were mostly female and enrolled in a media-oriented study course. A generalization to other educational settings (e.g., types of schools, school subjects, or students at a different age) is hardly possible and requires replications.

As already mentioned, creating concept maps is associated with a greater learning benefit relative to studying constructed concept maps (Schroeder et al., 2018 ). In this study, however, participants were asked to learn with prepared concept maps what needs to be considered when interpreting the results of this study. Instructing learners to follow examined design guidelines when creating concept maps on their own can help to increase their knowledge gain.

One of the main goals of this work was to reduce the element interactivity (as one component of the overall ICL) artificially by combining thematically related nodes into one node. This attempt was not successful and is intended to serve as an incentive to become more familiar with possibilities of helping learners to handle a high element interactivity. Besides, the learning material was learner-paced meaning that participants were free in their allocation of learning time. In this vein, a system-paced learning environment could have had a higher impact on the examined effects (Rey et al., 2019 ).

Besides the learner’s domain-specific prior knowledge, it is also important to consider their knowledge or ability to use the learning medium appropriately. Moreover, one can assume that prior knowledge on the use of concept maps may affect the cognitive load and therefore learning performances. When learners can rely on sufficient knowledge how to use a concept map, it may be easier for them to navigate through the learning material. Consequently, this would also have an influence on the disorientation. Future studies in the field of concept mapping should collect this variable, for example, by means of questionnaires. This would allow learners to indicate their previous experiences (i.e., prior knowledge) with this learning medium.

It must be noted that the concept maps caused high intrinsic loads since a high amount of information was presented. Above all, the condition with many nodes could create a feeling that learners need to internalize as much as possible of the nodes. To be able to accomplish this, sufficient working memory capacities are required. Since this variable was not measured in this study, it cannot be used as an explanatory factor. Further studies should measure the participants’ working memory capacity when learning materials contain memorization tasks (Wilhelm et al., 2013 ).

Biographies

is a PhD student at Chemnitz University of Technology (Professorship Psychology of Learning with Digital Media). He is interested in learning with concept maps, the design of animations and the measurement of cognitive load. He holds a master’s degree in media and instructional psychology.

is Professor for Educational Technology at the University of Zurich. His research interests include cognitive, social, affective, metacognitive and motivational processes of learning with multimedia.

is a tenure-track Professor at the University of Education Freiburg. His research interests include the influence of social processes on learning. Furthermore, he focusses on the optimization of instructional videos, as well as the promotion of cognitive activation during learning.

is a Professor of Psychology of Learning with Digital Media at Chemnitz University of Technology. His research encompasses cognitive, emotional, social, and motivational processes of learning with media.

Open Access funding enabled and organized by Projekt DEAL.

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Felix Krieglstein and Sascha Schneider have contributed equally to this work.

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How To Write a Concept Paper for Academic Research: An Ultimate Guide

A concept paper is one of the first steps in helping you fully realize your research project. Because of this, some schools opt to teach students how to write concept papers as early as high school. In college, professors sometimes require their students to submit concept papers before suggesting their research projects to serve as the foundations for their theses.

If you’re reading this right now, you’ve probably been assigned by your teacher or professor to write a concept paper. To help you get started, we’ve prepared a comprehensive guide on how to write a proper concept paper.

Related: How to Write Significance of the Study (with Examples)

Table of Contents

What is the concept paper, 1. academic research concept papers, 2. advertising concept papers, 3. research grant concept papers, concept paper vs. research proposal, tips for finding your research topic, 2. think of research questions that you want to answer in your project, 3. formulate your research hypothesis, 4. plan out how you will achieve, analyze, and present your data, 2. introduction, 3. purpose of the study, 4. preliminary literature review, 5. objectives of the study, 6. research questions and hypotheses, 7. proposed methodology, 8. proposed research timeline, 9. references, sample concept paper for research proposal (pdf), tips for writing your concept paper.

Generally, a concept paper is a summary of everything related to your proposed project or topic. A concept paper indicates what the project is all about, why it’s important, and how and when you plan to conduct your project.

