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Theses & Dissertations: Cancer Research

Theses/dissertations from 2023 2023.

Development of Combination Therapy Strategies to Treat Cancer Using Dihydroorotate Dehydrogenase Inhibitors , Nicholas Mullen

Overcoming Resistance Mechanisms to CDK4/6 Inhibitor Treatment Using CDK6-Selective PROTAC , Sarah Truong

Theses/Dissertations from 2022 2022

Omics Analysis in Cancer and Development , Emalie J. Clement

Investigating the Role of Splenic Macrophages in Pancreatic Cancer , Daisy V. Gonzalez

Polymeric Chloroquine in Metastatic Pancreatic Cancer Therapy , Rubayat Islam Khan

Evaluating Targets and Therapeutics for the Treatment of Pancreatic Cancer , Shelby M. Knoche

Characterization of 1,1-Diarylethylene FOXM1 Inhibitors Against High-Grade Serous Ovarian Carcinoma Cells , Cassie Liu

Novel Mechanisms of Protein Kinase C α Regulation and Function , Xinyue Li

SOX2 Dosage Governs Tumor Cell Identity and Proliferation , Ethan P. Metz

Post-Transcriptional Control of the Epithelial-to-Mesenchymal Transition (EMT) in Ras-Driven Colorectal Cancers , Chaitra Rao

Use of Machine Learning Algorithms and Highly Multiplexed Immunohistochemistry to Perform In-Depth Characterization of Primary Pancreatic Tumors and Metastatic Sites , Krysten Vance

Characterization of Metastatic Cutaneous Squamous Cell Carcinoma in the Immunosuppressed Patient , Megan E. Wackel

Visceral adipose tissue remodeling in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma cachexia: the role of activin A signaling , Pauline Xu

Phos-Tag-Based Screens Identify Novel Therapeutic Targets in Ovarian Cancer and Pancreatic Cancer , Renya Zeng

Theses/Dissertations from 2021 2021

Functional Characterization of Cancer-Associated DNA Polymerase ε Variants , Stephanie R. Barbari

Pancreatic Cancer: Novel Therapy, Research Tools, and Educational Outreach , Ayrianne J. Crawford

Apixaban to Prevent Thrombosis in Adult Patients Treated With Asparaginase , Krishna Gundabolu

Molecular Investigation into the Biologic and Prognostic Elements of Peripheral T-cell Lymphoma with Regulators of Tumor Microenvironment Signaling Explored in Model Systems , Tyler Herek

Utilizing Proteolysis-Targeting Chimeras to Target the Transcriptional Cyclin-Dependent Kinases 9 and 12 , Hannah King

Insights into Cutaneous Squamous Cell Carcinoma Pathogenesis and Metastasis Using a Bedside-to-Bench Approach , Marissa Lobl

Development of a MUC16-Targeted Near-Infrared Antibody Probe for Fluorescence-Guided Surgery of Pancreatic Cancer , Madeline T. Olson

FGFR4 glycosylation and processing in cholangiocarcinoma promote cancer signaling , Andrew J. Phillips

Theses/Dissertations from 2020 2020

Cooperativity of CCNE1 and FOXM1 in High-Grade Serous Ovarian Cancer , Lucy Elge

Characterizing the critical role of metabolic and redox homeostasis in colorectal cancer , Danielle Frodyma

Genomic and Transcriptomic Alterations in Metabolic Regulators and Implications for Anti-tumoral Immune Response , Ryan J. King

Dimers of Isatin Derived Spirocyclic NF-κB Inhibitor Exhibit Potent Anticancer Activity by Inducing UPR Mediated Apoptosis , Smit Kour

From Development to Therapy: A Panoramic Approach to Further Our Understanding of Cancer , Brittany Poelaert

The Cellular Origin and Molecular Drivers of Claudin-Low Mammary Cancer , Patrick D. Raedler

Mitochondrial Metabolism as a Therapeutic Target for Pancreatic Cancer , Simon Shin

Development of Fluorescent Hyaluronic Acid Nanoparticles for Intraoperative Tumor Detection , Nicholas E. Wojtynek

Theses/Dissertations from 2019 2019

The role of E3 ubiquitin ligase FBXO9 in normal and malignant hematopoiesis , R. Willow Hynes-Smith

BRCA1 & CTDP1 BRCT Domainomics in the DNA Damage Response , Kimiko L. Krieger

Targeted Inhibition of Histone Deacetyltransferases for Pancreatic Cancer Therapy , Richard Laschanzky

Human Leukocyte Antigen (HLA) Class I Molecule Components and Amyloid Precursor-Like Protein 2 (APLP2): Roles in Pancreatic Cancer Cell Migration , Bailee Sliker

Theses/Dissertations from 2018 2018

FOXM1 Expression and Contribution to Genomic Instability and Chemoresistance in High-Grade Serous Ovarian Cancer , Carter J. Barger

Overcoming TCF4-Driven BCR Signaling in Diffuse Large B-Cell Lymphoma , Keenan Hartert

Functional Role of Protein Kinase C Alpha in Endometrial Carcinogenesis , Alice Hsu

Functional Signature Ontology-Based Identification and Validation of Novel Therapeutic Targets and Natural Products for the Treatment of Cancer , Beth Neilsen

Elucidating the Roles of Lunatic Fringe in Pancreatic Ductal Adenocarcinoma , Prathamesh Patil

Theses/Dissertations from 2017 2017

Metabolic Reprogramming of Pancreatic Ductal Adenocarcinoma Cells in Response to Chronic Low pH Stress , Jaime Abrego

Understanding the Relationship between TGF-Beta and IGF-1R Signaling in Colorectal Cancer , Katie L. Bailey

The Role of EHD2 in Triple-Negative Breast Cancer Tumorigenesis and Progression , Timothy A. Bielecki

Perturbing anti-apoptotic proteins to develop novel cancer therapies , Jacob Contreras

Role of Ezrin in Colorectal Cancer Cell Survival Regulation , Premila Leiphrakpam

Evaluation of Aminopyrazole Analogs as Cyclin-Dependent Kinase Inhibitors for Colorectal Cancer Therapy , Caroline Robb

Identifying the Role of Janus Kinase 1 in Mammary Gland Development and Breast Cancer , Barbara Swenson

DNMT3A Haploinsufficiency Provokes Hematologic Malignancy of B-Lymphoid, T-Lymphoid, and Myeloid Lineage in Mice , Garland Michael Upchurch

Theses/Dissertations from 2016 2016

EHD1 As a Positive Regulator of Macrophage Colony-Stimulating Factor-1 Receptor , Luke R. Cypher

Inflammation- and Cancer-Associated Neurolymphatic Remodeling and Cachexia in Pancreatic Ductal Adenocarcinoma , Darci M. Fink

Role of CBL-family Ubiquitin Ligases as Critical Negative Regulators of T Cell Activation and Functions , Benjamin Goetz

Exploration into the Functional Impact of MUC1 on the Formation and Regulation of Transcriptional Complexes Containing AP-1 and p53 , Ryan L. Hanson

DNA Polymerase Zeta-Dependent Mutagenesis: Molecular Specificity, Extent of Error-Prone Synthesis, and the Role of dNTP Pools , Olga V. Kochenova

Defining the Role of Phosphorylation and Dephosphorylation in the Regulation of Gap Junction Proteins , Hanjun Li

Molecular Mechanisms Regulating MYC and PGC1β Expression in Colon Cancer , Jamie L. McCall

Pancreatic Cancer Invasion of the Lymphatic Vasculature and Contributions of the Tumor Microenvironment: Roles for E-selectin and CXCR4 , Maria M. Steele

Altered Levels of SOX2, and Its Associated Protein Musashi2, Disrupt Critical Cell Functions in Cancer and Embryonic Stem Cells , Erin L. Wuebben

Theses/Dissertations from 2015 2015

Characterization and target identification of non-toxic IKKβ inhibitors for anticancer therapy , Elizabeth Blowers

Effectors of Ras and KSR1 dependent colon tumorigenesis , Binita Das

Characterization of cancer-associated DNA polymerase delta variants , Tony M. Mertz

A Role for EHD Family Endocytic Regulators in Endothelial Biology , Alexandra E. J. Moffitt

Biochemical pathways regulating mammary epithelial cell homeostasis and differentiation , Chandrani Mukhopadhyay

EPACs: epigenetic regulators that affect cell survival in cancer. , Catherine Murari

Role of the C-terminus of the Catalytic Subunit of Translesion Synthesis Polymerase ζ (Zeta) in UV-induced Mutagensis , Hollie M. Siebler

LGR5 Activates TGFbeta Signaling and Suppresses Metastasis in Colon Cancer , Xiaolin Zhou

LGR5 Activates TGFβ Signaling and Suppresses Metastasis in Colon Cancer , Xiaolin Zhou

Theses/Dissertations from 2014 2014

Genetic dissection of the role of CBL-family ubiquitin ligases and their associated adapters in epidermal growth factor receptor endocytosis , Gulzar Ahmad

Strategies for the identification of chemical probes to study signaling pathways , Jamie Leigh Arnst

Defining the mechanism of signaling through the C-terminus of MUC1 , Roger B. Brown

Targeting telomerase in human pancreatic cancer cells , Katrina Burchett

The identification of KSR1-like molecules in ras-addicted colorectal cancer cells , Drew Gehring

Mechanisms of regulation of AID APOBEC deaminases activity and protection of the genome from promiscuous deamination , Artem Georgievich Lada

Characterization of the DNA-biding properties of human telomeric proteins , Amanda Lakamp-Hawley

Studies on MUC1, p120-catenin, Kaiso: coordinate role of mucins, cell adhesion molecules and cell cycle players in pancreatic cancer , Xiang Liu

Epac interaction with the TGFbeta PKA pathway to regulate cell survival in colon cancer , Meghan Lynn Mendick

Theses/Dissertations from 2013 2013

Deconvolution of the phosphorylation patterns of replication protein A by the DNA damage response to breaks , Kerry D. Brader

Modeling malignant breast cancer occurrence and survival in black and white women , Michael Gleason

The role of dna methyltransferases in myc-induced lymphomagenesis , Ryan A. Hlady

