essay on flood with outline

Essay on Flood in Pakistan 2024 with Outline

Basically, natural disasters mean the unpredicted damage which occurs naturally. These types of disasters are happening across the world that caused huge destruction which sometimes results in the loss of human lives. Thus, no one in the whole world can stop them but it is found behind these disasters there are serious natural reasons. Flood is one of the common natural disasters. The flood causes a considerable amount of destruction by the abundant flowing of water. Some floods occur unexpectedly and move away quickly. During 2024 the best essay that covers all the related info on the topic of the flood in Pakistan with an outline is here in detail.

In Pakistan, floods are ordinary as the territory of Pakistan contains rivers. Unluckily, Punjab and Sindh are heavily affected by the flood. During the monsoon season, the rivers and canals of the these provinces filled up at an enormous rate by heavy rainfall due to which the river basins go down into the water. In Sindh, hurricanes and massive winds may sometimes carry seawater which is another reason for flooding. In addition, heavy rainfall and ice melting are the main causes of the flood.

Every year in Pakistan flood causes huge devastation. The after effects of the flood are more than worse. People who used to live near the river banks lose their lives, their houses got collapsed, and their possessions and properties got ruined. Meanwhile, a large number of people have to shift towards a safe place. The affected people live without shelter, food.

They even have no basic necessities of life. By drinking unclean water, the victims of flood suffer from many diseases. Thus, the health issue is also created by the flood. The helpless people suffer from malaria, measles, diarrhea. Furthermore, the means of communication and transportation are also badly affected. It wipes away even the heavy items. Every disaster has its end whereas in Pakistan flood disaster has become the dilemma of each year.

The government of Pakistan every year makes plans and efforts to avoid this natural disaster. The Government should endorse money for longer-term loans and gratuitous reliefs. The government should draw its attention to making the bigger dams and special ways must be adopted that transfer the overflow of water into the dry areas or into the lakes and river.

The government has made relief committees and asks for shelter, food, and clothes. Pakistan’s army is appointed to help, assist, and support the victims of the flood. People on their behalf help their brothers by giving donations and also pursued other people to help the needy people.

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Flood Essay for Students and Children

500+ words essay on flood.

Flood is one of the most dangerous natural disasters. It happens when excessive water is collected in any area. It usually happens due to heavy rainfall. India is highly prone to flood. There are many regions in the country that face this natural disaster because of the overflowing of rivers. Moreover, it also happens because of the melting of snow. Another reason for floods is when the dam breaks down. If we look at the coastal areas, the hurricanes and tsunamis are held responsible for causing floods. In this essay on flood, we will see the prevention and after-affect of flood.

In other words, whatever the cause may be, it is equally dangerous. It has a lot of harmful consequences. Flood damages the living conditions and it takes a lot of time to recover from this disaster. Therefore, the consequences of floods must be known and steps must be taken to prevent it.

After-effects of Flood

Floods interrupt with the day to day functioning of the affected area. The severe floods sometimes cause mass destruction. A lot of people and animals lose their lives due to floods. Several others are injured. Floods also bring a rise in diseases. The stagnant water attracts mosquitoes causing malaria , dengue, and more illnesses.

Furthermore, people face power cuts due to the danger of electrocution. They also have to face expensive pricing. As the supply of food and goods gets limited, the prices naturally grow higher. This creates a big problem for the common man.

Most importantly, the whole country faces economic loss. The resources needed to rescue people and tackle this disaster demands a hefty amount. Plus, the citizens lose their houses and cars which they worked all their lives for.

Subsequently, floods also hamper the environment. It causes soil erosion and this degrades the quality of the soil. We lose out on fertile soil. Similarly, floods also damage flora and fauna. They damage crops and displace trees. Thus, the measure should be taken to avoid these grave consequences.

Get the huge list of more than 500 Essay Topics and Ideas

Ways to Prevent flood

The government and citizens must work together to formulate ways to prevent floods. Proper awareness must be spread about the steps to take when floods occur. Warning systems must be set up so people get sufficient time to save themselves. In addition, areas that are more likely to have floods must have tall buildings above the flood level.

Other than that, dams must be constructed strongly. The use of cheap materials causes dams to break. The government must ensure there is a quality building of dams to prevent floods.

In short, we cannot prevent natural causes like rain and the melting of glaciers. However, we can stop the manmade causes like breaking of dams, poor drainage system, installing warning systems and more. We should take inspiration from countries like Singapore that never experience floods despite having heavy rainfall for most time of the year.

FAQ on Flood Essay

Q.1 what are the consequences of a flood.

A.1 Floods cause immense destruction. They are responsible for the loss of human and animal lives. People lose their homes and cars in floods. They also cause soil erosion and uproot of trees.

Q.2 How can we prevent floods?

A.2 Governments must take up certain measures to prevent floods. We can install flood warning systems. Make people aware of what to do in times of flood. Moreover, we can also build a proper drainage system that will ensure no waterlogging.

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Flood Essay

Floods are natural disasters that occur when a body of water, such as a river or ocean, overflows its banks and spills onto the surrounding land. This can happen for a variety of reasons, including heavy rainfall, melting snow, and storms . Here are a few sample essays on floods.

100 Words Essay on Floods

Floods are naturally occurring phenomena that are caused due to overflowing water bodies. A flood can be just a small occurrence that can cause some travel issues to highly destructive events that can cause significant damage to homes, businesses, and infrastructure. In addition to physical damage, floods can also lead to loss of life and can have long-term impacts on the affected communities.

To protect against floods, people can take steps such as building floodwalls and levees and elevating homes and other structures in flood-prone areas. It is also important for individuals to be prepared for floods by having an emergency plan in place and staying informed about potential flooding in their area.

200 Words Essay On Floods

Floods are natural disasters that occur due to overflowing water sources like ponds, oceans and rivers. The reasons for the occurrence of floods can be heavy rainfall, loose soil, melting of snow, breaking of dams etc.

Impact | The impacts of floods can be far-reaching and long-lasting. In addition to physical damage to homes, businesses, and infrastructure, floods can also lead to loss of life. Floodwaters can carry dangerous debris and pollutants, making them a health hazard for people and animals. Floods can also have economic impacts, as they can disrupt transportation and commerce, and can destroy crops and other sources of food.

Prevention | People living nearby water bodies take preventative measures to reduce the impact of flood damage. Building elevated homes, planting more trees to soak up an extra amount of water, having an escape plan in case of emergencies etc. It is also important for individuals to be prepared for floods by having an emergency plan in place and staying informed about potential flooding in their area. In the event of a flood, it is important to follow the advice of local authorities and evacuate if instructed.

Overall, floods are serious natural disasters that can have significant impacts on communities. By taking steps to protect against floods and being prepared for them, people can reduce the risks and impacts of this type of disaster.

500 Words Essay on Floods

Floods are a common natural disaster that occurs when excess water overflows onto land that is normally dry. This can happen for a number of reasons, including heavy rainfall, snowmelt, and coastal storms.

Types Of Floods

There are several different types of floods, each with its own characteristics and potential impacts. Flash floods, for example, are caused by sudden, intense rainfall and can happen within minutes or hours. They can be particularly dangerous because they often catch people off guard and can lead to flash flooding in urban areas.

On the other hand, river floods are caused by water flowing over the banks of rivers and streams. These floods can be more gradual, giving people time to evacuate and prepare, but they can also be very destructive.

Coastal floods, also known as storm surges, are caused by strong winds and high tides associated with coastal storms, such as hurricanes. These floods can be extremely destructive, as they can cause not only flooding but also strong winds and waves that can damage buildings and infrastructure.

Biggest Floods Recorded On Earth

One of the biggest floods in history was the 1931 China floods , also known as the Central China Floods . These floods were caused by heavy rainfall and the collapse of the Banqiao Dam. The floods affected an estimated 54 million people and resulted in the deaths of 145,000 people.

Another major flood was the 1993 Mississippi River Flood , which affected parts of the United States, including Missouri, Illinois, and Kentucky . The floods were caused by heavy rainfall and resulted in the deaths of 50 people and caused billions of dollars in damages.

In 1998, the Yangtze River Flood in China also caused widespread destruction. The floods, which were the result of heavy rainfall, affected millions of people and resulted in the deaths of over 4,000 people. The floods also caused billions of dollars in damages.

Another recent and devastating flood was the 2010 Pakistan floods, which affected the Indus River Basin in Pakistan. The floods, which were caused by heavy monsoon rains, affected an estimated 20 million people and resulted in the deaths of over 1,700 people.

Forest To Prevent Floods

Forests play a critical role in preventing floods. Trees and other vegetation in forests can act as natural barriers which absorb water. Hence, reducing the speed of flowing water and thereby reducing the risk of flooding.

When it rains, the leaves and branches of trees absorb a significant amount of water. The roots of trees also help to hold the soil in place, preventing it from eroding and being carried away by the water. This helps to reduce the amount of water that flows over the surface and into rivers and streams, lowering the risk of flooding.

In addition to absorbing water, forests also help to regulate the flow of water by releasing it slowly into rivers and streams. This helps to prevent sudden, large increases in water levels that can lead to flooding. Trees and other vegetation can help to reduce the force of the water and protect against erosion, which can help to minimise the damage caused by floods.

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Depending on the video game designer job description and experience they may also have to lead a team and do the early testing of the game in order to suggest changes and find loopholes.

Radio Jockey

Radio Jockey is an exciting, promising career and a great challenge for music lovers. If you are really interested in a career as radio jockey, then it is very important for an RJ to have an automatic, fun, and friendly personality. If you want to get a job done in this field, a strong command of the language and a good voice are always good things. Apart from this, in order to be a good radio jockey, you will also listen to good radio jockeys so that you can understand their style and later make your own by practicing.

A career as radio jockey has a lot to offer to deserving candidates. If you want to know more about a career as radio jockey, and how to become a radio jockey then continue reading the article.

Choreographer

The word “choreography" actually comes from Greek words that mean “dance writing." Individuals who opt for a career as a choreographer create and direct original dances, in addition to developing interpretations of existing dances. A Choreographer dances and utilises his or her creativity in other aspects of dance performance. For example, he or she may work with the music director to select music or collaborate with other famous choreographers to enhance such performance elements as lighting, costume and set design.

Videographer

Multimedia specialist.

A multimedia specialist is a media professional who creates, audio, videos, graphic image files, computer animations for multimedia applications. He or she is responsible for planning, producing, and maintaining websites and applications.

Social Media Manager

A career as social media manager involves implementing the company’s or brand’s marketing plan across all social media channels. Social media managers help in building or improving a brand’s or a company’s website traffic, build brand awareness, create and implement marketing and brand strategy. Social media managers are key to important social communication as well.

Copy Writer

In a career as a copywriter, one has to consult with the client and understand the brief well. A career as a copywriter has a lot to offer to deserving candidates. Several new mediums of advertising are opening therefore making it a lucrative career choice. Students can pursue various copywriter courses such as Journalism , Advertising , Marketing Management . Here, we have discussed how to become a freelance copywriter, copywriter career path, how to become a copywriter in India, and copywriting career outlook.

