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Journal of Educational Psychology

Publishes psychological research pertaining to education across all ages and educational levels.

Impact Factor: 4.9

Journal of Diversity in Higher Education

Publishes empirical research focused on issues related to issues of diversity, equity, and inclusion in post-secondary environments.

Impact Factor: 2.4

A publication of the National Association of Diversity Officers in Higher Education

Scholarship of Teaching and Learning in Psychology

Publishes teacher-ready reviews of current research and contemporary theories as well as empirical research designed to foster systematic intentional changes to improve teaching and learning outcomes.

School Psychology

Formerly known as School Psychology Quarterly A publication of APA Division 16 (School Psychology), the journal publishes empirical studies and literature reviews of the psychology of education and services for children in school settings, encompassing a full range of methodologies and orientations, including educational, cognitive, social, cross-cultural, and more.

Impact Factor: 3.0

Formerly known as  School Psychology Quarterly

A publication of APA Division 16 (School Psychology), the journal publishes empirical studies and literature reviews of the psychology of education and services for children in school settings, encompassing a full range of methodologies and orientations, including educational, cognitive, social, cross-cultural, and more.

Impact Factor: 2.076

Impact Factor: 5.178

Impact Factor: 1.294

A publication of the National Association  of Diversity Officers in Higher Education

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Educational Psychology News

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Education and psychology : Journals

• Contemporary educational psychology "Contemporary Educational Psychology publishes articles that involve the application of psychological theory and science to the educational process. Of particular relevance are descriptions of empirical research and the presentation of theory designed to either explicate or enhance the educational process."
• Developmental psychology "Developmental Psychology ® publishes articles that significantly advance knowledge and theory about development across the life span. The journal focuses on seminal empirical contributions. The journal occasionally publishes exceptionally strong scholarly reviews and theoretical or methodological articles. Studies of any aspect of psychological development are appropriate, as are studies of the biological, social, and cultural factors that affect development."
• Early childhood research quarterly "Early Childhood Research Quarterly (ECRQ) publishes research on early childhood education and development from birth through 8 years of age. ECRQ publishes predominantly empirical research (quantitative or qualitative methods) on issues of interest to early childhood development, theory, and educational practice."
• Educational psychologist "The scholarly essays, reviews, critiques, and theoretical and conceptual articles featured in this exceptional journal contribute to understanding issues, problems, and research concerning all aspects of educational psychology. From meta-analyses of studies probing the effectiveness of teaching methods to historical examinations of textbook standards, the journal provides insightful explorations of new educational concepts and accepted educational practices. The journal, however, does not publish articles whose primary purpose is to report the methods and results of an empirical study."
• Educational Psychology Review "Educational Psychology Review is an international forum for the publication of peer-reviewed integrative review articles, special thematic issues, reflections or comments on previous research or new research directions, interviews, and research-based advice for practitioners - all pertaining to the field of educational psychology. The contents provide breadth of coverage appropriate to a wide readership in educational psychology and sufficient depth to inform the most learned specialists in the discipline."
• Educational research review "Educational Research Review is an international journal addressed to researchers and various agencies interested in the review of studies and theoretical papers in education at any level. The journal accepts high quality articles that are solving educational research problems by using a review approach. This may include thematic or methodological reviews, or meta-analyses."
• Journal of behavioral education "The Journal of Behavioral Education is an international forum dedicated to publishing original research papers on the application of behavioral principles and technology to education. Education is defined broadly and the journal places no restriction on the types of participants involved in the reported studies--including by age, ability, or setting. Each quarterly issue presents empirical research investigating best-practices and innovative methods to address a wide range of educational targets and issues pertaining to the needs of diverse learners and to implementation."
• Journal of educational psychology "The main purpose of the Journal of Educational Psychology® is to publish original, primary psychological research pertaining to education across all ages and educational levels. A secondary purpose of the Journal is the occasional publication of exceptionally important theoretical and review articles that are pertinent to educational psychology.
• Journal of psychoeducational assessment "Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment provides psychologists current information regarding psychological and educational assessment practices and instrumentation. JPA is known internationally for the quality of its assessment-related research, theory and position papers, practice applications, and book and test reviews."
• Social psychology of education: an international journal "Social Psychology of Education draws from the disciplines of psychology, sociology, and education in order to help us better understand human behavior in education."
• Topics in early childhood special education "Topics in Early Childhood Special Education (TECSE) focuses on information that will improve the lives of young children with special needs and their families. The practical nature of this journal helps professionals improve service delivery systems for preschool children with special needs."
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What Is Educational Psychology?