Design and development of inhibitors of CBL (TKB)-protein interactions , Eric A. Kumar

Pancreatic cancer-associated miRNAs : expression, regulation and function , Ashley M. Mohr

Mechanistic studies of mitochondrial outer membrane permeabilization (MOMP) , Xiaming Pang

Novel roles for JAK2/STAT5 signaling in mammary gland development, cancer, and immune dysregulation , Jeffrey Wayne Schmidt

Optimization of therapeutics against lethal pancreatic cancer , Joshua J. Souchek

Theses/Dissertations from 2012 2012

Immune-based novel diagnostic mechanisms for pancreatic cancer , Michael J. Baine

Sox2 associated proteins are essential for cell fate , Jesse Lee Cox

KSR2 regulates cellular proliferation, transformation, and metabolism , Mario R. Fernandez

Discovery of a novel signaling cross-talk between TPX2 and the aurora kinases during mitosis , Jyoti Iyer

Regulation of metabolism by KSR proteins , Paula Jean Klutho

The role of ERK 1/2 signaling in the dna damage-induced G2 , Ryan Kolb

Regulation of the Bcl-2 family network during apoptosis induced by different stimuli , Hernando Lopez

Studies on the role of cullin3 in mitosis , Saili Moghe

Characteristics of amyloid precursor-like protein 2 (APLP2) in pancreatic cancer and Ewing's sarcoma , Haley Louise Capek Peters

Structural and biophysical analysis of a human inosine triphosphate pyrophosphatase polymorphism , Peter David Simone

Functions and regulation of Ron receptor tyrosine kinase in human pancreatic cancer and its therapeutic applications , Yi Zou

Theses/Dissertations from 2011 2011

Coordinate detection of new targets and small molecules for cancer therapy , Kurt Fisher

The role of c-Myc in pancreatic cancer initiation and progression , Wan-Chi Lin

The role of inosine triphosphate pyrophosphatase (ITPA) in maintanence [sic] of genomic stability in human cells , Miriam-Rose Menezes

Molecular insights into major histocompatibility complex class I folding and assembly , Laura Christina Simone

The role of bcl-2 in colon cancer metastatic progression , Wang Wang

A rational peptidomimetic approach towards generation of high affinity BRCT (BRCA1) inhibitors , Ziyan Yuan

D-type cyclins and breast cancer , Quian Zhang

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Student theses

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A biologically-inspired artificial lateral line: observations of collective behaviour in fish lead to the development of a novel design of simple and low-cost artificial lateral line sensor.

Supervisor: Hauert, S. (Supervisor), Ioannou, C. (Supervisor) & Genner, M. J. (Supervisor)

Student thesis : Doctoral Thesis › Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

A characterisation of mononuclear phagocyte dynamics in the healthy and regenerating zebrafish heart

Supervisor: Richardson, B. (Supervisor) & Martin, P. B. (Supervisor)

An Epigenome-Wide Association Study of Eczema

Supervisor: Paternoster, L. (Supervisor), Elliott, H. (Supervisor) & Relton, C. (Supervisor)

Student thesis : Master's Thesis › Master of Science by Research (MScR)

An Investigation into the Link Between Sleep and Alzheimer’s Disease Using a Multi-Method Approach

Supervisor: Coulthard, E. J. (Supervisor) & Ben-Shlomo, Y. (Supervisor)

Applications of HS-AFM Imaging to Marine Microbial Life and its Environment

Supervisor: Day, J. C. C. (Supervisor), Picco, L. M. (Supervisor), Payton, O. D. (Supervisor) & Allen, M. (Supervisor)

Applying ‘omics to understand and predict juvenile idiopathic arthritis

Supervisor: Relton, C. (Supervisor), Ramanan, A. (Supervisor), Sharp, G. (Supervisor) & Zhou, Y. (External person) (Supervisor)

Appraising the causal relationship between DNA methylation and type 2 diabetes

Supervisor: Elliott, H. (Supervisor), Relton, C. (Supervisor) & Sharp, G. (Supervisor)

A qualitative exploration of recruiters' and patients' perspectives and experiences of the recruitment encounter in randomised controlled trials

Supervisor: Young, B. (Supervisor), Rooshenas, L. (Supervisor), Elliott, D. (Supervisor), Jepson, M. (Supervisor) & Donovan , J. L. (Supervisor)

Arole for IGFBP-2 in DNA repair in breast cancer cells

Supervisor: Perks, C. (Supervisor), Holly, J. (Supervisor) & Biernacka, K. M. (Supervisor)

Assessing the feasibility of dietary restriction, including short-term fasting, at the time of chemotherapy

Supervisor: Atkinson, C. (Supervisor), Herbert, G. (Supervisor), Ness, A. (Supervisor) & Perks, C. (Supervisor)

A study of hyperspectral reflectance and fluorescence imaging as alternative Methods for assessing coral health

Supervisor: Day, J. (Supervisor) & Scott, T. (Supervisor)

Biological and lifestyle predictors of survival in head and neck cancer.

Supervisor: Dos Santos Ferreira, D. (Supervisor), Ingle, S. (Supervisor), Ness, A. (Supervisor), Martin, R. (Supervisor) & May, M. T. (Supervisor)

Biosynthetic Studies on Kalimantacin Antibiotics

Supervisor: Willis, C. L. (Supervisor) & Crump, M. P. (Supervisor)

Capturing complexity, comorbidity and frailty in people with parkinsonism and understanding their impact

Supervisor: Ben-Shlomo, Y. (Supervisor) & Henderson, E. (Supervisor)

Causal implications of common infections and platelet function on cardiovascular disease

Supervisor: Paternoster, L. (Supervisor), Richmond, R. (Supervisor), Davey Smith, G. (Supervisor) & Poole, A. (Supervisor)

Causal pathways from cognitive ability to Alzheimer's disease

Supervisor: Davies, N. M. (Supervisor), Anderson, E. L. (Supervisor), Howe, L. D. (Supervisor) & Ben-Shlomo, Y. (Supervisor)

Characterisation of Ataxia Telangiectasia Mutated in RPE-1 cells and its role in cellular sensitivity to hypo-osmotic stress

Supervisor: Mellor, H. H. (Supervisor) & Wood, W. J. (Supervisor)

Characterisation of the cellular compartments containing inhibitory receptors in CD8 + T cells

Supervisor: Wuelfing, C. (Supervisor) & Morgan, D. (Supervisor)

Characterisation of the HELLS and Irc5 subfamily of chromatin remodellers

Supervisor: Dillingham, M. (Supervisor) & Chambers, A. (Supervisor)

Characterising Red Cell-Derived Vesicles in Sickle Cell Disease and Investigating Potential to Induce Tolerance to Human Red Cell Antigens

Supervisor: Blair, A. (Supervisor) & Anstee, D. J. (Supervisor)

Complex trait architecture through the lens of epigenome-wide association studies

Supervisor: Gaunt, T. (Supervisor), Hemani, G. (Supervisor) & Timpson, N. J. (Supervisor)

Decentralised Algorithms for Area Coverage

Supervisor: Ganesh, A. (Supervisor) & Hauert, S. (Supervisor)

Dental care pathways and parent-reported dental outcomes for 5-year-old children born with a cleft in the UK

Supervisor: Fowler, P. V. (Supervisor), Leary, S. D. (Supervisor), Wren, Y. E. (Supervisor) & Williams, J. (Supervisor)

Student thesis : Doctoral Thesis › Doctor of Dental Surgery (DDS)

Diabetes mellitus causes adiposopathy in bone marrow: investigation of the underpinning cellular and molecular mechanisms

Supervisor: Madeddu, P. (Supervisor) & Mellor, H. H. (Supervisor)

Does the association between later eating rhythm and childhood adiposity differ between the UK and China?

Supervisor: Leary, S. D. (Supervisor) & Northstone, K. (Supervisor)

Does the IGF axis influence EMT to play a role in bladder cancer progression?

Supervisor: Perks, C. (Supervisor) & Holly, J. M. P. (Supervisor)

Elucidating mechanisms of tumour resistance to checkpoint blockade

Supervisor: Wooldridge, L. (Supervisor), Morgan, D. (Supervisor) & Wuelfing, C. (Supervisor)

Enhanced numerical techniques for time domain electromagnetic analysis

Evaluation of a primary care epilepsy specialist nurse service.

Supervisor: Bachmann, M. (Supervisor)

Evaluation of Cardiopulmonary Exercise Testing (CPET) as a Prognostic Tool in Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis (IPF)

Supervisor: Maskell, N. (Supervisor) & Millar, A. (Supervisor)

Evolving Morphological Adaption Methods in Compliant Robots

Supervisor: Hauser, H. (Supervisor) & Hauert, S. (Supervisor)

Examining the Role of Placental-derived MicroRNA Secretions in Response to Gestational Hypoxia on Foetal Neurodevelopment

Supervisor: Case, C. P. (Supervisor), Perks, C. M. (Supervisor), Uney, J. B. (Supervisor) & Fulga, T. A. (External person) (Supervisor)

Expertise during surgical innovation: advancing understanding about non-technical skills and related optimisation factors

Supervisor: Mills, N. (Supervisor), Blencowe, N. (Supervisor) & Blazeby, J. (Supervisor)

Exploring the effect of adiposity on platelet function and related pathways: implications for cardiovascular disease

Supervisor: Timpson, N. (Supervisor) & Hers, I. (Supervisor)

Exploring the in vitro behaviour of endothelial cells in different cell culture models

Supervisor: Mellor, H. (Supervisor) & Gaston, K. (Supervisor)

Exploring the microclot-driven pre-metastatic niche: live imaging studies in zebrafish larvae

Supervisor: Martin, P. B. (Supervisor) & Nobes, C. D. (Supervisor)

Exploring the role of BCL-3 in colorectal cancer cell therapeutic resistance

Supervisor: Martin, P. (Supervisor), Cullen, P. (Supervisor) & Williams, A. (Supervisor)

Extra-pulmonary effects of lung function and lung disease

Supervisor: Davey Smith, G. (Supervisor), Dodd, J. (Supervisor) & Granell, R. (Supervisor)

Fatty acid construction within the biosynthesis of the polyketide antibiotic mupirocin

Supervisor: Crump, M. P. (Supervisor), Willis, C. (External person) (Supervisor) & Race, P. R. (Supervisor)

Feeding and Autoimmunity in Children with Down’s Syndrome Evaluation Study (FADES)

Supervisor: Hamilton-Shield, J. P. (Supervisor), Gillespie, K. M. (Supervisor) & Leary, S. D. (Supervisor)

From peptide oligomers to single-chain proteins

Supervisor: Woolfson, D. (Supervisor) & Crump, M. (Supervisor)

Genetic and Environmental Contributions to Trajectories of Depressive Symptoms

Supervisor: Manley, D. (Supervisor), Timpson, N. J. (Supervisor) & Leckie, G. (Supervisor)

Genetic and epidemiologic approaches to elucidate the role of abnormal hip shape in the development of hip osteoarthritis

Supervisor: Davey Smith, G. (Supervisor) & Tobias, J. (Supervisor)

Genetic and epigenetic data as a tool to augment understanding of oropharyngeal cancer

Supervisor: Relton, C. L. (Supervisor), Thomas, S. J. (Supervisor), Richmond, R. C. (Supervisor) & Elliott, H. R. (Supervisor)

Geographical gene-environment interaction and correlation for mental health in the UK and Sweden

Supervisor: Davis, O. S. (Supervisor) & Davey Smith, G. (Supervisor)

Glial autophagy capability and the control of neuroinflammatory signaling in Parkinson’s disease.