Careers in journalism are filled with excitement as well as responsibilities. One cannot afford to miss out on the details. As it is the small details that provide insights into a story. Depending on those insights a journalist goes about writing a news article. A journalism career can be stressful at times but if you are someone who is passionate about it then it is the right choice for you. If you want to know more about the media field and journalist career then continue reading this article.

For publishing books, newspapers, magazines and digital material, editorial and commercial strategies are set by publishers. Individuals in publishing career paths make choices about the markets their businesses will reach and the type of content that their audience will be served. Individuals in book publisher careers collaborate with editorial staff, designers, authors, and freelance contributors who develop and manage the creation of content.

In a career as a vlogger, one generally works for himself or herself. However, once an individual has gained viewership there are several brands and companies that approach them for paid collaboration. It is one of those fields where an individual can earn well while following his or her passion.

Ever since internet costs got reduced the viewership for these types of content has increased on a large scale. Therefore, a career as a vlogger has a lot to offer. If you want to know more about the Vlogger eligibility, roles and responsibilities then continue reading the article.

Individuals in the editor career path is an unsung hero of the news industry who polishes the language of the news stories provided by stringers, reporters, copywriters and content writers and also news agencies. Individuals who opt for a career as an editor make it more persuasive, concise and clear for readers. In this article, we will discuss the details of the editor's career path such as how to become an editor in India, editor salary in India and editor skills and qualities.

Linguistic meaning is related to language or Linguistics which is the study of languages. A career as a linguistic meaning, a profession that is based on the scientific study of language, and it's a very broad field with many specialities. Famous linguists work in academia, researching and teaching different areas of language, such as phonetics (sounds), syntax (word order) and semantics (meaning).

Other researchers focus on specialities like computational linguistics, which seeks to better match human and computer language capacities, or applied linguistics, which is concerned with improving language education. Still, others work as language experts for the government, advertising companies, dictionary publishers and various other private enterprises. Some might work from home as freelance linguists. Philologist, phonologist, and dialectician are some of Linguist synonym. Linguists can study French , German , Italian .

Public Relation Executive

Travel journalist.

The career of a travel journalist is full of passion, excitement and responsibility. Journalism as a career could be challenging at times, but if you're someone who has been genuinely enthusiastic about all this, then it is the best decision for you. Travel journalism jobs are all about insightful, artfully written, informative narratives designed to cover the travel industry. Travel Journalist is someone who explores, gathers and presents information as a news article.

Quality Controller

A quality controller plays a crucial role in an organisation. He or she is responsible for performing quality checks on manufactured products. He or she identifies the defects in a product and rejects the product.

A quality controller records detailed information about products with defects and sends it to the supervisor or plant manager to take necessary actions to improve the production process.

Production Manager

Merchandiser.

A QA Lead is in charge of the QA Team. The role of QA Lead comes with the responsibility of assessing services and products in order to determine that he or she meets the quality standards. He or she develops, implements and manages test plans.

Metallurgical Engineer

A metallurgical engineer is a professional who studies and produces materials that bring power to our world. He or she extracts metals from ores and rocks and transforms them into alloys, high-purity metals and other materials used in developing infrastructure, transportation and healthcare equipment.

Azure Administrator

An Azure Administrator is a professional responsible for implementing, monitoring, and maintaining Azure Solutions. He or she manages cloud infrastructure service instances and various cloud servers as well as sets up public and private cloud systems.

AWS Solution Architect

An AWS Solution Architect is someone who specializes in developing and implementing cloud computing systems. He or she has a good understanding of the various aspects of cloud computing and can confidently deploy and manage their systems. He or she troubleshoots the issues and evaluates the risk from the third party.

Computer Programmer

Careers in computer programming primarily refer to the systematic act of writing code and moreover include wider computer science areas. The word 'programmer' or 'coder' has entered into practice with the growing number of newly self-taught tech enthusiasts. Computer programming careers involve the use of designs created by software developers and engineers and transforming them into commands that can be implemented by computers. These commands result in regular usage of social media sites, word-processing applications and browsers.

ITSM Manager

Information security manager.

Individuals in the information security manager career path involves in overseeing and controlling all aspects of computer security. The IT security manager job description includes planning and carrying out security measures to protect the business data and information from corruption, theft, unauthorised access, and deliberate attack

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Floods in Pakistan Essay: Causes and Prevention

by Pakiology | Mar 22, 2024 | Essay , English | 0 comments

Get a comprehensive understanding of the devastating effects of floods in Pakistan through this in-depth Floods In Pakistan Essay. Learn about the causes, prevention, and role of government in addressing this issue.

Here are two perfect essays on floods in Pakistan. It is a hot topic right now. It is very possible that your examiner will target this topic for your upcoming exam. So prepare these essays very well.

Page Contents

800 Words Essay on Floods In Pakistan With Quotations

Impacts of floods in pakistan, mitigating the adverse effects of floods in pakistan, 400 words essay on floods in pakistan.

Pakistan experiences devastating floods every year, causing loss of life and property. Despite being a common disaster in the country, the impact of floods remains devastating. In this article, we delve into the causes and impacts of floods in Pakistan and explore ways to mitigate their adverse effects.

What Causes Floods in Pakistan?

Monsoon rainfall:.

Pakistan’s location in the monsoon region makes it susceptible to heavy rainfall during the monsoon season, which can cause widespread flooding. This is because heavy downpours in a short period of time can overwhelm the drainage systems, causing water to overflow into low-lying areas and causing widespread damage. Additionally, the country’s topography, with its mountain ranges, valleys, and plains, also exacerbates the problem by channeling the water into narrow channels and causing flash floods.

Glacial Melt:

The Himalayan glaciers, located in northern Pakistan, are melting at an alarming rate, which contributes to the country’s flood problem. The melting of these glaciers increases the volume of water in rivers and streams, causing them to overflow their banks and result in widespread flooding. The problem is further exacerbated by the rapid rate at which the glaciers are melting, which results in a large amount of water being released into rivers and streams all at once, leading to a sudden increase in the water levels and causing flash floods.

Poor Drainage System:

The inadequate drainage system in Pakistan is a major cause of floods. The poor design of the drainage channels and the rampant illegal construction in the country can result in blockages and obstructions, which can cause water to back up and overflow into surrounding areas, resulting in widespread flooding. Additionally, the illegal construction of buildings and infrastructure in flood-prone areas can also exacerbate the problem by blocking the flow of water and causing water to accumulate in low-lying areas.

Deforestation:

The rapid deforestation in Pakistan is also contributing to the frequency and intensity of floods in the country. Trees play a crucial role in retaining water and reducing runoff, and their loss can lead to increased runoff and flooding. Deforestation also reduces the amount of vegetation that can absorb water, leading to a more rapid runoff of water into rivers and streams and causing them to overflow their banks and result in widespread flooding.

Loss of Life and Property:

Floods in Pakistan have a devastating impact on human lives, often resulting in the loss of lives and widespread damage to property and infrastructure, especially in rural areas where residents have limited access to resources and support. The destruction of homes, businesses, schools, and hospitals can have long-lasting effects on communities, displacing families and causing widespread poverty and homelessness.

Health Crises:

Floods in Pakistan can pose a serious threat to public health, spreading waterborne diseases such as cholera, dysentery, and malaria. With contaminated water sources, the risk of water-borne illnesses increases, putting the lives of millions of people at risk, especially in areas where there are limited healthcare facilities.

Agricultural Disruption:

The agricultural sector, which is the backbone of Pakistan’s economy, is often severely impacted by floods, damaging crops and reducing soil fertility. This can have a significant impact on food security, leading to food shortages and increased prices, affecting the livelihoods of millions of farmers and their families.

Economic Losses:

In addition to the loss of human lives, floods in Pakistan can result in massive economic losses, particularly for small businesses and farmers. The destruction of infrastructure, such as roads, bridges, and transportation systems, can disrupt trade and commerce, causing significant financial losses for businesses.

Improved Drainage System:

To prevent blockages and reduce the risk of floods, the drainage system in Pakistan must be improved. This can include upgrading existing channels, constructing new ones, and ensuring proper maintenance to prevent blockages.

Afforestation:

The government should launch a massive afforestation drive to restore tree cover, which can help to reduce runoff and prevent floods. By planting trees, the government can mitigate the effects of floods and provide a long-term solution to protect communities from the adverse impacts of floods.

Strict Construction Regulations:

To prevent illegal construction and blockages, strict construction regulations must be enforced. This can include implementing fines and penalties for violators and providing support to local authorities to enforce these regulations.

Flood Early Warning System:

To ensure timely evacuation and advance warning, an effective flood early warning system should be in place. This can include installing early warning systems, such as flood gauges and weather monitoring systems, to provide real-time information to communities, allowing them to evacuate and prepare in advance.

In conclusion, floods are a recurring problem in Pakistan, causing widespread damage to life and property. By addressing the root causes and implementing measures to enhance the country’s preparedness and response mechanisms, we can reduce the frequency and intensity of floods in Pakistan and ensure a safer and more sustainable future for all

Floods in Pakistan have been a major natural disaster for the country. They are caused by heavy rainfall during the monsoon season, as well as by melting snow from the Himalayas. These floods can cause widespread destruction, including damage to homes, infrastructure, and crops.

The 2022 floods in Pakistan were particularly severe, affecting more than 33 million people and causing billions of dollars in damage. The floods affected large areas of the country, including the Balochistan, Sindh, Punjab, and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa provinces. The heavy rainfall and overflowing rivers caused widespread destruction, including damage to homes, roads, and crops.

The impact of floods on Pakistan can be devastating. In addition to the physical damage caused by floods, they can also have a significant economic impact. Floods can destroy crops and damage infrastructure, leading to a loss of income for farmers and businesses. They can also disrupt transportation and communication networks, making it difficult for people to access essential goods and services.

The government of Pakistan has taken steps to try to prevent and mitigate the effects of floods. This includes building dams and other infrastructure to control the flow of water, as well as providing support to affected communities. However, much more needs to be done to address the issue of floods in Pakistan.

As I mentioned earlier, the government of Pakistan has taken steps to try to prevent and mitigate the effects of floods. This includes building dams and other infrastructure to control the flow of water, as well as providing support to affected communities.

However, there are also other measures that can be taken to reduce the impact of floods in Pakistan. For example, improving drainage systems and increasing vegetation in flood-prone areas can help to absorb excess water and reduce the risk of flooding. In addition, educating communities about the risks of floods and how to prepare for them can help to reduce the loss of life and property.

It is also important for the government to work with international organizations and other countries to develop more effective strategies for dealing with floods. This could include sharing information and expertise, as well as providing financial and technical assistance. By working together, it may be possible to reduce the impact of floods in Pakistan and protect communities from the devastating effects of this natural disaster.

In conclusion, floods in Pakistan are a major natural disaster that can have devastating effects on the country. They are caused by heavy rainfall and melting snow and can cause significant damage to homes, infrastructure, and crops. The government of Pakistan has taken steps to try to prevent and mitigate the effects of floods, but more needs to be done to address this issue.