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Amy Morin, LCSW, is a psychotherapist and international bestselling author. Her books, including "13 Things Mentally Strong People Don't Do," have been translated into more than 40 languages. Her TEDx talk,  "The Secret of Becoming Mentally Strong," is one of the most viewed talks of all time.

• Major Perspectives
• Topics of Study

Frequently Asked Questions

Educational psychology is the study of how people learn , including teaching methods, instructional processes, and individual differences in learning. It explores the cognitive, behavioral, emotional, and social influences on the learning process. Educational psychologists use this understanding of how people learn to develop instructional strategies and help students succeed in school.

This branch of psychology focuses on the learning process of early childhood and adolescence. However, it also explores the social, emotional, and cognitive processes that are involved in learning throughout the entire lifespan.

The field of educational psychology incorporates a number of other disciplines, including developmental psychology , behavioral psychology , and cognitive psychology . Approaches to educational psychology include behavioral, developmental, cognitive, constructivist, and experiential perspectives.

This article discusses some of the different perspectives taken within the field of educational psychology, topics that educational psychologists study, and career options in this field.

8 Things to Know About Educational Psychology

Perspectives in educational psychology.

As with other areas of psychology, researchers within educational psychology tend to take on different perspectives when considering a problem. These perspectives focus on specific factors that influence learning, including learned behaviors, cognition, experiences, and more.

The Behavioral Perspective

This perspective suggests that all behaviors are learned through conditioning. Psychologists who take this perspective rely firmly on the principles of operant conditioning to explain how learning happens.

For example, teachers might reward learning by giving students tokens that can be exchanged for desirable items such as candy or toys. The behavioral perspective operates on the theory that students will learn when rewarded for "good" behavior and punished for "bad" behavior.

While such methods can be useful in some cases, the behavioral approach has been criticized for failing to account for attitudes , emotions, and intrinsic motivations for learning.

The Developmental Perspective

This perspective focuses on how children acquire new skills and knowledge as they develop. Jean Piaget's stages of cognitive development is one example of an important developmental theory looking at how children grow intellectually.

By understanding how children think at different stages of development, educational psychologists can better understand what children are capable of at each point of their growth. This can help educators create instructional methods and materials aimed at certain age groups.

The Cognitive Perspective

The cognitive approach has become much more widespread, mainly because it accounts for how factors such as memories, beliefs, emotions , and motivations contribute to the learning process. This theory supports the idea that a person learns as a result of their own motivation, not as a result of external rewards.

Cognitive psychology aims to understand how people think, learn, remember, and process information.

Educational psychologists who take a cognitive perspective are interested in understanding how kids become motivated to learn, how they remember the things that they learn, and how they solve problems, among other topics.

The Constructivist Approach

This perspective focuses on how we actively construct our knowledge of the world. Constructivism accounts for the social and cultural influences that affect how we learn.

Those who take the constructivist approach believe that what a person already knows is the biggest influence on how they learn new information. This means that new knowledge can only be added on to and understood in terms of existing knowledge.

This perspective is heavily influenced by the work of psychologist Lev Vygotsky , who proposed ideas such as the zone of proximal development and instructional scaffolding.

Experiential Perspective

This perspective emphasizes that a person's own life experiences influence how they understand new information. This method is similar to constructivist and cognitive perspectives in that it takes into consideration the experiences, thoughts, and feelings of the learner.

This method allows someone to find personal meaning in what they learn instead of feeling that the information doesn't apply to them.

Different perspectives on human behavior can be useful when looking at topics within the field of educational psychology. Some of these include the behavioral perspective, the constructivist approach, and the experiential perspective.

