gender equality in rural vs urban india essay

ASER 2023 Report Reveals Alarming Gender Disparity And Digital Divide In Rural India

In a recent, groundbreaking revelation, the ASER report of 2023 has brought to light alarming gender disparities in digital literacy and access among rural Indian youth aged 14-18. The report delves into the intricate digital landscape, unveiling stark realities such as the prevalence of male dominance in smartphone ownership, a pronounced gender gap in digital access, a dearth of technical proficiency among females, and a concerning lack of awareness regarding online safety settings.

Analysing these findings underscores the urgent need for immediate and targeted measures to bridge the gender gap among rural Indian youth in terms of digital access and literacy. As technology plays an increasingly central role in education, employment, and overall societal participation, addressing these disparities becomes not just a matter of equality but also a crucial step towards empowering the next generation in the digital age.

What did the report reveal?

Through the Annual Status of Education Report, the non-profit Pratham Foundation, which is dedicated to advancing education, has been assessing the literacy and math proficiency, school enrollment, and attendance of students in rural India between the ages of 6 and 14 since 2005.

But the latest poll, which covered 2023, turned its attention to a more mature group of people: Indian youngsters living in rural areas between the ages of 14 and 18. This most recent evaluation examined their ability to use reading and arithmetic abilities in practical situations as well as their access to and competency with digital media.

Titled “ Beyond Basics ,” the report encompassed 28 districts across 26 states, surveying 34,745 children enrolled in both private and government institutes. It revealed a significant gender gap in digital knowledge and access within this particular demographic. In the recently released report, encompassing 28 districts across 26 states and surveying 34,745 students in private and government institutions, a striking gender gap in digital knowledge and access surfaces among the 14-18 age group.

While an impressive 89 per cent of youth own devices, and 92 per cent exhibit proficiency in using them, a gender disparity becomes evident. Males in rural India, aged 14-18, are twice as likely to own smartphones (43.7 per cent) compared to females (19.8 per cent). Further, digital literacy rates follow a similar pattern, with 94.7 per cent among males but trailing at 89.8 per cent for females. 

Beyond assessing device ownership, the survey delved into the proficiency of children in performing various digital tasks. This extended to activities such as searching YouTube videos, sharing content, setting alarms, and utilising Google Maps. Notably, the findings indicated that 80 per cent of the surveyed group demonstrated the capability to find YouTube videos, with an even higher percentage (90 per cent) showcasing the ability to share such content with a friend.

Moreover, two-thirds of the participants exhibited the skill to set an alarm, while 70 per cent were found capable of browsing the internet. Interestingly, a little over one-third of the group demonstrated proficiency in utilising Google Maps to estimate distances between two locations.

The statistics further revealed that only thirty per cent of the female respondents had an email address, whereas fifty per cent of the male respondents did. Furthermore, the percentage of female users of Google Maps was 25.3 per cent, compared to the greater number of 48.9 per cent among male users. 

“ Although the overall penetration of smartphone technology in rural India has grown enormously in recent years, these results show clearly that girls and young women have far less access to it than their male counterparts ,” the report stated.

Similarly, gender disparities were noted in tasks like filling out forms, using online services, and making payments online. Though ninety-five per cent of the people polled used social media, only fifty per cent of them showed competency in online safety. To be more precise, 48 per cent of respondents understood how to make a profile private, 52 per cent knew how to reset passwords, and 52 per cent knew how to report or ban a profile.

Even in this particular arena, guys showed more awareness of cybersecurity than girls did. Concerns are raised by this gender disparity, especially in light of the growing prevalence of digital activities like entertainment and online shopping through cell phones and the associated potential risks. 

Analysing and delving deep into the report and the findings, it unveils the dark reality by highlighting the critical imperative for ensuring equal participation and empowerment of women in India’s swiftly evolving digital landscape, it becomes evident that bridging existing gaps is essential. This undoubtedly underscores the pressing need to take proactive initiatives, emphasising the call of the hour to cultivate a more equitable digital future for a better nation.

The potential hazards in the digital divide

As India undergoes a rapid digital transformation, it is imperative to ensure that this evolution is inclusive and provides equal opportunities for women across the nation. Beyond simply addressing women’s smartphone ownership, the focus should be on accelerating digital literacy programs and actively striving to eliminate gender disparities in the online sphere. 

At the same time, the widening gender gap, if left unaddressed, poses a significant threat to exacerbating existing inequalities, leaving females with restricted access to vital services such as health, education, and financial inclusion. The pervasive adoption of smartphones in rural areas presents a promising avenue to enhance educational outreach. To leverage this potential, there is a pressing need to implement effective measures that raise awareness about responsible and constructive technology use among educators and the broader civil society.

Failure to take decisive action could perpetuate disparities and hinder progress towards equitable access and opportunities for females in crucial aspects of life.

How to bridge the gender gap?

The revelations in the ASER report indicated an alarmingly consistent gender disparity across all digital tasks, with males consistently outperforming females. This dichotomy between device ownership and digital literacy highlights a critical correlation. Beyond statistics, it calls for immediate action to create a more inclusive digital landscape for rural Indian youth. This calls for a question: what are the potential strategies to bridge the digital gender gap effectively?

Efforts to bridge the gender gap in digital access and literacy begin with targeted initiatives focused on enhancing digital literacy. Tailored programs specifically designed for females in rural areas aim to provide them with the necessary skills to navigate the digital landscape confidently. By integrating digital skills training into school curricula, particularly emphasising practical skills and online safety, a strong foundation is laid for empowering young females in the realm of technology.

Another critical aspect of narrowing the gender gap involves raising awareness within communities. Comprehensive awareness campaigns seek to enlighten parents and community members about the pivotal role digital literacy plays for both genders. The emphasis extends beyond mere access to digital resources, highlighting the broader benefits, including economic empowerment and enhanced educational opportunities. Building a community-driven understanding of the importance of digital inclusion sets the stage for collective support and engagement.

Also, ensuring universal access to digital devices is pivotal in creating an equitable digital landscape. Efforts to make smartphones and digital tools more affordable and accessible to all, regardless of gender, form a cornerstone of the solution. Collaborations with technology companies and government initiatives can facilitate the provision of subsidised or low-cost devices to rural communities. This step, combined with community centres and digital hubs, establishes tangible infrastructure to foster learning, collaboration, and support for females in building essential digital skills.

It cannot be forgotten that creating a gender-sensitive digital content ecosystem is crucial for fostering inclusivity. The development of content that addresses the unique needs and interests of both male and female users contributes to a more diverse and enriching digital experience.

Additionally, teacher training programs play a key role in ensuring educators are well-equipped to integrate digital literacy into their teaching methods, catering to the specific challenges faced by female students. Government policies advocating for gender equality in digital access and literacy, coupled with resource allocation for targeted initiatives, form the backbone of systemic change.

In conclusion, the endeavour to bridge the digital gender gap in rural India encompasses multifaceted strategies, ranging from educational programs and community awareness to infrastructure development and policy advocacy. Through collaborative efforts, these measures aim to empower young females with the skills and knowledge essential for thriving in the digital age, fostering a more inclusive and equitable digital future.

Anjali (she/her) is a budding writer, masters graduate in Mass Communication and Journalism, constantly learning and unlearning to make the world around her, a safe space. She believes that freedom in all aspects of life is more important. A love child of Mani Ratnam movies and Padmarajan novels, you can find her somewhere around the corner of the street petting a dog or rewatching Friends for the millionth time.

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Gender equality in India hit by illiteracy, child marriages and violence: a hurdle for sustainable development

Kishor parashramji brahmapurkar.

1 Department of Community Medicine, Government Medical College, Jagdalpur, Bastar, 494001 Chhattisgarh, India

Introduction

Gender equality is fundamental to accelerate sustainable development. It is necessary to conduct gender analyses to identify sex and gender-based differences in health risks. This study aimed to find the gender equality in terms of illiteracy, child marriages and spousal violence among women based on data from National Family Health Survey 2015-16 (NFHS-4).

This was a descriptive analysis of secondary data of ever-married women onto reproductive age from 15 states and 3 UTs in India of the first phase of NFHS-4. Gender gap related to literacy and child marriage among urban and rural area was compared.

In rural area all states except Meghalaya and Sikkim had the significantly higher percentage of women's illiteracy as compared to male. Bihar and Madhya Pradesh had higher illiterate women, 53.7% and 48.6% as compared to male, 24.7% and 21.5% respectively (P < 0.000). Child marriages were found to be significantly higher in rural areas as compared to urban areas in four most populated states.

There is a gender gap between illiteracy with women more affected in rural areas with higher prevalence of child marriages and poor utilization of maternal health services. Also, violence against women is showing an upward trend with declining sex-ratio at birth.

Gender refers to the socially constructed characteristics of women and men-such as the norms, roles and relationships that exist between them [ 1 ]. Gender inequality limits access to quality health services and contributes to avoidable morbidity and mortality rates in women, also gender inequality is unacceptable [ 1 , 2 ]. The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women requires that women are accorded rights equal to those of men (equality) and that women be able to enjoy all their rights in practice [ 3 ]. Realizing the significance of the issue, the policy makers have included the issue of gender equality as one among seventeen Sustainable Development Goals (Goal-5) [ 3 ]. Encouraging gender equality is fundamental to accelerating sustainable development [ 3 ]. Some of the elements of gender equality are to abolish all forms of violence against all women and girls along with all destructive practices, such as child marriage and guarantee worldwide access to reproductive health and reproductive rights [ 3 ]. Social determinants of health such as education and gender equality are significantly responsible for health-seeking behavior and overall health outcomes. It has been known that improved education, partly reproduced by higher literacy rates is associated with higher incomes and better health indicators such as lower infant mortality rates (IMRs) and lesser population growth rate. Education of families, particularly of women has a 'multiplier effect' on development [ 4 ]. Child marriage and adolescent pregnancy, gender-based violence are among the many barriers that stand in the way of woman's' fully exercising their right to education [ 4 ]. No education limits hopes, declines family income, diminishes health, puts women at risk of trafficked and exploitation and bounds the economic advancement of entire countries [ 5 ]. Education for girls and women is the single most successful way to progress the lives of individual families as well as to bring economic expansion to poor communities worldwide [ 5 ]. Globally 31 million girls are out of school and two-thirds of illiterate adults are women [ 6 ]. Poverty, adolescent pregnancy, child marriage and prejudiced gender norms are some of the reasons that prevent girls from going to school [ 6 ]. Globally 39000 child marriages (marriage before the age of 18) occur daily and it is more common to young girls [ 7 ]. Child marriages not only contribute to illiteracy but also have complications related to pregnancy and childbirth. These complications are the leading cause of death in young women aged 15-19 [ 7 ]. Child marriages also make girls more susceptible to intimate partner violence(IPV) [ 7 ]. Marrying girls less than 18 years old has been embedded in gender discrimination, cheering premature and uninterrupted child-bearing and giving the predilection for boys' education [ 8 ]. Current worldwide prevalence figures indicate that about 1 in 3 (35%) of women worldwide have experienced intimate partner violence (IPV) [ 9 ]. Gender inequality and poor education are some of the reasons for IPV [ 9 ]. IPV can lead to unplanned pregnancies, induced abortions, gynecological problems and sexually transmitted infections [ 9 ]. It is necessary to disaggregate data and conduct gender analyses to identify sex and gender-based differences in health risks [ 1 ]. The overall aim of the study was to find the gender equality in terms of illiteracy, child marriages and spousal violence among women based on data from National Family Health Survey 2015-16 (NFHS-4).