Supervisor: Lane, J. D. (Supervisor) & Carroll, B. M. (Supervisor)

'Hi-Fi Nanoscience' : Exploring the nanoscale with optical pickup units

Supervisor: Payton, O. D. (Supervisor) & Day, J. C. C. (Supervisor)

High-throughput proteomic analysis of the dengue virus secretome and the identification of plasma biomarkers of disease severity

Supervisor: Morgan, D. (Supervisor) & Davidson, A. (Supervisor)

Identification of Protein Disulphide-Isomerase A3 Dependent Proteins from the Secretome of MDA-MB-231 Breast Cancer Cells

Supervisor: Adams, J. (Supervisor)

Interaction between immune cells phenotype and the microbiome in B cells immunodeficiency diseases: miRNA & microbiomes in PIDDs

Supervisor: Morgan, D. J. (Supervisor) & Kafienah, W. (Supervisor)

UKnowledge > College of Medicine > Toxicology and Cancer Biology > Theses & Dissertations

Theses and Dissertations--Toxicology and Cancer Biology

Theses/dissertations from 2024 2024.

Elucidation of Mismatch Repair Regulation by ABL1: Advantages/Disadvantages of Tyrosine Kinase Inhibitor Treatment , Hannah Daniels

ACQUIRED TREATMENT RESISTANCE IN PROSTATE CANCER VIA THE PRODUCTION OF RADIATION DERIVED EXTRACELLULAR VESICLES CONTAINING MITOCHONDRIAL PROTEINS , Caitlin Miller

Theses/Dissertations from 2023 2023

ELUCIDATING THE FUNCTIONAL IMPORTANCE OF PEROXIREDOXIN IV IN PROSTATE CANCER AND ITS SECRETION MECHANISM , Na Ding

Targeting EZH2 to Improve Outcomes of Lung Squamous Cell Carcinoma , Tanner DuCote

UNDERSTANDING AND TARGETING THE TPH1-SEROTONIN-HTR3A AXIS IN SMALL CELL LUNG CANCER , Yanning Hao

CONSERVED NOVEL INTERACTIONS BETWEEN POST-REPLICATIVE REPAIR AND MISMATCH REPAIR PROTEINS HAVE DIFFERENTIAL EFFECTS ON DNA REPAIR PATHWAYS , Anna K. Miller

UNDERSTANDING THE ROLE OF PEROXIREDOXIN IV IN COLORECTAL CANCER DEVELOPMENT , Pratik Thapa

BEYOND MITOSIS, PLK1-MEDIATED PHOSPHORYLATION RE-WIRES CANCER METABOLISM AND PROMOTES CANCER PROGRESSION , Qiongsi Zhang

Theses/Dissertations from 2022 2022

ELUCIDATING THE ROLE OF POLYCOMB REPRESSIVE COMPLEX 2 IN LUNG STEM CELL FATE AND LUNG DISEASE , Aria Byrd

SEX DIMORPHISM IN HEMATOPOIESIS AND BONE MARROW NICHE , xiaojing cui

EXTRACELLULAR VESICLES AND CANCER THERAPY: AN INSIGHT INTO THE ROLE OF OXIDATIVE STRESS , Jenni Ho

OVERCOMING RESISTANCE TO SG-ARIS IN CASTRATION-RESISTANT PROSTATE CANCER , Chaohao Li

Theses/Dissertations from 2021 2021

THE TUMOR SUPPRESSOR PAR-4 REGULATES HYPERTROPHIC OBESITY , Nathalia Araujo

Epigenetic States Regulate Tumor Aggressiveness and Response to Targeted Therapies in Lung Adenocarcinoma , Fan Chen

DELINEATING THE ROLE OF FATTY ACID METABOLISM TO IMPROVE THERAPEUTIC STRATEGIES FOR COLORECTAL CANCER , James Drury

DEVELOPMENT OF TOOLS FOR ATOM-LEVEL INTERPRETATION OF STABLE ISOTOPE-RESOLVED METABOLOMICS DATASETS , Huan Jin

MECHANISMS OF CADMIUM-INDUCED AND EPIDERMAL GROWTH FACTOR RECEPTOR MUTATION-DRIVEN LUNG TUMORIGENESIS , Hsuan-Pei Lin

SCIENCE-BASED REGULATION OF PHARMACOLOGICAL SUBSTANCES IN COMPETITION HORSES , Jacob Machin

A NOVEL ROLE FOR NEUROTENSIN IN REGULATION OF STEM CELL FUNCTION IN THE SMALL INTESTINE , Stephanie Rock

Theses/Dissertations from 2020 2020

NOVEL POST-TRANSLATIONAL MODIFICATION AND FUNCTION OF FUS: THE RELEVANCE TO AMYOTROPHIC LATERAL SCLEROSIS , Alexandra Arenas

Prostate Cancer Resistance to Cabazitaxel Chemotherapy , Diane Begemann

Examining the Role of Metabolic Pathways as Therapeutic Modalities for Triple Negative Breast Cancer , Jeremy Andrew Johnson

THE ROLE OF NEURAL PRECURSOR CELL EXPRESSED DEVELOPMENTALLY DOWN-REGULATED PROTEIN 9 IN ENHANCED AGGRESSIVENESS OF HEXAVALENT CHROMIUM TRANSFORMED BRONCHIAL EPITHELIAL CELLS , Peter Van Wie

Theses/Dissertations from 2019 2019

A COMPROMISED LIVER ALTERS PCB TOXICITY AND NUTRIENT METABOLISM , Jazmyne D. L. Barney

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Thesis: Surviving Cervical Cancer: A History of Prevention, Early Detection, and Treatment

Editor's note:

Alexis Darby defended her thesis titled “Surviving Cervical Cancer: A History of Prevention, Early Detection, and Treatment,” in May 2019 in front of committee members Jane Maienschein, Carolina Abboud, and Karin Ellison, earning her a Bachelor’s degree from Barrett, the Honors College. https://repository.asu.edu/items/53339

Cervical cancer, which many physicians as of 2019 consider to be a success in terms of establishing widely used forms of early preventative and diagnostic technologies, experienced a reduction in incidence rates in women by over fifty percent between 1975 and 2016. Cervical cancer does not often present in women with symptoms until it has entered a later stage of the disease. Because of this fact, in the early twentieth century, physicians were often only able to diagnose cervical cancer when either the woman reported complaints or there was a visual confirmation of lesions on the cervix. The symptoms women often reported included vague abdominal pain, bleeding after sex, and abnormal amounts of vaginal discharge, all of which are non-specific symptoms, making it even harder for women to be diagnosed with cervical cancer.

This thesis answers the following question: How does the history of cervical cancer show that prevention helps reduce rates of cancer-related deaths among women? By studying the history of cervical cancer, people can understand how a cancer that was once one of the top killers of women in the US has declined to become one of the lowest through the establishment of and effective communication of early prevention and diagnostics, both among the general public and within the medical community itself. This thesis is organized based on key episodes which were pertinent to the history of cervical cancer, primarily within the United States and Europe. The episodes are organized in context of the shifts in thought regarding cervical cancer and include topics such as vaccine technologies like the Gardasil and Cervarix vaccines, social awareness movements that educated women on the importance of early detection, and analyses of the early preventative strategies and attempts at treating cervical cancer.

After analyzing eleven key episodes, the thesis determined that, through the narrative of early attempts to treat cervical cancer, shifting the societal thought on cancer, evolving the importance of early detection, and, finally, obtaining a means of prevention, the history of cervical cancer does demonstrate that the development of preventative strategies has resulted in reducing cancer-related deaths among women. Understanding what it took for physicians to evolve from simply detecting cervical cancer to being able to prevent it entirely matters because it can change the way we think about managing other forms of cancer.

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Significance of the Study 5 Definition of Terms 7 Review of Literatures 7 IV. Research Methodology 17 V. Limitation/Delimitation 21 VI Data Analysis: 21 VII Data Verification: 24 VIII Summary and Conclusions: 25

Recommendations 26

Appendices 27 Research Questionnaire 27

References 34

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Key insights from statistical modeling of cancer patient life expectancy

by Karolinska Institutet

With the progress in treatment for most cancer types, there is a growing interest to understand the overall impact of a cancer diagnosis throughout the remaining lifespan. In addition to conventional survival probabilities, estimating life expectancy following cancer diagnosis and loss in life expectancy for cancer patients in comparison to if they did not have cancer provides valuable insights into the societal burden of cancer.

This also leads to insights into the progress in cancer control efforts, resource allocation , and disparities in cancer survival among different groups.

