education system in china presentation

• The Open University
• Guest user / Sign out
• Study with The Open University

My OpenLearn Profile

Personalise your OpenLearn profile, save your favourite content and get recognition for your learning

A brief introduction to the Chinese education system

This content is associated with The Open University Childhood and Youth Studies qualification .

Structure of the Chinese education system

In China, education is divided into three categories: basic education, higher education, and adult education. By law, each child must have nine years of compulsory education from primary school (six years) to junior secondary education (three years). 

Basic education

Basic education in China includes pre-school education (usually three years), primary education (six years, usually starting at the age of six) and secondary education (six years).

Secondary education has two routes: academic secondary education and specialized/vocational/technical secondary education. Academic secondary education consists of junior (three years) and senior middle schools (three years). Junior middle school graduates wishing to continue their education take a locally administered entrance exam, on the basis of which they will have the option of i) continuing in an academic senior middle school; or ii) entering a vocational middle school (or leaving school at this point) to receive two to four years of training. Senior middle school graduates wishing to go to universities must take National Higher Education Entrance Exam (Gao Kao). According to the Chinese Ministry of Education, in June 2015, 9.42 million students took the exam.

Higher education

Higher education is further divided into two categories: 1) universities that offer four-year or five-year undergraduate degrees to award academic degree qualifications; and 2) colleges that offer three-year diploma or certificate courses on both academic and vocational subjects.  Postgraduate and doctoral programmes are only offered at universities. 

Adult education

Adult education ranges from primary education to higher education. For example, adult primary education includes Workers’ Primary Schools, Peasants’ Primary Schools in an effort to raise literacy levels in remote areas; adult secondary education includes specialized secondary schools for adults; and adult higher education includes traditional radio/TV universities (now online), most of which offer certificates/diplomas but a few offer regular undergraduate degrees.

Term times and school hours

The academic year is divided into two terms for all the educational institutions: February to mid-July (six weeks of summer vacation) and September to mid/late-January (four weeks of winter vacation).  There are no half-terms.

Most schools start in the early morning (about 7:30 am) to early evening (about 6 pm) with 2 hours lunch break. Many schools have evening self-study classes running from 7 pm-9 pm so students can finish their homework and prepare for endless tests. If schools do not run self-study evening classes, students still have to do their homework at home, usually up to 10 pm. On average, primary school pupils spend about seven to eight hours at school whilst a secondary school student spends about twelve to fourteen hours at school if including lunchtime and evening classes. Due to the fierce competitiveness to get into good universities, the pressure to do well for Gao Kao is intense.  Many schools hold extra morning classes in science and math for three to four hours on Saturdays. If schools do not have Saturday morning classes, most parents would send their children to expensive cramming schools at weekends or organise one-to-one private tuition for their children over the weekend.

Find out more on Chinese education

Beginners’ Chinese: a taster course

Learn about Mandarin Chinese as a tool for communication and gain insights into Chinese society and culture. This free course, Beginners’ Chinese: a taster course, provides a brief introduction to the Chinese language, its scripts and sounds, and how words are formed. You will hear short conversations where people greet each other and introduce ...

12 famous Confucius quotes on education and learning

What's your favourite Confucius quote on education and learning? Look at these examples...

Getting started with Chinese 1

Have you always wanted to learn how to speak Mandarin Chinese? Are you fascinated by the sound, the script and its ancient civilisation? If so, this introduction will get you started on the essentials of reading, writing, speaking and listening in Chinese through a variety of online activities. A perfect introduction for absolute ...

Become an OU student

Ratings & comments, share this free course, copyright information, publication details.

• Originally published: Tuesday, 14 July 2015
• Body text - Creative Commons BY-NC-SA 4.0 : The Open University
• Image 'students working at their desks in a Chinese school' - Copyright: Monkey Business Images | Dreamstime.com
• Image 'university in china' - David.78 under CC-BY-NC-ND licence under Creative-Commons license
• Image 'Getting started with Chinese 1' - Copyright: Toa55/iStock / Getty Images Plus
• Image '12 famous Confucius quotes on education and learning' - Copyright free: MorgueFile
• Image 'A brief introduction to the Chinese education system' - Copyright: Monkey Business Images | Dreamstime.com
• Image 'Beginners’ Chinese: a taster course' - Copyright free

Rate and Review

Rate this article, review this article.

Log into OpenLearn to leave reviews and join in the conversation.

Article reviews

For further information, take a look at our frequently asked questions which may give you the support you need.

Education in China: An Introduction

• Open Access
• First Online: 02 January 2024

Cite this chapter

You have full access to this open access chapter

• Zhuolin Feng 4 &
• Xintong Jia 4  

2388 Accesses

Chinese education has undergone tremendous transformation along with its socioeconomic reform in the past four decades. Education is no exception; it continues to change along with an increasingly complex and diversified world. This book provides a comprehensive overview and profound insights of education in China, to encourage further discussions on the issues and challenges confronting Chinese education and the world and to promote international understanding. The first chapter presents an overview of education in China over the past four decades and provides contextual information and analysis for the following 11 chapters. It reviews educational goals based on China’s Five-Year Plans and introduces the Chinese education system and structure. It explores the development of education and research in China, and reflects developmental trends based on statistical analysis.

You have full access to this open access chapter,  Download chapter PDF

Similar content being viewed by others

The Education System of Chile

The Chilean Education System

The Modernization of Education in China Over the Past Century

• Educational development
• Education system
• Educational scale
• Education resources
• Scientific research

1 An Overview of the Chinese Education System

Education in China has undergone tremendous transformation along with its socioeconomic reform in the past four decades. This chapter provides a general introduction on education development and systems in China. The analysis in this section focuses on educational goals in the twenty-first century since the beginning of 2000s, as well as educational development and progress since the reform and opening-up in 1978.

1.1 Evolving Educational Goals in the Past Two Decades

The analysis of educational goals is based on the policy documents of the Five-Year Plan for Economic and Social Development of the People’s Republic of China (hereafter the Five-Year Plan) endorsed by the National People’s Congress. The Five-Year Plans are formulated every five years and establish the main policy directions for further reform and development in the next five years. This series of plans set development goals for education, which reflect the educational conditions in China over time. By analyzing the goals during the past two decades, the progress and advancement of government’s efforts on education can be summarized and more clearly understood.

1.1.1 The 10th Five-Year Plan (2001–2005)

Speeding up Education Development. The 10th Five-Year Plan was endorsed by the ninth National People’s Congress in 2001 (National People’s Congress, 2001 ). It set China’s development goals from 2001 to 2005 and proposed to speed up development.

To Develop All Types of Education at All Levels. The Plan put forward to promote well-rounded education ( suzhi education) Footnote 1 and the holistic development of students on moral, intellectual, physical, and aesthetic aspects. It prioritized the development of basic education, consolidated educational achievements in areas where nine-year compulsory education had been basically universal, and focused on developing compulsory education in economically disadvantaged areas in western China and areas with concentrations of ethnic minorities. The Plan pointed out the need to expand upper secondary education. It also proposed to implement Project 211 and strengthen a number of leading universities and disciplines in higher education. It also pushed the development of vocational education and training, early childhood education and distance learning in the Chinese context. ( ibid ).

To Further Reform the Education System. The Plan proposed to speed up the reform of schooling systems, to encourage, support, and standardize non-state actors to run schools in various forms, and establish an operating model for developing both public and private education sectors concurrently under the government’s guidance. The Plan intended to deepen the reform of education management system, guarantee decision-making powers of higher education institutions (hereafter HEIs) in accordance with the law, and construct an educational system that bridges vocational and traditional education. The Plan also encouraged increased education investment, strengthened mechanism to ensure funding to the compulsory education sector, and enhanced personnel and employment system for university graduates. ( ibid ).

1.1.2 The 11th Five-Year Plan (2006–2010)

Prioritizing Education Development. The 11th Five-Year Plan was endorsed by the 10th National People’s Congress in 2006 (National People’s Congress, 2006 ). It set China’s development goals from 2006 to 2010 and proposed to prioritize education development.

To Reinforce and Make Compulsory Education for All. The Plan put forward to reinforce the importance of compulsory education in rural areas, reduce the dropout rate of rural students, and promote the balanced development of compulsory education in urban and rural areas. ( ibid ).

To Develop Vocational Education and Training. The Plan proposed to further develop secondary vocational education, promote various vocational skills training projects and reform the teaching methods of vocational education. ( ibid ).

To Strengthen Higher Education Quality. The Plan encouraged improving the quality of higher education, optimizing the structure and enhancing the popularization of higher education. It proposed to strengthen the development of leading universities and key disciplines. Adult education was also emphasized. ( ibid ).

To Increase Educational Investment. The Plan specified a goal of gradually raising the percentage of government expenditure on education represented in GDP (Gross Domestic Product) to 4%. It aimed to promote educational equality and it proposed to allocate more public educational resources to rural areas, the central and western regions, poor areas and minority areas. It also pointed out the need for further developing student loans system, improving the subsidy system for students at all levels of schools, and the student aid system for economically disadvantaged students. ( ibid ).

To Further Reform the Education System. The Plan emphasized the need to make clear the responsibilities of government at all levels to provide public education, form a diversified system of educational investment and establish a strict publicity system for educational charges. It put forward creating a teaching system that adapted the requirements of well-rounded education, reforming the examination and enrollment systems, and promoting the reform of teaching, curriculum, and evaluation. It also proposed to reform education management system and establish a system that had clear regulations of responsibilities and guaranteed the decision-making powers of schools. ( ibid ).

1.1.3 The 12th Five-Year Plan (2011–2015)

Further Accelerating Education Reform. The 12th Five-Year Plan was endorsed by the 11th National People’s Congress in 2011(National People’s Congress, 2011 ). It set China’s development goals from 2011 to 2015 and proposed to further accelerate education reform.

To Develop All Types of Education at All Levels. The Plan set the goal of actively developing preschool education and raising total enrollment for children receiving one-year preschool education to 85%. It emphasized reinforcing the achievement of the popularization of compulsory education. It also sought to popularize upper secondary education during the Five-Year period, vigorously develop vocational education and emphasize rural education. It was vital to improve the quality of higher education while speeding up the construction of world-class universities, national top universities, and key disciplines. It was also important to support education for minority nationalities and speed up the development of special education and continuing education. ( ibid ).

To Enhance Education Equality. The Plan pointed out the push to distribute educational resources equally, narrow the gap of educational development between regions, and promote a balanced development of compulsory education. It emphasized education development in rural, remote or poor areas and minority areas. ( ibid ).

To Promote Well-Rounded Education. In order to promote well-rounded education, the Plan put forward to reform the content, teaching methods and assessment system of education, and reinforce the holistic development of students on moral, intellectual, physical, and aesthetic aspects. It sought to widely administer Academic Proficiency Test and Comprehensive Student Assessment in upper secondary education. In higher education, the Plan focused on carrying out projects related to the improvement of teaching quality, instructional reform, and the creation of an effective evaluation system. ( ibid ).

To Further Reform the Education System. The Plan set the goal of reforming the examination system and enrollment method, and gradually forming an effective system including classified exams, comprehensive quality assessment and diversified admission standards. The decision-making powers of schools were guaranteed and expanded, and non-state actors were encouraged to run schools. The Plan also claimed to follow globalization trends, strengthen international cooperation, and underscore high-quality educational resources. ( ibid ).

1.1.4 The 13th Five-Year Plan (2016–2020)

Promoting the Modernization of Education. The 13th Five-Year Plan was endorsed by the 12th National People’s Congress in 2016 (National People’s Congress, 2016 ). It set China’s development goals from 2016 to 2020 and proposed to promote the modernization of education.

To Promote the Balanced Development of Basic Public Education. The Plan proposed to establish a unified urban and rural funding mechanism for compulsory education, take appropriate measures to ensure that state-run schools that provide compulsory education comply with educational standards, and work to raise the completion rate of compulsory education to 95%. It was important to improve the quality of teachers with emphasis on those teachers in rural areas and improve the teaching environment in rural schools. The Plan envisioned a more accessible preschool education system by proposing the targets of opening kindergartens to all children and raising the gross enrollment for children receiving three-year preschool education to 85%. It specified the goal of raising the gross enrollment of upper secondary education to over 90%. The Plan also encouraged increased availability of special needs education for groups with disabilities and promoted the development of education for ethnic minority students. ( ibid ).

To Integrate Vocational Education and Industry. The Plan aimed to improve the modern vocational education system and give momentum to training models for applied expertise and technical skills, which allow for the involvement of industry and vocational education as well as increased cooperation between schools and enterprises. It also emphasized the mutual recognition and vertical mobility between vocational education and regular education. ( ibid ).

To Train Innovators in University. The Plan attached importance to the system for ensuring the quality of higher education. It intended to manage higher education based on classifications and carry out the comprehensive reform of institutions of higher learning, implement an educational system using different methods to train academic talents and applied talents whilst combining general knowledge and major-specific knowledge. It aimed to invigorate higher education in the central and western regions. The Plan sought to ensure that all universities improve their capacity for innovation and adopt a coordinated approach to developing world-class universities and disciplines. ( ibid ).

To Build a Learning Society. The Plan emphasized developing continuing education and it envisioned a system for lifelong learning and training that was available to all members of society. The open sharing of learning resources and the development of senior citizen education were also encouraged. ( ibid ).

To Enhance the Vitality of the Reform of Education. The Plan emphasized furthering reform examination and enrollment systems as well as instructional method. It also put forth efforts to reform the professional title system for elementary and secondary school teachers nationwide and promote close integration of modern information technology with education and teaching. The decision-making powers of schools were expanded, and non-state actors and investors were encouraged to provide a diverse range of educational services. ( ibid ).

1.1.5 The 14th Five-Year Plan (2021–2025) and Vision 2035

Reinforcing a High-Quality Education System. The 14th Five-Year Plan and Vision 2035 was endorsed by the 13th National People’s Congress in 2021 (National People’s Congress, 2021 ). It sets China’s development goals from 2021 to 2025 and puts forward China’s long-term development plan towards 2035. In education sector, it proposes to reinforce a high-quality education system.

To Promote the Equality of Basic Public Education. The most current Plan aims to consolidate the achievement of balanced development of compulsory education, promote the further development of balanced compulsory education, and close the urban–rural divide. It seeks to strengthen the ranks of teachers and improve the quality of teaching staff in rural schools. In upper secondary education, it specifies the target of raising the gross enrollment ratio to over 92%. The Plan also sets the goals of guaranteeing preschool education be more inclusive and requiring special education and specialized education be more accessible. It requires the gross enrollment of preschool education to be raised to over 90%. ( ibid ).