Topics in Educational Psychology

From the materials teachers use to the individual needs of students, educational psychologists delve deep to more fully understand the learning process. Some these topics of study in educational psychology include:

• Educational technology : Looking at how different types of technology can help students learn
• Instructional design : Designing effective learning materials
• Special education : Helping students who may need specialized instruction
• Curriculum development : Creating coursework that will maximize learning
• Organizational learning : Studying how people learn in organizational settings, such as workplaces
• Gifted learners : Helping students who are identified as gifted learners

Careers in Educational Psychology

Educational psychologists work with educators, administrators, teachers, and students to analyze how to help people learn best. This often involves finding ways to identify students who may need extra help, developing programs for students who are struggling, and even creating new learning methods .

Many educational psychologists work with schools directly. Some are teachers or professors, while others work with teachers to try out new learning methods for their students and develop new course curricula. An educational psychologist may even become a counselor, helping students cope with learning barriers directly.

Other educational psychologists work in research. For instance, they might work for a government organization such as the U.S. Department of Education, influencing decisions about the best ways for kids to learn in schools across the nation.

In addition, an educational psychologist work in school or university administration. In all of these roles, they can influence educational methods and help students learn in a way that best suits them.

A bachelor's degree and master's degree are usually required for careers in this field; if you want to work at a university or in school administration, you may need to complete a doctorate as well.

Educational psychologists often work in school to help students and teachers improve the learning experience. Other professionals in this field work in research to investigate the learning process and to evaluate programs designed to foster learning.

History of Educational Psychology

Educational psychology is a relatively young subfield that has experienced a tremendous amount of growth. Psychology did not emerge as a separate science until the late 1800s, so earlier interest in educational psychology was largely fueled by educational philosophers.

Many regard philosopher Johann Herbart as the father of educational psychology.

Herbart believed that a student's interest in a topic had a tremendous influence on the learning outcome. He believed teachers should consider this when deciding which type of instruction is most appropriate.

Later, psychologist and philosopher William James made significant contributions to the field. His seminal 1899 text "Talks to Teachers on Psychology" is considered the first textbook on educational psychology.

Around this same period, French psychologist Alfred Binet was developing his famous IQ tests. The tests were originally designed to help the French government identify children who had developmental delays and create special education programs.

In the United States, John Dewey had a significant influence on education. Dewey's ideas were progressive; he believed schools should focus on students rather than on subjects. He advocated active learning, arguing that hands-on experience was an important part of the process.

More recently, educational psychologist Benjamin Bloom developed an important taxonomy designed to categorize and describe different educational objectives. The three top-level domains he described were cognitive, affective, and psychomotor learning objectives.

Significant Figures

Throughout history, a number of additional figures have played an important role in the development of educational psychology. Some of these well-known individuals include:

• John Locke : Locke is an English philosopher who suggested the concept of tabula rasa , or the idea that the mind is essentially a blank slate at birth. This means that knowledge is developed through experience and learning.
• Jean Piaget : A Swiss psychologist who is best known for his highly influential theory of cognitive development, Jean Piaget's influence on educational psychology is still evident today.
• B.F. Skinner : Skinner was an American psychologist who introduced the concept of operant conditioning, which influences behaviorist perspectives. His research on reinforcement and punishment continues to play an important role in education.

Educational psychology has been influenced by a number of philosophers, psychologists, and educators. Some thinkers who had a significant influence include William James, Alfred Binet, John Dewey, Jean Piaget, and Benjamin Bloom.

A Word From Verywell

Educational psychology offers valuable insights into how people learn and plays an important role in informing educational strategies and teaching methods. In addition to exploring the learning process itself, different areas of educational psychology explore the emotional, social, and cognitive factors that can influence how people learn. If you are interested in topics such as special education, curriculum design, and educational technology, then you might want to consider pursuing a career in the field of educational psychology.

A master's in educational psychology can prepare you for a career working in K-12 schools, colleges and universities, government agencies, community organizations, and counseling practices. A career as an educational psychologist involves working with children, families, schools, and other community and government agencies to create programs and resources that enhance learning. 

The primary focus of educational psychology is the study of how people learn. This includes exploring the instructional processes, studying individual differences in how people learn, and developing teaching methods to help people learn more effectively.