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Flood Essay

Essay on Flood

Students who are looking for a good essay to study on the topic of flood should not be worried anymore. That is because Vedantu has come up with a sample essay on the flood that students of any class of any educational board can refer to and study from. This essay is designed by subject experts in English who work with Vedantu to create more like these study materials on a regular basis.

These study materials are also updated and refreshed once in a while to make sure they are still relevant and up to date. Relevancy of the content is the most significant quality that these subject experts at Vedantu understand. And to help every student in this country, these study materials are made and maintained on a regular basis.

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If any educational board (including CBSE, ICSE, state board, etc.) makes any update in their guidelines or paper pattern, these subject experts at Vedantu quickly study the new guidelines and update these study materials at a moment's notice. All of this extra care is taken to make sure the content stays relevant because Vedantu wants to serve every student in the country with top-quality study material.

If students of any class and any educational board (including CBSE, ICSE, state board, etc.) learn from these study materials, they can get good marks and can score a high rank in any examination or even any small test. All they have to do is to read the sample essay provided by Vedantu on the topic of floods.

Students can read it online on the page or can download it so that they can access it whenever they need it. This study material is available in a pdf format for downloading. Being in a pdf format, students can access it from any device (like mobile phones, laptops, personal computers, or even tablets) To download, students should have to sign in on the page with their Gmail ID after clicking the download link provided on this website.

FAQs on Flood Essay

1. What Are the Consequences of Floods?

The damage caused by a flood is up to 90% when compared to other natural disasters. Major flooding causes loss of human and animal lives, they also cause severe damage to economic infrastructures. Floods also cause severe damage to government buildings and public properties.

2. How Do Satellites Help During Floods?

Weathering satellites play an important role in monitoring flood situations over a large region and detecting floods. At ISRO (Indian space research organization) Optical remote sensing from geostationary platforms helps in providing rapid and valuable information on cloud patterns and rainfall patterns for a particular area.

3. Is Vedantu's sample essay on floods PDF costly?

The brief and one-word answer to this question is, no. It is not costly. In fact, it is completely free of cost for students to access or even download. Almost all of the study materials students can find on Vedantu's website is completely free of cost and not for sale. It is open for everyone to access or download. Students don't need to pay any amount to access these study materials. They can just visit the website or download Vedantu's app to be able to access it.

4. Is Vedantu's sample essay on floods PDF downloadable?

To answer this question in one word, yes, this study material is downloadable. Students can click on the provided link on this page to download it. This link is in the form of a blue button with the text "Download PDF" written on it. After clicking on the provided download link, students will be asked to provide their Gmail ID to sign in on Vedantu's portal. After signing in, students can access the pdf version of the sample essay on floods from their mobile phones, laptops, personal computers, or tablets.

5. Why is it necessary to learn flood management in school?

By teaching the topics like flood management or disaster management in schools, the students will be prepared for almost any type of natural or man-made disaster. It is entirely clear that teaching students about managing these tough times and helping others is a great way to create leaders. These young minds learning leadership from such a young age can really be the most important asset to the country. That is why teaching flood management or disaster management in schools is necessary.

6. Can I use this essay on flood for my test or examination?

Yes, students can use this sample essay for academic application. These essays are designed by experts working at Vedantu. These experts are well versed in English and write essays in a manner that is most suitable for academic success. Also, these essays are completely up to date and relevant to the paper pattern followed by these educational boards. These essays are created in a way that will be helpful for students to score good marks in the examination.

7. Is floods a big problem in India?

Yes, floods are a big problem in India. In fact, it is considered one of the most common natural disasters, if not the most common natural disaster in India. The heavy rivers like Brahmaputra or others from any part of the country almost always end up flooding the nearby areas in monsoon. Amongst a few causes of floods are extreme precipitation, unplanned urban growth, degradation of the environment, frequent changes in monsoon etc. The most flood-prone areas in India are Punjab, Haryana, Gangetic plains, etc.

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Natural Disaster Essay: How to Write, Topics, & Examples

What would you do if someone told you that a tsunami would wipe out your house tomorrow afternoon? You won’t believe them. It always seems that natural disasters happen in someone else’s life. But every year, millions of people worldwide suffer from various natural calamities. This article attempts to systemize the chaos of nature for you to write an impressive natural disasters essay. You will get acquainted with the seven types of disasters, get a long list of topics and examples of natural disaster essay in 200 words and 300 words.

🌪️ Natural Disaster: The Basics
💡 114 Essay Topics
📑 Outlining Your Essay
🌊 Essay Sample (200 Words)
🏜️ Essay Sample (300 Words)

🌪️ Natural Disaster Essay: What Is It About?

A natural disaster is a large-scale meteorological or geological event that can to cause loss of life or massive damage to people’s property. Floods and severe storms are the most reported acts of nature in the US, but other incidents also happen from time to time. That is why you can dedicate your essay on natural disasters to earthquakes, droughts, wildfires, floods, tsunamis, hurricanes, or tornadoes.

The picture lists the 7 main types of natural disasters.

💡 114 Natural Disasters Essay Topics

What could you write in a natural disaster essay? You can invent your own topic about various types of natural disasters, their causes, and aftermath, or their impact on human life and the economy. Depending on the discipline, you can also describe historic calamities that changed the direction of human civilization. Alternatively, choose one from our comprehensive list below.

Why are the Great Plains of the central US ideal for tornado formation?
Global Warming and Climate Change Legislation .
Research the atmospheric parameters inside a tornado.
Energy, Technology and Climate Change .
Why are the boundaries of Tornado Alley in the US so debatable?
The global climate change as a manmade disaster.
Which actions should you never do when a tornado is nearby?
Volunteers’ Role During Disasters .
Suggest your opinion on the best action strategy in a hurricane.
The Columbia Disaster and safety violations.
What were the causes and effects of a flood?
Analysis on Climate Change and Global Impact .
Describe the most devastating wildfires in the US and find their common features.
Earthquake Engineering Considerations and Methods .
Brainstorm ideas to prevent wildfires.
Global warming and the greenhouse effect.
How can building dams cause earthquakes?
Climate Change and Its Impact on Freshwater .
Analyze the impact of droughts on tourism .
Climate Change Effect on Coral Reef Communities .
Describe the most extended droughts in human history.
Marine and Coastal Climate Change in Australia .
Write an essay on natural disasters and earthquakes in particular.
Air pollution and mortality rates
What are the distinctive features of droughts in third-world countries ?
Global Warming, Climate Change, and Society’s Impact on the Environment .
Study the relationship between global warming and droughts.
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder After a Hurricane .
Evaluate the damage caused by Hurricane Maria in 2017.
Social Media’s Role in Disaster Response .
Classify the effects of natural disasters in an essay.
Sustainability and Climate Change .
Describe the 1815 volcanic eruption of Mt. Tambora, Indonesia.
Hurricane Katrina: Overview, Impact, Response .
Each new leap of civilization causes new responses of nature.
Animal Exploitation. Animal Agriculture and Climate Change .
Think of any positive effects a volcanic eruption may have.
In Arizona, Collaboration Averts Water Disaster .
Children are the poorest victims of any disaster.
A Solution to Remedy Climate Change .
Which ways of disaster risk reduction do you know?
An Emergency Operations Center During Hurricane Harvey .
Research the current problems in disaster management.
Disaster Recovery Plan for Information Technology Organizations .
Analyze ineffective disaster management in an essay about hurricane Katrina.
Nurse Competencies and Scope of Practice in Disaster .
What should a household have at home in the case of a disaster?
Hurricane Katrina: The Powerful Natural Disaster .
Describe the humanitarian disaster during the drought in Somalia.
Technology in Disaster Preparedness .
Can man-made disasters entail natural calamities?
Disaster Management in Philadelphia .
Review the criteria for disaster classification.
Jeddah Floods and Adaptation Strategies in the City of Jeddah, Saudi Arabia .
Search for real examples of hybrid disasters.
Natural Disasters Prevention: A Tabletop Exercise .
Who is responsible for casualties after a natural disaster?
The Sand Storms: Remote Sensing and Meteorological Variables .
List the lessons we could learn from our past disaster experience.
Fire Development, Growth, and Spreads .
The ice storm and silver thaw: A gentle disaster.
Fire Crisis Management in the UAE .
Rockslides: A pressing issue for rural areas.
1d – 2d Flood Modeling Using PCSWMM .
What are the psychological benefits of disaster preparedness?
Structural Control and Origin of Volcanism in the Taupo Volcanic Zone .
When does a blizzard become a disaster?
Extreme Weather Events + Geographies of Globalization .
Research the causes of dust storms and name the affected areas.
Strategies for Sustainable Integrated Oil Disaster Management in West Africa .
Why did the San Francisco earthquake (1906) cause devastating fires?
Causes of Climate Change .
What could be done to help people who lost their homes in an earthquake?
Book Review: Energy and Global Climate Change .
Analyze the role of World Vision in humanitarian aid after disasters.
Tangshan earthquake of 1976 showed that high population density is disastrous.
The Role of Carbon Dioxide in Climate Change .
Rock avalanche: Why water is the most powerful geological agent.
Aspects of Climate Change .
When do extreme weather conditions turn into a disaster?
Climate Change: Reasons, Kyoto Protocol .
Write an article on shelter-providing organizations for disaster victims.
Establishing an IT Disaster Recovery Plan .
Describe earthquake cycles in Haiti.
Effects of Climate Change on Agriculture and Food .
How can nature damage ecology in natural disasters?
Climate Change. Problems. Effects .
Disaster management should include psychological help to the survivors.
Climate Change Causes: Position and Strategies .
Suggest ways to prevent damage caused by debris flow.
HAT 4: Disaster in Franklin Country .
How did the lack of evacuation after the Bhola cyclone (1970) result in the massive death toll?
The Effects of Climate Change .
The most significant Yellow River flood: 2 million deaths in 1887.
Resilience Building Against Natural Disasters in the Caribbean Islands .
Sinkholes: A natural disaster or attraction for cavers and water-divers?
Global Climate Change and Health .
Describe the dynamics of landslides in California .
Which early-warning systems to detect avalanches do you know?
Los Angeles Regional Collaborative for Climate Action .
Pyroclastic flow: The deadliest volcanic hazard.
Communication During Disaster Response .
Describe the volcano eruption of Vesuvius that destroyed the Herculaneum and Pompeii.
Disaster Planning for Families .
Disaster prevention measures: Investments that save millions of lives.
Natural Disaster Management and Historical Prospective Study in the UAE .
Research the PTSD in survivors of natural disasters.
Are the latest disasters the nature’s fightback to humanity?
Estimate the human impact on natural disasters.
List the countries with the largest number of disasters and find their standard features.
Everyday Communication on Climate Change .
Insurance coverage against disasters: Our inevitable future.
Emergency Planning Before and After Hurricane Katrina .
One natural disaster could bring the world to its end.

Haven’t found a suitable topic in the list above? Use our essay topic generator to get more ideas.