To Enhance the Adaptability of Vocational Education . It is important to highlight the characteristics of vocational education and train substantial talents with technical and professional skills. The Plan seeks to reform the schooling mode of vocational education and give impetus to the involvement of industry and vocational education as well as cooperation between schools and enterprises. It also emphasizes the link between vocational education and regular education. ( ibid ).

To Improve the Quality of Higher Education . The Plan puts forward managing higher education based on classifications, carrying out comprehensive reform of institutions of higher learning, and enhancing the gross enrollment ratio to 60%. It encourages the adoption of a classified approach to developing world-class universities and disciplines, and it supports the development of leading research universities. It also points out the importance of reforming the talent training system for basic disciplines and expanding the scale of graduates with professional degrees. ( ibid ).

To Improve the Quality of Teaching Staff. The Plan intends to establish a modern system of high-performing teaching staff, and places emphasis on constructing normal education bases, developing public-funded education for normal university students, and deepening the comprehensive reform of the management of teachers in elementary schools, secondary schools, and kindergartens. ( ibid ).

To Further Reform Education. The Plan aims to improve the systems and mechanisms of educational assessment and develop well-rounded education. It requires education to be covered in public welfare, and it points out to raise the spending on education and increase the efficiency of the use of educational spending. It is important to expand the decision-making powers of schools and reinforce the comprehensive reform of examination and enrollment systems. It also recommends supporting and regulating the development of non-state education and promote the cooperation with leading schools of other countries. Moreover, the Plan intends to exploit the advantages of online education, improve the system of lifelong learning and build a learning society. ( ibid ).

1.1.6 Developmental Trends of Educational Goals

Since 2001, China has experienced a period of rapid development. These five Five-Year Plans issued during this period have proposed educational goals based on China’s conditions at that time and have been leading the development of education in China. The Plans have been guiding China to improve educational quality and promote educational equity. During the past 20 years, the educational goals have been increasingly detailed. Specific goals have been put forward for all types of education and at all levels. Making education for all and promoting educational reform have become a priority. Above all, the quality of education has been emphasized all the time. The fundamental criterion for measuring the quality of education is promoting the all-round development of individuals and meeting the needs of society (The State Council, 2010 ). The Five-Year Plans put forward specific reform measures for all types of education at all levels to guarantee the development of well-rounded education and promote the all-round development of students on moral, intellectual, physical, and aesthetic aspects. In the background, enrollment ratios of schools at all levels have been consistently rising; the emphasis on quality reflects the transformation of China’s main target from scale expansion to deep development. In order to implement a comprehensive economic and social development strategy for the country, China has relied heavily on science and education, emphasized on talent development, and determined to drive development through innovation. Therefore, developing well-rounded education and continuously improving the quality of education, have been and will be the long-term development goals (Table 1 ).

1.2 The Education System

China’s education system covers preschool education, compulsory education, upper secondary education, and higher education (Fig. 1 ). Compulsory education includes elementary education and lower secondary education; higher education includes undergraduate education and graduate education.

The education system of China. Source Adapted from OECD ( 2016 )

1.2.1 Preschool Education

In China, children usually enroll in preschool at the age of two or three and leave preschool at the age of six. Preschool education is not compulsory education. However, the government takes a proactive role in promoting preschool accessibility. Public preschool and private preschool are both important in China. In 2021, 48.11% of preschool students were in private preschools (Ministry of education [MOE], 2022 ).

1.2.2 Compulsory Education

China adopts a system of nine-year compulsory education, which shall be received by all school-age children and adolescents. It generally includes six years of elementary education and three years of lower secondary education. However, there is some variation between regions with a small number of them having a “5 + 4” rather than a “6 + 3” structure. In public schools, compulsory education is publicly funded and is implemented uniformly by the State; no tuition or miscellaneous fees are charged, and the State shall establish a guaranteed mechanism for operating funds for compulsory education. Elementary education and lower secondary education are also provided by private schools, while they are not free of charge. In 2021, 10.60% of compulsory education students were in private schools (MOE, 2022 ). In compulsory education, curricula and standards are set by MOE and then implemented nationwide by provincial and municipal governments. Article Three of Compulsory Education Law of the People’s Republic of China stipulates that well-rounded education shall be carried out to improve the quality of education and enable children and adolescents to achieve all-round development—morally, intellectually, and physically—so as to lay the foundation for cultivating well-educated and self-disciplined workforce with high ideals and moral integrity (National People’s Congress, 2018a ).

1.2.3 Upper Secondary Education

After compulsory education, students can choose whether to continue to upper secondary education. Upper secondary education is three years in duration and includes two types of schools: regular senior high schools and secondary vocational schools. Regular senior high school represents academic track, while secondary vocational school represents vocational track. Footnote 2 Students complete a senior high school entrance examination ( zhongkao ) before entering upper secondary schools. Students are assigned to different types of upper secondary schools based upon entrance examination results. In China, upper secondary education is mostly publicly funded. In 2021, 17.29% of regular senior high school students and 20.40% of secondary vocational school students were in private schools (MOE, 2022 ).

1.2.4 Higher Education

According to Article Two of Higher Education Law of the People’s Republic of China , higher education in China is defined as “education that is carried out after the completion of upper secondary education” (National People’s Congress, 2018b ). It is a general term inclusive of postsecondary education provided by academies, universities, colleges, vocational institutions, institutes of technology and certain other collegiate-level institutions, including vocational schools, trade schools, and career colleges that award academic degrees or professional certifications (Yu et al., 2012 ). In China, the bachelor’s, master’s, and doctoral degrees are the three officially sanctioned higher education degrees. China’s higher education includes undergraduate education and graduate education. Within the undergraduate education system, regular higher education is the more academic route and tertiary vocational education is the more vocational route; through examination, students of tertiary vocational education can transfer to regular higher education . Students of both routes have opportunities to obtain bachelor’s degree. Graduate education system includes master’s education and doctoral education. Admissions to undergraduate education are based on students’ scores of college entrance examination ( gaokao ), and admissions to graduate education are based on students’ results of entrance examinations. In China, higher education is mostly publicly funded. In 2021, 24.19% of undergraduate students were in private HEIs (MOE, 2022 ).

1.3 The Educational Development Since the Reform and Opening-Up in 1978

1.3.1 focusing on developing education.

Providing education with concentrated strength and focus has always been the most obvious feature of “holding a large scale of education in a poor country”. In order to speed up reform within the shortest period, China adopted a plan of concentrating limited educational resources on selected schools and key fields and concentrating efforts on training in-demand skills and occupations.

Key Elementary and Secondary Schools. In January 1978, MOE stipulated the objectives, tasks, plans, enrollment methods, and leadership of key elementary and secondary schools. In October 1980, MOE sought to build approximately 700 key secondary schools as first-class, high-quality and distinctive schools with good studying habits. In July 1995, National Education Commission (the predecessor of MOE) evaluated and published a list of around 1,000 model regular senior high schools.

Projects 211 and 985 to Develop Higher Education Excellence. In 1993, the State proposed that the central government and local authorities should concentrate on running about 100 key universities and a number of core disciplines. In November 1995, Project 211 officially launched. In 1998, President Jiang Zemin put forward to establish a number of world-class universities in China. In 1999, Project 985 officially launched. These projects aimed to develop a number of excellent universities and enhance the strength of higher education.

Key Vocational Schools. In order to improve the quality of vocational education, in January 1995, the State Council proposed to carry out the evaluation and accreditation of national key secondary vocational schools, and 296 key vocational schools were selected nationwide. (Zhang, 2018 ).

1.3.2 Governing Education Development Through Laws and Regulations

Governing education development through legislation reflects the advancement of modernization in the field of education.

Within the compulsory education sector, Chinese government proposed the implementation of nine-year compulsory education in 1985, and then enacted Compulsory Education Law of the People’s Republic of China in 1986. It took 25 years for China to develop compulsory education from the all-round “universal” stage to the quality improvement stage. As a developing country with a large population, China has realized the target of requiring nine-year compulsory education for all.

China established its higher education academic degree system in 1980. Higher Education Law of the People’s Republic of China promulgated in 1998 formulated a degree system including bachelor’s degree, master’s degree, and doctoral degree, and it has become one of the most important laws to promote the development of higher education.

In the areas of preschool education, special education, and vocational education, the State Council approved the first administrative regulation of preschool education in 1989. China promulgated the first special regulation on education for the disabled in 1994 and implemented Vocational Education Law of the People’s Republic of China in 1996. ( ibid ).

1.3.3 Taking Efficiency and Equity into Consideration

With the development of education in China and the basic realization of equitable education as a starting point, the focus of education reform and development has been gradually converted from the equity of entry to the equity of educational process. Additional efforts have been made to improve the insufficient and imbalanced development of education.

Resuming College Entrance Examinations and Relaxing Restrictions on the Identity of Candidates. In 1977, the college entrance examinations were resumed. Groups including workers, peasants, and fresh high school graduates could sit for the exam as long as they match the requirements, and this change helped improve the equity of talent selection.

Eliminating the Drop-Out of Girls and Promoting Equal Education Opportunities for Men and Women. The Chinese government has actively taken actions to eliminate the dropping-out of girls and worked to effectively guarantee school-age girls’ rights to receive education.

Ensuring School-Age Children’s Right to Receive Compulsory Education . Chinese government has been working to provide more policy support and taking measures to protect school-age children’s right to receive nine-year compulsory education.

Effectively Narrowing the Gap between Regions, Urban and Rural Areas, Schools, and Groups. To narrow the educational gap between the eastern, central, and western regions, additional financial investment has been dedicated to the central and western regions, and the revitalization plans for education in the central and western regions have been implemented. To narrow the educational gap between urban and rural areas, reforms have been implemented targeting low performing rural schools and providing additional support to rural teachers. To narrow the gap between schools, low-performance schools have been given advantages in educational funding, capital construction, the acquisition of teaching equipment, and the adjustment in teaching personnel. To narrow the gap between groups, the government has vigorously encouraged and supported disadvantaged groups to receive education. ( ibid ).

1.3.4 Encouraging and Supporting Education Diversification

Education is a common cause that unites the whole of society. It is important to encouraging non-state actors to participate in and support the development of education. Running schools by non-state actors can not only ease the shortage of educational funding, but also improve the vitality of education, meet diversified educational demands, and promote the health and scientific development of education.

A series of policies provides support and encouragement to non-state actors to run schools. Article 19 of Constitution of the People’s Republic of China promulgated in 1982 stipulated, “the State encourages collective economic organizations, state enterprises and institutions, and other non-state actors to organize education in accordance with the law” (National People’s Congress, 1982 ). In 1985, Chinese central government put forward to arouse the enthusiasm of governments at all levels, teachers, students, employees, and social actors through reform. In July 1997, the State Council endorsed regulations to support and regulate non-state actors to run schools. In September 2003, Private Education Promotion Law of the People’s Republic of China was promulgated and implemented, marking a new stage of legalization for China’s non-public educational sector. In 2016, the Standing Committee of the National People’s Congress and the State Council issued regulations to actively guide non-state actors to run non-profit private schools.

In addition, non-state actors have been invited to engage in developing education at all levels. Along with making nine-year compulsory education for all, Project Hope ( Xiwang Gongcheng ) and Spring Bud Project ( Chunlei Jihua ) sprung up. Project Hope, launched by China Youth Development Foundation in 1989, sought to build Hope Elementary School ( Xiwang Xiaoxue ) and subsidize students in poverty. The Spring Bud Project was initiated by China Children and Teenagers’ Foundation in 1989 to improve education for girls from impoverished families. Currently in upper secondary education sector, the proportion between public and private education is around 8:2. ( ibid ).

2 Educational Scale in China

Based on The 2020 Overview of Educational Achievements in China and The 2021 Statistical Bulletin on National Education Development published by MOE, this section depicts the scale of China’s education from the following four aspects: literacy level, number of schools, number of students, and number of full-time teachers. Footnote 3

2.1 Literacy Level

Literacy level is analyzed from the following four aspects: the number of students in elementary, junior secondary schools, and upper secondary education for every 100,000 people; the enrollment ratio in elementary, junior secondary schools, upper secondary education, and higher education; the proportion of elementary and junior secondary school graduates continuing on to the next education level; the ratio of enrollment to graduation at compulsory education level. The net enrollment ratio in elementary school and the gross enrollment ratio in junior secondary school in 2020 consistently maintained at a high level, and the gross enrollment ratio in higher education reached 57.80% in 2021, which was the highest ever (Table 2 ).

2.2 Number of Schools by Educational Sector and Level

Table 3 shows the number of schools by educational sector and level in 2021. The number of preschools reached 294,800, which was the largest ever. The number of schools of compulsory education was the second largest, with elementary schools representing three fourths and junior secondary schools representing one fourth. In upper secondary education, the number of regular senior high schools was larger than that of secondary vocational schools. In higher education, the number of HEIs reached 3,012 and seven of them are world-class universities.

2.3 Number of Students by Educational Sector and Level

Table 4 shows the number of students by educational sector and level in 2021. The number of compulsory education students reached over 158 million and the number of higher education students reached 44.3 million, which were the largest ever. In upper secondary education, the number of regular senior high school students was larger than that of secondary vocational school students.

2.4 Number of Full-Time Teachers by Educational Sector and Level

Table 5 shows the number of full-time teachers by educational sector and level in 2021. The number of full-time teachers in compulsory education was the largest among all categories. In 2021, excluding upper secondary education, the number of every category was the largest ever.

3 Educational Resources in China

Based on The 2020 Statistical Bulletin on Education Spending co-released by MOE, National Bureau of Statistics (NBS), and Ministry of Finance (MOF) in 2021, and The 2020 Overview of Educational Achievements in China published by MOE in 2021, this section depicts educational resources in China from the following four aspects: the overall spending on education, the general public expenditure on education, the general public operating expenditure on education per student, and school infrastructure. Footnote 4

3.1 Overall Spending on Education

Table 6 shows China’s overall spending on education in 2020. The overall spending on education nationwide reached US$812.79 billion, the spending on education from national budget reached US$657.61 billion, and the spending on education from national budget represented 4.22% in China’s GDP in 2020.

3.2 General Public Expenditure on Education

Table 7 shows China’s general public expenditure on education in 2020. The general public expenditure on education reached US$556.49 billion and it represented 14.78% in national public budget in 2020.

Table 8 shows the general public expenditure on education per student in schools by educational sector and level in 2020.The figure for higher education was the highest, while preschool was the lowest. The expenditures on elementary and junior secondary school in rural area were lower than the average number of that education level.