Educational psychology is important because it has the potential to help both students and teachers. It provides important information for educators to help them create educational experiences, measure learning, and improve student motivation.

Educational psychology can aid teachers in better understanding the principles of learning in order to design more engaging and effective lesson plans and classroom experiences. It can also foster a better understanding of how learning environments, social factors, and student motivation can influence how students learn.

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Barbier K, Donche V, Verschueren K. Academic (under)achievement of intellectually gifted students in the transition between primary and secondary education: An individual learner perspective . Front Psychol. 2019;10. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02533

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American Psychological Association. Understanding educational psychology .

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

What Is Educational Psychology? 6 Examples and Theories

Plato believed that learning is based on the mind’s innate capacity to receive information and judge its intellectual and moral value.

Plato’s foremost pupil, Aristotle, emphasized how learning involves building associations such as succession in time, contiguity in space, and similarities and/or contrasts.

Later thinkers would devote considerable attention to learning and memory processes, various teaching methods, and how learning can be optimized.

Together, these thinkers have formed the growing and diverse body of theory and practice of educational psychology, and this intriguing topic is what we will discuss below.

Before you continue, you might like to download three Positive Psychology Exercises for free . These science-based exercises explore fundamental aspects of positive psychology, including strengths, values, and self-compassion, and will give you the tools to enhance the wellbeing of your clients, students, or employees.

This Article Contains:

What is educational psychology and why is it important, a brief history of the field, job description and roles of an educational psychologist, 3 real-life examples, 3 popular theories, educational psychology research topics, educational psychology vs school psychology, a look into vygotsky’s ideas, positivepsychology.com’s relevant resources, a take-home message.

Educational psychology is dedicated to the study and improvement of human learning, across the lifespan, in whatever setting it occurs.

Such settings include not only schools, but also workplaces, organized sports, government agencies, and retirement communities – anywhere humans are engaged in instruction and learning of some type.

Educational psychology is important because of its focus on understanding and improving the crucial human capacity to learn.

In this mission of enhancing learning, educational psychologists seek to assist students and teachers alike.

However, it was not until later in history that educational psychology emerged as a field in its own right, distinct from philosophy.

John Locke (1632–1704), the influential British philosopher and “father of psychology,” famously described the human mind as a tabula rasa  (blank slate) that had no innate or inborn knowledge, but could only learn through the accumulation of experiences.

Johann Herbart (1776–1841) is considered the founder of educational psychology as a distinct field. He emphasized interest in a subject as a crucial component of learning.

He also proposed five formal steps of learning:

• Reviewing what is already known
• Previewing new material to be learned
• Presenting new material
• Relating new material to what is already known
• Showing how new knowledge can be usefully applied

Maria Montessori (1870–1952) was an Italian physician and educator who started by teaching disabled and underprivileged children. She then founded a network of schools that taught children of all backgrounds using a hands-on, multi-sensory, and often student-directed approach to learning.

Nathaniel Gage (1917–2008) was an influential educational psychologist who pioneered research on teaching. He served in the U.S. Army during WWII, where he developed aptitude tests for selecting airplane navigators and radar operators.

Gage went on to develop a research program that did much to advance the scientific study of teaching.

He believed that progress in learning highly depends on effective teaching and that a robust theory of effective teaching has to cover:

• The process of teaching
• Content to be taught
• Student abilities and motivation level
• Classroom management

The above is only a sample of the influential thinkers who have contributed over time to the field of educational psychology.

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Educational psychologists have typically earned either a master’s degree or doctorate in the field.

They work in a variety of teaching, research, and applied settings (e.g., K–12, universities, the military, and educational industries like textbook and test developers).

Those with a doctorate often teach and do research at colleges or universities.

They teach basic courses such as Introduction to Educational Psychology  and more advanced seminars such as Professional Ethics in Educational Psychology , or Research Methods in Educational Psychology .

They conduct research on topics such as the best measure of literacy skills for students in secondary education, the most effective method for teaching early career professionals in engineering, and the relationship between education level and emotional health in retirees.

Educational psychologists also work in various applied roles, such as consulting on curriculum design; evaluating educational programs at schools or training sites; and offering teachers the best instructional methods for a subject area, grade level, or population, be it mainstream students, those with disabilities, or gifted students.