In a new thesis from Karolinska Institutet, Ph.D. student Yuliya Leontyeva at the Department of Medical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, addressed methodological challenges in estimating the number of years remaining after a cancer diagnosis (LEC) and the corresponding loss in life years due to cancer (LLE) within the Relative Survival framework. The research aimed to make these estimations more widely applicable and accessible to both epidemiological and clinical research in cancer survival.

What are the most important results in your thesis?

"My research project employed statistical methods for population-based cancer survival studies. We used Flexible Parametric Relative Survival models to estimate LEC and LLE. While confirming the validity of the existing approach to estimate LEC and LLE, we propose novel methodology to address limitations in certain situations.

"In addition, we estimated LEC and LLE for individuals with Myeloproliferative neoplasms, a previously unexplored area due to complexity. It has been illustrated that individuals with MPN have a reduced life expectancy compared to the general population for all MPN subtypes across ages at diagnosis. Furthermore, the estimation of LEC and LLE was extended to small geographical areas, with the publication of accessible code to facilitate wider usage."

Why did you become interested in this topic?

"At first, I got interested in methodological challenges of estimating LEC and LLE. However, working on the research project and accumulating more knowledge and understanding about the cancer survival area, I realized the value of LEC and LLE as complimentary measures to survival probabilities. By addressing methodological challenges and expanding the application of LEC and LLE, this thesis contributes to a more comprehensive understanding of cancer survival."

What do you think should be done in future research?

"There is a need for further studies to tackle remaining challenges and continue refining our understanding of cancer survival. For example, we have only subtly touched upon an area of extrapolation, which is required to estimate LEC and LLE. It is necessary to explore this area more thoroughly for individuals diagnosed with cancer before the age of 50. Another fascinating area to explore is estimating LEC and LLE for cancer types with indolent courses or other diseases beside cancer. So, there is a lot to do for those who would like to indulge in the statistical world."

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Cancer – an overview

• PMID: 29952494

Cancer is characterized by proliferation of cells that have managed to evade central endogenous control mechanisms. Cancers are grouped according to their organ or tissue of origin, but increasingly also based on molecular characteristics of the respective cancer cells. Due to the rapid technological advances of the last years, it is now possible to analyze the molecular makeup of different cancer types in detail within short time periods. The accumulating knowledge about development and progression of cancer can be used to develop more precise diagnostics and more effective and/or less toxic cancer therapies. In the long run, the goal is to offer to every cancer patient a therapeutic regimen that is tailored to his individual disease and situation in an optimal way.

Publication types

• Antineoplastic Agents / therapeutic use*
• Drug Resistance, Neoplasm
• Neoplasms / drug therapy*
• Neoplasms / pathology
• Precision Medicine
• Antineoplastic Agents

Essay on Cancer for Students and Children

500+ words essay on cancer.

Cancer might just be one of the most feared and dreaded diseases. Globally, cancer is responsible for the death of nearly 9.5 million people in 2018. It is the second leading cause of death as per the world health organization. As per studies, in India, we see 1300 deaths due to cancer every day. These statistics are truly astonishing and scary. In the recent few decades, the number of cancer has been increasingly on the rise. So let us take a look at the meaning, causes, and types of cancer in this essay on cancer.

Cancer comes in many forms and types. Cancer is the collective name given to the disease where certain cells of the person’s body start dividing continuously, refusing to stop. These extra cells form when none are needed and they spread into the surrounding tissues and can even form malignant tumors. Cells may break away from such tumors and go and form tumors in other places of the patient’s body.

Types of Cancers

As we know, cancer can actually affect any part or organ of the human body. We all have come across various types of cancer – lung, blood, pancreas, stomach, skin, and so many others. Biologically, however, cancer can be divided into five types specifically – carcinoma, sarcoma, melanoma, lymphoma, leukemia.

Among these, carcinomas are the most diagnosed type. These cancers originate in organs or glands such as lungs, stomach, pancreas, breast, etc. Leukemia is the cancer of the blood, and this does not form any tumors. Sarcomas start in the muscles, bones, tissues or other connective tissues of the body. Lymphomas are the cancer of the white blood cells, i.e. the lymphocytes. And finally, melanoma is when cancer arises in the pigment of the skin.

Get the huge list of more than 500 Essay Topics and Ideas

Causes of Cancer

In most cases, we can never attribute the cause of any cancer to one single factor. The main thing that causes cancer is a substance we know as carcinogens. But how these develop or enters a person’s body will depend on many factors. We can divide the main factors into the following types – biological factors, physical factors, and lifestyle-related factors.

Biological factors involve internal factors such as age, gender, genes, hereditary factors, blood type, skin type, etc. Physical factors refer to environmental exposure of any king to say X-rays, gamma rays, etc. Ad finally lifestyle-related factors refer to substances that introduced carcinogens into our body. These include tobacco, UV radiation, alcohol. smoke, etc. Next, in this essay on cancer lets learn about how we can treat cancer.

Treatment of Cancer

Early diagnosis and immediate medical care in cancer are of utmost importance. When diagnosed in the early stages, then the treatment becomes easier and has more chances of success. The three most common treatment plans are either surgery, radiation therapy or chemotherapy.

If there is a benign tumor, then surgery is performed to remove the mass from the body, hence removing cancer from the body. In radiation therapy, we use radiation (rays) to specially target and kill the cancer cells. Chemotherapy is similar, where we inject the patient with drugs that target and kill the cancer cells. All treatment plans, however, have various side-effects. And aftercare is one of the most important aspects of cancer treatment.

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What Is Cancer?

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A dividing breast cancer cell.

The Definition of Cancer

Cancer is a disease in which some of the body’s cells grow uncontrollably and spread to other parts of the body. 

Cancer can start almost anywhere in the human body, which is made up of trillions of cells. Normally, human cells grow and multiply (through a process called cell division) to form new cells as the body needs them. When cells grow old or become damaged, they die, and new cells take their place.

Sometimes this orderly process breaks down, and abnormal or damaged cells grow and multiply when they shouldn’t. These cells may form tumors, which are lumps of tissue. Tumors can be cancerous or not cancerous ( benign ). 

Cancerous tumors spread into, or invade, nearby tissues and can travel to distant places in the body to form new tumors (a process called metastasis ). Cancerous tumors may also be called malignant tumors. Many cancers form solid tumors, but cancers of the blood, such as leukemias , generally do not.

Benign tumors do not spread into, or invade, nearby tissues. When removed, benign tumors usually don’t grow back, whereas cancerous tumors sometimes do. Benign tumors can sometimes be quite large, however. Some can cause serious symptoms or be life threatening, such as benign tumors in the brain.

Differences between Cancer Cells and Normal Cells

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Have questions? Connect with a Cancer Information Specialist for answers.

Cancer cells differ from normal cells in many ways. For instance, cancer cells:

• grow in the absence of signals telling them to grow. Normal cells only grow when they receive such signals. 
• ignore signals that normally tell cells to stop dividing or to die (a process known as programmed cell death , or apoptosis ).
• invade into nearby areas and spread to other areas of the body. Normal cells stop growing when they encounter other cells, and most normal cells do not move around the body. 
• tell blood vessels to grow toward tumors.  These blood vessels supply tumors with oxygen and nutrients and remove waste products from tumors.
• hide from the immune system . The immune system normally eliminates damaged or abnormal cells. 
• trick the immune system into helping cancer cells stay alive and grow. For instance, some cancer cells convince immune cells to protect the tumor instead of attacking it.
• accumulate multiple changes in their chromosomes , such as duplications and deletions of chromosome parts. Some cancer cells have double the normal number of chromosomes.
• rely on different kinds of nutrients than normal cells. In addition, some cancer cells make energy from nutrients in a different way than most normal cells. This lets cancer cells grow more quickly. 

Many times, cancer cells rely so heavily on these abnormal behaviors that they can’t survive without them. Researchers have taken advantage of this fact, developing therapies that target the abnormal features of cancer cells. For example, some cancer therapies prevent blood vessels from growing toward tumors , essentially starving the tumor of needed nutrients.  

How Does Cancer Develop?

Cancer is caused by certain changes to genes, the basic physical units of inheritance. Genes are arranged in long strands of tightly packed DNA called chromosomes.

Cancer is a genetic disease—that is, it is caused by changes to genes that control the way our cells function, especially how they grow and divide.

Genetic changes that cause cancer can happen because:

• of errors that occur as cells divide. 
• of damage to DNA caused by harmful substances in the environment, such as the chemicals in tobacco smoke and ultraviolet rays from the sun. (Our Cancer Causes and Prevention section has more information.) 
• they were inherited from our parents. 

The body normally eliminates cells with damaged DNA before they turn cancerous. But the body’s ability to do so goes down as we age. This is part of the reason why there is a higher risk of cancer later in life.

Each person’s cancer has a unique combination of genetic changes. As the cancer continues to grow, additional changes will occur. Even within the same tumor, different cells may have different genetic changes.

Fundamentals of Cancer

Cancer is a disease caused when cells divide uncontrollably and spread into surrounding tissues.

Cancer is caused by changes to DNA. Most cancer-causing DNA changes occur in sections of DNA called genes. These changes are also called genetic changes.

A DNA change can cause genes involved in normal cell growth to become oncogenes. Unlike normal genes, oncogenes cannot be turned off, so they cause uncontrolled cell growth.

 In normal cells, tumor suppressor genes prevent cancer by slowing or stopping cell growth. DNA changes that inactivate tumor suppressor genes can lead to uncontrolled cell growth and cancer.

Within a tumor, cancer cells are surrounded by a variety of immune cells, fibroblasts, molecules, and blood vessels—what’s known as the tumor microenvironment. Cancer cells can change the microenvironment, which in turn can affect how cancer grows and spreads.

Immune system cells can detect and attack cancer cells. But some cancer cells can avoid detection or thwart an attack. Some cancer treatments can help the immune system better detect and kill cancer cells.

Each person’s cancer has a unique combination of genetic changes. Specific genetic changes may make a person’s cancer more or less likely to respond to certain treatments.

Genetic changes that cause cancer can be inherited or arise from certain environmental exposures. Genetic changes can also happen because of errors that occur as cells divide.

Most often, cancer-causing genetic changes accumulate slowly as a person ages, leading to a higher risk of cancer later in life.