Different Types of the Concept Paper and Their Uses

This type of concept paper is the most common type and the one most people are familiar with. Concept papers for academic research are used by students to provide an outline for their prospective research topics.

These concept papers are used to help students flesh out all the information and ideas related to their topic so that they may arrive at a more specific research hypothesis.

Since this is the most common type of concept paper, it will be the main focus of this article.

Advertising concept papers are usually written by the creative and concept teams in advertising and marketing agencies.

Through a concept paper, the foundation or theme for an advertising campaign or strategy is formed. The concept paper can also serve as a bulletin board for ideas that the creative and concept teams can add to or develop. 

This type of concept paper usually discusses who the target audience of the campaign is, what approach of the campaign will be, how the campaign will be implemented, and the projected benefits and impact of the campaign to the company’s sales, consumer base, and other aspects of the company.

This type of concept paper is most common in the academe and business world. Alongside proving why your research project should be conducted, a research grant concept paper must also appeal to the company or funding agency on why they should be granted funds.

The paper should indicate a proposed timeline and budget for the entire project. It should also be able to persuade the company or funding agency on the benefits of your research project– whether it be an increase in sales or productivity or for the benefit of the general public.

It’s important to discuss the differences between the two because a lot of people often use these terms interchangeably.

A concept paper is one of the first steps in conducting a research project. It is during this process that ideas and relevant information to the research topic are gathered to produce the research hypothesis. Thus, a concept paper should always precede the research proposal. 

A research proposal is a more in-depth outline of a more fleshed-out research project. This is the final step before a researcher can conduct their research project. Although both have similar elements and structures, a research proposal is more specific when it comes to how the entire research project will be conducted.

Getting Started on Your Concept Paper

1. find a research topic you are interested in.

When choosing a research topic, make sure that it is something you are passionate about or want to learn more about. If you are writing one for school, make sure it is still relevant to the subject of your class. Choosing a topic you aren’t invested in may cause you to lose interest in your project later on, which may lower the quality of the research you’ll produce.

A research project may last for months and even years, so it’s important that you will never lose interest in your topic.

• Look for inspiration everywhere. Take a walk outside, read books, or go on your computer. Look around you and try to brainstorm ideas about everything you see. Try to remember any questions you might have asked yourself before like why something is the way it is or why can’t this be done instead of that . 
• Think big. If you’re having trouble thinking up a specific topic to base your research project on, choosing a broad topic and then working your way down should help.
• Is it achievable? A lot of students make the mistake of choosing a topic that is hard to achieve in terms of materials, data, and/or funding available. Before you decide on a research topic, make sure you consider these aspects. Doing so will save you time, money, and effort later on.
• Be as specific as can be. Another common mistake that students make is that they sometimes choose a research topic that is too broad. This results in extra effort and wasted time while conducting their research project. For example: Instead of “The Effects of Bananas on Hungry Monkeys” , you could specify it to “The Effects of Cavendish Bananas on Potassium-deficiency in Hungry Philippine Long-tailed Macaques in Palawan, Philippines”.

Now that you have a general idea of the topic of your research project, you now need to formulate research questions based on your project. These questions will serve as the basis for what your project aims to answer. Like your research topic, make sure these are specific and answerable.

Following the earlier example, possible research questions could be:

• Do Cavendish bananas produce more visible effects on K-deficiency than other bananas?
• How susceptible are Philippine long-tailed macaques to K-deficiency?
• What are the effects of K-deficiency in Philippine long-tailed macaques?

After formulating the research questions, you should also provide your hypothesis for each question. A research hypothesis is a tentative answer to the research problem. You must provide educated answers to the questions based on your existing knowledge of the topic before you conduct your research project.

After conducting research and collecting all of the data into the final research paper, you will then have to approve or disprove these hypotheses based on the outcome of the project.

Prepare a plan on how to acquire the data you will need for your research project. Take note of the different types of analysis you will need to perform on your data to get the desired results. Determine the nature of the relationship between different variables in your research.

Also, make sure that you are able to present your data in a clear and readable manner for those who will read your concept paper. You can achieve this by using tables, charts, graphs, and other visual aids.