3.3 General Public Operating Expenditure on Education Per Student

Table 9 shows the general public operating expenditure on education per student in schools by educational sector and level in 2020. The expenditure on higher education was the highest, while preschool was the lowest. The figures for elementary and junior secondary school in rural area were slightly lower than the average number of that education level.

3.4 School Infrastructure

Table 10 illustrates the space utilization and equipment in schools by educational sector and level in 2020. The average value and average number of instructional equipment per student increased with the level of education. It is worth noting that the average value of teaching and scientific research equipment per student at secondary vocational schools was higher than that of regular senior high school.

4 Scientific Research in China

4.1 scientific research development at china’s heis.

Over the past four decades since reform and opening-up, China has gradually established a national innovation system. During this time, HEIs have become more and more important in scientific and technological innovation. This section reviews the technological policies in five important stages since 1978.

4.1.1 Stage One: Restoring the Scientific Research Function of HEIs (1978–1984)

In 1978, Chinese central government formulated the outline of national plan for science and technology development during the period from 1978 to 1985. Deng Xiaoping, the leader of China at the time, put forward strategies including “science and technology are elementary productive force” and “the key of the four modernizations is the modernization of science and technology”, which promote the restoration and development of science and technology system. During this period, the function of scientific research of HEIs has gradually been restored. In 1977, Deng Xiaoping expressed support for increased research activity by stating, “key higher education institutions are significant in scientific research and should undertake more scientific research tasks.” Since then, HEIs have been allocated with budget appropriation for scientific research from national funds, marking an official change and the restoration of HEI’s role in scientific research. In 1978, National Education Commission, National Science Commission (the predecessor of Ministry of Science and Technology [MOST]), and MOF decided to allocate RMB30 million from “the three types of expenses of science and technology” (which include the expense of new product experiment, the expense of semi-plant test, and key scientific research subsidies) to HEIs, in order to promote important scientific research and experiment. Scientific research has been included in the operating expenditure on higher education since 1979, and the appropriation for scientific research was RMB14.15 million that year. In 1985, the scientific research fund for HEIs was nearly RMB600 million (Yin & Shen, 2005 ).

4.1.2 Stage Two: Establishing Research Universities (1985–1994)

In 1985, Chinese government advocated, “higher education institutions and Chinese Academy of Sciences take important responsibilities for basic research and applied research. Basic research and applied research should be tightly combined with workforce needs. Higher education institutions that meet certain conditions are encouraged to construct distinctive and effective research institutes”. In September 1991, the State Council pointed out that, “higher education institutions should pay great attention to scientific research work and regard it as basic tasks”, “higher education institutions with a large number of key disciplines, important assignments of training graduate students, and good foundations for teaching and scientific research, should be developed into the center of education and the center of scientific research. They should take major responsibilities for scientific and technological tasks and train high-level talents for the country. They should also take the lead in improving China’s strength of science and technology and the quality of higher education” (Yin, 2005 ). In order to promote the development of scientific research in HEIs in the early 1990s, the Chinese government developed policy-level plans to invest special funds to construct research universities. In December 1991, National Planning Commission (the predecessor of National Development and Reform Commission [NDRC]), National Education Commission, and MOF proposed to the State Council that they all “agree to the country’s decision of establishing key universities and key disciplines that are required for national economic and social development”. In 1993, The Outline of China’s Education Reform and Development suggested the central government and local governments should jointly establish 100 strategic universities. All of these policies made a foundation for the formulation of the ensuring Project 211 of higher education (MOE, 2008 ).

4.1.3 Stage Three: Implementing National Initiatives to Further Develop Research Universities (1995–2004)

To reinforce Chinese higher education’s competitiveness in the global stage, Chinese government implemented a series of special plans to support the establishment of research universities. In November 1995, the overall plan for Project 211 was published, which suggested the central government and local governments should jointly establish around 100 key universities and a number of key disciplines that reach world-class level (MOE, 2008 ).

In December 1998, MOE put forward a goal of developing a number of key universities and key disciplines into world-class level in the following 10–20 years. In January 1999, the State Council ratified Project 985 of higher education.

During the period of the 10th Five-Year Plan (2001–2005) , China allocated considerable funding for the construction of Project 211 and Project 985. In 2001, the Education Work Conference proposed to strengthen the development of leading universities and key disciplines, make key discipline as the core and speed up the development (MOE, 2008 ). In 2004, the second phase of Project 985 was launched, which expanded the university list and a total of 39 universities were included and put forward five aspects of goals in developing world-class universities: mechanism innovation, talent training, platform establishment, supportive conditions, and international communication and cooperation (Yuan & Guo, 2012 ).

After nearly a decade of development, a number of Chinese HEIs had followed the direction of developing world-class universities and markedly improved their level of scientific research. By investigating the scale and influence of scientific research of China’s research universities from 1997 to 2006, it can be seen that the amount of scientific research achievements of China’s research universities had increased by nearly five times during decade, and the influence of scientific research achievements had continued to be enhanced during the period, while the turning point of scientific research output is basically the same as the time point of constructing Project 985 (Zhu & Liu, 2009 ).

4.1.4 Stage Four: Serving National Innovation System (2005–2014)

In 2005, the State Council published an outline of national plan for science and technology development in the period of 2006–2020 and proposed the general goal of “establishing national innovation system” (MOST, 2006 ).

While establishing a national innovation system, universities, especially research universities, were required to realize new targets. The State Council pointed out, “universities are important base of training high-level innovative talents, and they are one of the main forces of basic research and high-tech innovation.” Based on the demand of establishing national innovation system, Chinese universities were not only required to improve the strength of scientific research, but also required to form an innovation system collaboratively with enterprises and government (MOST, 2006 ). In 2008, NDRC, MOE, and MOF launched the third phase of Project 211, and it aimed at building China into an innovative country, as it strengthened the construction of key disciplines, innovative talents and personnel, and the public service system of higher education (MOST, 2006 ). MOE and other related ministries proposed the 2011 Plan in 2012. The 2011 Plan originated from “the urgent demand of the country and the requirement of reaching world-class level”, it was based on the trinity of improving the innovative capacity of talents, disciplines, and scientific research, and it aims at improving the quality of higher education and serving the development of economy and society (MOE, 2014 ).

4.1.5 Stage Five: Further Developing World-Class Universities and Disciplines (2015-Present)

In October 2015, the State Council issued The Overall Plan for Promoting the Construction of World-Class Universities and World-Class Disciplines and proposed to “promote a number of leading universities and disciplines to get into the first class or the front class in the world” (the State Council, 2015 ). It put forward the following goals: to develop a number of world-class universities and first-class academic disciplines by 2020; to have more universities and disciplines among the world’s best and to enhance the country’s overall higher education capacity by 2030; and to lead the number, quality and capacity of world-class universities and disciplines among the world’s best, becoming a higher education powerhouse by 2050 (the State Council, 2015 ).

In September 2017, MOE, MOF, and NDRC published the list of the Double World-Class Project, which selected 42 universities aiming for world-class status and 140 universities that were designated to develop world-class disciplines (MOE et al., 2017 ). In February 2022, the list of the second round of the Double World-Class Project was published, which selected more than 400 disciplines from 147 universities (MOE et al., 2022 ). The purpose of the Double World-Class Project is to support the national strategy of innovation-driven development, improve the level of educational development, strengthen the core competitiveness of the country, and realize the great development of China from a large country in higher education to a powerful country in higher education.

4.2 Research Performance of China’s HEIs

4.2.1 science and technology (s&t) research output.

Scientific and technological achievements refer to the output of scientific and technological research created by scientific and technological personnel. The scientific and technological achievements at China’s HEIs mainly include four categories: scientific and technological books, academic papers, international projects completed and approved, and intellectual property rights and patents.

In 2021, China’s HEIs published 13,740 scientific and technological books; published 1,129,917 academic papers, of which 571,696 were published on foreign academic journals. A total of 3,271 international projects were completed and approved. In 2021, China’s HEIs applied 328,896 patents, of which 268,450 were authorized and 15,169 were sold. The number of other intellectual property rights (include software registration, integrated circuit design registration, new animal and plant varieties registration, and national new drug registration, etc.) that China’s HEIs acquired in 2021 was 34,915. (Department of Science, Technology and Informatization [DSTI], 2022 ).

4.2.2 Innovative Talent Development in S&T

Scientific and technological talents refer to the personnel who directly participate in scientific and technological activities in related institutions or departments and are paid, including scientists, engineers, technicians, and auxiliary personnel (UNESCO, 2014 ). In statistics, the scientific and technological workforce at China’s HEIs can be divided into three categories: teaching and scientific research personnel, R&D personnel, and personnel of scientific and technological services.

In 2021, the total number of scientific and technological workforce of China’s HEIs was approximately 1.85 million. The number of teaching and scientific research personnel was 1,268,970, accounting for around 69%; the number of R&D personnel was 516,101, accounting for around 28%; and around 3% of the total workforce was personnel of scientific and technological services, with the number of 67,038. (DSTI, 2022 ).

4.2.3 S&T Innovation Platforms

The scientific and technological innovation platforms at China’s HEIs mainly include national key laboratories, national engineering technology research centers, key laboratories of MOE, key laboratories on provincial and ministerial levels, engineering technology research centers on provincial and ministerial levels, and research institutes built by schools. (Wu & Tang, 2006 ).

4.2.4 S&T Projects at China’s HEIs

Scientific and technological projects refer to the research and experiment and development works that aim at solving complex and comprehensive scientific and technological problems. Scientific and technological projects at China’s HEIs mainly include three categories: basic research project, applied basic research project, and experiment and development project.

In 2021, the total number of scientific and technological projects of China’s HEIs was 696,714. The number of basic research projects was 303,197, accounting for around 44% of the total; the number of applied basic research projects was 328,869, accounting for around 47%; the number of experiment and development projects was 64,648, accounting for around 9%. (DSTI, 2022 ).

5 Trends of Chinese Education

5.1 trends in educational scale.

Based on The Overview of Educational Achievements in China and The Statistical Bulletin on National Education Development published by MOE from 2012 to 2022, this section analyses changes in education scale in the Chinese mainland from the following four aspects: gross enrollment ratios in schools by educational sector and level, number of schools, number of students, and number of full-time teachers.

5.1.1 Gross Enrollment Ratio

Figure 2 shows the enrollment ratios of schools by educational sector and level during the period from 2011 to 2021. The figures for elementary school and junior secondary school remained stable on a high level. The figures for preschool and upper secondary education consistently increased during the period. It is noticeable that the gross enrollment ratio of higher education rose rapidly and the figure for 2021 doubled that for 2011.

Gross enrollment ratio (2011–2021) (%). Source MOE ( 2012 – 2022 ). Notes 1. The enrollment ratio of elementary school is net enrollment ratio. 2. Gross enrollment ratio: the percentage of the total number of students (age groups are not specified) in a given education level represents in the population of the age group specified by that given education level, as informal age groups (low-age and over-age) are included, the figure can be over 100%. 3. Net enrollment ratio: the percentage of the total number of students (age groups are specified) in a given education level represents in the population of the age group specified by that given education level. 4. The official 2021 data of elementary school and junior secondary school are not published yet

5.1.2 Number of Schools

Figure 3 shows the total number of all types of schools at all levels in China during the period from 2011 to 2021. The number declined slightly in the period from 2011 to 2015, then it noticeably went up after 2016, and slightly declined in 2021.

Number of schools (2011–2021) (in thousand). Source MOE ( 2012 – 2022 )

5.1.3 Number of Schools by Educational Sector and Level

Figure 4 shows the number of schools by educational sector and level in China during the period from 2011 to 2021. The numbers of preschool significantly increased during the period, while the figures for elementary school consistently fell. The figures for junior secondary schools, upper secondary education, higher education, and special education were the lowest four categories, and generally remained stable during the period.

Number of schools by educational sector and level (2011–2021) (in thousand). Source MOE ( 2012 – 2022 ). Notes 1. Upper secondary education includes regular senior high schools, secondary vocational schools, and senior high schools for adults. In 2021, the data of upper secondary education do not include the data of senior high schools for adults, and the data of secondary vocational school do not include the data of technical schools. 2. Private school refers to all levels of schools that are not state-run, which includes preschool, elementary school, junior secondary school, regular senior high school, secondary vocational school, and regular HEIs

5.1.4 Number of Students

Figure 5 illustrates the total number of students in all types of schools at all levels in China during the period from 2011 to 2021. The figures fluctuated during the period from 2011 to 2016, and rapidly rose after 2016.

Number of students (2011–2021) (in thousand). Source MOE ( 2012 – 2022 )

5.1.5 Number of Students by Educational Sector and Level

Figure 6 shows the number of students in schools by educational sector and level in China during the period from 2011 to 2021. The figures for elementary school remained stable as the highest among all categories during the period. The number of preschool students went up steadily, and the number of junior secondary school fluctuated between 43,000 thousand and 51,000 thousand. Upper secondary education was the only category that showed a downward trend. The figures for higher education gradually increased and overtook that for upper secondary education in 2019. The figures for special education and private school generally showed an upward trend.

Number of students by educational sector and level (2011–2021) (in thousand). Source MOE ( 2012 – 2022 ). Notes 1. Upper secondary education includes regular senior high schools, secondary vocational schools, and senior high schools for adults. In 2021, the data of upper secondary education do not include the data of senior high schools for adults, and the data of secondary vocational school do not include the data of technical schools. 2. Private school refers to all levels of schools that are not state-run, which includes preschool, elementary school, junior secondary school, regular senior high school, secondary vocational school, and regular HEIs

5.1.6 Number of Full-Time Teachers

Figure 7 shows the total number of full-time teachers in all types of schools at all levels in China during the period from 2011 to 2021. The figures increased steadily during the period.

Number of full-time teachers (2011–2021) (in thousand). Source MOE ( 2012 – 2022 )

5.1.7 Number of Full-Time Teachers by Educational Sector and Level

Figure 8 shows the number of full-time teachers in schools by educational sector and level in China during the period from 2011 to 2021. The figures for all categories generally went up during the period. The number of full-time teachers of elementary school remained as the highest among all categories during the period. It is noticeable that the number of full-time teachers of preschool increased significantly and it nearly tripled from 1,316 thousand in 2011 to 3,191 thousand in 2021. The figures for higher education also increased considerably. The figures for special education remained as the lowest but consistently grow during the period.