Cancer cells can break away from the original tumor and travel through the blood or lymph system to distant locations in the body, where they exit the vessels to form additional tumors. This is called metastasis.

Types of Genes that Cause Cancer

The genetic changes that contribute to cancer tend to affect three main types of genes— proto-oncogenes , tumor suppressor genes , and DNA repair genes. These changes are sometimes called “drivers” of cancer.

Proto-oncogenes are involved in normal cell growth and division. However, when these genes are altered in certain ways or are more active than normal, they may become cancer-causing genes (or oncogenes), allowing cells to grow and survive when they should not.

Tumor suppressor genes are also involved in controlling cell growth and division. Cells with certain alterations in tumor suppressor genes may divide in an uncontrolled manner.

DNA repair genes are involved in fixing damaged DNA. Cells with mutations in these genes tend to develop additional mutations in other genes and changes in their chromosomes, such as duplications and deletions of chromosome parts. Together, these mutations may cause the cells to become cancerous.

As scientists have learned more about the molecular changes that lead to cancer, they have found that certain mutations commonly occur in many types of cancer. Now there are many cancer treatments available that target gene mutations found in cancer . A few of these treatments can be used by anyone with a cancer that has the targeted mutation, no matter where the cancer started growing .

When Cancer Spreads

In metastasis, cancer cells break away from where they first formed and form new tumors in other parts of the body. 

A cancer that has spread from the place where it first formed to another place in the body is called metastatic cancer. The process by which cancer cells spread to other parts of the body is called metastasis.

Metastatic cancer has the same name and the same type of cancer cells as the original, or primary, cancer. For example, breast cancer that forms a metastatic tumor in the lung is metastatic breast cancer, not lung cancer.

Under a microscope, metastatic cancer cells generally look the same as cells of the original cancer. Moreover, metastatic cancer cells and cells of the original cancer usually have some molecular features in common, such as the presence of specific chromosome changes.

In some cases, treatment may help prolong the lives of people with metastatic cancer. In other cases, the primary goal of treatment for metastatic cancer is to control the growth of the cancer or to relieve symptoms it is causing. Metastatic tumors can cause severe damage to how the body functions, and most people who die of cancer die of metastatic disease.  

Tissue Changes that Are Not Cancer

Not every change in the body’s tissues is cancer. Some tissue changes may develop into cancer if they are not treated, however. Here are some examples of tissue changes that are not cancer but, in some cases, are monitored because they could become cancer:

• Hyperplasia occurs when cells within a tissue multiply faster than normal and extra cells build up. However, the cells and the way the tissue is organized still look normal under a microscope. Hyperplasia can be caused by several factors or conditions, including chronic irritation.
• Dysplasia is a more advanced condition than hyperplasia. In dysplasia, there is also a buildup of extra cells. But the cells look abnormal and there are changes in how the tissue is organized. In general, the more abnormal the cells and tissue look, the greater the chance that cancer will form. Some types of dysplasia may need to be monitored or treated, but others do not. An example of dysplasia is an abnormal mole (called a dysplastic nevus ) that forms on the skin. A dysplastic nevus can turn into melanoma, although most do not.
• Carcinoma in situ  is an even more advanced condition. Although it is sometimes called stage 0 cancer, it is not cancer because the abnormal cells do not invade nearby tissue the way that cancer cells do. But because some carcinomas in situ may become cancer, they are usually treated.

Normal cells may become cancer cells. Before cancer cells form in tissues of the body, the cells go through abnormal changes called hyperplasia and dysplasia. In hyperplasia, there is an increase in the number of cells in an organ or tissue that appear normal under a microscope. In dysplasia, the cells look abnormal under a microscope but are not cancer. Hyperplasia and dysplasia may or may not become cancer.

Types of Cancer

There are more than 100 types of cancer. Types of cancer are usually named for the organs or tissues where the cancers form. For example, lung cancer starts in the lung, and brain cancer starts in the brain. Cancers also may be described by the type of cell that formed them, such as an epithelial cell or a squamous cell .

You can search NCI’s website for information on specific types of cancer based on the cancer’s location in the body or by using our A to Z List of Cancers . We also have information on childhood cancers and cancers in adolescents and young adults .

Here are some categories of cancers that begin in specific types of cells:

Carcinomas are the most common type of cancer. They are formed by epithelial cells, which are the cells that cover the inside and outside surfaces of the body. There are many types of epithelial cells, which often have a column-like shape when viewed under a microscope.

Carcinomas that begin in different epithelial cell types have specific names:

Adenocarcinoma is a cancer that forms in epithelial cells that produce fluids or mucus. Tissues with this type of epithelial cell are sometimes called glandular tissues. Most cancers of the breast, colon, and prostate are adenocarcinomas.

Basal cell carcinoma is a cancer that begins in the lower or basal (base) layer of the epidermis, which is a person’s outer layer of skin.

Squamous cell carcinoma is a cancer that forms in squamous cells, which are epithelial cells that lie just beneath the outer surface of the skin. Squamous cells also line many other organs, including the stomach, intestines, lungs, bladder, and kidneys. Squamous cells look flat, like fish scales, when viewed under a microscope. Squamous cell carcinomas are sometimes called epidermoid carcinomas.

Transitional cell carcinoma is a cancer that forms in a type of epithelial tissue called transitional epithelium, or urothelium. This tissue, which is made up of many layers of epithelial cells that can get bigger and smaller, is found in the linings of the bladder, ureters, and part of the kidneys (renal pelvis), and a few other organs. Some cancers of the bladder, ureters, and kidneys are transitional cell carcinomas.

Soft tissue sarcoma forms in soft tissues of the body, including muscle, tendons, fat, blood vessels, lymph vessels, nerves, and tissue around joints.

Sarcomas are cancers that form in bone and soft tissues, including muscle, fat, blood vessels, lymph vessels , and fibrous tissue (such as tendons and ligaments).

Osteosarcoma is the most common cancer of bone. The most common types of soft tissue sarcoma are leiomyosarcoma , Kaposi sarcoma , malignant fibrous histiocytoma , liposarcoma , and dermatofibrosarcoma protuberans .

Our page on soft tissue sarcoma has more information.

Cancers that begin in the blood-forming tissue of the bone marrow are called leukemias. These cancers do not form solid tumors. Instead, large numbers of abnormal white blood cells (leukemia cells and leukemic blast cells) build up in the blood and bone marrow, crowding out normal blood cells. The low level of normal blood cells can make it harder for the body to get oxygen to its tissues, control bleeding, or fight infections.  

There are four common types of leukemia, which are grouped based on how quickly the disease gets worse (acute or chronic) and on the type of blood cell the cancer starts in (lymphoblastic or myeloid). Acute forms of leukemia grow quickly and chronic forms grow more slowly.

Our page on leukemia has more information.

Lymphoma is cancer that begins in lymphocytes (T cells or B cells). These are disease-fighting white blood cells that are part of the immune system. In lymphoma, abnormal lymphocytes build up in lymph nodes and lymph vessels, as well as in other organs of the body.

There are two main types of lymphoma:

Hodgkin lymphoma – People with this disease have abnormal lymphocytes that are called Reed-Sternberg cells. These cells usually form from B cells.

Non-Hodgkin lymphoma – This is a large group of cancers that start in lymphocytes. The cancers can grow quickly or slowly and can form from B cells or T cells.

Our page on lymphoma has more information.

Multiple Myeloma

Multiple myeloma is cancer that begins in plasma cells , another type of immune cell. The abnormal plasma cells, called myeloma cells, build up in the bone marrow and form tumors in bones all through the body. Multiple myeloma is also called plasma cell myeloma and Kahler disease.

Our page on multiple myeloma and other plasma cell neoplasms has more information.

Melanoma is cancer that begins in cells that become melanocytes, which are specialized cells that make melanin (the pigment that gives skin its color). Most melanomas form on the skin, but melanomas can also form in other pigmented tissues, such as the eye.

Our pages on skin cancer and intraocular melanoma have more information.

Brain and Spinal Cord Tumors

There are different types of brain and spinal cord tumors. These tumors are named based on the type of cell in which they formed and where the tumor first formed in the central nervous system. For example, an astrocytic tumor begins in star-shaped brain cells called astrocytes , which help keep nerve cells healthy. Brain tumors can be benign (not cancer) or malignant (cancer).

Our page on brain and spinal cord tumors has more information.

Other Types of Tumors

Germ cell tumors.

Germ cell tumors are a type of tumor that begins in the cells that give rise to sperm or eggs. These tumors can occur almost anywhere in the body and can be either benign or malignant.

Our page of cancers by body location/system includes a list of germ cell tumors with links to more information.

Neuroendocrine Tumors

Neuroendocrine tumors form from cells that release hormones into the blood in response to a signal from the nervous system. These tumors, which may make higher-than-normal amounts of hormones, can cause many different symptoms. Neuroendocrine tumors may be benign or malignant.

Our definition of neuroendocrine tumors has more information.

Carcinoid Tumors

Carcinoid tumors are a type of neuroendocrine tumor. They are slow-growing tumors that are usually found in the gastrointestinal system (most often in the rectum and small intestine). Carcinoid tumors may spread to the liver or other sites in the body, and they may secrete substances such as serotonin or prostaglandins, causing carcinoid syndrome .

Our page on gastrointestinal neuroendocrine tumors has more information.

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Essay on Cancer

List of essays on cancer, essay on cancer – introduction, types and conclusion (essay 1 – 150 words), essay on cancer (essay 2 – 250 words), essay on cancer – for school students (essay 3 – 300 words), essay on cancer – for medical students (essay 4 – 400 words), essay on cancer – for science students (essay 5 – 500 words), essay on cancer (essay 6 – 600 words), essay on cancer – written in english (essay 7 – 750 words), essay on cancer – for ias, civil services, upsc, ips and other competitive exams (essay 8 – 1000 words).

Cancer is a disease which is related to the abnormal growth of cells in a particular part of the body. Since the last decade, cancer has become one of the most feared diseases of all times, particularly due to the difficult treatment one has to undergo and the limitations of the treatment in curing this disease during later stages of cancer.

Audience: The below given essays are exclusively written for school and college students. Furthermore, those students preparing for IAS, IPS, UPSC, Civil Services and other competitive exams can also increase their knowledge by studying these essays.