This theory states that besides the traditionally measured verbal and visual–spatial forms of intelligence, there are also forms that include kinesthetic or athletic intelligence, interpersonal or social–emotional intelligence, musical or artistic intelligence, and perhaps other forms we have not yet learned to measure.

Dr. Gardner teaches, conducts research, and publishes. His many books include Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences (1983) and The Disciplined Mind: Beyond Facts and Standardized Tests, the Education That Every Child Deserves  (2000).

Mamie Phipps Clark (1917–1983), shown above, was the first African-American woman to receive a doctorate in psychology from Columbia University. She and her husband Kenneth Clark (1914–2005) were interested in development and self-esteem in African-American children.

Her doctoral work illustrated the dehumanizing effect of segregated schools on both African-American and white children, in the well-known “doll study” (Clark & Clark, 1939). She found that both African-American children and white children imputed more positive characteristics to white dolls than to Black dolls.

This work was used as evidence in Brown v. Board of Education (1954), the unanimous U.S. Supreme Court ruling that decided that schools separated by race were not equal and must be desegregated.

She and her husband founded several institutions dedicated to providing counseling and educational services for underprivileged African-American children, including the Harlem Youth Opportunities Unlimited project.

Irene Marie Montero Gil earned her master’s degree from the Department of Evolutionary and Educational Psychology at the Autonomous University of Madrid, Spain.

Ms. Montero Gil had been balancing subsequent doctoral studies with her role as the youngest member of Spain’s Congress of Deputies, representing Madrid. She later postponed her studies to become Spain’s Minister of Equality, an office that advocates for equal opportunity regardless of age, gender, or disability.

The above examples show just some contributions that educational psychologists can make in research, teaching, legal, and advocacy contexts.

Day in the life of an educational psychologist w/ Dr. Sarah Chestnut

Various theories have been developed to account for how humans learn. Some of the most enduring and representative modern-day theories are discussed below.

1. Behaviorism

Behaviorism equates learning with observable changes in activity (Skinner, 1938). For example, an assembly line worker might have “learned” to assemble a toy from parts, and after 10 practice sessions, the worker can do so without errors within 60 seconds.

In behaviorism, there is a focus on stimuli or prompts to action (your supervisor hands you a box of toy parts), followed by a behavior (you assemble the toy), followed by reinforcement or lack thereof (you receive a raise for the fastest toy assembly).

Behaviorism holds that the behavioral responses that are positively reinforced are more likely to recur in the future.

We should note that behaviorists believe in a pre-set, external reality that is progressively discovered by learning.

Some scholars have also held that from a behaviorist perspective, learners are more reactive to environmental stimuli than active or proactive in the learning process (Ertmer & Newby, 2013).

However, one of the most robust developments in the later behaviorist tradition is that of positive behavioral intervention and supports (PBIS), in which proactive techniques play a prominent role in enhancing learning within schools.

Such proactive behavioral supports include maximizing structure in classrooms, teaching clear behavioral expectations in advance, regularly using prompts with students, and actively supervising students (Simonsen & Myers, 2015).

Over 2,500 schools across the United States now apply the PBIS supportive behavioral framework, with documented improvements in both student behavior (Bradshaw, Waasdorp, & Leaf, 2012) and achievement (Madigan, Cross, Smolkowski, & Stryker, 2016).

2. Cognitivism

Cognitivism was partly inspired by the development of computers and an information-processing model believed to be applicable to human learning (Neisser, 1967).

It also developed partly as a reaction to the perceived limits of the behaviorist model of learning, which was thought not to account for mental processes.

In cognitivism, learning occurs when information is received, arranged, held in memory, and retrieved for use.

Cognitivists are keenly interested in a neuronal or a brain-to-behavior perspective on learning and memory. Their lines of research often include studies involving functional brain imaging (e.g., functional magnetic resonance imaging) to see which brain circuits are activated during specific learning tasks.

Cognitivists are also keenly interested in “neuroplasticity,” or how learning causes new connections to be made between individual brain cells (neurons) and their broader neuronal networks.