Study design : The present study was a cross-sectional secondary data analysis of information that has been available from the first phase of National Family Health Survey 2015-16 (NFHS-4) [ 10 ]. NFHS-4, has given information on population, health and nutrition each State/Union Territory.

Setting : Primary data onto NFHS-4 had been collected from January 2015 to December 2015. The Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Government of India assigned International Institute for Population Sciences, Mumbai as the nodal organization to conduct NFHS-4. In the first phase of NFHS-4, 15 states and 3 union Territories were covered (56% of total population). Fifteen States/Union Territories had been selected for study purpose was those, which were covered in first phase of NFHS-4; Maharashtra (MH), Bihar (BR), West Bengal (WB), Madhya Pradesh (MP), Tamil Nadu (TN), Karnataka (KA), Andhra Pradesh (AP), Telangana (TS), Assam (AS), Haryana (HR), Uttarakhand (UK), Tripura (TR), Meghalaya (ML), Manipur (MN) and Sikkim (SK). UTs were Goa (GA), Puducherry (PY) and Andaman and Nicobar (AN) [ 11 ].

Sample size : First phased of NFHS-4 had collected information about 2,91,431 households, 3,37,658 women and 48,342 men.

Variables : NFHS-4 had provided updates and evidence of developments in key population, health and nutrition indicators out of which literacy, child marriage; adolescent reproductive health, maternal health, domestic violence and sex-ratio had been included for the study purpose.

Data analysis : First the data for the above-mentioned variables of all States/UTs has been entered in Microsoft Office Excel worksheet and the gender gap for illiteracy was calculated using Chi-square test for urban and rural area. Then the prevalence of child marriages among girls was compared for area of residence (Urban versus Rural) and Chi-square value was calculated using Epi Info. For statistical tests, P < 0.05 was taken as the significant level. Data were then presented using tables, bar and line diagrams.

Ethical considerations : The study had utilized freely-available record available on the website of the following organization: the National Family Health Survey (NFHS)-4 [ 10 ], National Crime Record Bureau (NCRB) [ 12 ] and Census 2011 [ 13 ]. Because publicly-available database was used in this analysis, no ethical approval was sought.

Definitions : Literate: a person that can read and write with understanding in any language [ 13 ]. Child marriage: according to the prohibition of child Marriage Act, 2006 a child is a male who has not completed twenty-one years of age and a female who has not completed eighteen years of age. Child marriage is a contract between any two people of which either one or both party are a child [ 14 ]. Full antenatal care was defined as at least four antenatal visits, at least one tetanus toxoid (TT) injection and iron-folic acid tablets or syrup took for 100 or more days [ 10 ] . Intimate partner violence refers to behavior by an intimate partner or ex-partner that causes physical, sexual or psychological harm, including physical aggression, sexual coercion, psychological abuse and controlling behaviors [ 9 ].

Total population covered by phase I of NFHS-4 was 678.2 million over 15 states and 3 Union Territories (UTs).

Women's illiteracy (%) as compared to men's illiteracy (%) in urban and rural areas : Women's illiteracy in an urban area has been found to be significantly higher in 8 states and 2 UTs as compared to men's illiteracy and in the rural area; it was significantly higher in 13 states and 1 UT respectively ( Table 1 ). In an urban area, Bihar had a higher percentage of illiterate women (29.5%) as compared to men (11.2%), (P < 0.001), followed by Andhra Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh (MP). In the rural area, all states except Meghalaya and Sikkim had a significantly higher percentage of women's illiteracy as compared to male. Bihar and MP had higher illiterate women, 53.7% and 48.6% as compared to male, 24.7% and 21.5% respectively. (P < 0.000). Bihar and MP state with the population of total 176.7 million had higher women illiteracy in both urban and rural areas. This indicates gender inequality in education.

Distribution of states of India according to the gender gap in illiteracy among urban area as compared to rural area

Child marriages to women (%) in urban and rural areas : Child marriages to women were found to be significantly higher in rural areas as compared to urban areas in 4 most populated states (Maharashtra, Bihar, West Bengal and MP). West Bengal had a higher percentage of child marriages in both urban and rural area, 27.7% and 46.3% and the difference between urban and rural area was significant (P < 0.005) followed by Bihar, 26.9% and 40.9% of child marriages among urban and rural women respectively. (P < 0.026), though no statistically significant difference was observed in Andhra Pradesh, Assam and Tripura, the prevalence of child marriage among women was more than 20% in urban and more than 33% in rural areas of concerned states. The above findings point of the harmful practice of child marriages to women prevalent in most of the states and UTs of India. Goa was the only exception with child marriages significantly higher in an urban area as compared to a rural area as shown in Table 2 .

Child marriages of girls in rural and urban areas of some states and UTs of India

Reproductive health : Full Antenatal care (ANC) was lower in a rural area of states, Bihar (03%), followed by Tripura (6.8%) and MP (8.3%) as compared to the rural area of Tamil Nadu (43.8%). Also, full ANC coverage was found to be lower in an urban area of Bihar (6.6%), Tripura (9.8%), Uttarakhand (15.6%) and MP (19.5%) as compared to Telangana and Tamil Nadu with full ANC coverage of 47.7% and 46.3% respectively. Postnatal care (PNC) to mothers within 2 days of delivery was found lower in rural area of states with Bihar state in which only 41.1% of mothers received PNC from health personnel followed by Meghalaya (42.6%), Uttarakhand (49.1%) and MP (50.3%) as compared to better Post Natal Care in state of Telangana (79.1%) and Andhra Pradesh (77.8%) among states and 90.5% among UT (Goa).

Ever-married women that have ever experienced spousal violence (%) and adolescent pregnancy : The overall percentage of spousal violence among ever-married women was 25.2% in urban area and 31.2% in rural area. Spousal violence was higher in the rural area of Manipur (56.1%) followed by Telangana (47.6%), Tamil Nadu (44.2%) and Bihar (43.7%). Similar observations were noted in an urban area as shown in Figure 1 . Figure 2 shows a number of cases reported under the head of cruelty by husband and rape. There was an upward trend in a number of cases reported to the head of cruelty by husband and rape from the year 2010 to 2014. Percentage of adolescent pregnancy was higher in Tripura and West Bengal in the rural area (20.7% and 20.6%) as compared to an urban area (13.7% and 12.4%) respectively.

Distribution of states and UTs of India according to percentage of ever-married women who have experienced spousal violence

Distribution of number of cases reported as per National Crime Record Bureau (NCRB), India, under head of cruelty by husband and rape from the year 2005 to 2014

Sex ratio at birth for children born in the last five years (females per 1,000 males) : Sex ratio at birth was better in the rural area except for Telangana (865 females/1000 males), Haryana (867 females/1000 males) and Andhra Pradesh (880 females/1000 males). In urban areas, it was lower than 900 females/1000 males in all UTs and 8 states. It was lower in Sikkim (632 females/1000 males), Andaman and Nicobar (708 females/1000 males) and Haryana (785 females/1000 males) as summarized in Figure 3 .

Distribution of states and UTs of India according to sex-ratio at birth in urban and rural areas

In present study female literacy has been significantly lower as compared to male literacy in rural areas of 15 states and 3 UTs except for Meghalaya and Sikkim state and Goa and Andaman and Nicobar UTs. The reason for this may be several parents did not have permitted their female children to go to schools and another reason could be child marriage of girls [ 15 ]. Another reason might be that most people are below the poverty line and weren't conscious that children should get the free education according to the law [ 15 ]. Hence there is a gender gap between educations. The 11 th five-year plan had decided to reduce the gender gap in literacy to 10% points by 2012 [ 16 ]. However in present study gender gap was observed in rural areas of all states except Meghalaya and Sikkim. Also according to censuses held in 2001 and 2011, the percentage of female literacy in the country was 54.16% and 65.46% respectively. An increase in 11.3% during the period 2001-2011, however, this was 3.6% lower than that during the period of 1991-2001. This declining trend over a decade is a matter of concern for sustainable development as it affects women empowerment [ 17 ]. In a country like India, literacy is the core basis of social and economic growth. Though the government has made an act that each child under the age of 14 should get free education, the setback of illiteracy is still at large [ 15 ]. Similarly, Lailulo YA et al had observed gender gap between education in the Ethiopia and also noted that educated women with educational attainment of primary education and above are less likely got married at an early age than those who are uneducated [ 18 ]. Raj Anita et al had studied the prevalence of child marriage using National Family Health Survey-3 data and had found that the maximum frequency of child marriage among women having less than a secondary education and residing in the rural area [ 19 ]. Similar findings were noted in NFHS-4 data phase 1, among top 4 most populated states. West Bengal and Bihar had a higher percentage of child marriage, 46.3 and 40.9% respectively in rural areas. David R et al had also similar observations related to higher prevalence of child marriage to girls with less education and residing in rural areas [ 20 ]. Adolescent pregnancy or 'motherhood in childhood' is one of the gravest health hazards to young women in India. Patra S et al had observed that stillbirth and abortion were more widespread among younger adolescents and the proportion of live births (vs. stillbirth or abortion) was also advanced among women having 10 years or more education [ 21 ]. As per UNFPA, the girl with adolescent pregnancy bears end of her education along with shrinking away from her job prospects and her vulnerability to poverty and exclusion increases [ 22 ]. Impediments from pregnancy and childbirth were the leading cause of death among adolescent girls [ 22 ]. In the present study, it was observed that coverage of full antenatal care (ANC) in states was the lowest in rural Bihar 03% compared to rural Tamil Nadu, 43.8%.Ahmed S et al had observed that women with complete primary education are almost three times more likely to have made at least four ANC visits [ 23 ]. Bihar had 53.7% of women illiteracy in the rural area as compared to Tamil Nadu, 27.1%. Kawaguchi L et al. had noted that women that married young were less likely to utilize ANC [ 24 ]. Bihar had 40.9% of child marriages to the rural area as compared to Tamil Nadu, 18.3%. Birmeta K et al had observed that women with education were more than twice likely to attend ANC as compared with those who had no education [ 25 ]. Ensuring universal accesses to sexual and reproductive health and reproductive rights as agreed in accordance with the Programme of Action of the International Conference on Population and Development and the Beijing Platform for Action and the outcome documents of their review conferences. 'Gender equality means that the different behaviors, aspirations, and needs of women and men are considered, valued and favored equally' [ 26 ]. Gender equality is a matter of human rights. It is also a driver of development progress. Gender equality, rooted in human rights, is increasingly recognized both as an essential development goal on its own and as vital to accelerating sustainable development overall [ 27 ]. Sex ratio is defined as the number of females per 1000 males in the population and is an important social indicator to measure the extent of prevailing equity between males and females [ 28 ]. Though the overall sex ratio of the Country is showing a trend of improvement, the child sex ratio is showing a declining trend, which is a matter of concern. Child sex ratio (0-6 years) at country level was 945 in 1991, 927 in 2001 and has now declined to 914 in Census 2011 [ 27 ]. The sex ratio of birth is an indicator of the discrimination against the girl child and dreadful crimes such as female feticide. As per NFHS-4 child sex ratio was the lowest in urban Sikkim, 632 followed by Andaman and Nicobar and Haryana with child sex-ratio of 708 and 785 respectively. Gender inequality manifests itself in various forms, the most obvious being the tendency towards the continuously declining female ratio of the population of the last few decades [ 29 ]. Further research is needed to study the factors associated with declining female ratio of the population.