Introduction:

Cancer is a group of more than 100 diseases that can develop in almost anywhere in the body. Cancer is a group of diseases involving abnormal cell growth with the potential to invade or spread to other parts of the body.

Types of Cancer:

There are various types of cancer. They include:

1] Breast cancer: This is type of cancer that forms in the cells of the breast.

2] Prostate cancer: This is type of cancer that occurs in a man’s prostate. This is a small walnut sized gland that has the duty of producing seminal fluid.

3] Lung cancer: This is a type of cancer that begins in the lungs and this occurs mostly in people who smoke.

4] Leukemia: A cancer of blood forming tissues, hindering the body’s ability to fight infection.

Conclusion:

We have seen various types of cancer but the types of cancer we have are hundreds but we had mentioned just a few. Each type of cancer comes with various symptoms and various ways of curbing it.

Cancer is a disease that has been around for centuries, but it has never had such an impact on public health as it has now. Cancer is the increase in the number of cells in human beings at an abnormal rate. Doctors have been discussing the reasons behind this increase for the past fifty years. One is tempted to think that there are no reasons behind this occurrence and that it is just a natural phenomenon, people die all the time. Right?

The thing is that the number of cancer cases has increased in the past decades and a lot of this increase is attributed to the influence of different types of radiation. Even though most of the really dangerous substances (or sources of radiation) are not allowed near people. What else can be causing such an increase in cancer cases?

Some doctors have made a discovery regarding cancer that can really help us get rid of this problem. Following down the line of the argumentation presented in the famous “China Study” more doctors are advising their patients to change their diet because it can help  in their fight against cancer. Not only that but a proper diet can also be the best prevention.

When you are a student your metabolism is young so you do not feel the bad effect of your habits as much as older people do but as we age the side effects of our bad choices will become obvious. We can teach ourselves to listen to our bodies and to prevent cancer but to do that we, first of all, have to defeat our habits.

Cancer is uncontrolled and unchecked development of abnormal cells in a part of the body. Cancerous cells develop just like another cell in the body. They, however, keep growing and can form a mass then subsequently becomes tumors. Since cells are present in every part of our body, cancer can also grow in all parts of our body.

Causes of Cancer:

One great scientific mystery in our world is the cause of cancer. Scientists from all over have tried and failed in isolating any particular action, substance or environmental factors that can lead to cancer.

However, scientists all over the world agree that cancer is caused by substances known as carcinogens. These substances are introduced to the body when we are exposed to or consume materials containing them. One of the confirmed sources of carcinogens is exposure to radiation from x-ray machines.

Cancer Treatment:

There are various ways to treat a person infected with cancer. These modes of treatment are chosen depending on the type of cancer, the stage of development and the health peculiarities of the cancer patient. In other cases, several modes of treatment are combined to treat a single patient.

Some of the modes of treating cancer are in fly highlighted below:

1. Surgery to remove Cancerous tumors from the body.

2. Radiation therapy to reduce the growth of cells.

3. Chemotherapy for destroying cancer cells.

4. Stem cell transplant.

Prevention of Cancer:

Just as there are no agreed actions, materials and exposure that causes cancer, there are no generally accepted means of preventing cancer. However, there are certain habits that can limit a person’s exposure.

Some of them are highlighted below:

1. Healthy environment and diet.

2. Reduction of exposure from the sun.

3. Keep your weight low.

4. Avoid the use of tobacco.

Early detection of cancer has been hailed as the most potent way of treating this menace. Though scientists are still in the business of searching for a cure, we as humans can prevent cancer by regular medical check-ups.

Cancer is one of the second largest fatal illnesses across the world. One of the horrific words a human being can listen to is being diagnosed with Cancer. The word Cancer brings alarm and anxiety to the listener. Cancer is the abnormal growth of cells in one part of the body which can even spread to other parts if not treated at an early stage. Neoplasms or tumour are the subset of these abnormally grown-up cells which often results in a mass or lump.

What causes Cancer?

Those agents which cause cancer are termed as Carcinogens . These can be classified into physical, chemical and biological. Physical Carcinogens include ultra violet and other ionizing radiations. Food adulterants such as aflatoxin, tobacco smoke, drinking water contaminant such as Arsenic, asbestos etc., are termed as Chemical Carcinogens. Viruses, Bacteria and other parasites which cause infections and eventually lead to Cancer are categorized under Biological Carcinogens. Ageing also causes cancer as the risk of the cellular repair mechanism weakens as we age.

Significant Symptoms of Cancer:

Some of the major symptoms of cancer include unexplained weight loss, extreme fatigue, persistent sores that do not heal, changes in the bladder and bowel movements, odd bleeding and discharges, change in voice due to cancer indication in larynx and lumps and bumps on the skin.

Preventive Measures:

Some of the risk factors which needs to be addressed to prevent cancer may include avoidance of tobacco, being overweight or obese, unhealthy eating with less vegetables and greens, physical in-activity, avoiding pollution etc. Apart from the mentioned, vaccination against HPV and Hepatitis B Virus, controlling hazards while at work, reducing exposure to ultra violet and ionizing radiation etc., can help prevent being infected by Cancer.

Assessing the type of cancer and the stage is very important because every cancer type has a different pattern of treatment from surgery, radiotherapy and chemotherapy . The treatment that is used to relieve the cancer patient from their pain and enhance the quality of life for the patients and their families is termed as Palliative care.

World Health Organization has partnered with UNO and other non-profit organizations to ensure every country is being made aware of the non-communicable diseases and the prevention of cancer and its control. Insights to develop Centers of Excellence to provide quality treatments and to conduct research on the carcinogenesis should be provided to governments and to help the people.

The abnormal cell growth in our body which spreads to other parts as well is what is termed as cancer. Around four lakh of people in India are known to be affected by this disease every year. More so, around half of them are not able to survive as they are usually detected in the last stages of cancer. Hence it is all the more important to educate the people about this disease and its symptoms so that it can be detected early and the lives of the people suffering from it can be saved.

Cancer can affect any body part. The part that is affected gives it the name, for instance, lung cancer which affects the lungs, skin cancer in which the skin is affected and so on. However, we can broadly divide cancer into four types. The first one is Sarcoma which is known to affect the blood vessels, bones, muscles cartilages and connective tissues. The second type of cancer is Carcinoma which affects the internal organs of the body or the skin. The third type is the Lymphoma. This cancer affects the lymph glands and the lymph nodes. The last type in which cancer can be categorised is Leukaemia which largely affects the parts forming blood such as the bone marrow.

Symptoms of Cancer:

Although no particular cause is known to trigger this disease, some activities have been associated as the cause of different types of cancer. The first and foremost is smoking. Excess smoking affects the entire respiratory system thereby leading to the onset of lung cancer. More so chewing tobacco is also attributed to giving rise to mouth and throat cancer. Similarly, alcohol is attributed to be the cause of stomach, liver and gallbladder cancer. Summarising it, all the ill habits of society and urbanisation have been attributed to this disease. Even radiations coming from X-ray machines can prove harmful and lead to cancer. That is why there are proper laws an protection in place when exposing people to these harmful radiations.

Treatments Available:

If detected in early stages, cancer can surely be curable. Surgery is one of the primary steps of curing this disease. If required, doctors remove the body part affected such as the uterus, gallbladder or the breast. Thereafter, through radiotherapy, the cancerous cells on the other affected parts of the body are killed so that they don’t spread to other parts. Chemotherapy is done using the strong chemical in order to kill the cancerous cells. Other methods such as tumour suppressing genes are used in different types of cancer as may be the need advised by the doctors. Whatever the method, it is extremely difficult to go through the pain and social stigma such as loss hair which comes alongside the treatment of cancer.

Living with this Disease:

It is indeed very difficult to live with this disease as not only this disease is not fully curable but the treatment is so tough that it scares even the toughest of individuals. We, as a society, must support the people suffering from cancer and help in their difficult times. We must not discriminate them and must understand that is already suffering a lot and must not do anything which further aggravates their sufferings.

Cancer is a severe disease in which there is abnormal growth of cell that spreads around the human body. Many people in the world are struggling with this disease. Consistently around 10 million cases are analyzed. These number of cases are expected to increase around 20 million by 2020. It turns into the most widely recognized reasons for death. Due to abnormal cell growth, it develops & affects the overall body weight. Prolonged cough and abnormal bleeding are some symptoms of this severe disease. The developed abnormal cells first make their impact on organs then slowly moved as poison. Cancer disease can be identified in the beginning periods. The medical professionals are still trying to catch this disease.

One of the main causes of cancer is smoking. Other causes include tobacco, consumption of alcohol, obesity, lack of physical activities, exposure to UV radiations, etc. Age factor and changes in genes are yet other factors that cause cancer.

Cancer has different types which can be divided into various forms:

i. Skin Cancer:

It is the most common type of cancer which can be seen in many people. Every year more than 1 million people are affected by skin cancer. Skin cancer happens due to the overexposure from the sun. The thicker ozone layers directly harms our skin, which increases the chances of skin cancer.

ii. Lung Cancer:

This type of cancer is related to the cells inside the lungs. The symptoms of this type of cancer are chest pain & sudden weight loss. It is also known as lung carcinoma. As a process of metastasis, the growth of abnormal cell growth spread inside the lungs. Smoking is a fundamental driver of Lung cases.

iii. Kidney Cancer:

Another name of kidney cancer is renal cancer. Renal Cell Carcinoma and Transitional Cell Carcinoma are the types of kidney cancer. This development of cancer happens after the age of 40 years. Smoking can twofold the danger of kidney malignant growth.

iv. Leukemia:

This cancer starts developing in the bone marrow, which leads to a high number of abnormal white cells. Acute myeloid leukemia or acute lymphocytic leukemia are the sorts of leukemia. Chemotherapy or radiation therapy can be used as the treatment for Leukemia.