📑 Natural Disaster Essay Outline

Outlines differ, depending on the assigned length and essay type. It is a reference sample. Feel free to modify it, extending some points and narrowing the others. Still, the overall structure should remain the same. We have chosen the “Causes of Earthquakes” essay topic for demonstrative purposes.

Hook . There are millions of possible ways to start your essay, from a rhetorical question to any imaginable scenario. The point is to grab the reader’s attention, showing them that your writing is unique and creative. For example: We are always concerned with the consequences of a natural disaster. But what brought us into such a calamity in the first place?
Concepts. Natural disasters can be studied in the framework of various disciplines. But in all cases, they are linked with geology, biology, chemistry, geography, and some other subjects with broad and complicated terminology. Explain the terms that could be elusive for your readers here. For example: For the purposes of this essay, an earthquake is a sudden displacement of the land surface.
Background. How did you come to think of this problem? Why is it topical? The causes of earthquakes are numerous and often unrelated. To understand them as a system, we need a strict classification.
Thesis statement . Clearly state the aim of your essay. This essay attempts to group the causes of earthquakes to determine which factors can be tackled by human forces.
Transition sentence. It comes in the previous sentence (for paragraphs 2 and 3) and ensures smooth reading. E.g.: Tectonic movements are the most powerful causes of earthquakes, and we cannot influence them. But still, there is something we could do.
Topic sentence . What will you explain in this paragraph? Human interference with nature can also cause earthquakes.
Evidence. How can you confirm the topic sentence? Heavy clubbing of dam water can disturbance the crustal balance. Nuclear bombing causes shockwaves that penetrate the surface, changing the tectonic plates and their natural alignment. Mining can also cause earthquakes by removing extensive volumes of stone from under the ground.
Warrant. Why does the reader need this information, and how does it relate to the thesis statement? Knowing these facts can help us change the old-fashioned approaches and lessen the ecological damage to our planet.
Summary. Collect and summarize all your arguments here. Tectonic movements, volcano eruptions, and geological faults cause a significant part of earthquakes worldwide. But various man-made causes bring us to the same result.
Rephrased thesis. We cannot stop the tectonic movements or hinder volcanic eruptions, but we can use natural resources with more care.

🌊 Natural Disaster Essay 200 Words

Below you will find a short natural disaster essay for 200 words. It explores the causes and effects of the tsunami in Japan in 2011.

Tsunami in Japan: Causes and Effects The proximity of the deadliest disasters is often unpredictable. As a result, the consequences of a tsunami can exceed any possible expectations. This essay looks for the decisive factors that caused the tsunami in Japan in 2011 and its results for the local population and other countries. The causes were out of human control and could not be predicted. The Pacific plate moved in the horizontal and vertical plane, advancing beneath the Eurasian Plate. It displaced the seawater above and entailed several destructive waves. The disaster had enormous consequences for the Japanese people and their economy. It killed almost 16,000 people, although the country had a sophisticated alarming system. Besides, the earthquake caused fires and explosions at oil factories. The cooling system of the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant went out of service. Two people were lost, and many were injured. Nissan, like many other large corporations, had to suspend the operation of its four factories. The economic losses due to the catastrophe amounted to 300 billion dollars. But the disaster moved to other places. On 24 March 2011, the earthquake in the east of Myanmar claimed the lives of 60 people and destroyed 300 buildings. As we can see, everything is linked on our planet. Movements of the earth’ crust in any part of the world bring about earthquakes and tsunami in other countries. The series of waves in Japan was caused by the underwater earthquake and had horrible consequences.

🏜️ Natural Disaster Essay 300 Words

If your assignment is longer, you will have to provide your opinion in the essay. Or, you can make your argumentation more detailed. Below you can check our 300-word sample of a disaster essay.

The Economic Effects of the Dust Bowl Drought When someone says “a natural disaster,” we usually imagine an earthquake or a tsunami. Buildings are destroyed, and property is lost. But imagine a scenario of a devastating drought, which happened in the US in the 1930s. Its effect is less visible because it lies in the domain of the national economy. This essay reveals the economic consequences of the Dust Bowl drought. During the third decade of the XX century, strong winds raised choking dust in the southern states, from Texas to Nebraska. People and animals died as the crops failed in the area for several years in a row. The Dust Bowl lasted for almost a decade and was also called “the Dirty Thirties.” This drought intensified the impact of the Great Depression. Local farmers had to migrate to urban areas in search of better conditions and other sources of living. About 2.5 million people moved West from the worst-hit states, namely New Mexico, Texas, Nebraska, Oklahoma, and Kansas. But they found only discrimination, meager salaries, and inhuman working conditions. Many had to live in tents near irrigation ditches. They were called “Okies,” a disdainful name for migrants of any state. Regular rains returned to the southern states by the end of 1939, closing the drought. However, the economic aftermath persisted. The counties that suffered the most failed to recover the agricultural value of their land till the 1950s. Thus, the local population kept decreasing for twenty years. Although a drought does not ruin property, it can tangibly lower human life levels. The Dust Bowl threw people into a lose-lose situation. Their farms were unfit for gaining any profit, and the new places of living gave them no better opportunities. It took two decades to restore public wellbeing in the Southern States.

Researching the worst acts of nature can teach you to value what you have. We hope that this article has made your creative writing more manageable and pleasurable. You can write an essay of any length by simply following our outline. All you will need to do after that is make a cover page for it.

Please share your natural disaster essay ideas in the comments below.

❓ Natural Disaster Essay FAQ

How to write an essay about natural disaster.

Your approach should depend on the discipline. But in any case, you can discuss the types of disasters, their consequences, characteristics, and preconditions. The excellent idea is to select a past disastrous event and analyze it from the economic, social, or individual point of view.

What Is a Disaster Essay?

A disaster essay explores the stages of a natural or man-made calamity and seeks the possible ways to prevent similar emergencies in the future. An article on disaster management studies the correct and efficient activities to lower the casualties and property loss after a disaster.

What Is Disaster Preparedness Essay?

This type of writing analyzes the level of readiness of a region or municipality to an unexpected natural disaster. You can highlight the vulnerable groups of the population that will suffer the most. Or, you may invent measures that could reduce the disaster response and coping time. Such assignments teach you strategic thinking and a systematic approach to problem-solving.

How to Describe a Natural Disaster for an Essay?

You should specify that the event was unexpected and led to many deaths and property loss. The most critical things include the causes of the disaster, its progress and duration, and the negative consequences for the locals. You can also specify the negative effect on the economy and humanitarian condition of the area.

🔗 References

Natural Disasters and Severe Weather | CDC
Types of Disasters | SAMHSA
Natural Disaster – an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Natural Disasters – National Geographic
What Is Disaster Management: Prevention and Mitigation

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Addressing Worldwide Flood Concerns: Empowering Local Communities

Denise Corsel

Over the last 25 years, the world has seen a rise in the frequency of natural disasters in rich and poor countries alike. Today, more people than ever are at risk from natural hazards, with those in developing countries particularly at risk. This essay series is intended to explore measures that have been taken, and could be taken, in order to improve responses to the threat or occurrence of natural disasters in the MENA and Indo-Pacific regions. Read more ...

Floods have become a growing concern throughout the world. [1] Fueling this concern is the prediction that climate change will increase the intensity and severity of flooding. [2] There are also growing concerns that climate change will dramatically increase the health risks associated with contaminated water and dangerous substances that are released during floods. [3] These concerns need to be addressed in order to reduce the negative impact of floods upon communities worldwide.

Coping with floods is a major challenge for many communities, especially those in developing nations, which generally have to manage the responses to and recovery from them mostly on their own. Governments, NGOs and other organizations provide aid during a natural disaster when, where and how they can. However, their extent of their contributions sometimes fail to meet the needs of local communities, especially immediately following the disaster but also in the longer term, due to their limited financial capabilities, inadequate access to affected areas, lack of awareness or political constraints under which they operate.

This essay focuses on the role of local communities during the recovery stage from floods. By drawing on a case study of rural communities in Laos, [4] the essay highlights the potential benefits of equipping local communities with long-term practices that will assist them in recovery efforts. The essay concludes with a discussion of the lessons and insights gained from this case and that they could be applied in other countries to improve flood resiliency.

The Importance of a Community-Centered Approach

This essay discusses floods from the perspective of long-term recovery since the latter contributes to resiliency, which is defined as “the ability to recover readily.” [5] The recovery stage—encompassing the process and outcome—is crucial because it covers everything that is required for the affected community to return to conditions of normality. [6] Floods are almost impossible to prevent and the scale of adverse consequences from floods is exceedingly difficult to gauge. Therefore, mitigating the consequences of floods is often quite challenging, especially in rural villages in developing countries, where technology and finances are in short supply. This overall magnifies the importance of the recovery stage.

Local communities are directly affected by floods and thus are the primary risk-bearers in such situations. They are the first on the scene and generally carry out the initial response. It is thus important to focus particularly on local communities during their recovery. Floods can inflict enormous damage, [7] especially upon those who are the most vulnerable community members. The damage affects property, finances, job security, emotional and health status, and livelihoods. Therefore, the community affected has an investment and a strong motive to recover and to return to normal life as quickly as possible. Compared to others, such as aid organizations, supporters and governments, the community itself will prioritize the recovery process the most. Therefore, a community-centered approach to improve flood resiliency is recommended. The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction [8] supports this by emphasizing that there should be a people-centered approach when preventing disaster risk. To do so, during the recovery stage of a flood it is important for people to be both reflective and pro-active so that they can improve the management of future flooding.

Another reason why a community-centered approach is recommended is because with the increase of natural disasters throughout the world, [9] aid response will not be enough on its own. Resilient development [10] is, therefore, more important now than ever before. Developing the community to be resilient will not only enhance the efficiency of the recovery, but will assist with building a stronger system that can better manage all types of risks while improving the chances of maintaining the progress made by the community. Overall it will strengthen the current links between aid organizations and the communities’ development work, which allows for a lasting change. [11]

A community-centered approach can be highly efficient since communities know and understand their own situations best. Some would argue that experts possess greater expertise, theoretical knowledge and specific skills than the communities they seek to assist. Nonetheless, the local public has more everyday knowledge regarding their own surroundings and how their community members are likely to respond to certain recovery actions, which may be crucial to recover efficiently. Additionally, when preparing for a potential flood disaster, the community is the only party that has a clear emotional investment regarding the potential impacts and risks. In any event, it is imperative that all relevant stakeholders are included and participate to have a successful recovery process and outcome. [12] Community participation will enable more effective and long-term flood practices, improve the overall flood management process in place and allow for safer and quicker decisions to be made.

Helping to equip local communities, including their most vulnerable members, with recovery practices will enable them in the long-term to augment their own resilience to floods, which will be especially useful in case the prediction [13] that climate change will produce more intense and severe flooding is correct. As illustrated in the case of Laos’ rural communities, local communities, specifically those that are prone to flooding, tend to already have several recovery practices in place that could, and should be bolstered through the contributions of experts, government authorities and aid.