Number of full-time teachers by educational sector and level (2011–2021) (in thousand). Source MOE ( 2012 – 2022 ). Notes Upper secondary education includes regular senior high schools, secondary vocational schools, and senior high schools for adults. In 2021, the data of upper secondary education do not include the data of senior high schools for adults, and the data of secondary vocational school do not include the data of technical schools

5.2 Trends in Education Resources

Based on The Statistical Bulletin on Education Spending co-released by MOE, NBS, and MOF from 2012 to 2021, this section shows the trends in education resources in China during the decade from the following four aspects: the overall spending on education nationwide, the general public expenditure on education, the general public expenditure on education per student, and the general public operating expenditure on education per student.

5.2.1 Overall Spending on Education

Figure 9 shows the trends of China’s overall spending on education nationwide during the period from 2011 to 2020. The figures increased steadily during the decade, and the figure for 2020 doubled that for 2011.

China’s overall spending on education (2011–2020) (in US$ billion). Source MOE et al. ( 2012 –2021). Notes The exchange rates of the data years are used

5.2.2 General Public Expenditure on Education

Figure 10 shows the trend of China’s general public expenditure on education during the period from 2011 to 2020. The figures increased consistently during the decade, and the figure for 2020 doubled that for 2011.

China’s general public expenditure on education (2011–2020) (in US$ billion). Source MOE et al. ( 2012 – 2021 ). Notes 1. General public expenditure on education includes operating expenditure, investments in infrastructure, and education surcharge. 2. The exchange rates of the data years are used

5.2.3 General Public Expenditure on Education Per Student

Figure 11 shows the trend of China’s general public expenditure on education per student in six levels of schools during the period from 2017 to 2020. The figures for five categories (exclude higher education) increased consistently during the period. The figure for higher education slightly declined in 2018 and then went up again, while higher education maintained as the highest during the period. The figures for preschool continue to be the lowest.

General public expenditure on education per student (2017–2020) (US$). Source : MOE et al. ( 2018 – 2021 ). Notes The exchange rates of the data years are used

5.2.4 General Public Operating Expenditure on Education per Student

Figure 12 shows the trend of China’s public operating expenditure on education per student in six levels of schools during the period from 2011 to 2020. The figures for all categories generally experienced an upward trend during the period. The figures for higher education were considerably higher than that for other categories and maintained as the highest, while the figures for elementary school were the lowest (the figures for preschool became the lowest after it was included in 2017).

General public operating expenditure on education per student (2011–2020) (US$). Source MOE et al. ( 2012 – 2021 ). Notes 1. The data of preschool only cover the period of 2017–2020. 2. The exchange rates of the data years are used

5.3 Trends in HEIs’ Scientific Research

5.3.1 the s&t achievements of china’s heis.

The achievements mainly include four categories: scientific and technological books, academic papers, international projects completed and approved, and intellectual property rights and patents.

Table 11 and Figs. 13 , 14 , 15 and 16 illustrate the scientific and technological achievements of China’s HEIs during the period from 2016 to 2021. The number of scientific and technological books published by China’s HEIs fluctuated during the period. The figures for academic papers and intellectual property rights and patents steadily rose. The figures for international projects completed and approved have consistently declined during the period from 2016 to 2020 but rose in 2021.

Number of scientific and technological books (2016–2021). Source DSTI ( 2017 – 2022 )

Number of academic papers (2016–2021). Source DSTI ( 2017 – 2022 )

Number of international projects completed and approved (2016–2021). Source DSTI ( 2017 – 2022 )

Number of intellectual property rights and patents (2016–2021). Source DSTI ( 2017 – 2022 ). Notes “Other intellectual property rights and patents” mainly include software registration, integrated circuit design registration, new animal and plant varieties registration, and national new drug registration, etc

5.3.2 The S&T Talents of China’s HEIs

The talents mainly include three categories: teaching and scientific research personnel, R&D personnel, and personnel of scientific and technological services.

Table 12 and Fig. 17 show the scientific and technological talents of China’s HEIs during the period from 2016 to 2021. The total number of talents has steadily increased during the period from 2016 to 2020, but slightly went down in 2021. The figures for teaching and scientific research personnel maintained as the highest among the three categories.

Number of scientific and technological talent (2016–2021). Source DSTI ( 2017 – 2022 )

5.3.3 The S&T Projects of China’s HEIs

The projects mainly include three categories: basic research projects, applied basic research projects, and experiment and development projects.

Table 13 and Fig. 18 show the scientific and technological projects of China’s HEIs during the period from 2016 to 2021. The figures for the three types of projects gradually went up, and the figures for applied basic research projects maintained as the highest.

Number of scientific and technological projects (2016–2021). Source DSTI ( 2017 – 2022 )

This section summarizes the developmental trend of education in China from 2011 to 2021. Analysis of trends in educational scale, funding resources, and scientific research at HEIs shows that education in China has undergone rapid transformation in the past decade, especially the higher education sector. In 2021, the number of students and full-time teachers in China reached the highest in history. At the same time, Chinese government’s expenditure on education increased substantially, and the expenditure on higher education per student exceeded per student funding for other education levels. Chinese HEIs’ S&T development has also shown significant progress, in terms of the number of academic papers and S&T projects.

Well-rounded education ( suzhi education) is close to but different from the well-rounded education in the U.S., which refers to education covering multiple subject areas. This notion is close to the notion of liberal arts education in the west, and it emphasizes on a holistic approach of student development, including the development on moral, intellectual, physical, and aesthetic aspects.

Secondary vocational school includes regular specialized high schools ( putong zhongzhuan ), vocational high schools ( zhiye gaozhong ), adult specialized high schools ( chengren zhongzhuan ), and technical schools ( jishu xuexiao ).

The statistics of this section does not include data on Hong Kong and Macao Special Administrative Regions and Taiwan Province.

The statistics of this section does not include of data on Hong Kong and Macao Special Administrative Regions and Taiwan Province.

Department of Science, Technology and Informatization. (2017). 2016 Nian gaodeng xuexiao keji tongji ziliao huibian (2016 Compilation of science and technology statistical data in higher education institutions) . Retrieved July 21, 2022 from http://www.moe.gov.cn/s78/A16/A16_tjdc/201703/t20170303_298076.html

Department of Science, Technology and Informatization. (2018). 2017 Nian gaodeng xuexiao keji tongji ziliao huibian (2017 Compilation of science and technology statistical data in higher education institutions) . Retrieved July 21, 2022 from http://www.moe.gov.cn/s78/A16/A16_tjdc/201805/t20180522_336767.html

Department of Science, Technology and Informatization. (2020a). 2018 Nian gaodeng xuexiao keji tongji ziliao huibian (2018 Compilation of science and technology statistical data in higher education institutions) . Retrieved July 21, 2022 from http://www.moe.gov.cn/s78/A16/A16_tjdc/202009/t20200918_488776.html

Department of Science, Technology and Informatization. (2020b). 2019 Nian gaodeng xuexiao keji tongji ziliao huibian (2019 Compilation of science and technology statistical data in higher education institutions) . Retrieved July 21, 2022 from http://www.moe.gov.cn/s78/A16/A16_tjdc/202009/t20200918_488777.html

Department of Science, Technology and Informatization. (2021). 2020 Nian gaodeng xuexiao keji tongji ziliao huibian (2020 Compilation of science and technology statistical data in higher education institutions) . Retrieved July 21, 2022 from http://www.moe.gov.cn/s78/A16/A16_tjdc/202107/t20210714_544672.html

Department of Science, Technology and Informatization. (2022). 2021 Nian gaodeng xuexiao keji tongji ziliao huibian (2021 Compilation of science and technology statistical data in higher education institutions) . Retrieved July 21, 2022 from http://www.moe.gov.cn/s78/A16/A16_tjdc/202205/t20220527_631466.html

Fudan University. (2022). Tongji gailan (Overview of statistics). Retrieved July 23, 2022 from https://www.fudan.edu.cn/450/list.htm

Ministry of Education. (2008). 211 Gongcheng dashiji (Important records of Project 211). Retrieved April 20, 2022 from http://www.moe.gov.cn/publicfiles/business/htmlfiles/moe/moe_1985/200804/9084.html

Ministry of Education. (2012). 2011 Nian quanguo jiaoyu shiye fazhan tongji gongbao (The 2011 statistical bulletin on national education development) . Retrieved September 15, 2022 from http://www.moe.gov.cn/srcsite/A03/s180/moe_633/201208/t20120830_141305.html

Ministry of Education. (2013). 2012 Nian quanguo jiaoyu shiye fazhan qingkuang (The 2012 overview of educational achievements in China). Retrieved April 15, 2022 from http://www.moe.gov.cn/jyb_sjzl/s5990/201111/t20111114_126550.html

Ministry of Education. (2014). Jiaoyubu , caizhengbu guanyu yinfa 2011 xietong chuangxin zhongxin jianshe fazhan guihua deng sange wenjian de tongzhi (Notice of Ministry of Education and Ministry of Finance on printing and distributing the 2011 collaborative innovation center construction and development plan and other three documents). Retrieved April 21, 2022 from http://www.moe.gov.cn/srcsite/A16/kjs_2011jh/201404/t20140411_167787.html

Ministry of Education. (2015a). 2013 Nian quanguo jiaoyu shiye fazhan qingkuang (The 2013 overview of educational achievements in China). Retrieved April 15, 2022 from http://www.moe.gov.cn/jyb_sjzl/s5990/201503/t20150331_186797.html

Ministry of Education. (2015b). 2014 Nian quanguo jiaoyu shiye fazhan qingkuang (The 2014 overview of educational achievements in China). Retrieved April 15, 2022 from http://www.moe.gov.cn/jyb_sjzl/s5990/201511/t20151125_220958.html

Ministry of Education. (2016). 2015 Nian quanguo jiaoyu shiye fazhan qingkuang (The 2015 overview of educational achievements in China). Retrieved April 15, 2022 from http://www.moe.gov.cn/jyb_sjzl/s5990/201612/t20161219_292432.html

Ministry of Education. (2017). 2016 Nian quanguo jiaoyu shiye fazhan qingkuang (The 2016 overview of educational achievements in China). Retrieved April 16, 2022 from http://www.moe.gov.cn/jyb_sjzl/s5990/201711/t20171110_318862.html

Ministry of Education. (2018). 2017 Nian quanguo jiaoyu shiye fazhan qingkuang (The 2017 overview of educational achievements in China). Retrieved April 16, 2022 from http://www.moe.gov.cn/jyb_sjzl/s5990/201810/t20181018_352057.html

Ministry of Education. (2019). 2018 Nian quanguo jiaoyu shiye fazhan qingkuang (The 2018 overview of educational achievements in China). Retrieved April 16, 2022 from http://www.moe.gov.cn/jyb_sjzl/s5990/201909/t20190929_401639.html

Ministry of Education. (2020). 2019 Nian quanguo jiaoyu shiye fazhan qingkuang (The 2019 overview of educational achievements in China). Retrieved April 16, 2022 from http://www.moe.gov.cn/jyb_sjzl/s5990/202008/t20200831_483697.html

Ministry of Education. (2021). 2020 Nian quanguo jiaoyu shiye fazhan qingkuang (The 2020 overview of educational achievements in China). Retrieved April 16, 2022 from http://www.moe.gov.cn/jyb_sjzl/s5990/202111/t20211115_579974.html

Ministry of Education. (2022). 2021 Nian quanguo jiaoyu shiye fazhan tongji gongbao (The 2021 statistical bulletin on national education development) . Retrieved September 15, 2022 from http://www.moe.gov.cn/jyb_sjzl/sjzl_fztjgb/202209/t20220914_660850.html

Ministry of Education, Ministry of Finance, & National Development and Reform Commission. (2017). Guanyu gongbu shijie yiliu daxue he yiliu xueke jianshe gaoxiao ji jianshe xueke mingdan de tongzhi (Notice on publishing the list of world-class universities, universities designated to develop world-class disciplines, and world-class disciplines). Retrieved April 21, 2022 from http://www.moe.gov.cn/srcsite/A22/moe_843/201709/t20170921_314942.html

Ministry of Education, Ministry of Finance, & National Development and Reform Commission. (2022). Guanyu gongbu dierlun “shuangyiliu” jianshe gaoxiao ji jianshe xueke mingdan de tongzhi (Notice on publishing the list of the second round of the Double World-Class Project). Retrieved April 21, 2022 from http://www.moe.gov.cn/srcsite/A22/s7065/202202/t20220211_598710.html

Ministry of Education, National Bureau of Statistics, & Ministry of Finance. (2012). 2011 Nian quanguo jiaoyu jingfei zhixing qingkuang tongji gonggao (The 2011 statistical bulletin on education spending). Retrieved April 17, 2022 from http://www.moe.gov.cn/srcsite/A05/s3040/201212/t20121231_146315.html

Ministry of Education, National Bureau of Statistics, & Ministry of Finance. (2013). 2012 Nian quanguo jiaoyu jingfei zhixing qingkuang tongji gonggao (The 2012 statistical bulletin on education spending). Retrieved April 17, 2022 from http://www.moe.gov.cn/srcsite/A05/s3040/201312/t20131227_161346.html

Ministry of Education, National Bureau of Statistics, & Ministry of Finance. (2014). 2013 Nian quanguo jiaoyu jingfei zhixing qingkuang tongji gonggao (The 2013 statistical bulletin on education spending). Retrieved April 17, 2022 from http://www.moe.gov.cn/srcsite/A05/s3040/201410/t20141031_178035.html

Ministry of Education, National Bureau of Statistics, & Ministry of Finance. (2015). 2014 Nian quanguo jiaoyu jingfei zhixing qingkuang tongji gonggao (The 2014 statistical bulletin on education spending). Retrieved April 17, 2022 from http://www.moe.gov.cn/srcsite/A05/s3040/201510/t20151013_213129.html

Ministry of Education, National Bureau of Statistics, & Ministry of Finance. (2016). 2015 Nian quanguo jiaoyu jingfei zhixing qingkuang tongji gonggao (The 2015 statistical bulletin on education spending). Retrieved April 17, 2022 from http://www.moe.gov.cn/srcsite/A05/s3040/201611/t20161110_288422.html

Ministry of Education, National Bureau of Statistics, & Ministry of Finance. (2017). 2016 Nian quanguo jiaoyu jingfei zhixing qingkuang tongji gonggao (The 2016 statistical bulletin on education spending). Retrieved April 18, 2022 from http://www.moe.gov.cn/srcsite/A05/s3040/201710/t20171025_317429.html