Cancer Staging:

It is important to understand the staging factor of this severe disease. Diagnosis of cancer in early stages helps to tackle this disease by proper treatments. During the initial stages of cancer, proper surgeries or radiotherapy can help to overcome cancer. When the broken cancer cells move to other parts of the human body, then advance treatment is suggested by the professionals. But when a patient is in the final stages of cancer, he needs a treatment which covers his whole body. Chemotherapy is a therapy which is used to circulate the bloodstream. Professional doctors use various test techniques to identify the stages of cancer. Stages are used to describe the severity of cancer.

In the initial stage, cancer can be prevented through medication, proper surgeries and light treatment. In the advance stages of cancer, chemotherapy and radiation therapy is useful. Above all, the best way to keep cancer away is to stay away from smoking and tobacco, eat healthy food and a lot of green vegetables, and do some physical exercise daily.

It is very difficult for a cancer patient to fight with the final stages of cancer. To deal with this severe problem cancer symptoms should never be ignored. More than 70% of cases are seen only due to smoking. At every stage, it is essential that everyone must adopt a healthy diet plan & exercise daily to prevent this disease. A person who has a good and healthy lifestyle can fight with cancer more strongly.

Current trends in global health mention cancer. Cancer is currently one of the leading causes of death globally. It is an illness in which abnormal cell growth develops and affects parts of the human body as it advances, it has the potential to spread from one part of the body to the other. It is a chronic illness that imposes a great economic burden on a nation because its management is costly. Cancer occurs in different parts of the body and are classified according to where it has affected. In India, men are mostly acted by lung, oral, lip and neck cancers whereas women are affected by cervical, breast and ovarian cancer. The detection procedure varies with the type of cancer while the treatment varies with the stage of the cancer progression. Mostly early stages of cancer have better prognosis compared to late stages of cancer.

There are modifiable and non-modifiable factors that predispose an individual to cancer. Non modifiable factors include age and genetics. With an increase in age, the rate of cancer incidence increases. The genetic predisposition to cancer increases the incidences of suffering the disease. Modifiable factors include lifestyle habits like drinking and smoking tobacco which increase the incidences of lung, oral, esophageal among other cancers. Diet is also a predisposing factor especially one that is less in vitamin supplements.

Physical inactivity and obesity predispose to cancers of the colon, breast and others. Sexual activity in women with multiple sexual partners predisposes them to cervical cancer due to the transmission of HPV (Human Papilloma Virus). The environment also predisposes to cancer because of the chemicals, radicals and radiations that interact with human beings.

Detection of Cancer:

The detection varies with the type of cancer and so screening is done for each type differently. It is advisable that people get regular checkups of the whole body so that early detection facilitates effective and curative treatment. Screening of cancer is done using detailed examination of the physique, laboratory and histology tests, radiological and magnetic imaging techniques among other methods.

The campaigns against cancer advocate for early detection by teaching the public on the early signs of cancer. In breast cancer awareness for example, the public is made aware of physical examination of the breast and if they detect any abnormal growth or lump, they are to seek further investigation. Early detection is important because it results in successful treatment. In the detection, the cancer staging is done, which is usually four stages, stage one, two, three and four. Stage one has the best prognosis whereas stage four has the poorest prognosis.

Treatment of Cancer:

Once cancer is detected, a range of treatment options is provided. Treatment depends on the types of cancer and the staging. It can be treated by surgery whereby excision of the abnormal growth is done. Surgery is done for non-hematological cancers and those that have not metastasized to other parts of the body. An example of surgery is mastectomy to treat breast cancer.

Chemotherapy is another treatment option that involves the administration of anticancer medication that eliminate the abnormal cells in the body. Another treatment option is radiation therapy that uses ionizing radiations to destroy cancer cells. Radiation is also used to make tumors small. It is used to treat solid tumors and it depends on the sensitivity of the tumor to the radiations. It is targeted at the nucleic acid destruction in the tumor cells.

Consequences of Cancer:

Cancer is a chronic illness that could result in very serious consequences even with treatment. Cachexia is the extreme wasting of the body that causes death in cancer patients. Economic burden to both the individual and the nation is experienced in cancer treatment because the treatment modalities are costly. The economic burden results in decline of the nation’s economy and increased healthcare costs to the population.

Mental illnesses result from cancer because it is a terminal illness and most patients become mentally unstable upon diagnosis. The quality of health is affected in a country when there is high incidences of cancer and the performance is greatly affected, which cause poverty and economic crisis for individuals.

Cancer is a serious illness that impacts the lives of people and the nation negatively. It is evident that cancer has diverse treatment options but the problem is that people do not go for checkups. Checkups are important in early detection, which usually results in successful treatment and less burden of cancer in a nation and in individuals.

Cancer is basically an agglomeration of various diseases that involves the abnormal growth of cells with the ability to spread or invade other body parts. Cancers are quite different from benign tumours in that the latter does not spread or invade other body parts. Some of the many symptoms and signs of cancer include abnormal bleeding, a lump, weight loss that is unusual, prolonged cough and bowel movement change. Even though these listed symptoms and signs of cancer, they might be caused by other things so it is necessary to be diagnosed. Today, we have more than 100 various kinds of cancer that affect us humans.

History of Cancer:

It is believed that cancer has been in existence for a majority if not all of the history of man. Breast cancer was the first form of cancer that was recorded and this happened around 1600 BC in Egypt. Between 460 BC and 370 BC, Hippocrates spent time analysing various types of cancer and referred to them as crayfish or crab. The name was as a result of the crab-like look of the malignant tumour and the lateral extension of the distended veins and tumours.

Factors Causing Cancer:

It has been discovered that the major cause of deaths as a result of cancer is the use of tobacco and it accounts for about 22 percent of the total number of deaths due to cancer. Poor diet, obesity, excessive alcohol consumption and a lack of exercise and physical activities accounts for another 10 percent of deaths caused by cancer. Some other causes and factors that contribute to cancer include environmental pollutants, ionizing radiation exposure and certain infections.

In most developing countries, infections like hepatitis B, Helicobacter pylori, papillomavirus infection of humans, Hepatitis C, HIV and Epstein Barr contribute to fifteen percent of all cancers. All of the factors listed above change the cell genes. There are always a lot of genetic changes before the development of cancer. About 10% of all cancers are as a result of genetic defects that are inherited from a parent. Asides the symptoms and signs that are used to detect cancer, screening tests are also a good way of detecting cancer. Cancer is normally thoroughly investigated using medical imaging; it is then confirmed through biopsy.

Development of Cancer:

A tumour or neoplasm is a collection of cells which have gone through growth that is not regulated and most times form a lump or mass. Every tumour cell exhibits the six important characters that are necessary for the production of the malignant tumour.

The six characteristics are:

1. Cell division and growth without all the signals that are proper.

2. Continuous division and growth even though the signals given are contrary.

3. Cell death that is usually programmed is avoided.

4. The divisions of the cell are quite limitless in number.

5. The construction of blood vessel is promoted.

6. The tissues are invaded and metastases are formed.

Cancer Prevention:

The prevention of a lot of cancers can be ensured by trying to maintain a weight that is healthy, not smoking, consuming a lot of whole grains, fruits and vegetable, avoiding the consumption of a lot of alcohol, reduction in the amount of red and processed meat that is consumed, getting vaccinated against some infectious diseases and the avoidance of too much exposure to sunlight. It is sometimes useful that there is early detection in cases of colorectal and cervical cancer and this can be achieved through screening. The usefulness of breast cancer screening is highly controversial.

The treatment of cancer is usually done by combining surgery, radiation therapy, targeted therapy and chemotherapy. A very important element of care is the management of symptoms and pain. In cases of advanced disease, palliative care is of utmost importance. The extent of the disease at the commencement of treatment and also the form of cancer that is involved go a long way to determine the odds of survival. Using the adopted survival rate at five years, children that were under the age of 15 when they were diagnosed have an average rate of survival of 80% in most developed countries. In the US, the average rate of survival for the five year period is 66%.

90.5 million  people were living with different cancers in 2015. It has been reported that every year, close to 15 million reports of new cancer cases are filed. These do not include the cases of skin cancer. Cancer results in more than eight million deaths every year which is about 15.7% of the total number of deaths every year.

In males, prostate cancer, lung cancer, stomach cancer and colorectal cancer are the most widespread cancer types. In females, colorectal cancer, breast cancer, cervical cancer and lung cancer are the most widespread cancer types. Apart from melanoma, if we include skin cancer in the amount of new cases of cancer every year, it is going to be 40% of the total number of cases.

Brain tumours and lymphoblastic leukemia that is acute are the most widespread cancer types in children but in Africa, lymphoma that is no-Hodgkin is the most widespread. The total number of children that are under the age of 15 that ended up being diagnosed with one type of cancer or the other in 2012 is around 165,000.

With an increase in age, it has been seen that the risk of getting cancer also increases significantly and the number and occurrence of cases of cancer in developed countries in more than the number and occurrence of cancer cases in other countries. The change in lifestyle and increase in the number of people living to a very old age in countries that are developing contributes to the increase in the rate of the occurrence of cancer. Cancer is believed to have a financial cost of up to 1.16 trillion dollars every year.

Cancer can be extremely dangerous when it is not discovered early and when adequate and proper care and attention is not given to the treatment. Therefore it is very important to go for regularly screening to find out if there is need for caution or treatment.

Cancer , Diseases , Health

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Talking (or Not) About Your Cancer

More from our inbox:, ‘political anxieties’, a mystery from england’s bronze age.

To the Editor:

Re “ It’s Not Easy to Tell People You Have Cancer ,” by Daniela J. Lamas (Opinion guest essay, March 27):

As a cancer survivor myself, I understand the reluctance of Catherine, Princess of Wales, to speak out about her own diagnosis. However, she has the unique opportunity to alert and educate many people regarding symptoms and treatments. And by speaking calmly and frankly, she has the additional opportunity to help remove the fear and stigma of a cancer diagnosis.

Of course, she has no obligation to do this, but perhaps as time passes and she is no longer in the first stages of shock, she will be able to do a truly selfless thing and help educate people about cancer.

Barbara Mutterperl New York

My mother was diagnosed with breast cancer when I was 12 years old and she was 33. In the 1960s breast cancer was often fatal, and cancer was not discussed publicly. As the oldest child, I think I was told too much, not too little. Counseling would have been very helpful.