Recovery Practices in Laos

While numerous flood recovery practices are used throughout the world, local communities in Laos have their own practices, especially since they often experience flooding due to the annual rainy season. Flooding is Laos’ main hazard [14] that affects communities all across the county and often develops into a disaster. [15] Therefore, Laos’ coping practices have developed over many generations. They include traditional practices such as constructing houses on stilts; setting up community banks of rice; using traditional medicines; seeking shelter in temples and/or schools; creating dug-out drainage systems for paddy fields; and removing water from houses with baskets. These practices do indeed help with recovery, though they are predominantly needs-based coping strategies. However, NGOs and United Nations staff are teaching and/or sharing with rural communities other, more advanced flood resilience practices, such as using pumps to remove water; creating official village disaster committees and disaster preparedness plans; employing sturdier home building and repair techniques (e.g. using concrete or stronger wood); and implementing food and drinking storage systems.

In Laos, the management of flooding, which is challenging due to unpredictable flash floods, is primarily conducted at local levels and appears to be effective due to enhanced focus on villages’ own disaster management committees. Owing to the country’s financial situation, [16] flood management is mostly conducted by the individual village, which has its own village chief and elder. Often when a flood occurs, it is not possible for outsiders, including government officials, to enter/reach the villages affected. Therefore, it is important to focus particularly on local communities’ own coping mechanisms during recovery. In such a situation, Laos’ citizens currently manage and work together as a community to manage floods. So far, this has been working satisfactorily. However, with the building of houses in floodplains, logging trees and signs that changing climate is increasing the severity of floods and droughts, [17] existing local coping mechanisms might not be enough. Yet, whether their current practices are adequate to meet these immediate challenges or not, equipping Laos’ citizens with additional recovery practices would be highly beneficial, as it would allow the communities to better manage the (current and future) physical, emotional and secondary damage created by flooding disasters by strengthening their resilience. Additionally, it would allow them to handle the floods better in the long-term, especially if flooding worsens.

Laos’ villagers could learn from other recovery practices used in other countries. For instance, in Khammouane Province (Laos) the main concern during the recovery stage is health since floods spread disease and drinking and washing water become contaminated. This issue could be mitigated by chemically treating the water, as is done in Tanzania [18] or by using water purification tablets, as is done in Bangladesh. [19] Furthermore, another recovery practice that the majority of communities throughout Laos would benefit from would be the introduction of a rice variety that can withstand flooding because currently during floods the loss of rice, the main source of their livelihood, [20] is reducing their capability to recover. This practice has been effective in India, Bangladesh and Nepal, [21] and research is being conducted on how this would work in Laos. [22] There are many other practices that may be helpful, such as in Thailand, where communities are involved with hazard mapping to enhance education, [23] and in Vietnam, where they use schools to hold flood safety campaigns. [24] The idea that building on current practices while introducing new ones to enhance communities’ resilience is gathering momentum.

Nevertheless, it is important that communities are supported in selecting the most beneficial and realistic recovery practices. Additionally, it is crucial that the practices are manageable and accessible by the communities over the long term, thereby ensuring that they are sustainable. As a result, the communities would be empowered and capable of recovering from floods better and quicker, as well as potentially recovering from other natural disasters because some of these practices are transferable.

Some of Laos’ citizens may be content with the way floods are currently managed; however, most are open to learning and to trying out new practices and/or enhancing their current recovery practices. Moreover, villages, such as those in Laos, where residents have learned to cope with disasters on their own and thus, a community-centered approach is already in place, are likely to be more open to strengthening and building on their current approach than to acceding to outsiders’ management of the recovery stage. In fact, Laos’ government, in apparent recognition of this, supports village disaster management committees. Several aid organizations, including the Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery [25] and the United Nations also promote sustainable assistance to ensure that long-term resilience is strengthened in such a manner that the country and its communities will be better able to manage disasters and ‘build back better’ [26] without them.

Equipping local communities with long-term recovery practices, some of which may be learned from other countries and adapted to country-specific circumstances could contribute to more effective disaster recovery, a better flood management process, and safer and quicker decisions. The main lesson learned from the case study of rural communities in Laos is that in countries where aid is not always readily accessible and where a community-centered management approach has been forming over the years, it is important to focus on and enhance the community-centered approach during the flood recovery stage. Given that the incidence of flooding has increased and is predicted to worsen in countries, including Laos, [27] special attention should be devoted to strengthening long-term local recovery practices, which is part of resilient development. In particular, as also illustrated by this case study, it is crucial to consider sustainability when improving flood resilience at local levels.

Undeniably government agencies and aid organizations play a vital role in disaster management. Nevertheless, they should focus on enhancing the communities’ resilient development so that, in the future, communities can manage floods better on their own and conduct the recovery process with greater efficiency. Particularly during the recovery stage, the risk-bearers should be principally in charge of managing their situation, as it is they who know best what is required to return the community to a state of ‘normality’ as quickly as possible. Where possible, the risk-bearers should be supported in their efforts to guide ‘building back better’ initiatives. [28] In sum, attention should be focused more sharply upon, and more support and resources should be invested in local communities to improve their flood resilience by enhancing their current recovery practices and introducing new ones.

[1] Dawei Han, Flood Risk Assessment and Management (Sharjah: Bentham Science Publishers, 2011) 1.

[2] Duncan Geere, “Global Flooding Risk Could Triple by 2030,” Wired , March 5, 2015, accessed April 15, 2016, http://www.wired.co.uk/news/archive/2015-03/05/flooding-predictions-2030 ; and Tianyi Luo , Andrew Maddocks , Charles Iceland , Philip Ward and Hessel Winsemius, “World’s 15 Countries with the Most People Exposed to River Floods,” World Resources Institute , March 5, 2015, accessed April 15, 2016, http://www.wri.org/blog/2015/03/world%E2%80%99s-15-countries-most-peopl… .

[3] Roger Few and Franziska Matthies, eds ., Flood Hazards & Health: Responding to Present and Future Risks (London: Earthscan, 2006); and National Geographic, “Floods,” National Geographic , 2015, accessed June 26, 2015, http://environment.nationalgeographic.com/environment/natural-disasters… .

[4] Laos, located in South-East Asia, is officially known as Lao PDR, which is short for Lao People’s Democratic Republic.

[5] Michael Pitt, Learning Lessons from the 2007 Floods: An Independent Review by Sir Michael Pitt (London: Cabinet Office, 2008) 349, accessed April 15, 2016, http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20100807034701/http:/archive… .

[6] Home Office, Dealing with Disaster (London: Cabinet Office, 1998), accessed April 15, 2016, http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20050523205851/http:/ukresili… .

[7] Roger Few and Franziska Matthies, eds ., Flood Hazards & Health: Responding to Present and Future Risks (London: Earthscan, 2006).

[8] United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (U.N.I.S.D.R.), Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030 (2015) 10, accessed April 15, 2016, http://www.unisdr.org/files/43291_sendaiframeworkfordrren.pdf .

[9] International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, Introduction to the Guidelines for the Domestic Facilitation and Regulation of International Disaster Relief and Initial Recovery Assistance (Geneva: International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, 2011) 3.

[10] Natalia Adler, “Resilient Development Means Better Preparing Children, Families and Communities for Shocks, Making Sure They Can Better Withstand Them, and Helping Them to Recover Quickly,” U.N.I.C.E.F. Technical Note: Resilient Development (2016) 3.

[12] Upala Banerjee, “Adopting Rights-Based Programming Strategies Towards Developing Capacities for Accessing Sustainable Water and Sanitation Facilities: The NAM SAAT/Sida/UNICEF Partnership in Luang Prabang Province in Laos - A Case Study” (U.N.D.P., 2005) 249, accessed May 15, 2016, http://www.unescobkk.org/fileadmin/user_upload/appeal/LLP/LLP_Documenta… .

[13] Duncan Geere, “Global Flooding Risk Could Triple by 2030,” Wired , March 5, 2015, accessed April 15, 2016, http://www.wired.co.uk/news/archive/2015-03/05/flooding-predictions-2030 .

[14] United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (U.N.I.S.D.R.), Country Assessment Report for Lao PDR: Strengthening of Hydrometeorology Services in Southeast Asia (2013), accessed April 15, 2016, http://www.unisdr.org/files/33988_countryassessmentreportlaopdr[1].pdf .

[15] Saysoth Keoduangsine, Robert Goodwin and Paul Gardner-Stephen, “A Study of an SMS-Based Flood Warning System for Flood Risk Areas in Laos,” International Journal of Future Computer and Communication 3 (2014): 182-186, accessed May 15, 2016, http://www.ijfcc.org/papers/292-M052.pdf .

[16] The World Bank, “Lao PDR Overview,” last modified April 2016, http://www.worldbank.org/en/country/lao/overview .

[17] “Laos Yet to Formulate Drought Response Plan,” Vientiane Times , April 29, 2016, accessed May 11, 2016, http://www.vientianetimes.org.la/FreeContent/FreeConten_Laosyet.htm .

[18] Tumpale Sakijege, John Lupala and Shaaban Sheuya, “Flooding, Flood Risks and Coping Strategies in Urban Informal Residential Areas: The Case of Keko Machungwa, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania,” J àmbá: Journal of Disaster Risk Studies 4 (2012): 1-10, accessed April 15, 2016, doi: 10.4102/jamba.v4i1.46.

[19] S. Paul and J. Routray, “Flood Proneness and Coping Strategies: The Experiences of Two Villages in Bangladesh,” Disasters 34 (2010): 489-508, accessed April 15, 2016, doi: 10.1111/j.1467-7717.2009.01139.x.

[20] “Lao PDR,” The International Rice Research Institute (2015), accessed April 15, 2016, http://irri.org/our-work/locations/lao-pdr .

[21] Amy Kazmin, “Asia Races to Find Drought-Resistant Rice,” Future of the Food Industry , last modified January 13, 2016, http://www.ft.com/cms/s/2/dea46c3e-982a-11e5-9228-87e603d47bdc.html .

[22] “Lao PDR,” The International Rice Research Institute (2015), accessed April 15, 2016, http://irri.org/our-work/locations/lao-pdr .

[23] A. Phonmart, “Promoting Community Awareness and Strengthening Community Resilience.” Presentation by Department of Disaster Prevention and Mitigation (D.D.P.M.), (Bangkok: Ministry of Interior).

[24] Standing Office of Tien Giang Provincial Committee for Flood and Storm Control (P.C.F.S.C.), “Activities under MRC – ADPC – ECHO Project and Achievement . ” Presentation at Regional Workshop, Tien Giang, Laos, 2009.

[25] World Bank, Resilient Recovery: An Imperative for Sustainable Development (2015), accessed May 8, 2016, https://www.gfdrr.org/sites/gfdrr/files/publication/Resilient-Recovery-An-Imperative-for-Sustainable-Development.pdf .

[26] United Nations Lao PDR, “UN Disaster Risk Reduction Chief: Building Back Better Makes Communities More Resilient,” October 9, 2012, accessed April 15, 2016, http://www.la.one.un.org/media-center/news-and-features/20-un-disaster-risk-reduction-chief-building-back-better-makes-communities-more-resilient .