Limitations : This study had not covered all states and UTs of India. The datasets were not available for NFHS-4 at present, so detailed analysis was not done.

There is the gender gap between illiteracy with women more affected in rural areas with higher prevalence of child marriages and poor utilization of maternal health services. Also, the violence against women is showing an upward trend with declining sex-ratio at birth.

What is known about this topic

• 11 th five year plan of India had decided to reduce the gender gap between literacy to 10% points by 2012;
• Child sex ratio of India was 919 females/1000 males (as per Census 2011).

What this study adds

• 11 out of 15 States/Union Territories (73%) had gender gap of more than 10% in literacy ranging from 10% to 29% in the rural area as compared to urban areas in 6 States/Union Territories (40%) with the range of 10.7% to 18.2%;
• But as per the analyses of primary data of NFHS-4 which was collected from January 2015 to December 2015, child sex ratio of India is declining with lowest, 632/1000 females in urban area of Sikkim and below 800/1000 females in urban area of 5 states States/Union Territories.

Competing interests

The author declares no competing interests.

Acknowledgments

The author is obliged to the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Government of India and International Institute for Population Sciences, Mumbai for the data for research purpose from National Family Health Survey 2015-16 (NFHS-4).

Authors’ contributions

The author had participated sufficiently in the intellectual content, conception and design of this work and the analysis and interpretation of the data, as well as the writing of the manuscript. All the authors have read and agreed to the final manuscript.

Photo essay: Rural women, human rights

Date: 22 February 2018

She is a rural woman who works from daybreak until sundown and often beyond. She may run a small business or cultivate a field or both to support her family. Long hours are spent collecting water and fuel, and preparing food. She sees to the raising of children. She tends livestock. 

Without rural women and girls, rural communities would not function. Yet women and girls are among the people most likely to be poor, to lack access to assets, education, health care and other essential services, and to be hit hardest by climate change. On almost every measure of development, rural women, because of gender inequalities and discrimination, fare worse than rural men.

The world has committed to upholding the rights of all women and girls. Fulfilling this commitment is particularly urgent in rural areas. Rural women and their organizations are on the move to claim their rights and improve their livelihoods and well-being. They are setting up successful businesses and acquiring new skills, pursuing their legal entitlements and running for office, using innovative agricultural methods and taking advantage of new technologies.

The following exhibit, sponsored by UN Women, highlights some of their issues and shares some of their stories.

“Women’s rights are human rights. But in these troubled times, as our world becomes more unpredictable and chaotic, the rights of women and girls are being reduced, restricted and reversed. Empowering women and girls is the only way to protect their rights and make sure they can realize their full potential.” —United Nations Secretary-General António Guterres

Around the world, the United Nations system stands behind the realization of the rights of rural women, in principle and practice. Upholding these rights is essential to international commitments such as the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, and the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action. Fulfilling the promise of the landmark 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, where the goals include gender equality as well as ending poverty and hunger, achieving decent work for all and combatting climate change, largely depends on empowering rural women and girls.

UN development entities, led by UN Women, back progress towards these objectives through assisting implementation of national and local programmes. These directly engage women and girls in rural areas, supporting their efforts to access all the elements fundamental to their rights and well-being, whether health services or land, financing or climate-smart technologies, among others. 

Each year, the UN system champions the rights of rural women on the International Day for Rural Women. The Commission on the Status of Women, the principal global intergovernmental body exclusively dedicated to gender equality and the empowerment of women, has called for tearing down the barriers to rural women and girls. In 2018, it tackled the challenges and opportunities they face as a priority theme.

The right to a decent standard of living

Around the world, almost a third of women’s work is in agriculture. Much is time and labour intensive, and poorly paid, without the full protection of labour rights.

Empowering rural women in agriculture can unlock change on many fronts. In Guinea, one of the least developed countries, rural women have gained opportunities to generate income through cooperatives that grow Moringa. The vitamin-rich leaves and pods of the tree are in demand by international markets, and important to preserving biodiversity and preventing erosion. Supported by UN Women, cooperative members share ideas and learn new skills, and have emerged as leaders in improving life in their communities.

Markets are vibrant hubs of economic activity in many places, providing shoppers with a ready supply of fresh fruits, vegetables, fish, grains and other staples. In the Pacific region, up to 90 per cent of vendors are women. They make a living, but hours are long, profits are often low, and conditions difficult. Many come from rural areas and must sleep at the market for days at a stretch, putting them at high risk of gender-based violence and theft.

Women vendors have a right to the full range of protection and support measures that can help make their livelihood a decent one. UN Women’s Markets for Change Programme, supported by the Government of Australia, helps them form associations that give them a more powerful voice in managing markets. Betty Kwanairara has become a market manager. Together, she and other women have successfully lobbied for measures to make markets safe and clean.

Gender discrimination can intersect with other disadvantages in rural communities, which are often limited in access to services, markets, communications and technology. The combination of these factors makes rural women among those most likely to be left behind.

In northern Jordan, an influx of refugees has led to further pressures on limited community resources. UN Women’s Spring Forward for Women programme, funded by the European Commission, has worked with women living in poverty to pursue new sources of income. Munira Hussein created a business selling products made from goat milk. She provides for her family, including a son with disabilities, and has become an inspiration to her community. "Women come to me and ask me about how I started my business. They say they'd like to do the same. I encourage them to do that. Starting a business gives women independence."

“Women come to me and ask me about how I started my business. They say they'd like to do the same. I encourage them to do that. Starting a business gives women independence.” —Munira Hussein, Jordan, portrayed in the photograph

For many rural women, limited economic opportunities push them to migrate in search of better work and lives. Although migrant women have a diverse array of skills and experience, continuing demand for domestic and care work in many destination countries means these women often fill such jobs. Many find they are not covered by labour laws or basic social protection measures.

Some women migrants land better-paying jobs, including in more advanced forms of agricultural production. Ho Thi Thuy, 29, left Viet Nam to find a higher paying job at a specialized hydroponic lettuce farm in Malaysia. To make the most of the opportunity, she works whatever overtime she can get at a salary considered quite high for agricultural workers.

Technology has increasingly become a tool for women farmers to improve their livelihoods. Even a simple mobile phone can provide ready access to essential information, such as weather forecasts and market prices, which can help women boost productivity and income.

The “Buy from Women” platform in Rwanda was launched in 2016 by UN Women and the World Food Programme, including through a contributions from the Governments of China and Finland. Over 3,000 men and women farmers from 12 maize farming cooperatives tap into a mobile platform that lets them accurately map their plots of land and generate a yield forecast – something that was previously very difficult to do. Among other benefits, they can sign contracts with maize buyers, forging stronger links to markets. The platform also sends regular text messages on new business opportunities, agricultural practices and women’s rights.

The right to land and productive resources

Rural women often have unequal access to land and other productive assets needed for income, food and well-being. This can open the door to additional forms of discrimination and even violence.

In Pakistan, Khateeja Mallah was once a landless farmer. A widow with eight children, she had no legal claim to the land she worked or the crops she grew, and often endured harsh treatment from landowners. Today, through assistance from UN Women, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and the International Labour Organization, she finally holds a Land Tenancy Agreement. It upholds her right to farm land, as she proudly puts it, “as far as the eye can see”.

“Now, for the first time in my life I can say something is mine. This land, as far as the eye can see is mine—this paper says so.” —Khateeja Mallah, Pakistan, portrayed in the photograph

Clean, reliable energy improves health and livelihoods, and eases work burdens inside and outside the home. Yet over 1 billion mostly rural people still do not have access to electricity. Towards a new “energy democracy,” renewable, clean energy should be available and affordable to all, and women, including in rural areas, should participate equally in its distribution and control.

Small-scale, low-cost alternatives, particularly in remote areas and poorer communities, can play a vital role in extending power and making energy democracy a reality. With assistance from UN Women, Musu Junius and Marie Weeks attended Barefoot College solar engineer training in India and have used new skills to electrify their community in Liberia. Behind them, a teacher prepares for evening adult literacy classes made possible by switching on the lights.

Laws and legal practices must uphold women’s equal rights to land, and women should be equally represented in all collective decisions on using land and natural resources. Rural women also must be able to acquire skills, finance and technology to make the best use of productive assets.

Mirjana Hemon moved to a rural area in Serbia in the hope that her husband’s failing health would improve. Soon after, he passed away. In possession of orchards and land, she set up a local association of widows and started a business in rural agro-tourism as well as one to produce preserves and traditional drinks using her own fruits and vegetables. Training and a grant from a programme to support gender equality helped her start her business and make it a success.

Women organizing together can claim a full spectrum of economic, political, social and environmental rights, including through steering public policy decisions.

In Quito, rural women activists from Bolivia and Ecuador gathered to articulate their demands, such as better access to land, credit, training and technology. “It is time to recognize rural and Indigenous women that work the land and produce food for the people. Without us the land would be lifeless, that is why public policies should consider us not only because we are women or Indigenous, but because we are pillars of life,” said Felipa Huanca Llupanqui (far left), Executive Secretary of the Indigenous National Confederation of Native Peasant Women from Bolivia.

“It is time to recognize rural and Indigenous women that work the land and produce food for the people.” —Felipa Huanca Llupanqui, Executive Secretary of the Indigenous National Confederation of Native Peasant Women from Bolivia, portrayed in the photograph

The right to live free from violence and harm

Rural women are at greater risk of experiencing multiple forms of violence and harmful practices. Violence can occur in homes, places of work, or in public spaces, such as while women and girls collect water or firewood.