Ministry of Education, National Bureau of Statistics, & Ministry of Finance. (2018). 2017 Nian quanguo jiaoyu jingfei zhixing qingkuang tongji gonggao (The 2017 statistical bulletin on education spending). Retrieved April 18, 2022 from http://www.moe.gov.cn/srcsite/A05/s3040/201810/t20181012_351301.html

Ministry of Education, National Bureau of Statistics, & Ministry of Finance. (2019). 2018 Nian quanguo jiaoyu jingfei zhixing qingkuang tongji gonggao (The 2018 statistical bulletin on education spending). Retrieved April 18, 2022 from http://www.moe.gov.cn/srcsite/A05/s3040/201910/t20191016_403859.html

Ministry of Education, National Bureau of Statistics, & Ministry of Finance. (2020). 2019 Nian quanguo jiaoyu jingfei zhixing qingkuang tongji gonggao (The 2019 statistical bulletin on education spending). Retrieved April 18, 2022 from http://www.moe.gov.cn/srcsite/A05/s3040/202011/t20201103_497961.html

Ministry of Education, National Bureau of Statistics, & Ministry of Finance. (2021). 2020 Nian quanguo jiaoyu jingfei zhixing qingkuang tongji gonggao (The 2020 statistical bulletin on education spending). Retrieved April 18, 2022 from http://www.moe.gov.cn/srcsite/A05/s3040/202111/t20211130_583343.html

Ministry of Science and Technology. (2006). Guojia zhongchangqi kexue he jishu fazhan guihua gangyao (2006–2020 nian) (Outline of the national plan for medium- and long-term science and technology development [2006–2020]). Retrieved April 20, 2022 from https://www.most.gov.cn/szyw/yw/200602/t20060209_28602.html

National People’s Congress. (1982). Zhonghua renmin gongheguo xianfa (Constitution of the People’s Republic of China). Retrieved July 21, 2022 from https://flk.npc.gov.cn/xf/html/xf1.html

National People’s Congress. (2001). Zhonghua renmin gongheguo guomin jingji he shehui fazhan di shi ge wunian jihua gangyao (The 10th Five-Year Plan for economic and social development of the People’s Republic of China). Retrieved April 30, 2022 from http://www.gov.cn/gongbao/content/2001/content_60699.htm

National People’s Congress. (2006). Zhonghua renmin gongheguo guomin jingji he shehui fazhan di shiyi ge wunian guihua gangyao (The 11th Five-Year Plan for economic and social development of the People’s Republic of China). Retrieved April 30, 2022 from http://www.gov.cn/gongbao/content/2006/content_268766.htm

National People’s Congress. (2011). Zhonghua renmin gongheguo guomin jingji he shehui fazhan di shier ge wunian guihua gangyao (The 12th Five-Year Plan for economic and social development of the People’s Republic of China). Retrieved April 30, 2022 from http://www.scio.gov.cn/ztk/xwfb/27/8/Document/884557/884557_8.htm

National People’s Congress. (2016). Zhonghua renmin gongheguo guomin jingji he shehui fazhan di shisan ge wunian guihua gangyao (The 13th Five-Year Plan for economic and social development of the People’s Republic of China). Retrieved April 30, 2022 from https://en.ndrc.gov.cn/policies/202105/P020210527785800103339.pdf

National People’s Congress. (2018a). Zhonghua renmin gongheguo yiwu jiaoyu fa (Compulsory education law of the People’s Republic of China). Retrieved May 10, 2022 from https://flk.npc.gov.cn/detail2.html?ZmY4MDgwODE2ZjEzNWY0NjAxNmYyMTBlZmNjYjE3Yjk%3D

National People’s Congress. (2018b). Zhonghua renmin gongheguo gaodeng jiaoyu fa (Higher education law of the People’s Republic of China). Retrieved May 10, 2022 from https://flk.npc.gov.cn/detail2.html?ZmY4MDgwODE2ZjEzNWY0NjAxNmYyMGRmNjRlYzE2YzU%3D

National People’s Congress. (2021). Zhonghua renmin gongheguo guomin jingji he shehui fazhan di shisi ge wunian guihua gangyao he 2035 yuanjing mubiao gangyao (The 14th Five-Year Plan for economic and social development and vision 2035 of the People’s Republic of China). Retrieved April 30, 2022 from https://www.ndrc.gov.cn/xxgk/zcfb/ghwb/202103/t20210323_1270124.html?code=&state=123

OECD. (2016). Education in China: A snapshot. Retrieved August 3, 2022 from https://www.oecd.org/china/Education-in-China-a-snapshot.pdf

Peking University. (2022). Beijing daxue 2020 nian jiben shuju (Basic statistics of Peking University in 2020) . Retrieved July 23, 2022 from https://xxgk.pku.edu.cn/docs/20210322150626571964.pdf

Quacquarelli Symonds. (2021). QS World University Rankings 2022 . Retrieved July 23, 2022 from https://www.qschina.cn/en/university-rankings/world-university-rankings/2022

Shanghai Jiao Tong University. (2022). Shanghai jiaotong daxue jiben tongji shuju (Basic statistics of Shanghai Jiao Tong University) . Retrieved July 23, 2022 from https://www.sjtu.edu.cn/sjtj/index.html

ShanghaiRanking. (2021). 2021 Academic Ranking of World Universities (ARWU) . Retrieved July 23, 2022 from https://www.shanghairanking.cn/rankings/arwu/2021

Sun Yat-Sen University. (2022). Jiben shuju (Basic statistics) . Retrieved September 16, 2022 from https://www.sysu.edu.cn/xxg/zdjj1.htm

The State Council. (2010). Guojia zhongchangqi jiaoyu gaige he fazhan guihua gangyao (2010–2020 nian) (Outline of the national plan for medium- and long-term education reform and development [2010–2020]) . Retrieved August 1, 2022 from http://www.moe.gov.cn/srcsite/A01/s7048/201007/t20100729_171904.html

The State Council. (2015). Guanyu yinfa tongchou tuijin shijie yiliu daxue he yiliu xueke jianshe zongti fang’an de tongzhi (Notice on printing and distributing the overall plan for promoting the construction of world-class universities and world-class disciplines). Retrieved April 21, 2022 from http://www.gov.cn/zhengce/content/2015-11/05/content_10269.htm

Times Higher Education. (2021). Times Higher Education World University Rankings 2022 . Retrieved July 23, 2022 from https://www.timeshighereducation.com/world-university-ránkings/2022

Tsinghua University. (2022). Tongji ziliao (Statistical information) . Retrieved July 23, 2022 from https://www.tsinghua.edu.cn/xxgk/tjzl.htm

UNESCO. (2014). Recommendation concerning the international standardization of statistics on science and technology . Retrieved April 20, 2022 from http://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.phpURL_ID=13135&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html

University of Science and Technology of China. (2022). Banxue jiben shuju (Basic statistics of University of Science and Technology of China) . Retrieved July 23, 2022 from https://xxgk.ustc.edu.cn/13826/list.htm

Wu, C. C., & Tang, R. H. (2006). Yanjiuxing daxue beijing xia de keji chuangxin pingtai tixi jianshe (Construction of scientific and technological innovation platform system in research universities). Nongye Keji Guanli (Management of Agricultural Science and Technology), 01 , 39–41.

Google Scholar  

Yin, Z. H. (2005). Lun guojia keyan tizhi jianshe yu yanjiuxing daxue fazhan (The construction of national scientific research system and the development of research universities). [Doctoral dissertation, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, China].

Yin, Z. H., & Shen, H. (2005). Guojia keyan tizhi jianshe yu yanjiuxing daxue fazhan (On the construction of the national scientific research system and the development of research universities). Yanjiu Yu Fazhan Guanli (R&D Management), 04 , 110–114.

Yu, K., Chen, H., Liu, L., & Stith, A. (2012). Tertiary education at a glance: China . Rotterdam: Sense Publisher.

Yuan, G. R., & Guo, X. L. (2012). Zhongguo gaoshuping daxue jianshe zhilu: Cong 211 gongcheng dao 2011 jihua (The road to China’s leading universities: From Project 211 to the 2011 Plan). Beijing: Higher Education Press.

Zhang, N. (2018). Gaigekaifang 40 nian zhongguo jiaoyu dili qianxing (The development of China’s education during the 40 years since the reform and opening-up) . Retrieved July 21, 2022 from http://edu.people.com.cn/n1/2018/1221/c1053-30480638.html

Zhejiang University. (2022). Zhejiang daxue jiben shuju (Basic statistics of Zhejiang University) . Retrieved July 23, 2022 from https://www.zju.edu.cn/588/list.htm

Zhu, J. W., & Liu, N. C. (2009). Woguo yanjiuxing daxue keyan chanchu de jiliangxue fenxi (Research performance of Chinese research universities: A scientometric study). Gaodeng Jiaoyu Yanjiu (journal of Higher Education), 30 (2), 30–35.

Download references

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, 200240, China

Zhuolin Feng & Xintong Jia

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Zhuolin Feng .

Editor information

Editors and affiliations.

School of Education, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China

Liu Niancai

Feng Zhuolin

Rights and permissions

Open Access This chapter is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ ), which permits any noncommercial use, sharing, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license and indicate if you modified the licensed material. You do not have permission under this license to share adapted material derived from this chapter or parts of it.

The images or other third party material in this chapter are included in the chapter's Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the chapter's Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder.

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2024 Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press

About this chapter

Feng, Z., Jia, X. (2024). Education in China: An Introduction. In: Niancai, L., Zhuolin, F., Qi, W. (eds) Education in China and the World. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-5861-0_1

Download citation

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-5861-0_1

Published : 02 January 2024

Publisher Name : Springer, Singapore

Print ISBN : 978-981-99-5860-3

Online ISBN : 978-981-99-5861-0

eBook Packages : Education Education (R0)

Share this chapter

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Publish with us

Policies and ethics

• Find a journal
• Track your research

Academia.edu no longer supports Internet Explorer.

To browse Academia.edu and the wider internet faster and more securely, please take a few seconds to  upgrade your browser .

Enter the email address you signed up with and we'll email you a reset link.

• We're Hiring!
• Help Center

Overview of the education system in china

Related Papers

Gerard A Postiglione

RASSIDY OYENIRAN

This paper focuses on the impacts of the reforms in Chinese educational system. Education is part of China's overall development and it is known that the last recent decades the whole Chinese educational system has been the subject of unprecedented reforms. The increased impact of educational reforms has provided significant human resources and innovation, which facilitated progress in the economic, political, cultural, and social development. The development of China's education system has been a major factor in its economic and social growth. This article aims to examine some of the effects that the reforms have generated on the entire Chinese education system and provide guidelines for minimizing limitations and weaknesses of the education system in its reforms. Using a qualitative approach to collect the data drawn from articles and materials, this paper aims to discuss educational reforms and how they affect the Chinese education system by exploiting the readings related to the subject. Some progress has been achieved in the extent to which transformations are perceptible. Gains have been made through educational policies supported by good economic health for years. Despite the progress, education seems to be the field of some contradictions and there is a need to overcome certain shortcomings and weaknesses of educative practices that the Chinese educational system is still facing. Possible solutions are proposed in conclusion and recommendation.

William Goldstick

Béatrice Cabau

Since a few years now, a new terminological wind has been blowing upon the educational arena all over the world. This is how in higher education discourse, such concepts and ideas as internationalization, skills acquisition (in addition to knowledge), outcomes-based teaching and learning (OBTL), life-long learning, whole-person education, general education, global citizenship education, employability are recurrently used to illustrate the reorientation of educational principles and needs. Hong Kong is here no exception, but at the same time, the Special Administrative Region of the People’s Republic of China is introducing wide-ranging reforms to apply a new academic structure: secondary education should be completed in six years instead of seven and in 2012 the higher education institutions will switch from three-year degrees to more generalised four-year courses. Furthermore, in his 2009/10 Policy Address, the Chief Executive announced that the education service was one of the six new engines selected to diversify the local economy in the wake of financial crisis and global recession and help power it toward recovery. These educational orientations and reforms have to be viewed in the consideration of the aim to see Hong Kong as “Asia’s world city” and the Hong Kong higher education sector serving as the “education hub” in the region. This is the reason why in recent years the Hong Kong government has introduced a series of measures to internationalize local schools and institutions, since internationalisation of education is seen as fundamental for Hong Kong’s success. The main purpose of this article is to evaluate the impact of the above-mentioned new concepts and reforms on Hong Kong’s internationalisation policy in higher education. It will also investigate to what extent these changes reflect Hong Kong’s needs in terms of societal development.

US-China Education Review A & B

Italian Journal of Sociology of Education

During the past 60 years of China’s socialist construction, its higher education policy has experienced dramatic paradigm shifts in line with the nation’s transformation from a planned to a market economy. During the 1950s-1970s, the paramount principle of education policy was political in nature and effect. While the fundamental values of education equity were based on the Chinese communist political ideology and education was treated as a public good, equal opportunities were not necessarily guaranteed. Since 1978, contribution to economic growth was prioritised on China’s education policy agenda. The political function of education was downgraded to favour a strategy that would accelerate China’s march toward economic modernisation. Priority has been shifted from equity to efficiency that is measured almost exclusively in financial terms. Within this process, new winners and losers have been created, with the former far outnumbered by the latter. By tracing current practices to t...

Frontiers of Education in China

Steven Cowan

International Review of Education

Nelly Stromquist , Halla Holmarsdottir , Darko Strajn

RELATED PAPERS

darwis abroriy

Higino Steck

Skeletal Radiology

Hans Peter Dimai

Indra Gunara Rochyat

Asif Rabbani

Desalination and Water Treatment

Feridun Esmaeilzadeh

Annals of Disaster Risk Sciences

Petrescu Gabriel

Journal of cellular and molecular medicine

Ravi Keshari

Ahmad Ridho

Rakibul Islam

Journal of Parasite Science

Agus Sunarso

Biological Theory

Journal of Medical Genetics

Germán Prieto

Muryanto Amin

London 2013, 75th eage conference en exhibition incorporating SPE Europec

Assef MOHAMAD-HUSSEIN

NATHALIA GONZALEZ ALVAREZ

Advances in Water Resources

Classiques des sciences sociales.

Georges Nivat

International Journal of Molecular Sciences

kenneth gross

Journal of Intelligent & Fuzzy Systems

Dr. Mostafa El-Bably

Routledge eBooks

Anja Bogojevic

Charudutt Mishra

Applied Sciences

Ketki Kulkarni

•   We're Hiring!
•   Help Center
• Find new research papers in:
• Health Sciences
• Earth Sciences
• Cognitive Science
• Mathematics
• Computer Science
• Academia ©2024

Departments

Affiliated Institutions

Press Releases

Media Highlights

Laws and Policies

Learning Chinese

Study in China

Scholarships

Directories

China’s education: 40 years of epic achievements

In just 4 decades since December 1978, when the Party decided at the 3rd Plenary Session of the 11th Central Committee to embark on a new path of reform and opening up, from being a weak nation with extended periods of destitution, China has emerged as the world’s second largest economy.