[27] “Laos: Floods highlight disaster-preparedness needs,” IRIN , September 7, 2011, accessed May 7, 2016, http://www.irinnews.org/fr/report/93672/laos-floods-highlight-disasterp… .

[28] United Nations Lao PDR, “UN Disaster Risk Reduction Chief: Building Back Better Makes Communities More Resilient.”

The Middle East Institute (MEI) is an independent, non-partisan, non-for-profit, educational organization. It does not engage in advocacy and its scholars’ opinions are their own. MEI welcomes financial donations, but retains sole editorial control over its work and its publications reflect only the authors’ views. For a listing of MEI donors, please click her e .

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Essays on Flood

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Probabilistic Analysis of Optimal Management of Storage Areas

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Assessing The Aftermath of The 2022 New York Flooding

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Essays on Flood

A variety of events characterize the world's constantly changing environment in which all organisms dwell. These variables paint a picture of the world's shifting dynamic state. As a result, in any preparation for living in the actual coexistence in the world now and beyond, these elements must be carefully considered....

Natural Catastrophes and Their Impact on Humans and Animals Natural catastrophes have not only affected humans, but also animals whose habitats have been put in jeopardy. The monsoon disaster flooding caused widespread devastation in Nepal, India, and Bangladesh, killing 18,000 people (Newman, 2017). People were ordered to evacuate places that were...

The bulk of densely populated urban centers in developing countries, such as Djalarta, Dhaka, Bangok, and Bombay, are especially vulnerable to urban flooding (Chatterjee, 2010). According to Ranger et al. (2011), one of the primary causes of floods is increasing urbanization, which causes changes in terrain as a result of...

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Aztec Religion A flood myth is a story in which a massive flood is typically delivered by gods in an effort to wipe out civilization. The floods usually come about as a result of punishment for disobeying certain orders. Some of the flood myths used to teach a lesson to people...

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The Addicks and Barker dams in Houston are two reservoirs that are deemed high threats due to seepage flow management issues. This paper suggests the best way to fix the vulnerabilities of dams that can exacerbate flood harm. The failure of the storm-water infrastructure would result in significant damages for...

Hurricanes are classified into five categories, with category five being the most catastrophic and category one being the mildest but still deadly. Hurricanes cause trauma to casualties and have a huge impact on a region's economic status. Since low-income earners lack the means to relocate, these natural disasters have been...

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In 2005, Hurricane Katrina happened and was the most destructive disaster in the history of the United States. The hurricane was large and strong and a catastrophic flood was associated with it. Hurricane Katrina's destruction exceeded other major disasters as the Chicago fire of 1871, Andrew in 1992 and the...

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Essay on Floods in Pakistan for Matric, FA, FSC, BA and BSC

Essay on floods in pakistan for the students of matric, fa, fsc, 2nd year, intermediate, ba and bsc.

Here is an essay on Floods in Pakistan for students of Class 10, Class 12 and graduation. Pakistan is a developing country and floods in it are not unusual. This essay will discuss the reason of floods in Pakistan. You can write the same essay under the title Floods in Pakistan essay, Essay on Flood, an essay on flood, an essay on flood disaster.

Floods in Pakistan Essay for Class 10, Class 12 and Graduation

The recent floods in Pakistan were a calamity. They visit our country quite frequently. We live in the modern age, which is remarkable for its scientific advancement but man has failed to overcome floods completely. However, we can set aside the adverse results of the floods to some extent. Floods destroy everything which man achieves after a struggle of many years. They are a horrible thing. They destroy houses and buildings. They uproot the electric and telephone poles. They render thousands of people homeless.

In Punjab, the recent floods played a havoc unknown in history. Almost, all the rivers overflowed their banks and destroyed everything. The villages of Lahore, Dera Gazi Khan, Jhang, Multan and Sargodha were submerged in water. People saved their lives by climbing up the trees. The villagers were sleeping in their homes when the water of the flooding river entered their homes and caused an alarm. They were caught unawares. They rushed out of their homes without taking with them their goods and articles of the house. Epidemics broke out in the villages. Crops were destroyed. Fertile land turned barren and dry. The whole system of communication was paralysed for many days. People saved their lives by swimming in the Water. Many of them climbed up the trees. The army was called in. It was due to the sincere and dedicated efforts of the young men of the army that the lives of many flood affectees were saved. The entire machinery of Government tried its best to set aside the adverse effects of the flood. Relief centres were set up in every town, city and capital. The rich and well-to-date people came forward to help their affected brothers. The causes of the flood are many.

First, they are caused by heavy rainfall in monsoons.

Secondly, the snow on the hills begins to melt in the summer heat. The rivers get swollen. When this continues for some time, the waters rise beyond the banks of the rivers and overspread the neighbouring ground.

Thirdly, the beds of the river are not very deep. That is why they overflow very soon.

Fourthly, all the rivers of Pakistan enter our territory from India. India controls all the rivers. She has made many dams on these rivers. She lets loose a huge quantity of water into our rivers out of revenge. This cannot be controlled by our own efforts unless India cooperates with us.

Last year, l witnessed the scene of a flood in my village. The river Ravi which flows by a village was in flood. It had been raining ceaselessly for over a week. Away on the hills, it had been raining for almost a month. The terrible day came. The river Ravi overflowed its banks and there was water everywhere. There was every fear that our village would be washed away. We brought out cattle to the verandah for safety. We went to bed, but could not sleep for fear of being washed away.

The rain stopped at night. The creaking of frogs, the cries of the cattle and the shouts of men filled the air with fright. A chill wind was blowing. Our courtyard was filled with water. It was almost knee-deep. The water was still rising. Our cattle were drowned in the water. We managed to climb up the trees and stayed there for twenty-four hours. We saved our lives with great difficulty. We spent a very difficult and uncomfortable time there. The helicopters of the army reached us and took us away to a relief centre. We spent there many days and nights in the open. After eight days, the news was brought that the water of the river had gone low considerably. We came to our village and built our house again. We had a serious financial loss in our life. Our cattle and crops were taken away by the floods. We cannot forget the terrible time we had while this flood.

essay on Floods in Pakistan is important for Pakistani students. However, you should check Essay on Beauties of Nature .

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Causes, impacts and coping strategies of floods in Ghana: a systematic review

Review Paper
Published: 01 April 2020
Volume 2 , article number 792 , ( 2020 )

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Henry Mensah ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-8807-9697 1 , 2 &
Divine Kwaku Ahadzie 2

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Urban flooding has become a major problem in many parts of the world due to its social, economic and environmental impact. In Ghana, flood occurs every year, which adversely affects livelihoods, property, infrastructure, lives and renders many people homeless. In this paper, we aim to understand the current state of flood research in Ghana, focusing on how the scholarly community has approached the causes, effects/impact, and the coping strategies adopted by people in the urban setting. Drawing on a comprehensive literature review, combined with individual co-author in-depth experience in research and practice in Ghana, we searched academic database such as SCOPUS, Web of Science, Springer, Taylor and Francis, Science Direct and Google scholar for recent studies. Our results, on the basis of 33 articles, indicate that poor urban planning and development (number of reported articles, n = 18), poor and inadequate drainage facilities ( n = 11), poor environmental attitude ( n = 10) and extreme rainfall ( n = 8) are the top causes of urban flood in Ghana. The most commonly reported impacts/effects were physical cost ( n = 7), destruction of economic infrastructure ( n = 5) and health concerns ( n = 4). The most reported coping strategies were relocation and protection of properties ( n = 9) and construction of drains ( n = 8). The review also pointed out critical research gaps in the context of Ghana and suggested a new area for future research direction and practice.

Flooding trends and their impacts on coastal communities of Western Cape Province, South Africa

Kaitano Dube, Godwell Nhamo & David Chikodzi

Disaster preparedness of local governments in Panay Island, Philippines

Johnny D. Dariagan, Ramil B. Atando & Jay Lord B. Asis

Flood exposure and social vulnerability in the United States

Eric Tate, Md Asif Rahman, … Christopher C. Sampson

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1 Introduction

One of the most threatening disasters confronting the world is flooding. Over the past decade, urban flooding has become a major problem in many parts of the world due to its social, economic and environmental impact. It has destroyed developmental infrastructure and increased human casualties around the globe [ 1 ]. For example, 5 million people were displaced during the period 1960–2000 globally due to temperature and heavy rainfall. The number is expected to increase by 11.8 million people by the end of the twenty first century [ 2 ]. In Pakistan, flood occurrence is pervasive and spreading uncontrollably. This led to a huge economic loss to the government in 2010 [ 3 ]. Moreover, flooding has disproportionately destroyed building structures, and further worsened economic status, particularly people who live in lower areas and informal settlements [ 4 ]. In Europe, over the past 150 years, the total number of urban areas that are vulnerable to flooding has increased by 1000% whereas in Sub-Saharan Africa, losses due to flooding is over US$300 billion [ 5 ].

In Africa, urban flooding has become one of the major threats to deal with given the poor and limited infrastructure, low capacity of local governments (e.g. human and financial resources) and limited coordination of relevant stakeholders in flood management [ 6 ]. The rapid urbanisation of the cities in Africa has also necessitated the demand for land. People with limited income who cannot afford housing in the flood-free areas tend to settle within the flood-prone areas, which are mostly cheap. Additionally, people in poverty are relatively overexposed to flooding. They usually accept and cope with flooding because of limited alternatives [ 7 ]. In Africa, management plans to deal with flood are being developed and implemented; however, it appears that effective implementation still remains a challenge. For example, despite the effort to address urban flooding in Ouagadougou, the problem continues to persist due to the high cost of mitigation measures and the inability of the people to effect change [ 8 ]. Related studies demonstrated that fragmental approaches to flood risk management are ineffective [ 9 ].

In the context of Ghana, apart from destruction of properties and economic losses due to flooding, people living in flood areas are at a high risk of contracting diseases such as cholera, malaria and hepatitis E [ 10 , 11 ]. In an attempt to address the problem associated with urban flooding in Ghana, city authorities issue eviction notices to informal residents, particularly in settlements in floodplains and wetlands. However, it seems that the eviction order has not been effective and has increased flooding in the informal areas. There are an increased number of approaches available that could be tapped to address the socio-economic, environmental and institutional challenges in poor urban communities [ 12 ]. Local government and residents may play a role in dealing with urban flood; however, due to distrust and limited community engagement, policy implementation has become weak [ 13 ]. Numerous policy options and strategies have emerged to protect urban infrastructure against flooding and enhance urban flood resilience and sustainability. Moreover, there are efforts by the government to prevent development in the flood risk zones to enhance the growth of ecosystem [ 14 ]. There is also a growing effort to discourage people from building or farming in the flood plains and wetlands, however the effort is being resisted and politically contested [ 15 ]. To better adapt to urban flood, it is also suggested that climate change-related issues and strategies to encourage local participation should be incorporated into the planning process [ 16 ].