In six Indian states, a special education programme supported by UN Women and a local non-governmental organization helps women understand their right to live free from violence and to protect themselves from the scourge of human trafficking.

Higher levels of poverty, limited access to justice and entrenched discrimination are among many factors that put women and girls in rural areas at increased risk of violence. Rural girls are more likely to become child brides than their urban counterparts worldwide.

In Ethiopia, Mulu Melka, 13, raises her hand to answer a question in school. She has twice evaded forced marriage and is determined to finish her education. "Girls need to be educated so they can be self-reliant and know how to protect themselves," says Mulu, who plans to be a teacher.

“Girls need to be educated so they can be self-reliant and know how to protect themselves.” —Mulu Melka, student, Ethiopia, portrayed in the photograph The right to food security and nutrition

The human right to food underpins all other human rights, and is one in which rural women play a major role as they grow and prepare much of the food consumed by their families. Yet food security and nutrition are increasingly undermined by industrial agriculture, conflict and climate-related shocks.

In a remote village in Bangladesh, a young woman sorts rice. Her harvest must last a long time, as the weather usually allows cultivation only once a year.

Gender discrimination limits rural women’s rights to food security and nutrition in multiple ways, constraining access to agricultural technology and credit, and to knowledge and essential services.

In seven countries, UN Women, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, the International Fund for Agricultural Development and the World Food Programme are collaborating on a joint programme funded by the Governments of Norway and Sweden. The programme supports women in breaking through discriminatory barriers. They gain adequate food and income, and become empowered farmers, entrepreneurs and agents of change.

One participant is Maria Quej San de Moran, who smiles watching her garden grow in her village in Guatemala.

“With what we cultivate, we support our household income. My husband cultivates corn, beans and yucca for the market. At home, where the whole family participates, we cultivate tomato, cabbage, pepper and indigenous herbs; now we eat better.” —Maria Quej San de Moran, farmer, Guatemala, portrayed in the photograph

Drought, increasingly severe and common in a changing climate, means much more than water scarcity. For many of the poorest rural women and girls, it requires spending hours a day fetching water instead of on more productive activities. It can lead to higher rates of violence and poverty, hunger and an increased likelihood of dying during childbirth.

Turkana county is one of the most arid areas of Kenya. Several years of inadequate rainfall have pushed coping capacities to the brink. Women not only struggle to collect enough water, but when food is scarce, they eat less than men. UN Women works with Kenya’s National Drought Management Authority to ensure that all interventions take the rights and needs of women and children into account.

“We don’t have anything for lunch and even in the evening, it depends. If we get it, fine, if we don’t, we will still sleep. Whenever we wake up, we do not anticipate any meal. On a good day, we have a single meal.” —Adikor Lopunga Nangiro, farmer, Kenya, portrayed in the photograph

The right to a healthy, educated life

Health care for many rural women is out of reach or poor in quality. Privatization can impose additional costs, felt most acutely by the poorest women. Poor health and lack of reproductive rights can compound other deprivations, limiting rural women’s and girls’ well-being and perpetuating gender inequality.

In the Democratic Republic of the Congo, a partnership between five United Nations agencies and the World Bank, known as H6 and funded by the Governments of Canada and Sweden, is improving the chances that rural women will have safe pregnancies and deliveries. Training has improved the skills of midwives. New facilities accommodate women at risk of complication in the last stages of pregnancies so they do not have to travel long distances once labour starts.

Education is a cornerstone of individual and social well-being, shaping informed and productive citizens. It should teach the next generation, girls and boys alike, how to read, write and calculate—and how to strive for a more equal world, free of gender discrimination. Schooling should not be sidelined by early marriage or pregnancy, or inaccessible due to barriers such as language or location.

In a remote village in Lao People’s Democratic Republic, young women study the national language.

A number of developing countries are now ageing at a rapid rate, and will be old long before they are rich. Among those most vulnerable to poverty in old age are rural women, who are less likely to have sufficient savings and assets to support themselves. Many live in places where traditional social safety nets provided by families are eroding, including through the migration of younger people to cities.

Rural women have the right to well-being at each stage of life, a principle supported by social protection programmes that ensure basic income and essential health care. Lifelong learning helps an older woman in Georgia retool skills that open continued opportunities for income.

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RSTV: THE BIG PICTURE- SHIFTING GENDER DYNAMICS IN INDIA

The National Statistical Office operating under Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MoSPI) has recently released the Women and Men in India report. The report consolidates the crucial socio-economic indicators that portray gender situation in the country

Highlights of the report:

• India’s projected population is 129.02 Crore with 48.59% female population in 2016.
• The projected average annual exponential growth rate of population has declined from 1.63 in 2011 to 1.27 in 2016 and likely to further decline to 1.07 in 2021.
• The projected sex ratio is likely to reach from 943 in 2011 to 945 in 2016 and it may further increase to 948 in 2021. The sex ratio is projected to remain constant at 929 in Urban India while in rural India it is estimated to reach at 958 in 2021 from 949 in 2011.
• In 2017, highest age fertility rate is recorded for the females belonging to the age group 25- 29 years at 157.1, while the age specific fertility rate stands at 137.1 for the age group of 20- 24 years.
• Total Fertility Rate (TFR) for the country has come down to 2.2 in 2017 after being stable at 2.3 for the last three years from 2014 to 2016. (Table 2.1)
• As per SRS 2017, the infant mortality rate has decreased from 40 in 2013 to 33 in 2017.
• Maternal Mortality Ratio (MMR) has declined from 301 in 2001-2003 to 122 in 2015-17.
• Total Fertility Rate (TFR) for rural India is observed at 2.3 as compared to 1.7 in urban areas.
• In India, the literacy rate has increased to 77.7 in 2017 from 72.98 in 2011. It is observed that the male and female literacy in 2017 is at 84.7 and 70.3, respectively.
• The Gender Parity Index (GPI) in higher education has increased from 0.94 in 2016-17 to 0.97 in 2017-18. There has been an increase in GPI from 2016-17 to 2017-18 in SC and ST categories as well.
• Periodic Labour Force Survey results indicate that the worker population ratio for females in rural sector was 17.5 and 51.7 for males in 2017-18. In Urban sector, the ratio is 14.2 for females and 53.0 for males. In both rural and urban areas, WPRs for females were considerably lower than WPRs for males.
• The percentage of women representation in Central Council of Ministers has decreased from 17.8 % in 2015 to 10.5 % in 2019.
• There were 437.8 million women electors in Seventeenth Lok Sabha Election (2019) which had increased from 397.0 million in sixteenth Lok Sabha Elections (2014). The difference between the percentage of men and women electors participated in election was decreased from 1.46 to 0.17 from Sixteenth to Seventeenth Lok Sabha General Election.
• Share of Cruelty by Husband or his Relatives has reduced from 35% in 2015 to 27% in 2018.

Why Gender Equality?

• To enable women to participate fully in society and contribute to the health and prosperity of the society.
• It is estimated that India can potentially boost its GDP by $700 billion by 2025, by raising female labour-force participation rate.
• Gender equality contributes to growth by raising the female-to-male ratio of labor-force participation, increasing women’s work hours, and having more women working in higherproductivity sectors.
• Economically empowered women boost demand, have healthier and better-educated children, and raise human development levelsEquality at work goes hand in hand with gender equality in society.
• Enabling her to lead a life of dignity.
• Preventing their socio-economic exploitation and lowers domestic violence.
• Enhancing a woman’s control over household decision-making.
• If we have representation of women in Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRI’s), in local bodies, in MLA and MP seats, evidence shows that the decision making by women is much better or superior than men.

Gender Inequality:

• Women remain subject to traditional attitudes that define their primary role as being in the home.
• Women often lack access to the financing needed to start or expand a business.
• Globally, the value of women’s unpaid work performed is three times higher than that of men, whereas in the Asia-Pacific region, it is four times higher.
• Unconscious bias in the workplace.
• Though they comprise almost 40 percent of agricultural labour, they control only 9 percent of land in
• More than 50 percent of women have no valuable assets to their name.
• India has a lower share of women’s contribution to the GDP than the global average.
• Women face great physical insecurity.
• Crimes against women such as rapes, dowry deaths, and honour killings.
• A culturally ingrained parental preference for sons — emanating from their importance as caregivers for parents in old age.

Challenges:

• Stereotypical thinking and Patriarchal mindset is the biggest challenge.
• Declining child sex ratio (CSR), the practice of gender-biased sex selection, and child marriage.
• Domestic violence against women is also high.
• Women being exposed to violence by their partners.
• Judicial remedies or police reforms, though absolutely necessary, are mostly curative, rather than being preventive.
• Benefits like maternity leave or related facilities will not be accessible to her in the informal sector.

Potential Areas of Focus:

• From a corporate perspective, every organization is promoting a healthy ratio of women in their workforce. When we look at statistics three years before, it used to be 18-22% even in the formal sector.
• This has gone up to a figure of 30-32% currently. Secondly, this larger workforce is coming at the entry level.
• The private sector and business community will be crucial in helping bridge the gap between skills and jobs and enable access to decent work for women.
• Vocational and technical training, life skills and financial literacy programmes for women to help them develop marketable skills and better decision-making abilities.
• Companies can also invest in women entrepreneurs through microfinance, and bring their goods and services into supply chains.
• Enhancing women’s access to the internet and ICT can create a market of connected women who can be linked to business opportunities.
• Increasing representation of women in the public spheres is important.
• Female leaders serve as role models and raise educational and career aspirations for adolescent girls and their parents.
• Attitudinal shift is essential for women to be considered as equal within their homes and in broader society.
• Educating Indian children from an early age about the importance of gender equality.

Way Forward:

• A self-drive from the entire workforce.
• Encouragement from the family, society and the corporations with whom they are employed with.
• The best way to bridge the gender gap would be in terms of education.
• There is much scope in the area of secondary and tertiary education, but more so in the field of technical education.
• Until we see this as a mindset issue , i.e. we change the patriarchal mindset and our myths and misconceptions around the preference for son’s, etc. we would probably be discussing all these issues in an economic perspective.
• Need ownership of the idea that women’s employment is something that you want to achieve as a goal and not by chasing statistics.
• Government Initiatives are required
• Companies should also now start seeing women’s issues.
• Women should not be quitting midway in their careers.

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Transforming the lives of rural women in India

Date: Wednesday, 4 November 2015

Author : Rineeta Naik

Ranchi, India – “Rural women face multiple challenges, and it is therefore critical that we recognize and work towards gender transformative livelihoods,” said India’s Minister of State for Rural Development Sudarshan Bhagat at a two-day national consultation on ‘Gender Transformative Rural Livelihoods’ that took place in Ranchi in the eastern Indian state of Chhattisgarh on 3-4 November, 2015.