I am 75 and had early stage breast cancer four years ago. I was told my treatment would be over 90 percent successful; sharing that information normalized the situation and helped me get through the treatment. I am cancer free.

Some types of cancer have fairly good outcomes, while other types are almost always fatal. The more treatable a cancer is, the more comfortable a patient feels about telling friends about their diagnosis. And sharing information with children under 18 has to be done very carefully.

Catherine, Princess of Wales, has very young children. She and her husband will be careful about how much information to give them, hoping to be honest but not scare them unnecessarily. Expecting her to reveal her diagnosis in more detail would be inappropriate at this point.

Maureen Schild New York

The members of the royal family are funded by the people of Britain. If they do not abdicate their official roles, it is their duty to do good in this world for the people who afford them their sumptuous lifestyle (be it under press coverage under a microscope or not).

So if they are secretive about their cancer diagnosis, it sends a clear message — cancer is a secret, something to hide, to cover up, to be ashamed of — and that is simply awful for the millions of people who are diagnosed with cancer or who have some mysterious health condition that with proper attention is diagnosed, hopefully early, as cancer!

Catherine, Princess of Wales, is not an ordinary person. It is her duty in her role as a country’s figurehead to speak the truth and not cover up.

She and the crown mislead the public in calling her chemotherapy preventative. She is not taking chemo like a flu shot; you can’t go to your doctor and ask for some chemo to prevent you from getting cancer. Chemo kills cancer cells, plain and simple. It is a drug in the anticancer tool kit.

As a survivor of Stage 4 testicular cancer diagnosed 15 years ago, I know how such a diagnosis turns your world and that of those close to you upside down.

Catherine and the crown have the power, the responsibility and the duty to her employers — the people of Britain — and really to the world to speak the truth about her condition, to help them understand about cancer screening, about not shirking from the disease, about living with cancer and getting treatment for it, and about the many cases like mine that can be cured.

Roger S. Merians Simi Valley, Calif.

When I was growing up in the 1950s, people only whispered the letter C for cancer. And no one ever said out loud the possibility of someone being a homosexual. The word gay was never used.

Why do people keep secrets? Sometimes it’s shame; other times we don’t want to experience other people’s reaction to the news, or to worry our family or friends.

I have no trouble telling people about my 2019 cancer diagnosis. When I came out as a lesbian 46 years ago, I was thrilled to finally be out of the closet, but I told less than a handful of people. It took a while to be open about my sexuality.

Every person, famous or not, gets to decide what to reveal and when. But keeping a secret because of shame or embarrassment is very toxic.

Beth Rosen Bronx The writer is a psychotherapist.

Dr. Daniela J. Lamas’s article brought back memories from my diagnosis with spleen cancer in 2005.

I told adult family members and neighbors, but decided not to tell my daughters (then 14 and 9) any specifics, referring vaguely to an abdominal condition that required surgery.

I did not want to derail the ability of the 14-year-old to rebel and act like a normal teen, and I wanted to spare the 9-year-old, who was already a worrier who thought of me as vulnerable. I told myself that if I needed chemotherapy, I would tell my children at that point. Fortunately, I ended up not needing chemo.

What we did not count on was that the children of those adults we had told would see their parents’ emails or texts and inform our children that I had cancer.

It took years for me to regain my children’s trust that I would be truthful and not hide important information from them. So be mindful that your kids have a lot more access to information than we had at their age.

Barbara Quackenbos West Orange, N.J.

Re “ America’s Most Overlooked Political Divide ,” by David French (column, March 25):

I found Mr. French’s description of people on both sides of today’s political divide deciding to “unplug from the news” unsurprising.

Since 2016, patients in my practice, on both the left and the right of the political divide, have reported being distraught by a daily onslaught of political news. Consequently, I began including “political anxieties” as one problem distressing patients who could not tear themselves away from a favorite cable news network’s unending servings of doom and gloom punditry.

My response, and practical advice I follow myself, is suggesting to patients that rather than immersion in distressing cable news, just scan online headlines. Doing so provides a sense of what is going on in the world. However, I also advise not going into the weeds, as doing so only heightens political anxieties.

Some find this to be a reasonable balance between being an anxiously overstimulated citizen and a disengaged one.

Jack Drescher New York The writer, a psychiatrist and psychoanalyst, is past president of the Group for Advancement of Psychiatry.

Re “ Under Centuries of Silt, a Vivid View of Bronze Age Life ” (news article, March 21):

I have not been able to stop thinking about this extremely moving article about the surprisingly rich lives lived by the inhabitants of a Bronze Age village in England nearly 3,000 years ago. It makes one think that the high point of human existence may have actually occurred thousands of years ago.

These people were steeped in beauty, the bounties of nature, the satisfaction of craftsmanship and the joy of one another’s company. In stark contrast to humans today, they lived in quiet harmony with the earth.

The most fascinating mystery to me is why they never returned to salvage their things after, as you report, “a catastrophic fire tore through the compound.” Could it be that they felt no special attachment to their belongings?

As the article stated, these people had the skills to easily move and rebuild their compound. Perhaps they felt that their greatest possession was the earth itself.

Philip Dolin New York

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Scientists Discover How Cancer Creates 'Acid Wall' Against Immune System

Scientists have made a breakthrough discovery in our understanding of how cancer cells evade our immune systems. The findings, published in the journal Nature Biomedical Engineering , open new avenues for drug development in cancer research to better support our immune systems in killing cancer cells.

Cancer cells have three main ways of interacting with our immune systems: They can hide, fight back or erect a physical barrier. It is this third tactic that the team at University of Texas Southwestern has been investigating.

It has long been established that tumors are slightly more acidic than healthy body tissue. This is largely due to their production of lactic acid, a waste byproduct of the cells' metabolism. However, this acidity is not uniform across cancer cells.

In their latest study, Jinming Gao and his colleagues at UT Southwestern used nanoscale probes to measure how pH varies across tumor cells. They found that the cells were significantly more acidic on one side compared to the other. In other words, the acidity was polarized across the cells.

When similar tests were done on entire tumor tissues, the team found that the cancer cells pumped the acid away from their neighboring cancer cells and into the surrounding environment, creating a wall of increased acidity around the tumor's edge.

By studying samples from human tumor tissue, the team found that this wall of increased acidity was more or less devoid of the killer T cells our bodies rely on to fight off infections and other harmful cell types. In other words, the cancer was able to create an acid wall to protect itself from the immune system.

"This study revealed a previously unrecognized polarized extracellular acidity that is prevalent around cancer cells," Gao said in a statement.

• Our cells' batteries face "significant threat" from microplastics
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• Toxicologists find 829 chemicals in everyday items may cause breast cancer

These results have implications for the development of anti-cancer drugs. To start with, understanding the acidity of the environment surrounding cancer cells could help in the development of targeted cancer treatments that can be directed to the site of a tumor to deposit their active ingredients. In this case, the increased acidity can be used as a signal for the cancerous tissue to ensure the drug is delivered only to the site of the tumor.

As we develop our understanding of this process, we may also be able to design drugs to prevent cancer cells from producing acid walls, thus making them more vulnerable to attack from the immune system.

Is there a health problem that's worrying you? Do you have a question about cancer? Let us know via [email protected]. We can ask experts for advice, and your story could be featured on Newsweek .

Uncommon Knowledge

Newsweek is committed to challenging conventional wisdom and finding connections in the search for common ground.

About the writer

Pandora Dewan is a Newsweek Science Reporter based in London, UK. Her focus is reporting on science, health and technology. Pandora joined Newsweek in 2022 and previously worked as the Head of Content for the climate change education start-up, ClimateScience and as a Freelance writer for content creators such as Dr Karan Rajan and Thoughty2. She is a graduate in Biological Sciences from the University of Oxford. Languages: English.

You can get in touch with Pandora by emailing [email protected]. or on Twitter @dewanpandora.

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Cancer Control: Knowledge Into Action: WHO Guide for Effective Programmes: Module 4: Diagnosis and Treatment. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2008.

Cancer Control: Knowledge Into Action: WHO Guide for Effective Programmes: Module 4: Diagnosis and Treatment.

A plan for the diagnosis and treatment of cancer is a key component of any overall cancer control plan. Its main goal is to cure cancer patients or prolong their life considerably, ensuring a good quality of life. In order for a diagnosis and treatment programme to be effective, it must never be developed in isolation. It needs to be linked to an early detection programme so that cases are detected at an early stage, when treatment is more effective and there is a greater chance of cure. It also needs to be integrated with a palliative care programme, so that patients with advanced cancers, who can no longer benefit from treatment, will get adequate relief from their physical, psychosocial and spiritual suffering. Furthermore, programmes should include a awareness-raising component, to educate patients, family and community members about the cancer risk factors and the need for taking preventive measures to avoid developing cancer.

Where resources are limited, diagnosis and treatment services should initially target all patients presenting with curable cancers, such as breast, cervical and oral cancers that can be detected early. They could also include childhood acute lymphatic leukaemia, which has a high potential for cure although it cannot be detected early. Above all, services need to be provided in an equitable and sustainable manner. As and when more resources become available, the programme can be extended to include other curable cancers as well as cancers for which treatment can prolong survival considerably.

This module on diagnosis and treatment is intended to evolve in response to national needs and experience. WHO welcomes input from countries wishing to share their successes in diagnosis and treatment. WHO also welcomes requests from countries for information relevant to their specific needs. Evidence on the barriers to diagnosis and treatment in country contexts – and the lessons learned in overcoming them – would be especially welcome (contact at http://www.who.int/cancer ).

All rights reserved. Publications of the World Health Organization can be obtained from WHO Press, World Health Organization, 20 Avenue Appia, 1211 Geneva 27, Switzerland (tel.: +41 22 791 3264; fax: +41 22 791 4857; e-mail: tni.ohw@sredrokoob ). Requests for permission to reproduce or translate WHO publications – whether for sale or for noncommercial distribution – should be addressed to WHO Press, at the above address (fax: +41 22 791 4806; e-mail: tni.ohw@snoissimrep ).

• Cite this Page Cancer Control: Knowledge Into Action: WHO Guide for Effective Programmes: Module 4: Diagnosis and Treatment. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2008. CONCLUSION.
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