The impact of climate change on rainfall intensity, duration and frequency has become relevant in recent research [ 17 ]. Intensification of rainfall has been associated with climate change [ 18 ]. Climate change increases the likelihood of extreme rainfall and its intensification creates a higher risk of damaging flood events that threaten both life and the built environment, particularly in urban regions where the existing infrastructure has not been designed to cope with these risks [ 19 ]. There is a growing concern over the causes and effects/impacts as well as copping strategies of people affected by urban floods; therefore, it is essential to comprehend the nature of flood and its associated risks in urban areas.

1.1 Gap analysis and goals of review

Ghana is not an exception when it comes to urban flooding. For example, Ghana recorded unprecedented flood event in November 2010, which affected 55 communities and displaced 700,000 people. Additionally, 3234 houses were destroyed while 23,588 acres of farmlands were submerged. The total cost of the flood was estimated to be US$116,340.22 US according to the National Disaster Management Organisation (NADMO) report in 2010, Ghana. Moreover, on 3 June 2015, flood event led to over 150 deaths [ 20 ]. Research shows massive destruction of property and economic losses. The worse affected regions include Greater Accra, Volta, Central, Western and Eastern Regions. Table 1 shows some of the major floods in different cities from the reviewed papers and reports.

This phenomenon has become severe and widespread [ 26 ]. One of the important natural causes of flood is heavy rainfall, which is related to climate change. The rainfall patterns in Ghana have not been stable and this is known as the major cause of urban flood [ 20 ]. For example, Accra within the last few decades, has recorded average monthly precipitation from 160 mm (1991–2010) to 200 mm (2011–2020). Finding from Amoako and Inkoom [ 21 ] also revealed that rainfall intensity or storm surges trigger flash flood in urban areas. Research demonstrated that urban flood in Ghana occur due to poor drainage system [ 27 ], poor waste management [ 28 ], removal of urban vegetation [ 23 ] and poor urban and structural planning [ 23 , 29 ]; however, the planning system in Ghana has failed to successfully control urban physical development [ 30 ] and this has exacerbated the effects of urban flooding.

The Government has relied on relevant agencies such as the Ministry of Works and Housing (MWH), Ministry of Health (MoF), Ministry of Local Government and Rural Development (MLGR), City Engineers and Lands Department and the public to deal with the socio-economic and environmental impact of flood [ 31 ]; however, the methods have not been able to address flood event as new threat continues to resurface. For example, the recurring flood events in Accra, Kumasi, Tamale, Sekondi-Takoradi, Eastern and Volta regions claim hundreds of lives and destroys valuable resources and properties worth thousands of Ghana cedis yearly. This has led to an increase in relief expenditure and health control by government, and potentially increasing the overall national budget.

Previous research (see Table 1 ) has outlined different causes, effects/impacts and coping strategies; however, there has not been any methodological review on the causes, effects/impacts and coping strategies in the context of Ghana. According to the literature, two major shortcomings were identified. Firstly, in spite of a burgeoning threat of urban flood, limited studies so far have unearthed the current knowledge of causes, effects and coping strategies in Ghana and future research directions. Secondly, none of the existing reviews covered the three broad themes of flood research: causes, effects/impacts and coping strategies. While the works of Okyere et al. [ 32 ] and Gyekye [ 33 ] focus strongly on the nature and extent of floods in Accra, Asumadu-Sarkodie et al. [ 26 ] were mostly interested in causes of flood and mitigation measures. Additionally, Korah and Cobbinah [ 34 ] focused on institutional and social dimension, whereas Ahadzie and Proverbs [ 25 ] were interested in flood risk management strategies. From the foregoing, it is evident that none of the reviews did cover important themes of flood research in an integrated manner. The authors tend to fill the knowledge gap by exploring emerging (1) causes of flood in Ghana (2), effects/impacts of flood, (3) coping strategies used by residents living in flood-prone areas in urban areas and (4) discuss future implications for research and practice.

Building on the work of Ahadzie and Proverbs [ 25 ], this study explores the current state of flood research in Ghana, focusing on how the scholarly community has approached the causes, effects/impact, and coping strategies adopted by people in urban setting. Based on the research issues identified, this research seeks to address the following questions:

What are main causes of flooding in Ghana?

What are the effects/impacts of flood in Ghana?

What are the coping strategies that are adopted by the community during flood events in Ghana?

What are the possible sustainable developmental and policy options for addressing flood problems in Ghana?

This study is organised into the following sections. Section 1 covers the introduction of the study. Section 2 outlines the methods used in the study. Section 3 outlines the results including sources of studies by regions, frequency of publication, research methods used in the studies, an overview of community flood responses along with the four themes. Section 4 discusses three themes: causes, effect and coping strategies. The last section presents the conclusion and directions for future research.

2.1 Ghana: a brief introduction

Figure 1 shows the map Footnote 1 of Ghana. It is located in West Africa, bordered by Burkina Faso in the north, Cote d’Ivoire in the west, Togo in the east and the Gulf of Guinea in the south. Currently, there are sixteen regions, which are further divided into 260 local districts. The largest cities are Accra of the Greater Accra Region (1,963,264), Kumasi of the Ashanti Region (1,468,609), Tamale of the Northern Region (360,579), Sekondi-Takoradi of the Western Region (232,919) [ 35 ]. Currently, Ghana has a population of about 29.6 million (2018) [ 36 ] with an area of 238,533 km 2 . Ghana is endowed with a large number of streams and rivers with a catchment area of nearly 70% of the country's total land area. The Volta River is the most important river consisting of tributaries such as Oti and Afram Rivers. White and Black Volta form an important part of the Volta River in Ghana.

Map of Ghana showing the ten regions

2.2 Data sources and collection methods

This paper tends to understand the current state of flood research, focusing on causes, effects/impacts, coping strategies and identify gaps in the conventional literature in order to inform future research and practice. We reviewed 33 peer-reviewed articles from 2009 to 2019. Table 2 shows the selected list of publications and their corresponding journals and conferences. As part of the review, co-authors with longstanding experience in urban flood, both in research and practice in Ghana, critically examined and refined selected articles to improve the validity of the findings. This study uses the term secondary data to mean existing research data that are examined to find the answer(s) to research questions that are different from the original research goal [ 37 ].

The author followed the guidelines from Cronin et al. [ 38 ] for the traditional literature review, namely: literature search; gathering, reading and analysing the literature. Considering electronic search, the author used the phrases and keywords that were relevant to the study. Each of the respective search engines covered articles within the last 10 years (from 2009 to 2019). The selection of the year was important to ensure that recent literature and discussion of the subject area are included in the study.

The author searched through academic databases such as Google Scholar, SCOPUS, Web of Science, Springer, Taylor and Francis. For example, Scopus used the following search rule to collect relevant literature: “coping strategies” AND “Ghana” AND “flood” AND “adaptation” AND “causes” AND “mitigation” AND “impacts” OR “effects”. These search words and phrases were entered in different combinations and were searched for in the search engines. In order to include articles that were not found in the search engine, the authors applied the snowball approach technique to identify hidden publications or articles relevant to the study.

2.3 Data analysis

In the content analyses of the selected articles, a qualitative data analysis tool (NVivo 10) was used to store textual information. The short-listed studies were analysed to identify themes, and topics emerging from the selected articles. Articles were further analysed in terms of frequency of publication in journal outlets, year of publication, research methods and region where the study was conducted. These were imported into an excel spreadsheet for easy descriptive analyses to be done. Finally, the frequency of themes across the 33 studies was also examined. The search excluded studies that include reports, dissertations, tutorials, workshops, panels and poster sessions. We selected articles based on author’s generated codes; therefore, articles that could not meet at least one or more codes were excluded from the study. The following codes were used for the content analysis.

Year Year of publication

Article Title of the article

Journal Publication in which the article was published

Geographical jurisdiction Region from which the data was collected

Study focus Causes, consequence, coping strategies, adaption, mitigation

Research type Survey, interview, secondary data, others

Major findings Significant findings explicitly stated in the article

2.4 Delimitation and limitations

The reviews focus on the causes and effects/impacts of flooding, coping strategies and identify gaps in the conventional literature in order to inform future research and practice. The present study focuses on Ghana. The selection process of primary articles was carried out based on Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) guideline [ 61 ]. The study selection process is described in Table 3 . Mendeley was used to store citations of relevant articles from steps 1 to 4. The electronic searches generated 350 papers after searching academic databases: SCOPUS, Web of Science, and Google scholar search. In the second step, 114 papers were obtained after examining titles and keywords. After the abstract review, 43 papers were identified through an in-depth screening process. This is because the articles’ title and keywords could not represent the content of the paper. Thirty-three (33) out of the 43 papers were found to be adequate for the study in step 4.

3.1 Overview of studies

Figure 2 shows Accra with 17 articles as the most active region. The second most active regions are Northern and Ashanti, with six and five articles, respectively. The analysis shows that there is an increased number of flood researches in Ghana, with the majority focusing on Greater Accra [ 20 , 22 , 31 , 39 , 62 , 63 ]. This could be as a result of higher frequency of flooding in recent years. Another reason could be increased exposure, the susceptibility of Accra to flood hazards, leading to more flood events [ 64 ], and thus increasing research engagement. Results indicate that flood research has only recently been conducted in these themes: causes, effects/impacts and coping strategies, however, we expect more relevant research to exists, published outside of the academic databases.

Study regions

Figure 3 presents the frequency of publications between 2009 and 2019 with a focus on causes, effects/impacts, and coping strategies. It shows increasing research in 2013 with 6 publications, respectively, followed by 2014, 2016 and 2019 with 4 publications each. Flood research has been around for some time; however, incorporating “causes, effects/impacts and coping strategies” into research gained momentum in 2013 and, since then, a good number of research papers have constantly been published yearly. Table 4 shows the frequency and various research methods used in studies (Table 2 ). Field survey and interview ( n = 6) were the most popular forms of collecting data, followed by review ( n = 5), interviews ( n = 4) and interview/FGD ( n = 3).

Frequency of research publications

Table 5 shows the content analysis of flood research for three main themes. The theme “causes” comprises of papers that discuss the underlying causes of urban flood. A total of 18 articles were identified and coded for patterns in data [ 65 ]. Eighteen studies reported poor urban planning and development as the causes of flood, for instance, [ 23 , 29 , 57 , 66 ]. Next, 11 studies reported on poor drainage network, for instance, [ 27 , 67 , 68 ]. Similarly, ten studies attributed the cause of flood to indiscriminate of disposal of waste materials, for instance, [ 23 , 28 , 68 ].

The theme “effects/impacts” includes those papers that discuss the underlying effects/impacts of urban flood. About seven studies mentioned that flood can cause damage to homes, destruction of livelihoods, collapse of houses, etc. [ 52 , 69 ]. Five studies mentioned that floods have led to the destruction of economic infrastructure, property, public areas and the environment, thus putting enormous costs to the national government and individuals [ 66 , 70 ]. For instance, it was revealed by [ 66 ] that residents spent GH¢ 100.00 and GH¢500 ($45 and $220) to repair and renovate their homes in the aftermath of the flood. Moreover, four studies indicated that flood can potentially increase the transmission of communicable diseases and mental health condition [ 46 , 71 , 72 ].