The consultation was organized by UN Women in partnership with the Ministry of Rural Development, Government of India. It reviewed trends in rural women’s work and their access to resources and entitlements, highlighted the importance of ensuring women’s dignity and security in all policies and programmes on rural livelihoods, and underscored women’s participation in the shaping of rural development strategies.

The participants heard from individual rural women as well as women’s coalitions, representatives from ministries and departments and civil society organisations, including members of the Mahila Kisan Adhikaar Manch (MAKAAM), a national alliance working on the rights of women farmers. Senior government functionaries from the states of Bihar, Haryana, Jammu and Kashmir, Maharashtra, Punjab, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal also attended the consultation.

In her opening remarks, UN Women Representative for India, Bhutan, Maldives and Sri Lanka Dr. Rebecca Reichmann Tavares observed that gender equality and women’s empowerment are key elements of the new global agenda for sustainable development adopted by United Nations Member States in September.

The Sustainable Development Goals, or SDGs, are “intrinsically linked to the lives of women and girls globally, including that of rural women, who are vital to its success,” Dr. Tavares said. “Empowering rural women is key not only to the well-being of individuals, families and rural communities, but also to overall economic productivity, given women’s large presence in the agricultural workforce.”

She commended the Ministry of Rural Development for its exemplary leadership in making gender issues central to its programmes and schemes and for being the first ministry in the Government of India to have adopted gender audit guidelines.

The participants also heard from Nilkanth Singh Munda, Minister for Rural Development, Government of Jharkhand, who applauded the joint effort by UN Women and the state government towards women’s rights and gender equality.

For more information please contact:

Rineeta Naik Communications Analyst UN Women MCO for India, Bhutan, Maldives and Sri Lanka E-mail: [ Click to reveal ]

In India, data from the 2011 Census shows that of the 405 million rural women in the country, nearly 80 per cent contribute to agriculture, and 60 per cent of all agricultural activity is carried out by women farmers. And yet, not more than nine per cent of rural women own land. Women farmers earn only 50-75 per cent of the wages earned by men. More than 50 per cent of rural women workers work without pay on family farms. More than 80 per cent of women farmers belong to marginalised communities such as Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, or Other Backward Castes.

In India, UN Women promotes the leadership and participation of rural women in shaping programmes on all issues that affect their lives, including improved food and nutrition security and better rural livelihoods. UN Women also engages with the government to develop and implement laws and policies that promote equal rights, opportunities and participation so that rural women can benefit from trade and finance, market their goods and make a strong contribution to inclusive economic growth.

With its mandate to eradicate rural poverty in India, the Ministry of Rural Development is in a unique position to transform the lives of India’s 405 million rural women. The focus of UN Women’s work with the Ministry has been to ensure:

• Increased participation of women in rural livelihoods programmes such as the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) through the creation of all-women worksites and the promotion of women-friendly works such as canal de-siltation, plantations, horticulture, fisheries and hatcheries.
• Women’s access to essential services such as PDS (public distribution service), job cards under MGNREGA, and social protection measures including widow, disability, old age pension and family benefit schemes under the National Social Assistance Programme.
• Greater awareness amongst women of their rights and entitlements through training of village organisations and women’s self-help groups.
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Unmasking gender disparities in Indian sanitation

Inadequate sanitation poses significant global risks, affecting over four billion people. Insufficient access to proper facilities leads to social, psychological, and physical threats, contributing to 6.3% of global deaths. India, with one billion residents, grapples with open defecation, affecting half the population. The Swachh Bharat Mission reduced open defecation but challenges persist, especially in rural areas lacking funds for toilets. International initiatives like UNICEF's WASH campaign made strides, yet financial gaps persist for rural and urban sanitation projects. Incomplete infrastructure projects and poor maintenance exacerbate open defecation, impacting vulnerable groups.

This paper by Wren Vogel et al ‘ Gender and sanitation: Women’s experiences in rural regions and urban slums in India ’ delves into India's sanitation challenges, emphasising gender-related issues. It advocates for increased discourse on remediating the sanitation issues that millions face in developing countries and encouraging a re-evaluation of the apportionment of funds from the private sector by discussing the events that have led to the state of sanitation within rural areas and urban slums of India.

This evaluation and application of sanitation insecurity focuses on the problems associated with poor sanitation within the physical environment, the socio-cultural environment, and the lack of education, and how each relates to gender.

Sanitation research initially focused on pathogen exposure and infectious diseases. Viewing sanitation as a human rights issue emphasises governmental frameworks over physical solutions, asserting sanitation as an inherent right. In India, rural and urban areas face fragmented sanitation issues influenced by economic class, location, and gender.

"Toilet insecurity" denotes unavailability of operable toilets, with 55% globally lacking access to improved sanitation. Ownership doesn't guarantee use; reasons for open defecation include preference, non-functional toilets, inconvenience, privacy issues, and cultural factors. Sanitation insecurity encompasses uncertain access to socio-cultural and physical environments that respect sanitation needs, especially affecting women. Inadequate representation hampers decision-making, limiting women's agency in sanitation discourse.

Gender and sanitation

Gender discrimination in scientific and health journals has historically led to unequal representation, perpetuating an androcentric view in research. Recognising institutionalised patriarchal influence, efforts to address sanitation insecurity emphasise that men and women have different experiences. Approaching this issue from an androcentric perspective would disproportionately affect women.

Historically, menstrual health has been neglected, focusing on sexual and reproductive health within traditional gender roles. Women, more than men, suffer the consequences of inadequate sanitation, described as an affliction of the vulnerable. In India, the world's most dangerous country for women, misogyny is cultivated through limited educational opportunities, gender role constraints, and the misrepresentation of menstruation.

Sanitation insecurity, affecting women in hygienic maintenance and defecation methods, must be contextualised across rural, urban slum, and inner urban areas of India to fully comprehend its gendered impact. Addressing menstrual health is crucial in tackling the broader issue of inadequate sanitation.

Menstrual hygiene management

Menstrual hygiene management is a global public health and social justice issue, shaped by cultural perceptions and economic constraints. The interpretation of normal menstruation varies worldwide, influencing stigmas and beliefs. Menstrual hygiene management involves accessibility to menstrual products, accurate information, and safe, hygienic facilities, impacting overall health.

In India, where diverse cultural and economic factors exist, menstrual hygiene management experiences differ between inner urban, urban slum, and rural areas. Affordability and availability of menstrual products pose challenges, especially for the 800 million people living on less than two USD per day. Menstrual hygiene management, encompassing sanitation, health, and human rights, requires a nuanced understanding through examining women's lived experiences in various regions.

Assessment of sanitation and menstrual hygiene management

In rapidly growing megacities like Mumbai, Delhi, and Kolkata, the escalating population density strains sanitation services and amplifies the demand for adequate facilities. This surge in urbanisation often neglects environmental degradation and socio-economic inequality, exacerbating the gap in sanitation between the urban poor and non-poor. A stark contrast emerges, with nearly all urban non-poor enjoying access to proper sanitation services, while less than half of the urban poor have equal privileges.

The dire environmental conditions in urban slums further compound the sanitation crisis. Inadequate wastewater treatment facilities lead to the contamination of surface water sources, causing severe health problems such as diarrhoea. Shockingly, a staggering 70% of surface water sources in India are reported to be polluted, rendering them unfit for consumption. The repercussions of this sanitation insecurity spiral into a cycle of economic, health, and social problems that persist unless meaningful improvements are made.

The report illustrates the cascade of events causing poor sanitation, emphasising the interconnectedness of economic, health, and social challenges perpetuated by inadequate sanitation. Women, children, and individuals with physical disabilities are particularly vulnerable, and their needs must be at the forefront when devising sanitation improvements.

In the context of slums, characterised by dilapidated housing and insufficient infrastructure, slum-dwellers grapple with unhygienic living conditions. UNICEF and the WHO categorise identified slums as compact areas housing at least 300 people, lacking adequate infrastructure, and devoid of sanitary or drinking water facilities. Unfortunately, decision-making bodies often harbour an anti-poor bias, prioritising formal residential areas over slums.

Toilet block construction, intended to address sanitation issues in slums, often falls short due to inadequate maintenance by municipal corporations. The resulting unhygienic conditions lead to frustration among slum residents, and many women opt for open defecation rather than using poorly maintained toilets, leaving them in a more vulnerable position. The lack of drainage in these constructions allows faecal matter to enter streets, contaminating water sources and soil. The consequences are dire, contributing to ailments such as diarrhoea, trachoma, intestinal worms, and salmonella. In 2018, contaminated water claimed seven lives daily in India, with over 35,000 people diagnosed with water-borne diseases.

The challenges persist due to bureaucratic hurdles within municipal corporations and a lack of ownership at the local government level. Despite efforts to construct toilet blocks, these facilities often face severe sanitary and mechanical issues within a short span, emphasising the need for sustained maintenance and oversight.

The management of menstrual hygiene in slums adds another layer of complexity. Overcrowded living conditions increase the likelihood of illness and sexual violence during menstruation. Women in slums often resort to using old cloths as makeshift pads due to their affordability and availability, with nearly 70% unable to afford commercial sanitary pads. The reuse of old clothes, however, raises hygiene concerns, contributing to an increased susceptibility to urinary and reproductive tract infections, school dropouts, and work absenteeism.

In rural areas, where over half of the global population resides, unimproved sanitation remains pervasive. Government initiatives have focused on building toilets, resulting in the construction of 90 million household toilets. However, this approach often neglects the ingrained social habits and cultural stigmas surrounding sanitation and menstruation, hindering effective usage.

The menstrual hygiene challenges in rural areas are exacerbated by limited access to resources, with 90% of women relying on reused clothing items as sanitary pads. The lack of education and prevalent social constraints create a non-inclusive environment, particularly affecting young girls who navigate menarche alone due to societal taboos. Correlations among toilet availability, poverty, and rural population percentages underscore the critical need for comprehensive sanitation infrastructure and education to support women's health and dignity, especially in low- and middle-income countries.

Conclusion and recommendations

This paper provides a comprehensive examination of sanitation insecurity and menstrual hygiene management (MHM) in urban slums and rural regions of India. It emphasises the multifaceted challenges faced by both men and women due to unsanitary living conditions, particularly focusing on the unique struggles women encounter in managing menstruation amid inadequate water supply and unhygienic environments.

The study rejects the notion that sanitation insecurity is merely a symptom of poverty; rather, it is identified as a barrier hindering poverty reduction and overall development. While acknowledging progress in sanitation and health in India, the paper underscores the need for continued efforts, including dispelling misconceptions through enhanced education for both genders. Proper education on menstruation for males is highlighted as a means to empower women socially and educationally, enabling them to make informed decisions about sanitation and health.