Education played a pivotal role in bringing about this unprecedented economic miracle in human history. Forty years ago, DENG Xiaoping, who orchestrated the reforms, famously said that “China will not become a modernized country just by talking about a grand vision: it must cultivate the necessary expertise and talent to make that vision a reality”. He reinstated the gaokao system, which rekindled the enthusiasm for learning of tens of millions of young people who hankered for a place at university. His vision of building a powerful China was grounded in efforts to develop education and build technological prowess was enshrined as a national strategy, which ensured that respect for knowledge and talent was mainstreamed in succeeding development programs. This fast-tracked the development of China’s education. Over the last 4 decades, China has prioritized education in its development efforts, as the country embarked on a unique development path with socialist characteristics. Unprecedented advances in education have substantially elevated the average Chinese citizens’ moral and ethical attainments, as well as their scientific and reading/writing literacy. China now appears in the mid-to-top range of world education rankings, and is home to the world’s largest educational sector, one holding the greatest growth potential and developing at a faster pace than in any other country.

China’s education has improved by leaps and bounds. In 1978, only 60 per cent of primary school pupils went on to study in junior high schools, and the number of college and graduate students was 856,000 and 10,000, respectively. Today, China has built the world’s largest education sector with 270 million students enrolled in 514,000 educational institutions. The three-year gross enrollment rate in kindergartens rose from 10.6% to 79.6%; the net enrollment rate in primary schools rose from 94% to 99.9%. Gross enrollment rates have also risen substantially in junior high schools from 66.4% to 103.5%; in senior high schools, from 33.6% to 88.3% and in tertiary education, from 33.6% to 88.3%. These impressive improvements at all levels of education have put China in the ranks of middle-and high-income countries, in terms of education. In just over 20 years, China has achieved universal coverage in nine-year compulsory education, a goal that took western countries nearly a century to attain.

Progress has been made on multiple fronts: from hardware to software, from teaching material to teaching methods, from conventional management approaches to modern governance, and increasing the quality of all the ingredients used in the education mix. The 1995 Education Law stipulated that educational spending should grow at a faster pace than local government regular income, and that funding per teacher and student should also increase steadily. In 2012, educational spending stood at 4% of GDP and has grown ever since. In 2017, public spending on education reached 3.4 trillion RMB. The number of teachers at all levels of education increased 1.8-fold from 8.99 million in 1978 to 16.23 million in 2017, and China has built a teaching force made up of professional teachers equipped with practical skills. These efforts have been supported through legislation, including eight national laws on education, 16 education-related regulations, administrative directives, and local rules.

Our progress has been felt across the world. In 2009, China was the focus of the world’s attention as students from Shanghai outperformed their peers in dozens of OECD countries in its debut participation to the Program for International Student Assessment, known as PISA. In the last 40 years, China has sent out a large number of students overseas for further studies, and attracted an equally large number of international students to its degree programs. The number of foreign students studying in China increased from about 1,200 from 1978 to 480,000 in 2017, making China the largest destination in Asia for international students. The country has established 2,385 joint educational institutions and projects and 8 high-level people-to-people exchange schemes, through partnerships with over 180 countries or territories. It has built 533 Confucius Institutes and 1,140 Confucius classrooms across 150 countries or territories. And today, the number Chinese speakers and learners outside of China has reached 100 million.

In the last 40 years, examinations have been gradually shifted towards testing students’ skills in applying knowledge rather than ability to simply memorize information, to be better aligned with the overarching purpose of education. Classified tests, comprehensive evaluation and assorted admissions criteria have been introduced as an alternative to the gaokao as students’ only ticket to a future of possibilities. The testing and admissions system has undergone constant improvement, going from standardized tests in 1989 to a “three + x” model in 1998: the “3” corresponding to the three mandatory disciplines, namely Chinese, mathematics and English language, while “x” stands for the three subjects that can be selected from physics, chemistry, biology, politics, history, and geography. A recommendation-based admissions method piloted in 1984 was replaced by a reform in 2003 that allowed universities to independently enroll students. In 1998, access to higher education was limited, with a gross enrolment rate of only 9.8%. In 1999, the central government decided to expand higher education enrollment by adding 1.5968 million places, an increase of 47.4% on the previous year. In 2014, China launched the most systematic and comprehensive reform to the gaokao system since it was reintroduced in 1977. In 2017, Shanghai and Zhejiang province successfully began admitting students based on multiple assessment criteria.

The past 40 years have also seen a flourishing education sector that has greatly facilitated China’s drive to become a modernized socialist country, and provided the needed intellectual impetus for China’s rising comprehensive strengths and international status.

Access to education over the past four decades has also improved at all levels, including the introduction of pathways between different types of education. Academic education and vocational education, funded by both the public and private sectors, both at degree and non-degree levels, have grown in tandem. Currently, there are 12,000 vocational schools across China serving 26.8 million students, accounting for half of China’s secondary and higher education, respectively. Those who have missed out on a college education have the opportunity to get a BA through online learning, self-study, and college entrance exams for adults, as well as attending open universities, radio and TV universities and MOOC programs.

The last 4 decades have also witnessed growing equity in education, with the right to access education better safeguarded. As of the autumn term of 2008, universal access to free compulsory education became a reality across China, marking a new milestone in the history of education in China. Greater effort has been invested in supporting education in rural areas and under-developed central and western provinces. Boarding schools have been built in rural areas, class sizes have been greatly reduced, and poverty-alleviation projects have been implemented across the country. Now, over 80 per cent of counties have achieved the goal of balancing development in compulsory education. More pupils than ever from rural and under-developed provinces have access to more equitable education. More than 37 million rural students have benefitted from the national student nutrition program. A financial aid system covering students from pre-school to postgraduate level has been established, ensuring that no student from a disadvantaged background is forced to drop out because of financial difficulties. More than 80 per cent of children received education in cities where their migrant parents worked, and care for left-behind children has been improved. More than 90 of children with visual, hearing and intellectual disabilities are in compulsory education.

In the last 40 years, China’s education system has supplied quality human resources and technological expertise. Since the late 1970s, China’s universities have produced more than 99 million high-caliber professionals, while vocational schools have graduated more than 200 million skilled technicians. The number of graduates from higher education has increased nearly 50-fold from 165,000 to 82 million in four decades. Currently, China’s working population has received an average education spanning 10.5 years, and more than 45% of new entrants into the workforce have higher education qualifications with on average 13.5 years of education, which exceeds the world average. A number of major programs aimed at bolstering world class universities and disciplines in the 21st century have been implemented, including Project 211, Project 985 and the Double First-Class initiative. Thanks to these efforts, China’s universities have been edging up world university rankings, with more making it to the top 100, and some 100 disciplines making it to the world’s top 1,000. Universities accounted for over 60 per cent of China’s basic research and major research projects, more than 60 per cent of China’s key national laboratories, more than 60 per cent of rewards for scientific and technological achievements, and over 80 per cent of published papers, research projects funded by the Natural Science Foundation, and the number of researchers in philosophy and the Social Sciences. Universities were responsible for a host of groundbreaking achievements in the fields of manned spaceflight, quantum communications, supercomputing, providing a strong impetus to China’s goal to become an innovation-oriented nation.

After 40 years of reform, education in China is now at the dawn of a new era. At this year’s national education conference held on September 10, new reform pathways were charted to make education better aligned with the needs of the people as well as the goal of building China into a modern educational powerhouse.

It is important that we fully appreciate President Xi’s remarks on education at the conference and implement his instructions about prioritizing education. We must bear in mind that reinforcement of student moral development is a fundamental task. Moral education must be stepped up to develop patriotism and perseverance among students, boost their confidence in the country’s future prosperity, and promote all-round development. The capacity-building of teachers must be reinforced, and their remunerations must be improved to ensure that they are fully devoted to their profession without having to bear the burden of financial worries. Institutional reforms must remove legacy hurdles hindering progress, such as student evaluation systems focused solely on student test scores and enrollment rates, and teacher recruitment and performance evaluation systems based solely on degrees, published papers, and professional titles.

The last four decades have borne witness to the bountiful harvest reaped of hard work and a relentless commitment to fulfilling educational goals. Today, as we stand at a new starting line, we must be reminded of the greater role each of us must play in supporting China’s march toward prosperity and national rejuvenation. We must press ahead with reforms to edge closer to the goal of becoming a modern educational power, by rallying around the Party central committee with comrade XI Jinping at the core.

[By CHEN Baosheng, Minister of Education]

ICP Registration Number: 10028400

© 2018 Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China. All Rights Reserved.

• Society ›

Education & Science

Education in China - statistics & facts

China's educational system, large regional disparities, key insights.

Detailed statistics

Share of GDP spent on public education in China 2010-2022

Number of students at high schools in China 2012-2022

Number of college and university graduates in China 2012-2022

Editor’s Picks Current statistics on this topic

Current statistics on this topic.

Education Level & Skills

Adult literacy in China 1982-2020

Enrollment rate in tertiary education in China 1990-2023

Leading destinations for Chinese students studying abroad 2015 and 2022

Related topics

Recommended.

• Tertiary education in China
• Online education market in China
• Education in Singapore
• E-learning and digital education
• Education worldwide

Recommended statistics

General overview.

• Premium Statistic Education Index - comparison of selected countries 2022
• Basic Statistic Adult literacy in China 1982-2020
• Basic Statistic Illiteracy rate in China 2022, by region
• Premium Statistic Enrollment rate in senior secondary education in China 1990-2023
• Premium Statistic Enrollment rate in tertiary education in China 1990-2023
• Basic Statistic Leading universities Asia 2023

Education Index - comparison of selected countries 2022

Education index including inequality* of selected countries in 2022

Adult literacy rate in China from 1982 to 2020

Illiteracy rate in China 2022, by region

Illiteracy rate in China in 2022, by region

Enrollment rate in senior secondary education in China 1990-2023

Gross enrollment ratio in senior secondary education in China from 1990 to 2023

Gross enrollment ratio in tertiary education in China from 1990 to 2023

Leading universities Asia 2023

Leading universities as ranked by Times Higher Education in Asia in 2023

Education expenditure

• Premium Statistic Public expenditure on education in China 2013-2023
• Premium Statistic Share of GDP spent on public education in China 2010-2022
• Premium Statistic Public education spending per student in China 2022, by level of education
• Premium Statistic Per capita spending of urban households in China on education & leisure 1990-2023
• Premium Statistic Per capita expenditure of private households in China on education 2022, by region
• Premium Statistic Per capita spending of households in China on education & leisure 2000-2023

Public expenditure on education in China 2013-2023

Public expenditure on education in China from 2013 to 2023 (in billion yuan)

Public expenditure on education as a share of the gross domestic product (GDP) in China from 2010 to 2022

Public education spending per student in China 2022, by level of education

Public education spending per student in China in 2022, by level of education (in yuan)

Per capita spending of urban households in China on education & leisure 1990-2023

Annual per capita expenditure of private urban households in China on education, culture, and recreation from 1990 to 2023 (in yuan)

Per capita expenditure of private households in China on education 2022, by region

Per capita expenditure of private urban households in China on education, culture and recreation in 2022, by region (in yuan)

Per capita spending of households in China on education & leisure 2000-2023

Annual per capita expenditure of households in China on education, culture, and recreation from 2000 to 2023 (in yuan)

Educational infrastructure

• Premium Statistic Number of pre-schools in China 2012-2022
• Premium Statistic Number of elementary schools in China 2012-2022
• Premium Statistic Number of elementary schools in China 2022, by region
• Premium Statistic Number of secondary vocational schools in China 2012-2022
• Premium Statistic Number of high schools in China 2012-2022
• Premium Statistic Number of colleges and universities in China 2012-2022
• Premium Statistic Number of colleges and universities in China 2022, by region

Number of pre-schools in China 2012-2022

Number of pre-schools in China between 2012 and 2022

Number of elementary schools in China 2012-2022

Number of elementary schools in China between 2012 and 2022

Number of elementary schools in China 2022, by region

Number of elementary schools in China in 2022, by region

Number of secondary vocational schools in China 2012-2022

Number of secondary vocational schools in China between 2012 and 2022

Number of high schools in China 2012-2022

Number of high schools in China between 2012 and 2022

Number of colleges and universities in China 2012-2022

Number of public colleges and universities in China between 2012 and 2022

Number of colleges and universities in China 2022, by region

Number of public colleges and universities in China in 2022, by region

Student situation

• Premium Statistic Number of students at elementary schools in China 2012-2022
• Premium Statistic Share of students repeating a year at elementary school in China 2018
• Premium Statistic Number of students at high schools in China 2012-2022
• Premium Statistic Number of students at colleges and universities in China 2012-2022
• Premium Statistic Undergraduate students enrolled at universities in China 2022, by region
• Premium Statistic Number of college and university graduates in China 2012-2022
• Premium Statistic Number of college and university graduates in China 2022, by region
• Premium Statistic Monthly salary of university graduates in China 2012-2022

Number of students at elementary schools in China 2012-2022

Number of students at elementary schools in China between 2012 and 2022 (in millions)

Share of students repeating a year at elementary school in China 2018

Share of students repeating a year at elementary school in China between 2008 and 2018

Number of students at high schools in China between 2012 and 2022 (in millions)

Number of students at colleges and universities in China 2012-2022

Number of undergraduate students enrolled at public colleges and universities in China from 2012 to 2022 (in millions)

Undergraduate students enrolled at universities in China 2022, by region

Number of undergraduate students enrolled at public colleges and universities in China in 2022, by region (in 1,000s)

Number of graduates from public colleges and universities in China between 2012 and 2022 (in 1,000s)

Number of college and university graduates in China 2022, by region

Number of graduates from public colleges and universities in China in 2022, by region (in 1,000s)

Monthly salary of university graduates in China 2012-2022

Monthly salary of college and university graduates in China from 2012 to 2022 (in yuan)

Foreign students in China

• Premium Statistic Total number of foreign students studying in China 2014-2018
• Premium Statistic Number of foreign students studying in China 2018, by country of origin
• Premium Statistic Most popular regions among foreign students in China 2018
• Premium Statistic Number of foreign students studying in China 2009-2018, by source of funding
• Premium Statistic Number of students from the United States studying in China 2011/12-2021/22

Total number of foreign students studying in China 2014-2018

Total number of foreign students studying in China from 2014 to 2018

Number of foreign students studying in China 2018, by country of origin

Number of foreign students studying in China in 2018, by selected country of origin

Most popular regions among foreign students in China 2018

Most popular regions among foreign students in China in 2018

Number of foreign students studying in China 2009-2018, by source of funding

Number of foreign students studying in China from 2009 to 2018, by source of funding

Number of students from the United States studying in China 2011/12-2021/22

Number of college and university students from the United States studying in China from academic year 2011/12 to 2021/22

Studying abroad

• Premium Statistic Number of Chinese students studying abroad 2010-2020
• Basic Statistic Number of Chinese students in the U.S. 2012/13-2022/23
• Premium Statistic Leading destinations for Chinese students studying abroad 2015 and 2022
• Premium Statistic Motivations of Chinese students to study abroad 2015-2022
• Premium Statistic Chinese student's intention to study abroad under COVID-19 2023

Number of Chinese students studying abroad 2010-2020

Number of students from China going abroad for study from 2010 to 2020 (in 1,000s)

Number of Chinese students in the U.S. 2012/13-2022/23

Number of college and university students from China in the United States from academic year 2012/13 to 2022/23

Chinese students' preferred destinations for studying overseas in 2015 and 2022

Motivations of Chinese students to study abroad 2015-2022

Major reasons for Chinese student to study overseas in 2015 and 2022

Chinese student's intention to study abroad under COVID-19 2023

Influence of coronavirus on Chinese student's plan to study overseas in 2023

Further reports Get the best reports to understand your industry

Get the best reports to understand your industry.