The results show three coping strategies used by residents, namely reactive, preventive and recovery, for instance, [ 53 ]. In terms of reactive, nine studies demonstrated that flood victims relocate to a safe place and protect their valuables and collectables, for instance [ 7 , 40 ]. Regarding the preventive measures, majority of the studies (8) mentioned that people construct drainage to make easy flow of stock water, for instance, [ 72 , 73 ] and six mentioned that people repair, rebuild their house and protect from further damage, for instance, [ 73 ]. Finally, three studies mentioned flood victims seek Government, friends and family support for relief items and cash, for instance, [ 53 ] and five studies reported community clean-up such as disposal of wastes and clearing of gutters, for instance [ 53 ].

4 Discussion

4.1 overview of causes of urban flood.

Human activities increase the risks of flood due to human and ecological interaction. In Africa, urban flood has become one of the major threats to be dealt with in the face of poor socio-economic conditions [ 6 ]. For example, poor people tend to build houses and live in flood-prone areas as those areas are considered affordable. Moreover, the majority of them rely on government and other stakeholders for support when flood events strike [ 74 ]. In a similar study, 18.5% of inhabitants lived in flood-prone areas in the megacity of Dhaka [ 75 ]. Generally, in Ghana, flood occurs as a result of natural and anthropogenic factors. However, the most recurring causes are anthropogenic activities such as poor urban planning and development and inadequate drainage facility [ 22 , 62 , 66 ].

In urban areas, roads, pavements, and compacted soil areas have increased impermeable surfaces, thereby increasing surface water runoff. This has also led to the increase in discharge that overloads drainage channels [ 66 ]. Research demonstrated that poor planning is a major cause of the increasing urban flooding in Africa [ 76 ]. This has implication for real estate developers and homeowners to understand community and individual impact of flood and re-thinking of sustainable urban land use policy and development. Human activities such as throwing rubbish into river bodies can cause flood during the raining season [ 28 , 46 , 53 ]. Similarly, half of the residents dispose of waste into gutters, streets and bushes causing health problem [ 77 ]. This suggests that flood event may be more rampant due to improper waste disposal in urban areas. This has implications for the promotion of flood resilience through improved drainage and green infrastructural systems.

In other related studies, land use control is established as a contributor to flooding. For example, it was found that delays in permit approvals, lack of monitoring and inspections of physical developments, non-conformance with permit laws and regulations, and poor enforcement were responsible for urban flood [ 29 ]. Tasantab [ 29 ] suggested early approval of permit as well as inspecting and monitoring of physical development to ensure compliance with planning requirements could be an important strategy to mitigating flooding events. Similarly, the land ownership system is an impediment to the successful management of wetlands by city authorities [ 57 ]. Owusu-Ansah et al. [ 73 ] mentioned that local chiefs take advantage of government administrative inefficiencies to sell out land designated for urban green, wetlands, riparian lands, and open space. It was observed that wetlands, riparian lands and urban vegetation are being cleared for built-up purposes [ 23 ]. The rate at which water flows into river channels depends particularly on the available vegetation cover. It is important to protect wetlands to hold some of the volume of water during heavy downpour. Flash flooding has increased in urban areas, particularly in Accra due to the increases in deforested land and urban sprawl. The government needs to enforce urban planning policy and make sure new homes are not be built within flood plains. Moreover, educational policy should target potential victims and community because a lot of people do not understand the value of wetlands [ 78 ]. Previous research indicated the value of an integrated approach comprising of active participation of all the relevant stakeholders, including, governments authorities, international and local and private sectors in resolving and addressing flooding problems [ 3 ]. It was revealed that torrential rainfall is not just the main cause of recent flood, but poor drainage system was actually the main cause of flood in the urban areas [ 23 , 27 ]. It is important to strengthen the drainage system design at where wetlands are reclaimed for developmental purposes to help control flood.

4.2 Overview of effects/impacts of urban flood

In June 2015, Accra, the capital of Ghana, experienced an unprecedented flash flood event claiming at least 152 lives and caused around US$100 million in asset losses [ 49 ]. As economic infrastructure such as electricity, bridges and roads are damaged, communities are cut-off and some economic activities become disrupted. This can increase community vulnerability economically and normal life comes to a standstill. Similarly, the impact of flood has led to the deterioration of people’s health, including waterborne diseases, injuries and animal bites, especially among the poor people. This is due to the absence of infrastructure and effective polices to mitigate the effects [ 46 ]. In the aftermath of the flood in 2013, about 36% of the residents were very injured or lost their lives [ 66 ]. Dziwornu and Kugbey [ 71 ] discovered mental health problems among flood victims and therefore suggested that care must be taken to address the psychological needs of victims in the aftermath of flood disaster. For example, the loss of loved ones and properties can cause depression and stress among adults and children. The psychological impact can last for a long period of time when their psychological needs are not met quickly. People leaving in low lying areas are more likely to be affected by the flooding [ 47 ]. Due to rapid urbanisation, appropriate policy guidelines and intervention, supported by effective enforcement mechanism should be developed and implemented to abate flooding in the cities [ 79 ]. The impact of floods can be experienced by individuals and society, and have social, economic, and environmental consequences. Research demonstrated that floods damage properties, disrupt economic activities, lead to loss of income, emergency cost and changes in morphological process [ 80 ]. In the face of growing private interest of political parties and public service in Ghana, flood issue should not be ``politicised´´ but must be considered as an important national issue. Consequently, flood mitigation plans should be fully implemented and continually revised with broad consultation of relevant stakeholders.

4.3 Overview of coping strategies of flood disaster

Coping strategy is an important measure to assess a community ability to respond to a flood event. Residents or communities commonly adopt strategies to sustain their lives and restore their losses (Table 5 ). Whereas most of the studies mentioned preventive strategies as the common coping strategy, other studies identify some relevant reactive coping strategies. In previous research, local communities provide measures to deal with flood events [ 81 ]. For example, improving Green Infrastructure (GI) has the tendency to mitigate the adverse effects of climate change and urban flood as it increases the vegetation cover and protects urban drainage systems [ 82 ]. To better adapt to urban flooding and build resilience, it is important to allow local actions to prevail as local people are able to address a problem in their own community. Additionally, research has demonstrated myriad options in managing urban flood risk, essential for effective urban flood management. For example the development of low impact development (LID) techniques [ 83 , 84 ], resilient housing [ 85 ] and the use of floodplain and wetland green infrastructure [ 15 ] for flood risk reduction. It is worth mentioning that some of the coping strategies are costly and sometimes ineffective [ 53 ]. There is the need to integrate and engage indigenous coping strategies into flood planning process and recovery as well as socially vulnerable populations in addressing flood issues in the country.

5 Conclusion and future research directions

The overarching objective was to explore the current state of flood research, focusing on the causes, effects/impacts, coping strategies of urban flooding and identify literature gaps to inform future research and practice. The analysis showed an increased attention on the subject among scholars over the last decade, with the majority focusing on the Greater Accra Region in Ghana. Despite the increasing number of flood research in Ghana, “causes, effects/impacts and coping strategies” started gaining momentum in 2013 and, since then, a good number of peer-reviewed articles have been published yearly. Generally, the majority of the studies attribute the causes of flood to poor urban planning and development and this has resulted in the destruction of homes, properties, livelihoods, and left many people homeless. Residents or communities commonly adopt strategies to sustain themselves and restore their losses.

Based on the findings of the review, it is important to continuously create awareness of the consequences of flooding, promote education on better house building techniques, proper waste management, provide affordable houses which will move people out from high risk zones, stricter enforcement against building in flood-prone areas, communicate risks, construct drainage and green infrastructural systems in all risk areas. Further, provide up to date weather forecast and early warning system during peak rain season because floods are more devastating when they occur without warning. Alhtough the results of the present study make profound contribution to flood scholarship and the planning process in Ghana, a number of gaps remain in the conventional flood literature. The ensuing section identifies the gaps and suggest the possible ways forward.

Although some studies demonstrated that hydrological factors, particularly torrential rainfall as the major cause of flood in Ghana, limited studies have been conducted on designing flood estimation, flood frequency, flow direction and accumulation that are essential for flood risk management. Thus, there is the need to conduct hydrological modelling research to help control flood.

Most studies relied on field survey and interview to explore the causes and effects/impacts and coping strategies [ 29 , 39 ]. Although these designs have significantly contributed to our understanding of the subject matter, they are limited in terms of providing the data that are required to develop models to predict flood risk in the community. For example, due to changing flood event patterns, future studies should explore changes in flood risk to adjust flood risk maps for a better picture of flood hazards [ 86 , 87 ].

There is a need for more research that establishes the role of stakeholders before, during and after a flood event. The factors that promote and inhibit the effective participation of stakeholders in flood reduction and mitigation should also be examined [ 88 ]. There is also a need for more research that examines how and what flood information get to people leaving in flood-prone areas [ 63 ]. Such knowledge would improve our understanding of what communication and information modes are most effective.

There is the need to conduct research on evacuation strategies during flood events as well as assessing the capacity for flood monitoring and early warning in Ghana.

There is a need to further examine the factors that influence local communities in coping with flood events [ 39 , 46 ].

Research indicated that new flood risks are emerging [ 47 ]; nevertheless, additional research needs to focus on flood vulnerability and interventions that are adaptable to the communities [ 21 ].

Few comprehensive epidemiologic studies have been conducted to assess the health implication of flood [ 46 , 72 ]. It is also important to conduct research on environmental impact of flooding [ 71 ].

Lastly, there is limited focus on gender-based adaptation and vulnerability to flooding. This knowledge will increase our understanding of how men and women cope and adapt to urban flood as well as the possible intervention that are likely to benefit them.

This study has a few limitations that are worth mentioning. First, despite the search procedure employed for the study, it is possible that some relevant studies on “causes, effects/impacts and coping strategies” were omitted. However, the study contributes to scholarship and practice by providing a current state of flood research in Ghana, with a focus on the causes, effects/impacts and coping strategies of urban flooding and identifies gaps in the conventional literature. The findings of the study will inform future research and practice and enhance communities’ resilience in future flood event in Ghana.

All the 33 studies examined in this study referred to the former ten regional boundaries. On 27 December 2018, there was a new map of Ghana following a referendum on the creation of additional six new regions.

Abbreviations

Focus Group Discussion

Low Impact Development

Ministry of Local Government and Rural Development

Ministry of Health

Ministry of Works and Housing

National Disaster Management Organisation

The United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction

UNISDR (2015) Global assessment report on disaster risk reduction 2015

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We wish to express our profound gratitude to the anonymous reviewers for their valuable comments, which helped us to improve the earlier version of the manuscript.

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Mensah, H., Ahadzie, D.K. Causes, impacts and coping strategies of floods in Ghana: a systematic review. SN Appl. Sci. 2 , 792 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-020-2548-z

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-020-2548-z

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