The paper advocates for a holistic approach to assessing sanitation using the definition of sanitation insecurity, considering gendered aspects and dismantling false information perpetuated by cultural beliefs. Recognising the socially induced origin of the issue, the paper calls for timely improvements to prevent irreversible damage to India's physical environment amid a growing population.

The conclusion emphasises the urgency of addressing social stigmas and taboos surrounding menstruation, foreseeing the dissolution of these barriers as understanding and attention to the issue rise. There is a need for sustained research and action to improve sanitation and menstrual hygiene management globally, suggesting that the sanitation insecurity measure could serve as a framework for examining other countries. The holistic perspective provided by this framework encompasses not only the availability of sanitary facilities but also considers the impact of gender, social structures, community awareness, and culture on sanitation quality within a given area.

The full paper can be accessed here

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Gender Pay Gap in India: Evidence from Urban Labour Market

• Published: 05 July 2021
• Volume 64 , pages 415–445, ( 2021 )

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This paper examines the extent of gender wage gap and its determinants in urban labour market in India. The study finds that women’s work is undervalued even in regular salaried jobs in India’s urban labour market and female workers are getting substantially lower wages than their male counterpart in almost all sectors and occupations sub-categories despite controlling for differences in experience, education, geographical differences and other individual characteristics. When we disentangled the gender pay gap, we found that around two-thirds of the pay gap is attributed to pure labour market discrimination and only one-third is attributed to endowment difference. The extent of pay gap is higher at lower end of wage distribution which is primarily dominated by women from lower caste, Muslims and less skilled workers. The pay gap steadily declines towards higher end of wage distribution. This clearly indicates that there exists ‘sticky floor’ in India’s urban labour market. Such persistent and high level of gender pay gap may pose a serious challenge on India’s path to inclusive growth and achieving decent working conditions. Therefore, the paper calls for sustainable wage policy intervention to ensure fair treatment to workers, equal pay for work of equal value, social protection and social justice to workers and to promote decent work and inclusive growth in India.

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The Author is thankful to Prof.Arup Mitra and Prof. Atul Sood for their constructive comments and valuable suggestions on earlier draft.

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Ara, S. Gender Pay Gap in India: Evidence from Urban Labour Market. Ind. J. Labour Econ. 64 , 415–445 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s41027-021-00319-9

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Gender equality in the rural sector: The ever-present challenge

The theme for this year’s International Women’s Day – Empower Rural Women, end poverty and hunger – highlights the need to tackle gender inequalities in the rural sector. Women living and working in rural areas are often perceived and treated as second-class citizens. Despite the low level of recognition given to their work, their socio-economic contribution to the welfare of their households and communities is immense. In this interview, ILO Gender Bureau Director Jane Hodges discusses the many facets of the plight of rural women.

1. What is the situation of gender equality in the rural sector?

Some 70 per cent of the world’s poor are concentrated in rural communities. These are communities that rely on agriculture, forestry, fisheries and livestock to make a living. Within these communities, the poorest of the poor are often women and young girls who lack regular and decent employment, and who may face hunger and/or malnutrition, and poor access to health, education and productive assets. Although gender inequality varies considerably across regions and sectors, there is evidence that, globally, women benefit less from rural employment, whether in self- or wage-employment, than men do.

2. Why are women in rural areas generally poorer and face worse living conditions than men?

There are various reasons. For starters, women are disproportionately employed in low-quality jobs, including jobs in which their rights are not adequately respected and social protection is limited. Another reason related to the above is that women tend to get paid less than men (around 25 per cent less, to be more precise). That doesn’t mean they work less, on the contrary. The problem is that much of the work they do is not valued and remunerated accordingly. In fact, most rural women are unpaid family members. This not only lowers their labour income but also is likely to increase their stress and fatigue.

3. What are the causes of women’s disadvantaged position?

Gender inequalities in rural employment exist and persist because of a range of interlinked social, economic and political factors. However, there is a specific cause that outweighs all others: the invisible but powerful role of social institutions that disempower one sex above the other. These include traditions, customs and social norms that govern the intricate workings of rural societies, and which act as a constraint on women’s activities and restrict their ability to compete on an even footing with men. We’re not saying that urban-based women are not faced with poverty … but that the context of rural communities places an added strain on equal opportunities.

4. Can you give some examples of these traditions and customs?

Yes: here’s one example that will sound true to anyone who has lived and worked in isolated rural areas; the commonly held view that it is a woman’s obligation to work in the home, cooking, cleaning, and looking after children and the sick and the elderly. Here’s another: the belief that women are less able to manage assets. The idea that women have to obtain their husbands or guardians permission to leave the house. Or even social - sometimes legal - restrictions that do not allow women to have any property or inheritance rights. These practices are extremely difficult to eradicate and are detrimental to women’s capacity to develop as productive members of society; they stifle women’s economic empowerment.

5. Why does gender inequality in rural employment matter?

First and foremost, because not providing women with equal opportunities is a violation of their human rights. Second, because we will not eradicate extreme poverty (as called for by the MDGs) until we acknowledge the fact that women are disproportionately represented among the poorest of poor in rural areas. Third, and this is something that not only applies to rural areas, gender equality makes great economic sense. It is well established that educating and providing women with opportunities to take part in skilled paid employment provides benefits to their families and communities in the form of lower fertility rates, decreased child mortality, improved child health nutrition and levels of education. Finally, the fight against child labour will be almost impossible to win unless parents (mothers and fathers) can produce or earn sufficiently to ensure their family’s livelihoods.

6. Is the global economic crisis having a specific impact on women in rural employment?

The financial crisis arrived at a time when many people in developing countries were already facing hardship because of the food and fuel crises. It is hard to quantify the impact of the current crisis in terms of gender equality, but certain trends can be predicted. For example, it is plausible to anticipate that in most countries women will be expected to assume the primary responsibility for acting as safety nets of last resort and for ensuring that their families will survive. At the same time, rural women’s unpaid work burdens are likely to further intensify, especially in low-income households and especially when State-run facilities (even the few that actually reached rural areas) are cut as part of austerity measures. Also, it is possible that rural women, more than rural men, will be increasingly offered precarious employment with poor prospects and that their children’s health, as well as their own health will deteriorate. During Mexico’s 1995 crisis, for example, infant mortality rates increased most in the areas where women’s work participation increased, with girls being affected the most.

7. What is the ILO doing to promote gender equality in rural areas?

A lot! Women face inequalities in all the pillars of Decent Work: standards and rights at work, employment creation, social protection and social dialogue. That’s why for the ILO gender equality is a cross-cutting issue. The ILO has implemented a number of projects that promote gender equality in rural areas. One of them is the Cooperative Facility for Africa , which promotes cooperative development across the continent. The ILO recently organized a participatory workshop at the Cooperative College of Kenya to discuss strategies for encouraging women’s participation on co-operative boards. The ILO’s Women's Entrepreneurship Development Programme is in its third and final phase. The aim of this project is to enhance economic opportunities for women by carrying out affirmative actions in support of women starting, formalizing and growing their enterprises, and by mainstreaming gender equality issues into the ILO's work in enterprise development. In Timor-Leste , the ILO is supporting the Institute for Business Support (IADE) and the National Directorate for Rural Development (NDRD) of the Ministry of Economy and Development in boosting local economic development, enhancing government service delivery and creating quality employment in rural areas by expanding market access for MSEs, strengthening local contractors and improving the provision of business development services.

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Essay on Gender Equality in India

List of essays on gender equality in english, essay on gender equality in india – essay 1 (100 words), essay on gender equality – essay 2 (250 words), essay on gender equality – essay 3 (400 words), essay on gender equality – essay 4 (500 words), essay on gender equality in india – essay 5 (500 words), essay on gender equality – essay 6 (750 words), essay on gender equality – essay 7 (1000 words).

One of the most alarming facts of India is that the Gender Inequality is at its heights. Gender Equality basically means equality for both men and women in every aspect of life, politically, economically, in health, education etc.

While the laws of Independent India are robust giving women a safety net, it is unfortunate that Gender Equality is still an issue. In 2018, India has topped in the Unsafe Countries for Women list bringing a national shame which the citizens and the leaders most gladly shrugged off. We should at every walk of life make a conscious effort to bring Gender Equality into existence.

Gender Equality is one of the severe issues in our current modern society. It refers to the equality of responsibilities, rights, and opportunities for females and males. Women, as well as girls, still fall behind the men and boys on the fundamental aspects globally.

It is essential to maintain gender equality for global development as well. Till now, women are still incapable of contributing effectively, and in fact, they don’t recognize their complete potential.

Gender Equality and its importance:

Although our spiritual beliefs consider females as a deity, we fail to identify her as a human first. Women still understated in the positions of decision-making in different companies. Several studies show that there are below 1/3 rd women in the world that occupy the ranks of senior management.

By offering gender equality in areas of health services, education, job, and involvement in administrative and monetary decision-making practices will ultimately benefit in attaining the economic sustainability overall. Numerous global organizations emphasize the significance of gender equality as a motivation for resolving several demographic, economic, and other issues.

Conclusion:

Now, positive growth can be seen in the region of ​​gender equality (comprising the equal right to girls and boys for primary education). But, still, there are some parts of the world in which the girls and women are continuing to suffer from violence and discrimination. There is a definite necessity to make our legal and regulatory framework stronger for fighting the deep-embedded practice of gender inequality. We hope the entire world recognizes the efforts of men and women equally soon in our modern society.

From the early days, inequality among male and female have been a common issue. It is so sad that how the biological difference in a human being can change all types of importance and rights they can have. From birth to marriage to jobs to the style of living, both genders differ the facilities and importance they get.

What is Gender Equality?

Gender equality or sexual equality is the state when all human being can have easy and equal access to all the opportunities, resources, etc., in spite of their biological differences. They should be granted equality in developing their own future, equality in economic participation, equality in the way of lifestyle, equality in granting them the freedom to make decisions, equality in almost everything they go through in their life.

Need for discussing Gender Equality:

We all know how women are being treated in society due to the lack of awareness and inequality. Even in the womb, they are being killed thinking that they are going to be a burden to the family. Even after their birth they are made to stick to the household activities and are denied education, good jobs, etc.

Gender equality is to commonly give equality in all stages for both men and women, whether in their home or whether be in their education or in the job they choose. The job of this discussion about gender equality is to break all the boundaries and limitations set by the family, society, and the world for both men and women, to attain their goals independently.

From ancient times there are certain stereotypes and roles set for the different gender like men are for bringing money to the house and women are for doing household works, looking after the family, etc. These stereotypes are to be broken, and both men and women should come out of their boundaries to follow their dreams rather than worrying about the outer world.

This discussion is not about finding women everything a man can or the other way, it is about giving and respecting both gender’s differences and behaviors. We see in many cases that women won’t get a good education or they are denied their rights, this discussion will help both the family and women to understand their rights.