From the cognitivist perspective, individuals are viewed as very active in the learning process, including how they organize information to make it personally meaningful and memorable.

Cognitivists, like behaviorists, believe that learning reflects an external reality, rather than shaping or constructing reality.

3. Constructivism

Constructivism holds that from childhood on, humans learn in successive stages (Piaget, 1955).

In these stages, we match our basic concepts, or “schemas,” of reality with experiences in the world and adjust our schemas accordingly.

For example, based on certain experiences as a child, you might form the schematic concept that all objects drop when you let them go. But let’s say you get a helium balloon that rises when you let go of it. You must then adjust your schema to capture this new reality that “most things drop when I let go of them, but at least one thing rises when I let go of it.”

For constructivists, there is always a subjective component to how reality is organized. From this perspective, learning cannot be said to reflect a pre-set external reality. Rather, reality is always an interplay between one’s active construction of the world and the world itself.

For example, Zysberg and Schwabsky (2020) examined the relationships between positive school culture or climate, students’ sense of self-efficacy, and academic achievement in Israeli middle and high school settings.

They found that school climate was positively associated with students’ sense of self-efficacy. Self-efficacy, in turn, was positively associated with academic achievement in math and English.

This study reflects a constructivist approach, emphasizing how students create meaning out of their educational experiences.

Other recent research has focused on behavioral interventions to support online learning, which is increasingly prevalent as an educational option.

For example, Yeomans and Reich (2017) found that sending learners regular prompts to complete online work resulted in a 29% increase in courses completed. They concluded that sending regular reminder prompts is an inexpensive and effective way to enhance online course completion.

This study reflects a proactive behaviorist approach to improving educational outcomes.

Another current research domain in educational psychology involves the use of brain imaging techniques during learning activity.

For example, Takeuchi, Mori, Suzukamo, and Izumi (2019) studied brain activity in teachers and students while teachers provided hints for solving a visual–spatial problem (assembling puzzles).

They found that the prefrontal cortex of the brain, involved in planning and monitoring of complex cognitive activities, was significantly activated in teachers, not when they planned hints to be given, but only when they actually gave the hints.

For the student participants, the prefrontal cortex was significantly activated when they had solved the puzzle with hints provided.

This study emphasizes a cognitivist approach, focused on brain activity during learning.

For cognitivists, understanding how the brain converts instructional inputs into learning can lead to improved teaching strategies and better learning outcomes.

Educational and school psychologists overlap in their training and functions, to some extent, but also differ in important ways.

Educational psychologists are more involved in teaching and research at the college or university level. They also focus on larger and more diverse groups in their research and consulting activities.

As consultants, educational psychologists work with organizations such as school districts, militaries, or corporations in developing the best methods for instructional needs.

Some school psychologists are involved in teaching, research, and/or consulting with large groups such as a school district. However, most are more focused on working within a particular school and with individual students and their families.

About 80% of school psychologists work in public school settings and do direct interventions with individuals or small groups.

They help with testing and supporting students with special needs, helping teachers develop classroom management strategies, and engaging in individual or group counseling, which can include crisis counseling and emotional–behavioral support.

One idea central to Vygotsky’s learning theory is that of the zone of proximal development (ZPD).

The ZPD is the area between what a learner (student, adult trainee, rehabilitation patient, etc.) can already do on their own and what the learner can readily accomplish with the help of teachers or more advanced peers.

For example, a five-year-old might already know how to perform a given three-step manual task, but can they be taught to complete a four- or five-step task?

The ZPD is a zone of emerging skills, which calls for its own kind of exploration and measurement, in order to better understand a learner’s potential (Moll, 2014).

Vygotsky was also interested in the relationship between thought and language. He theorized that much of thought comprised internalized language or “inner speech.” Like Piaget, whose work he read with interest, Vygotsky came to see language as having social origins, which would then become internalized as inner speech.

In that sense, Vygotsky is often considered a (social) constructivist, where learning depends on social communication and norms. Learning thus reflects our connection to and agreement with others, more than a connection with a purely external or objective reality.

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As mentioned in the discussion of Nathaniel Gage’s theory of effective teaching, student motivation is an important component to assess and encourage.