• Workplace learning and development
• Private education in South Korea
• Labor Shortage: Workers with a higher education
• Tertiary education in the Asia-Pacific region

Mon - Fri, 9am - 6pm (EST)

Mon - Fri, 9am - 5pm (SGT)

Mon - Fri, 10:00am - 6:00pm (JST)

Mon - Fri, 9:30am - 5pm (GMT)

How Does Education in China Compare with Other Countries?

Innovation is a critical component of national power.  It propels countries to develop new products or methods of production that drive economic progress and enable states to tackle transnational challenges, such as climate change and global health crises. The ability of a country to cultivate its capacity for innovation rests with its domestic education system. A well-educated workforce is instrumental to technological and scientific discovery, which can propel states to the apex of the increasingly innovation-based global economy.  This need is particularly salient for China as its leaders seek to push the Chinese economy up the global value chain.

Primary and Secondary Education

In an effort to promote sustainable development, Chinese leaders have sought to improve educational quality and increase access across the country. The most notable government policy, the 1986 Law on Nine-Year Compulsory Education , called for achievement of the ‘two basics’ ( liangji ): universal enrollment among school-aged children (6-15 years) and full literacy among those under the age of 20. Other measures have centered on revising the national curriculum and enhancing teacher training programs.

Yet educational access remains uneven in China. Students born into affluent families generally have greater access to high-quality education than those from lower income backgrounds. Data from the National Bureau of Statistics suggest that urban residents in China enjoy a nearly threefold income advantage over their rural counterparts. The household registration system ( hukou ) has further widened this development gap by restricting the internal movement of persons.  Education-finance policies requiring local governments to bear partial responsibility for funding schools have compounded this issue, leaving less affluent areas without sufficient resources to pay skilled teachers, purchase necessary instruction materials, and maintain school facilities.

Migration from rural areas has forced the closure of village schools, contributing to the decrease in Chinese primary schools from 668,685 in 1995 to 201,377 in 2014.

Literacy is a baseline indicator of educational access. High levels of literacy serve as the foundation for improved access to information and directly enhance an individual’s ability to contribute to society.  As of 2011, China had all but eliminated illiteracy among young and middle-aged citizens – a landmark achievement for a country with the world’s largest population. Nevertheless, provincial variations reveal the incomplete nature of China’s ongoing development. Wealthy cities, such as Beijing and Shanghai, reported 2014 literacy rates (98.52 percent and 96.85 percent) comparable with those of developed countries. At the other extreme, Tibet’s literacy rate was a mere 60.07 percent in same year, pegging it closer to under-developed countries like Haiti and Zambia.

Regional variations in educational access become more evident when considering the average length of schooling per student. To assess the role education plays in evaluating economic development and quality of life, the United Nations calculates the Education Index (EI) as part of its annually released Human Development Index (HDI). EI is calculated from mean and expected years of schooling and ranges from 0 (no educational attainment) to 1 (theoretically perfect educational attainment). EI values vary widely across China. In 2014, Beijing enjoyed a high EI of 0.854, which closely matches that of Iceland (0.853), an OECD country that ranks sixth on the Human Development Index . EI is lowest in Tibet, whose value of 0.45, when compared to EI values from around the world, places it in the bottom 20 percent.

Education Index by Income Level

Income-levels correspond to the World Bank’s development classification, which uses GNI per capita (Atlas method) to calculate the levels of development.

Urbanization has exaggerated regional differences in educational access. The movement of people from rural to urban areas within China in search of employment opportunities and higher wages is among the largest internal migrations  in human history. Migration from rural areas has forced the closure of village schools, contributing to the decrease in Chinese primary schools from 668,685 in 1995  to 201,377 in 2014 . Rural migrants have flooded the labor market in urban centers, including Beijing and Shanghai, such that migrant laborers comprise roughly one-third of China’s total labor force . These population shifts have contributed to overcrowded classrooms , which may come under even greater strain as the number of children of migrant workers residing in China’s biggest cities is expected to increase by 1.5 million annually.

More developed regions have managed to offset much of this demographic shift. Some of China’s most densely populated areas compare favorably with cities in the United States in terms of student-teacher ratios. The average number of students per teacher in primary and secondary schools in Beijing and Shanghai is 15:1 and 14:1, respectively.  By comparison, New York City and Los Angeles have elementary and secondary school student-teacher ratios of 15:1 and 21:1 , respectively. Chinese classrooms also have fewer students per teacher than the global average at both the primary and secondary level.

Less economically developed regions often suffer from the migration of qualified teachers to more developed parts of the country and lack adequate funds to hire and properly train instructors. Despite generally lower population density levels than urban areas, limited economic resources manifest in fewer, less-qualified teachers per student.  Guangxi province, for instance, has primary and secondary student-teacher ratios of 20:1 and 24:1. These patterns are mirrored in less developed regions around the world. According to a 2013 United Nations report , adolescents residing in rural areas of developing countries are less likely to have access to institutions with favorable student-teacher ratios. In India, insufficient funding has resulted in national primary and secondary student-teacher ratios of at 29:1 and 34:1 , respectively.

In order to address these imbalances, the central government has implemented policies to realign  education funding. The National Plan for Medium- and Long-term Education Reform and Development (2010-2020) set ambitious achievement targets for primary and secondary education. The plan emphasizes the need to boost scientific and technological innovation by developing China’s human-resource base.  Stated goals include universalizing preschool education and improving the nine-year compulsory education system through the “rational allocation” of resources and provision of “special support” to the less fortunate.

Local governments are also taking action to tackle disparities in education access. Shenzhen has waived school fees and Shanghai has offered legal status and funding for migrant children. The Ministry of Education has vowed to crack down on arbitrary fees , which allow some families to send their children to better schools outside the student’s home province. Additionally, the Chinese government passed the Compulsory Education Law in 2006 to galvanize local reform, prompting cities such as Wuhan to develop policies that allow migrant children living in urban areas to attend local schools without the requisite urban hukou .

Tertiary Education

Tertiary education, generally understood as post-secondary school learning supported by universities, technical training institutes, community colleges, and research laboratories, is essential to a country’s competitiveness in an increasingly innovation-driven global economy. Over the last decade, China has made considerable strides in advancing tertiary education, with the number of institutions more than doubling and government expenditures increasing from $52.66 billion in 2003 to $311 billion in 2014. The 211 Project and 985 Project , initiatives designed to raise research standards and cultivate rencai (people with talent), further demonstrate the effort Chinese leaders are making to modernize the country’s education system.

At present, however, the quality of Chinese universities lags behind that of other countries. The Times Higher Education World University Rankings 2016-2017, a widely respected London-based university measure, includes only two Chinese institutions among the top 100 universities worldwide.  Peking and Qinghua universities place 29th and 25th respectively, among the 978 tertiary institutions featured in the world ranking. By comparison, the study found that the United States is home to fifteen of the top twenty universities in the world. University rankings released by Shanghai Ranking Consultancy also reflect this division. Qinghua and Peking universities rank 58 th and 71 st in the consultancy’s global comparison.  China’s 3 rd and 4 th nationally-ranked universities , Zhejiang and Fudan, fail to make the top 100.

China’s top universities are highly selective. Peking University does not publicize its admission rates, but applicants from Beijing are believed to have a 0.5 percent chance of acceptance, which is up to 40 times higher than applicants from elsewhere in the country. When compared globally, Peking University’s low admission rate reveals the exceptionally competitive nature of tertiary education in China. Two of the world’s most well-regarded higher education institutions in the United States, Harvard University and Stanford University, have admission rates around 5 percent. In the United Kingdom, the University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge have acceptance rates over 17 percent.

The structure of the national admissions process further compounds this disparity.  College hopefuls are bound by their hukou (household registration) and performance on the gaokao, China’s National Higher Education Entrance Examination. Every year, universities set quotas for how many applicants may be admitted from each province. Institutions allocate the highest number of spots to applicants from the institution’s home province, and typically preferential treatment is given to urban residents from elsewhere for the remaining spots. Consequently, students from rural or lower-income Chinese provinces must often score significantly higher on the gaokao than their counterparts with urban hukou in order to be admitted into the same institution.  

China and India supply almost half of (46.4 percent) the global 6.4 million Science and Engineering bachelor’s degrees.

Chinese universities are generally understood to be divided into four tiers , with Tier 1 encompassing universities designated to receive substantial central government funding to develop China as a world-class research center . The cutoff gaokao scores ( fenshuxian ) required for admission into each tier are determined annually, but a student’s chances for acceptance usually depend on the difficulty of the gaokao , university quotas, academic interests, and their hukou . A high number of Tier-1 institutions are concentrated in wealthy municipalities and provinces, which earmarks them for more government funding than their lower-ranking counterparts.  Specifically, five of the top ten universities in China are located in Beijing and Shanghai.

Tertiary enrollment rates further reflect China’s stark urban-rural education divide. On the national level, just over a quarter of the country’s college-age population is enrolled in a tertiary institution.  Shanghai, one of China’s wealthiest municipality, boasts an enrollment rate of 70 percent, while provinces like Guangxi suffer from enrollment rates below 20 percent. A similar trend surfaces when comparing countries across the globe. Highly developed countries in North America and Western Europe have tertiary enrollment rates averaging around 75 percent.  Conversely, in developing regions in Central Asia , just over a quarter of the population attains tertiary education.

Many of those who attend Chinese universities pursue degrees in science and engineering fields.  According to the 2016 Science and Engineering Indicators Report , China and India supply almost half of (46.4 percent) the global 6.4 million Science and Engineering (S&E) bachelor’s degrees. The two countries are projected to collectively account for two-thirds of the increase in global S&E graduates through 2030 . By comparison, the European Union and United States supplied 11.5 percent and 9.2 percent, respectively, of the global share of S&E graduates.

This outpouring of S&E graduates may present its own problems for China as it seeks to transition to a consumer-driven economy.  A Qinghua and Fudan University joint study observed a gap between China’s supply and its need for highly skilled labor. Specifically, western provinces have skills shortages in fields such as research and development and capital operation , and eastern provinces lack skilled technical workers . Moreover, high-skilled workers often seek opportunities in the same cities , which can lead to an excess of job hunters in a particular market. In 2013, the tertiary education system supplied more highly-skilled workers than the economy demanded, resulting in a new-graduate unemployment rate more than three times higher than the national average.  Educational attainment outstripping market demands is not unique to China. In South Korea, recent graduates face a highly competitive job market with scarce employment opportunities , forcing some students to linger at university.

• Scholarships Chinese Government Scholarships Local Government Scholarships Confucius Institute Scholarships University Scholarships
• Universities
• Learning Chinese HSK Hot Words Online Class
• News Center News and Events My Story In Focus
• Services Reports China ABC Living in China Career Preparations Admissions Laws and Regulations FAQ A 5-step guide to studying in China

Education in China

As an ancient civilization with a history of 5,000 years, China has always been attaching great importance to its education. Confucianism and the imperial examination system have a great impact on China’s education. The current strategy of rejuvenating China through science and education puts science, technology and education as China’s priorities. International exchanges and cooperation promote China’s education to a deeper and further level. Not only does it play an important role in inheriting and developing the traditional Chinese culture, but also makes tremendous contributions to the development of world civilization.

I. Status quo

At present, China's education system mainly includes pre-school education, compulsory education, special education, high school education, higher education, adult training, literacy education and private education.

Pre-school education refers to the education in kindergartens for 3 to 5-year-old children

Compulsory education is also referred to as free education, including primary and middle school education, lasting nine years generally, six years in primary school and three in middle school (“6+3 system”), yet with exceptions.

China has basically formed its own special education development pattern, with special education schools as the backbone, regular classes or special classes in ordinary schools as the main form, and sending teachers to families, homeschooling and community education as a supplement.

China’s high school education, including regular high schools, regular technical secondary schools,  adult secondary technical schools,vocational high schools and technical schools, is an important part of the national education system.

China’s higher education includes academic education and non-academic education, in full-time or part-time pattern. It can also be divided into junior college, undergraduate and postgraduate education.

Adult training and literacy education: Adult education is different from ordinary full-time education. Its main purpose is to upgrade the skills and improve the qualifications of the working staff.  Literacy education refers to the process of teaching the illiterate or the semi-illiterate to grasp basic skills of reading, writing and reckoning.

China’s private education, also known as non-public education, is a form of education in contrast to public education or state-run education. It refers to the schools and other educational institutions run by non-state social organizations or individuals using non-fiscal funds for the purpose of benefiting the society.

II. Achievements 

At present, China has about 15,429,000 full-time teachers, 260 million students and 512,000 schools. The total investment in education in the country is CNY 3,612.919 billion. There are 2,852 higher education institutions, enrolling a total of 36.47 million students, 24,900 high schools with 40,376,900 students, 52,400 middle schools with 43,119,500 students, 190,500 primary schools with 96,921,800 pupils, and 223,700 kindergartens with 42,648,300 children.