Not only for women, but men are also judged when they choose or break their role in society, like choosing a variety of career, which should be corrected too. Finally, gender equality means respecting and treating all gender equally.

Gender equality is also called sexual equality and is defined as a state of equal access to opportunities and resources not minding gender, and including decision making and economic participation; also valuing all of the different needs, aspirations and behaviours without any form of partiality.

The history of gender equality dates back a long time to about 1405 when Christine de Pizan wrote in her book The Book of the City of Ladies that women are oppressed based on biased prejudice and she pointed out a lot of ways where women in the society are making progress. There was also the Shakers; a group of evangelicals that practiced the segregation of both sexes and preached celibacy. They were one of the first practitioners of equality of the genders. After the Second World War, feminism and the women’s liberation movement have created movements for the recognition of the rights of women. A lot of international agencies like the United Nations and a host of others have done a lot to help improve gender equality but some countries have not adopted many of the conventions.

Feminists have criticised and raised issues about gender biases and the condition of women in countries that don’t have western culture. There have been cases of domestic violence against women and there have been cases of honour killing in some places especially in parts of Asia and North Africa. There is also the problem of women not getting equal pay with men for equal work they have done and women sometimes get harassed sexually by their superiors at work.

A lot of work has been done to battle gender inequality in our society. For example, the European Institute for Gender Equality (EIGE) was opened by the European Union in Vilnius, Lithuania in the year 2010 just to canvass for gender equality and also to battle sex discrimination. The European Union also published a paper called the Gender Action Plan 2016-2020 in the year 2015. The Great Britain and some other countries in Europe have added gender equality as part of their curriculum. Also, the president of the republic of Kazakhstan made a presidential decree to create a strategy for gender equality.

Violence against the women is a term that is used to refer to all forms of violent acts that are majorly and primarily against women in the society. Violence against women is typically gender-based which means that it is solely committed against women just because they are women or because of the patriarchal constructs of gender. These gender based inequalities are to be removed from society by bringing about gender equality.

Gender equality aims at removing all boundaries and differences between men and women. It eliminates any kind of discrimination between male and female. Gender equality ensures equal rights and opportunities for both males and females, be it at home or in educational institutions or at workplaces. Gender equality guarantees political, social, and economic equality.

Understanding the Concept:

Gender equality in India is still a faraway dream for us. Despite all the education, advancement, and economic growth, many nations are suffering from the culture of gender inequality, and India is one of them. Apart from India, other European, American, and Asian countries also fall in the same category where the discrimination between men and women has been going on for so long.

Gender Equality in India:

Gender equality in India or in any other part of the world would be achieved when men and women, boys and girls would be treated equally, like two individuals, not two genders. This equality needs to be practiced at homes, in the schools, offices, in marital relations, etc.

Gender equality in India would also mean that the females should feel safe and not driven by the fear of violence. The uneven sex ratio all over the country is a proof that preference for boys over girls is a ground level norm in our Indian society. And this blemish is not confined to just one religion or caste. To a large level, it infects the whole society.

Causes of Gender Discrimination:

There are several hurdles in the way of achieving gender equality in India. The Indian mindset dwells on the deep-rooted patriarchal system. Boys are given more value compared to girls who are just looked upon as a burden.

For this reason, the education of girls is not taken as seriously, which again poses a threat to gender equality in India. Child marriages and child labor also contribute to the lack of gender equality in India.

Poverty is another pitfall in gender equality in India because it pushes girls into sexual abuse, child trafficking, forced marriages, and domestic violence.

Insensitivity toward women exposes them to rapes, stalking, threats, unsafe atmosphere at workplaces and roads due to which achieving gender equality in India has become a tough task.

Possible Solutions:

The causes mentioned above are only the tip of the iceberg. Serious groundwork needs to be done if we are ever to establish gender equality in India. We can all make a small yet significant change to improve gender equality in India.

Parents must teach their boys to respect girls and take them as equals. For this, both mother and father can be their role models. Education must become a necessity for all the girls without which hoping for gender equality in India would be worthless.

School education and social culture also play an important role in spreading gender equality in India. Sex education, awareness campaigns, complete eradication of female feticide, the toxic effects of dowry and early marriages, should all be taught to students.

The road to an absolute gender equality in India is tough but not impossible. We must be honest in our efforts and work on changing the social outlook toward females. For a full-fledged gender equality in India, both men and women must work together and bring a positive change in society.

Gender refers to each female and male, and also the members of the family between them. Gender equality, do we truly put into practice? Yes, we’ve got achieved the idea of gender equality inside the present day society. Now the governments are constantly speaking about the truthful treatment for all of us. There may be no difference in gender roles due to the fact now the society is more recognition on gender equality. Its miles vital to emphasize the concept of gender. Therefore, the concept of gender equality wishes to be understood without a doubt because everybody have to be reputable, predicted, allowed and valued in each aspect. Promotion of gender equality is important in the present modern world. Imposing the gender equality may require the identical illustration and the participation of woman and male within the category of selection-making, economy, task possibilities and civil life.

In the past, gender equality was not practiced and both genders, female and male couldn’t reach their complete ability in the society. It’s far because there are quite a few incorrect standards, wrong statements, and incorrect decisions for the both genders. They shape the incorrect judgments and form the attributes which affects the thinking on each genders and additionally the way we understand depressed human beings. Gender stereotypes were generated in the past. They have been continuous stereotypes about female and male as in males are greater on decision-making, dealing the principal issues whereas females need to continually live at domestic and settle the minor things. Prejudice exists anywhere, with a prejudice comes a stereotype. Gender stereotypes are representing a terrible message and tend to convey a negative effect to a person. It impacts the judgments we form to the both genders. All people is specific, they has their own characteristics. It’s far extremely unfair if we are being stereotyped to a person because of their genders. Therefore, stereotype reflects the truths approximately the realities like not best male are constantly with courage and strong frame to paintings, at the opposite, female even can perform better than male in every aspects.

Although, there is no sustainable development without gender equality and from a development perspective, the world may miss accomplishable targets because of gender-inequality. (“Without Firm Action”) Women and girls represent half of the world’s population and therefore also half its potential. “We need to be gender specific when it comes to employment [and] companies could see the benefits of hiring women, [and break the stereotypical view]”.

An equal society begins with women reclaiming their strong voice, and then gender wouldn’t be as much of a relation of power. Gender equality is a fundamental right which contributes to a healthy society filled with respectful relationships between one another. “[Women can] address their conditions in life, either resisting or submitting to oppressive relations”. Women who begin to step outside of the norm are questioned for their power and capability to accomplish their great ambitions. Women have every right in the world to strive for what they want; it is society that tells them differently.

Like in Zora Neale Hurston’s “How It Feels to Be Colored Me”, a young woman is discovering her identity and power in the world. Using depictions of color throughout the story gives us the sense that she is comparing herself to the color(s) around her. Hurston uses the metaphor of colored bags meaning that they may look different on the outside, yet when the bags are poured out, everything would be somewhat the same. From my approach, this can be compared to the concept of gender equality. Aside from a few biological differences, men and women are equal. When Zora leaves home in the story to move on and fill her aspirations in life, she immediately becomes “colored”.

If we let women reach their full potential, it will leave the world flourishing. All it takes is strangers coming together and supporting one another along their journeys to solve worldwide problem of gender in-equality and bring about gender equality. We are all human and we are all filled and fueled by empowerment, support, and love. We can’t move forward in society until we work towards gender equity, rather than gender inequality. Gender equality isn’t just another phrase for women’s empowerment and rights, its equality for both the genders.

Gender equality is not only an advantage for the females; however it benefits humanity as an entire. It may assist tackle the crippling poverty, illiteracy and abuse which have stricken international locations internationally. Gender equality can even help wreck down inflexible gender roles that afflict us all.

The availability of equal opportunities, resources and freedom on various counts irrespective of religion is what we call as Gender Equality. According to gender equality, all humans should be treated as equals despite their gender and should be allowed to make decisions and choices in their life as per their own aspirations. It is actually a goal which has often been neglected by society despite the fact that governments all over the world have been known to come up with various laws and measures to ensure gender equality. But, an important piece of thought is that “Have we been able to achieve this goal?” Leave aside achieving; are we anything near to it? The answer is probably “No”. Not only in India, but across the world there are numerous incidents which reflects the status of gender equality or rather gender inequality every day.

Gender equality disparities and their social causes affect India’s sex ratio, the wellbeing of women, the economic conditions as well as the growth of the country. Gender inequality in India is a multifaceted issue that affects a larger population of the country. In any case, when India’s population is analyzed in general, women are often not treated equally to their men counterparts. Moreover, this has been in existence through ages and is also accepted as a part of the life even by many women in the country. There are still parts in India, where women are the first ones to revolt if the government tries to take their men to task for not treating them as equals. While Indian laws on assault, endowment and infidelity have provided security to women at the basic level, these profoundly oppressive practices are as yet occurring at a disturbing rate, influencing the lives of many women even today.

In fact, as per the Global Gender Gap Report discharged by the World Economic Forum (WEF) in 2011, India was positioned 113 on the Gender Gap Index (GGI) among 135 nations polled. Since then India has enhanced its rankings on the World Economic Forum’s Gender Gap Index (GGI) to 105/136 in 2013. When separated into parts of the GGI, India performs well on political strengthening, however, is scored to be as terrible as China on sex-specific foetus removal.

Efforts to Fight Gender Equality:

i. There have been many initiatives by the respective governments, post-independence to somehow bridge this gap in gender inequality. For instance, some of the schemes run the government as on date under the Ministry of Women and Child Development to ensure women are treated equally such as Swadhar and Short Stay Homes to give alleviation and restoration to women in distress as well as destitute women.

ii. Working Women Hostels for guaranteeing safe settlement for working women from their place of habitation.

iii. Support to Training and Employment Program for Women (STEP) to guarantee practical business and salary age for minimized and resource less rustic and urban poor women all over the nation.

iv. Rashtriya Mahila Kosh (RMK) to give miniaturized scale fund administrations to realize the financial upliftment of poor women.

v. National Mission for Empowerment of Women (NMEW) to fortify the general procedures that advance all-round Development of Women.

vi. Sabla Scheme for all-encompassing improvement of young women in the age group of 11-18 years.

Moreover, some of the laws enacted by the government also provide protection to people irrespective of their gender. For instance, Equal Remuneration Act, 1973 accommodates instalment of equivalent compensation to labourers for a similar work of comparative nature with no segregation. With the end goal to guarantee standardized savings to the specialists incorporating women in the disorderly segment, the Government has sanctioned the Unorganized Workers’ Social Security Act 2008. Additionally, The Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace (Prevention, Prohibition and Redressal) Act, 2013 covers all people, regardless of their age or business status and secure them against lewd behaviour at all working environments both out in the open and private segment, whether composed or chaotic.