The Who Am I Self-Reflection can help students and their teachers think about what they are good at, what significant challenges they have been confronted with, and what inspires them. This knowledge can help both teachers and students find ways to enhance motivation in specific cases.

As noted above, the cognitivist approach to educational psychology includes understanding how the brain learns by forming new connections between neurons. The Adopt A Growth Mindset activity is a simple guide to replacing fixed mindset thinking with growth statements. It can inspire adults to learn by referencing their inherent neuroplasticity.

The idea is that with enough effort and repetition, we can form new and durable connections within our brains of a positive and adaptive nature.

For parents and teachers, we recommend Dr. Gabriella Lancia’s article on Healthy Discipline Strategies for Teaching & Inspiring Children . This article offers basic and effective strategies and worksheets for creating a positive behavioral climate at home and school that is pro-social and pro-learning.

If you’re looking for more science-based ways to help others enhance their wellbeing, this signature collection contains 17 validated positive psychology tools for practitioners. Use them to help others flourish and thrive.

The field of educational psychology has ancient roots and remains vibrant today.

Today, there are many programs across the world providing quality training in educational psychology at the master’s, doctoral, and postdoctoral levels.

According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, career opportunities in psychology will grow at a healthy rate of about 14% over this decade, and educational psychology is expected to keep pace.

In addition, job satisfaction in educational psychology and related fields such as school psychology has traditionally been high, including as it concerns social impact, independence, and compensation (Worrell, Skaggs, & Brown, 2006).

Those with a doctorate in educational psychology have potential for a broad impact on learners of any and every type. They often teach at the college or university level, conduct research and publish on various topics in the field, or consult with various organizations about the best teaching and learning methods.

Researchers in educational psychology have made important contributions to contemporary education and culture, from learning paradigms (behaviorism, cognitivism, constructionism) and the theory of multiple intelligences, to proactive school-wide positive behavioral supports.

We hope you have learned more about the rich field of educational psychology from this brief article and will find the resources it contains useful. Don’t forget to download our free Positive Psychology Exercises .

• Brown v. Board of Education , 347 U.S. (1954).
• Bradshaw, C. P., Waasdorp, T. E., & Leaf, P. J. (2012). Effects of school-wide positive behavioral interventions and supports on child behavior problems. Pediatrics , 130 (5), e1136–e1145.
• Clark, K., & Clark, M. (1939). The development of consciousness of self and the emergence of racial identification in Negro preschool children. Journal of Social Psychology ,  10 (4), 591–599.
• Ertmer, P. A., & Newby, T. J. (2013). Behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism: Comparing critical features from an instructional design perspective. Performance Improvement Quarterly , 26 (2), 43–71.
• Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences . Basic Books.
• Gardner, H. (2000). The disciplined mind: Beyond facts and standardized tests, the education that every child deserves . Penguin Books.
• Grinder, R. E. (1989). Educational psychology: The master science. In M. C. Wittrock & F. Farley (Eds.), The future of educational psychology (pp. 3–18). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
• Madigan, K., Cross, R. W., Smolkowski, K., & Stryker, L. A. (2016). Association between schoolwide positive behavioural interventions and supports and academic achievement: A 9-year evaluation. Educational Research and Evaluation , 22 (7–8), 402–421.
• Moll, L. C. (2014). L. S. Vygotsky and education . Routledge.
• Neisser, U. (1967). Cognitive psychology . Appleton-Century-Crofts.
• Piaget, J. (1955). The child’s construction of reality . Routledge & Kegan Paul.
• Simonsen, B., & Myers, D. (2015). Classwide positive behavior interventions and supports: A guide to proactive classroom management . Guilford Publications.
• Skinner, B. F. (1938). The behavior of organisms: An experimental analysis . B. F. Skinner Foundation.
• Takeuchi, N., Mori, T., Suzukamo, Y., & Izumi, S. I. (2019). Activity of prefrontal cortex in teachers and students during teaching of an insight problem. Mind, Brain, and Education , 13 , 167–175.
• Worrell, T. G., Skaggs, G. E., & Brown, M. B. (2006). School psychologists’ job satisfaction: A 22-year perspective in the USA. School Psychology International , 27 (2), 131–145.
• Yeomans, M., & Reich, J. (2017). Planning prompts increase and forecast course completion in massive open online courses. Conference: The Seventh International Learning Analytics & Knowledge Conference , pp. 464–473.
• Zysberg, L., & Schwabsky, N. (2020). School climate, academic self-efficacy and student achievement . Educational Psychology. Taylor & Francis Online.