In terms of investment in education, in recent five years, the national education program have trained 7 million teachers, with CNY 2.92 trillion fiscal fund invested. 80% of compulsory education schools are equipped with multimedia classrooms, and 91.45% with Internet access.

1. Scale of private education

There were 162,700 privately-run schools of various kinds at various levels in China, including 734 private colleges and universities, 2,225 private secondary vocational schools, 2,585 private regular high schools, 4,876 private regular middle schools, 5,859 private regular primary schools and 146,400 private kindergartens.

2. Scale of higher education

There are 2,852 higher education institutions in China, among which 2,560 are regular colleges and universities, and 292 are adult colleges and universities. In higher academic education, there are 326,700 PhD students, 1,584,700 postgraduates, 15,766,800 undergraduates, 10,486,100 regular junior college students and 6,359,400 adult college and adult junior college students.

Among the teachers of regular colleges and universities in China, the full-time teachers in colleges and universities total 1,573,000, of which 68.4% has master’s degree[l1] and 41.9% senior professional titles.

China’s higher education institutions have assigned 44,200 students and received 37,600 foreign students for international academic exchanges and cooperative researches which have attendees as many as 163,900. China has held 2,291 international academic conferences, with 93,500 academic papers discussed and 18,700 invited lectures given.

III. International cooperation and exchanges in education

Since 2000, China has successively established eight vice premier-level humanities exchange mechanisms: China-Russia (November 2000), China-US (May 2010), China-UK (April 2012), China-Europe (April 2012), China-France (September 2014), China-Indonesia (May 2015), China-South Africa (April 2017) and China-Germany (May 2017), which covers many areas such as education, science, technology, culture, health, sport, radio and television, media, film, tourism, women, youth and archives.

1. Inbound and outbound students

From 1978 to 2016, 4,586,600 Chinese students studied overseas and 2,651,100 returned. According to the statistics, in the year of 2016, 544,500 Chinese students went abroad to further their studies and 432,500 returned, and the international students studying in China were 442,800, among which 210,000 received academic education.

2. Sino-foreign cooperation in school operations

Until February 2017, there have been 2,522 Sino-foreign education institutions and programs in China, involving 34 countries, including Australia, UK, USA, Canada and Russia, and 1,746 Sino-foreign higher education institutions, including 785 colleges and universities in China and 961 in foreign countries.

3. Confucius Institute

Until December 2016, China had established 511 Confucius Institutes in 140 countries and regions, opened 1,073 Confucius Classrooms, with 2.1 million students and 46,000 part-time and full-time faculty members in 2016.

IV.Future development

Improving the quality of education in China in an all-round way and making significant progress in education modernization are the main goals of China’s educational development in the future. The main tasks include strengthening students’ social responsibility, innovation, entrepreneurship and hands-on ability; encouraging the development of universal pre-schooling; promoting the balanced development of compulsory education; universalizing high school education; speeding up the development of modern vocational education; transforming the qualified undergraduate institutions into application-oriented colleges and universities; adopting a balanced approach in terms of building world-class universities and disciplines; improving the ability of colleges and universities in teaching and innovation; speeding up the building of a learning society; and making great efforts in promoting educational equality.

The supplementary measures to achieve the main objectives include strengthening the training of teachers, deepening the reform of the examination and enrollment system, improving the education investment mechanism, promoting and regulating the development of private education, promoting education informatization, strengthening international cooperation and exchanges in education, and deepening the innovation and entrepreneurship-oriented educational reform.

• Study in Shanghai
• Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People's Republic of China
• Tsinghua University

Education in China

China has the largest education system in the world. In June 2023, there were 12.91 million students taking the National Higher Education Entrance Examination (Gao Kao) in China. International students have enrolled in over 1000 higher education institutions throughout the country. Investment in education accounts for about 4% of total GDP in China. In 1986, the Chinese government passed a compulsory education law, making nine years of education mandatory for all Chinese children. Today, the Ministry of Education estimates that above 99 percent of the school-age children have received universal nine-year basic education.

China has improved the quality of education through a major effort at school curriculum and other reforms. China's Education Modernization 2035 plan is launched to set the direction for the development of the education sector from “capacity” to “quality”, and that the modernization of education should support the modernization of China.

The Ministry of Education has launched a pilot education program which will allow 36 top universities in China including Peking, Tsinghua and Fudan University, to select outstanding high school graduates who are willing to serve the country's major strategic needs. Under the program, known as the Strong Base Plan, the universities will focus on enrollment in majors such as mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology that have been proved unpopular with students in recent years. Many students prefer to study in majors for high paying careers.

History of Education in China Many Chinese scholars believe the history of education in China can be traced back at as far as the 16th century BC. Throughout this period of time, education was the privilege of the elites. Confucianism probably is the biggest influence in history of education in China.

Project 211 and 985 Project 211 is the Chinese government's new endeavor aimed at strengthening about 100 universities and key disciplinary areas as a national priority for the 21st century. Project 985 is a constructive project for founding world-class universities in the 21st century.

Nine-Year Compulsory Education in China

Nine-year compulsory education policy in China enables students over six years old nationwide to have free education at both primary schools (grade 1 to 6) and junior secondary schools (grade 7 to 9). The policy is funded by government, tuition is free. Schools still charge miscellaneous fees. Senior secondary school (grade 10 to 12) and college education are not compulsory and free in China.

Education System in China

Pre-school Education in China Pre-school education is an important component of education cause in China. In urban areas, it is mainly kindergartens of 3 years, two years or one year which could be full time part-time, boarding or hour-reckoned.

Primary and Secondary Education in China Since the promulgation of the "Compulsory Education Law of the People's Republic of China" in 1986, the 9-year compulsory education has been implemented by governments at various levels and made significant progress.

Teacher Development in China

China has a consistent teacher development system. Teaching has historically been and remains today a highly respected profession in China. Teachers have strong preparation in their subject matter and prospective teachers spend a great deal of time observing the classrooms of experienced teachers, often in schools attached to their universities. Once teachers are employed in school, there is a system of induction and continuous professional development in which groups of teachers work together with master teachers on lesson plans and improvement.

History of Education in China

Mar 11, 2019

340 likes | 762 Views

History of Education in China. By Charline & Yaling. 30 century B.C.- 1600 B.C. 庠者，养也；校者，教也；序者，射也 Basic needs, wisdom, experiences, shoot. 16th century B.C. late "Xia Dynasty". 16th century B.C. during the late "Xia Dynasty" (1523-1027 B.C.). Oracle bones

Share Presentation

• qing dynasty
• education system
• chinese education
• qing dynasty 1911
• kongfu polite behavior music

Presentation Transcript

History of Education in China By Charline & Yaling

30 century B.C.- 1600 B.C. • 庠者，养也；校者，教也；序者，射也 • Basic needs, wisdom, experiences, shoot

16th century B.C. late "Xia Dynasty" • 16th century B.C. during the late "Xia Dynasty" (1523-1027 B.C.). • Oracle bones 11th century -17th century (3600yrs) • Curriculum: 文武(knowledge and Kongfu)，礼仪 (polite behavior)，乐舞(music and dance)，天文(astronomical)，历法(history and laws) www.chinaeducenter.com

Papermaking and printing • Han Dynasty (202 BCE-220 CE), created a sheet of paper using mulberry and other bast fibres along with fishnets, old rags, and hemp waste.[1] • Printing 1040

770-221 B.C. Han • The teachings of Confucianism during the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods (770-221 B.C.), the curriculum were mainly based on The Four Books and The Five Classics. • The Four Books: The Great Learning, The Doctrine of the Mean, Confucian Analects and The Works of Mencius. • The Five Classics: • The Book of Poetry (also known as The Book of Songs, The Book of Odes), The Book of History, The Book of Rites, The Book of Changes, and The Spring and Autumn Annals. Acknowledged subjects of the Confucian culture in the feudal society in ancient China.

Confucianism probably is the biggest influence in education of China throughout the entire Chinese history. • Later in Han dynasty, a form of public education system was established. • Not only elites but common man can also use education as a path to become a better man, a gentleman. www.chinaeducenter.com

Confucianism • Benevolence, or humanity is the center; • Righteousness, justice • 仁居于核心，仁、义是基础 Curriculum • 六德morality (智、信、圣、仁、义、忠)， • 六行behavior（孝. 友、睦、姻、任，恤)、 • 六艺skill (礼、乐、射、御、书、数)

Curriculum • 六德morality (智、信、圣、仁、义、忠)，wisdom, righteousness, loyalty, holy • 六行behavior（孝. 友、睦、姻、任，恤)、filial piety, friendly, harmony, marriage, responsibility, sympathy • 六艺skill (礼、乐、射、御、书、数)courtesy, music, shoot, imperial, books, math,

During Han dynasty, the first civil service exam was set up. • Confucianism was one of the key subjects to study for the civil service exam. • Provincial schools were established countrywide and the Confucianism tradition of education was spread all over China. • The civil service exam used till Qing dynasty. www.chinaeducenter.com

The end of the Qing dynasty 1911 until now • More western influence on Chinese education. • After the defeat of the British army in the Opium War (1840-1842), scholars and government officials suggested a major restructure of education system, developing new areas such as foreign language, science and technology.

In 1911, the Qing Dynasty itself was overthrown by revolution, and a republican form of government was established. • At that time, government completely abandoned the traditional way of education. • New educational models from European, American and Japanese were set up in China.

Basic Education • 3 yrs pre-school • 6 yrs primary school (5-yr in rural areas in 1980s to 1990s) • 3 yrs junior high school • 3 yrs senior high school • 2-3 yr colleges (vocational-technical) • 4 yr colleges (bachelor’s degree) • 2-3 yr Master degree • 3 yr Doctoral degree

Learning mostly through • Listening • note-taking • reading the textbook Activities such as problem solving, critical analysis, collecting evidence and experimentation are rare http://factsanddetails.com/china.php?itemid=338&catid=13&subcatid=82 www.open.edu

Learning Dimensions • Moral • Intellectual (math, languages, biological, history, geography…) • Physical ( PE, sports) • Aesthetical (arts, drawing, music…)

• More by User

History of Modern China

The Self-Strengthening Movement

337 views • 9 slides

Education in China

Education in China. National Consortium for Teaching about Asia Study Tour July,2004. If you think about education in China, what images come to your mind? You may have images which are no longer valid, I know that I learned a lot about modern China from seeing these schools.

887 views • 49 slides

Brief History of Carbon in Modern China

Brief History of Carbon in Modern China. Production of Carbon materials Since 1956 Graphite electrodes and carbon bricks for metallurgic industry at Jinlin Carbon Corporation Carbon brush and mechanical carbons at Harbin Electrical Carbon Plant Research on Carbon

493 views • 26 slides

Yenan (Shaansi). DescriptionOf all the Provinces of China, Shensi comes nearest to being a liability." (International Famine Relief Commission Member1930s)Muslim and Taiping RebellionsLoess soilHigh tenancy ratesDefensible (also wolves and leopards). Example of loess soil overlay in Shaansi.

247 views • 12 slides

Hong Xiuquan (1814-1864) ???. Family BackgroundHakka ??Hong, the village, and the examinationsVisionsBaptismAnd perhaps we should find out what Christianity is (1847)Recruiting FollowersFellow HakkaPoor, oppressedSecret society members. Ideology. ProtestantismThe spirit of ProtestantismOl

184 views • 5 slides

History of China

History of China. A Look at Major Achievements of the Major Chinese Dynasties. Dynasty. A dynasty is a time period of a ruling family. It could last anywhere from 1 to hundreds of years. The Dynasty is named after the family name (last name) of the ruling family.

506 views • 36 slides

History of China. From Dynasty to Republic. Early Dynasty’s. Centuries before B.C., many bloodline driven dynasty’s ruled over China. The powers of a Dynasty came from your family background.

367 views • 18 slides

China history

China history. By: Shaq Rivera , Paul Christensen and Austin Lyons. Social structure.

247 views • 8 slides

History of Education

History of Education. 1950-1960. Trivia. In what year was the first, pregnant teacher able to teach?. 1958. History of Education: 1950-1970. After this presentation, students will be able to: Recognize the impact of social movements and legislation on educational reform

442 views • 20 slides

MODERN HISTORY of CHINA

MODERN HISTORY of CHINA. Lesson #6 World History. CHAIRMAN MAO. Mao Zedong - Leader Tried to “fix” China Feed the masses Modernize the nation Communist Nation Had a Cult-like following. - Everyone equal. CULTURAL REVOLUTION. 1966 – 1976 Forced re-education

300 views • 17 slides

The History of Censorship in China

The History of Censorship in China. History Censorship in China. Burial of the scholars.

150 views • 6 slides

History of China. Imperial to Socialist to . . . . ?. The Power of Imperial China. 14 th century Largest Empire in the World in 1300 Agriculture ; rice, later corn, sweet potatoes & peanuts Mining; salt, silver, tin, iron = $, jobs & products

615 views • 29 slides

History of China. Longest continuous Civilization 中国 China. Speaker : Alice Wang. History of China. 9,600,000 km 2 34 provincial administrative regions Population (2006): 1.3159 billion (Mianland) 22.84 million (Taiwan Province) 6.99 million (Hong Kong SAR)

797 views • 45 slides

Political History of China

Political History of China. POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT. Four influences: Geographical Influences Historical Influences before 1949 Historical Influences of the PRC The Political Culture. Geographical influence.

980 views • 48 slides

Until 20 th century: Dynastic Cycles Long periods of family rule divided by times of chaos. Mandate of Heaven Legitimacy, right to rule, came from ancestral wisdom from heaven. History of China. Overthrew emperor Birth of the Republic of China Weak central government under. . .

525 views • 38 slides

HISTORY of CHINA

HISTORY of CHINA. Lesson #3 The Empires. Dynasties. Shang Zhou Qin (Shi Huangdi) Han ** Tang & Song Yuan (Mongols) Ming Qing (Manchus). Shi Huandi (First Emperor). New Dynasty claims Mandate of Heaven. Mandate of Heaven (God’s approval). Loss of Mandate of Heaven. PROBLEMS

451 views • 24 slides

The History of China

The History of China. Shang Dynasty. Slideshow from www.advancedplacementhistory.com. Chinese Dynasties. Shang Dynasty 1766 BCE - 1027 BCE Zhou Dynasty 1122 BCE -256 BCE Qin Dynasty 221 BCE - 206 BCE Han Dynasty 206 BCE - 220AD Later Han Dynasty 25 AD - 220 AD

196 views • 14 slides