Role of United Nations:

The United Nations has been quite active in supporting the Indian government towards achieving its goal on gender equality. In 2008, the UN Secretary-General propelled the UNiTE to End Violence against Women crusade with the mean to raise open mindfulness and increment political will and assets for averting and consummation all types of viciousness against women. Through its promotion activities at the worldwide, territorial and national dimensions, the UNiTE crusade is attempting to activate people and networks. Notwithstanding supporting the longstanding endeavours of women and common society associations, the battle is effectively captivating with men, youngsters, VIPs, craftsmen, sports identities, private part and some more.

Moreover, the making of UN Women came to fruition as a major aspect of the UN change plan, uniting assets and orders on gender equality. In India, UN Women works intimately with the Government of India and common society to set national benchmarks for accomplishing gender equity. UN Women attempts to fortify women’s financial strengthening through its help to women agriculturists, and manual foragers. As a major aspect of its work on harmony and security, UN Women trains peacekeepers to identify and stop strife related sexual brutality.

Women have been battling for equivalent rights for ages, for the privilege to cast a ballot, the privilege to control their bodies and the privilege of equality in the working environment. What’s more, these fights have been hard battled, yet regardless we have far to go, in treating the women as equal to men. Fairness in the working environment — women in a scope of fields from household work to media outlets can let you know — it’s still only a fantasy. Today, an ever-increasing number of activists and social researchers trust that mandatory sexual orientation sensitisation workshops for different city specialists, including the police and the legal, is a standout amongst the most huge routes towards accomplishing a change in outlook in mentality and conduct.

Perhaps, we can at least dream of a society in the course of future who does not treat people of different gender differently.

Equality , Gender Equality , Social Issues

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Urban and Rural Inequalities in India essay

The word ‘inequality’ means differences, inadequacy, dissimilarity and unevenness. Speaking of ‘inequality’ among urban and rural population in a society, we talk about the differences in the various aspects of living standards and achievements of the population, In this essay we will discuss the aspects of inequality in an Asian country, India… According to UNU/WIDER study,” causes of increasing inequality are specific to a country, circumstances and a mixture of policies” (page 26)?. We will delve into the numerous reasons that control the economic, social and political facet of inequality in Indian context.

We shall also look into various ways and means that works in minimizing inequality in this society India is a vast country in South Asia with an area of 3,287,263 Km? and a population of 1. 2 billion people (according to Census 2001)?. The rural population consists of 72. 2% and the urban population is 27. 8 %2. The country faces the existence of material inequality in the great divide in rich and poor, social inequality in caste, creed, gender, religion and culture. The political inequality is reflected in the gross neglect of some regions, while other regions rising to national prominence.

The picture of disparity that we find in Indian life today has its roots in pre-Independence Days and has been accentuated to its present form with the evolution of the democracy. With globalization, privatization and new trends emerging in the economy, it is ? UNU/WIDER studies Giovanni Andrea Cornia and Julius Court, Inequality, Growth and Poverty in the Era of Liberalization and Globalization ?census of India. Bringing in new causes that are driving forces of economic disparity. The study made by UNU/WIDER says that,

These ‘new causes’ are linked to the neoliberal economic policy packages and the rushed manner in which economic reform policies have been carried out. Stabilization, structural adjustment and external openness are often helpful, but the extreme nature, scope and speed of the liberalization approach, often in the absence Of adequate regulatory capacity, have had a negative impact on distribution. (pg . 26)? In spite of all the development that is taking place in India, a large share of the population lives below the poverty line ,a total of 26.

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10% with rural 27. 09% and urban 23. 62%?. “There is a basic asymmetry between the growth of the National product and the source income of the majority of India’s population”, says Assema Sinha (pg 2)4 in her paper on ‘Globalization rising Inequality and New insecurities in India. ’ The urban Indian Population has seen growth in manufacturing and service sector, increasing the income generation with Globalization. But the rural front is incapable of matching the same income standards due to low wages and low income in the agricultural sector.

The wages being unequal in developed and underdeveloped sectors, being higher in developed regions, adds to the economic insecurities among the poor unskilled people. Increase in the cost of living associated with Liberalization discourages these poor and vulnerable populations to move from backward regions, agricultural bases, to service sectors of urban life. 3 GfK MODE Social Research. 4 Aseema Sinha, Globalization, Rising Inequality, and New Insecurities in India Economic Inequalities are reflected in the low wages of the agri-based rural population.

The wages of the service and manufacturing based urban population in Organized sectors are much higher. Skilled and unskilled workers in the industry contribute directly to rising income inequalities. The recent spurt of growth in Indian Economy is largely aided by service sector growth, development of technology and skill of the population . The rural sector is left behind largely due to unorganized, unskilled and non-English speaking population. Thus rising disparities between wages, sector and skills magnify regional inequalities. Land ownership is an important factor contributing to economic inequalities.

Ownership of the rural Agricultural land is in the hands of few rich farmers or land owners. Majority is landless farmers or laborers who get an in equal share in the farm produce, in spite of their hard labour. It creates a wide gap in the income level of the rural population, making them poorer. Education and learning of skills is a big advantage for urban population . The urban population benefits from knowledge and skills of service economy but the large Agricultural landless and small framers are likely to lose out and grow poorer with rapid urbanization.

The urban literacy male literacy rate is 80, while rural literacy stands at 59 per 100 population?. These indicators clearly point to the discrepancy in advantage, and infrastructure that thrive in the inequality in Indian rural and urban population. Though the growth of the IT sector has been much eulogized, yet it has only amplified the divide in income inequality between poor and rich . urban population and rural population as well. The growing IT sector has brought benefit to Population based in large or developed cities only. Few from rural background have

Found job here due to their lack of skills and training facilities. In the rural as well as poor urban population, it has been found that there is a strong link between average years of education and measured income inequality. The study made by UNU/WIDER point to the fact that schooling from very low levels actually provokes inequality. It is related to the discrepancy in the choice of educational subjects made by the population and the jobs offered by the firms. When the educational level of the population is low, it is the highly educated people, who draw the higher salaries.

Inequalities start declining as more and more educated and skilled people are available in the market. Social Inequality in gender, races, and culture has a negative effect on economic growth. The Gender bias is strongly prevalent in this country. India has a sex ratio of 933? females per thousand males. The Gender bias exists from the family set up to work place. In Indian families, even today the male gender receives more, in terms of quality and quantity. It is the male gender that is the prerogative of the family. The girl child always comes second.

Be it, the daily food, the education, the sharing of household responsibilities, the wages earned at the work place, the share of the responsibilities and duties, everything is Pro –male in this society. As a result the Gender discrimination leading to poorer income among women is taken as normal. This discrimination is stark in rural than urban areas. Infant mortality rate is 56 for males and 61 for females, adding to the gender bias and deprivation prevalent in the society. The social research by GfK MODE indicates the gender disparity index to be . 676?.

Culture and religion play an important role in encouraging or discouraging amassing of wealth, thus providing a basis of discrimination. Indian Caste system is so structured that it verily produces inequality. The most deprived are the scheduled castes and tribes, also known as Dalits in India. The rigid social system produces barriers for them, and makes their existence a daily struggle. They are not allowed to change occupation or harness any other benefit for a comfortable living. They are thus made to believe that, they are destined to lead an inferior life, bereft of the benefits, higher castes enjoy.

New Factors The new factors that have become driving forces of income inequality are financial liberalization, privatization, labour market liberalization, tax policies and transfer system. Technological changes have accentuated higher wages for higher skills and replaced labour. This widens the gap between the low skilled and high skilled workers. The Indian economy faces greater urban & rural inequality with liberalization. Poverty levels in rural areas increases due to insignificant changes in agricultural wages and steep rise in food prices.

The reforms of liberalization brought about changes in labour market. It saw trends of employment becoming informal, decline of wage share of laborers, reduced security of job, and reduction in government jobs. Introduction of indirect taxes (like VAT) has taken the Government policy in a direction that has aided inequality instead progressive and pro poor tax policies. The study made by WIDER/ UNU suggests that higher level of inequality has a negative effect in the capability and effort levels of the workers.

Economies may become less efficient with lower yield, with the erosion of land occupied by land less laborers. High inequality of land assets among the rich land owners and land less laborers affect the economies of the agrarian system. The policies made by government as a populist measure, may fall flat leading to “negative implications for economic efficiency, macroeconomic stability and growth” . UNU/WIDER study (pg. 27)?. The long and short term growth of the economy is affected with the increase of inequality in urban and rural India.

It has been creating political instability in many regions of the country, increasing social tensions; swell the cost of security in landed property and business. Thus it is against growth. Reducing it, possibly will aid to increased development of the economy. Political Inequality in the Indian economy is reflected in the imbalance of growth of the regions. The growth rates are high in the southern states (except Andhra Pradesh), western states of Gujarat and Maharastra and North western regions of Punjab, Haryana and Himachal Pradesh.

The pattern of growth has been consistent in these regions (between 1993-94 and 1999-2000)5. The low growth states form one neighboring region consisting of eastern states of Assam, Orissa and WestBengal. The other group of so-called BIMARU states are Bihar, MadhyaPradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh. 5 The low growth states have low percapita expenditure. Thus there is a clear divergence in growth in average per capita consumption expenditure (APCE)5 in these high growth and low growth states. In Assam and Orissa there has been zero growth APCE between 1993-94 and 1999-2000.

It is important to remember here that Indian Economy had peak economic growth between 1993-94 and 1999-2000 with a healthy GDP of 4%. 5 5 Angus Deaton and Jean Dreze, Poverty and Inequality in India: A Reexamination The agricultural wages are higher in states with higher SDP (state domestic product) 5 in a state like Kerala the real wages are much above the “regression line” (Deaton & Dreze, Pg 22)5 and the labour union in the state has raised the agricultural wages above other Indian states. In comparison the states having higher poverty tend to have lower wages.

It establishes the high correlation of standard poverty index with agricultural wages. Healthy growth of agricultural wages @ 2. 5% per year has led to decline in rural poverty, but in the entire eastern region real wages grew at less than 2% per year. 3 Besides inequality between states, there is an increased in equality in consumption with in the urban sectors in almost all states. With public sector workers being paid much better than agricultural laborers, economic disparities in different occupation group is evident. This phenomenon adds a dimension to rural urban disparities as well.

Before 1993-94 the Gini coefficient of per-capita expenditure in rural urban India was quite stable but it changed in nineties giving rise to divergences and disparities in rural urban population. The study made by Angus Deaton and Jean Dreze in their paper “Poverty and Inequality in India: A Reexamination”, assesses that “the poverty index used as an useful indicator of inadequate purchasing power but on their own do not do justice to the range of deprivations we ought to be concerned with”. 5 They also agree that “recent progress in eliminating poverty and deprivation has been quite uneven in different fields”5