Related: How to Make Conceptual Framework (with Examples and Templates)

Generalized Structure of a Concept Paper

Since concept papers are just summaries of your research project, they are usually short and  no longer than 5 pages. However, for big research projects, concept papers can reach up to more than 20 pages.

Your teacher or professor may give you a certain format for your concept papers. Generally, most concept papers are double-spaced and are less than 500 words in length. 

Even though there are different types of concept papers, we’ve provided you with a generalized structure that contains elements that can be found in any type of concept paper.

The title for your paper must be able to effectively summarize what your research is all about. Use simple words so that people who read the title of your research will know what it’s all about even without reading the entire paper. 

The introduction should give the reader a brief background of the research topic and state the main objective that your project aims to achieve. This section should also include a short overview of the benefits of the research project to persuade the reader to acknowledge the need for the project.

The Purpose of the Study should be written in a way that convinces the reader of the need to address the existing problem or gap in knowledge that the research project aims to resolve. In this section, you have to go into more detail about the benefits and value of your project for the target audience/s. 

This section features related studies and papers that will support your research topic. Use this section to analyze the results and methodologies of previous studies and address any gaps in knowledge or questions that your research project aims to answer. You may also use the data to assert the importance of conducting your research.

When choosing which papers and studies you should include in the Preliminary Literature Review, make sure to choose relevant and reliable sources. Reliable sources include academic journals, credible news outlets, government websites, and others. Also, take note of the authors for the papers as you will need to cite them in the References section.

Simply state the main objectives that your research is trying to achieve. The objectives should be able to indicate the direction of the study for both the reader and the researcher. As with other elements in the paper, the objectives should be specific and clearly defined.

Gather the research questions and equivalent research hypotheses you formulated in the earlier step and list them down in this section.

In this section, you should be able to guide the reader through the process of how you will conduct the research project. Make sure to state the purpose for each step of the process, as well as the type of data to be collected and the target population.

Depending on the nature of your research project, the length of the entire process can vary significantly. What’s important is that you are able to provide a reasonable and achievable timeline for your project.

Make sure the time you will allot for each component of your research won’t be too excessive or too insufficient so that the quality of your research won’t suffer.

Ensure that you will give credit to all the authors of the sources you used in your paper. Depending on your area of study or the instructions of your professor, you may need to use a certain style of citation.

There are three main citation styles: the American Psychological Association (APA), Modern Language Association (MLA), and the Chicago style.

The APA style is mostly used for papers related to education, psychology, and the sciences. The APA citation style usually follows this format:

The MLA citation style is the format used by papers and manuscripts in disciplines related to the arts and humanities. The MLA citation style follows this format:

The Chicago citation style is usually used for papers related to business, history, and the fine arts. It follows this citation format:

This is a concept paper sample provided by Dr. Bernard Lango from the Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology (modified for use in this article). Simply click the link above the download the PDF file.

• Use simple, concise language. Minimize the use of flowery language and always try to use simple and easy-to-understand language. Too many technical or difficult words in your paper may alienate your readers and make your paper hard to read. 
• Choose your sources wisely. When scouring the Internet for sources to use, you should always be wary and double-check the authenticity of your source. Doing this will increase the authenticity of your research project’s claims and ensure better data gathered during the process.
• Follow the specified format, if any. Make sure to follow any specified format when writing your concept paper. This is very important, especially if you’re writing your concept paper for class. Failure to follow the format will usually result in point deductions and delays because of multiple revisions needed.
• Proofread often. Make it a point to reread different sections of your concept paper after you write them. Another way you can do this is by taking a break for a few days and then coming back to proofread your writing. You may notice certain areas you’d like to revise or mistakes you’d like to fix. Make proofreading a habit to increase the quality of your paper.

Written by Ruth Raganit

in Career and Education , Juander How

Last Updated May 30, 2022 04:34 PM

Ruth Raganit

Ruth Raganit obtained her Bachelor of Science degree in Geology from the University of the Philippines – Diliman. Her love affair with Earth sciences began when she saw a pretty rock and wondered how it came to be. She also likes playing video games, doing digital art, and reading manga.

Browse all articles written by Ruth Raganit

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