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Education can shape an individual's life, both in the classroom and outside of it. A quality education can lay the groundwork for a successful career , but that's far from its only purpose. Education—both formal and informal—imparts knowledge, critical thinking skills, and, in many cases, an improved ability to approach unfamiliar situations and subjects with an open mind.

Some of the pressures of modern education, by contrast, are thought to contribute to the increased incidence of mental health challenges among today’s children and young adults. Examining current approaches to education—and identifying the ways in which they may be counterproductive—can help parents, teachers, and other stakeholders better support students’ well-being.

To learn more about helping kids succeed in school, see Academic Problems and Skills .

• The Purpose of Education
• What Makes Education Effective?
• How Can We Improve Education?

Scholars and philosophers have debated the purpose of education throughout history. Some have argued that education was necessary for an engaged citizenry; some felt its purpose was to promote obedience and indoctrinate youth to dominant cultural ideas; still others believed that the pursuit of knowledge was in itself a virtuous or even spiritual goal. Today, conversations around the purpose of education tend to center around child development and the economy—that is, how education can help children grow into healthy, competent adults who are able to support themselves financially and contribute to society. Some experts warn, however, that excessive focus on the economic and pragmatic benefits of education deprives the process of joy. Humans—especially children—are natural learners, they argue, and learning may be most valuable when it’s pursued for its own sake.

Education, broadly defined, is valuable for teaching children the social, emotional, and cognitive skills needed to function in society. Formal education is thought to facilitate social learning , build executive functioning skills, and allow children to explore subjects they may not naturally be exposed to. Informal education typically allows them to cultivate their own interests and learn self-direction , itself an important life skill.

Ideally, in the modern world, education will teach both the technical skills needed for future success and cultivate the critical thinking abilities that allow humans to creatively approach problems, engage new perspectives, and innovate in an ever-changing world. Whether the current system of formal education does that effectively, however, is a source of great debate among the public and policymakers alike.

Most policymakers and educational psychologists agree that some kind of formal education is necessary to function in the modern world. But many experts argue its hyperfocus on grades, testing, and following a set curriculum, rather than children’s interests, can actually be counterproductive and interfere with the natural learning process that more informal education approaches often provide. Excessively rigid schooling is also thought to contribute to heightened anxiety among children, especially those who fall behind or are otherwise non-normative.

Homeschooling —in which a child is not enrolled in a formal school, but instead is educated by their parents or with other homeschoolers—has both strengths and drawbacks. Some common benefits reported by families include increased flexibility in what is studied, the ability to pace the curriculum to a child’s needs, and a supportive learning environment. Potential cons include reduced opportunities for socialization, limited diversity in the opinions and subjects that a child may be exposed to, and an emotional and intellectual burden placed on parents, who may struggle to keep their child engaged or update their own knowledge to ensure they’re imparting useful, up-to-date information.

Grades can be valuable tools in determining which children grasp the material and which are struggling. But despite widespread myths that good grades are necessary to succeed in life , high school and college grades do not necessarily correlate with long-term success. And hyperfocus on grades can have profoundly negative effects, as students who pursue perfect grades at all costs often struggle with anxiety , depression , or feelings of burnout .

Highly-ranked colleges are widely assumed to confer lifelong benefits to attendees, including higher incomes and more prestigious, satisfying careers. But this isn’t necessarily true. Indeed, evidence suggests that, when controlling for prior socioeconomic status and academic achievement, attending an elite college makes little difference in someone’s later income. Other research suggests that the type of college someone attends has no effect on their later life satisfaction; instead, having supportive professors or participating in meaningful activities during college best predicts someone’s future well-being.

Teachers, parents, and society at large have debated at length the criteria that denote a "good" education. In recent years, many educators have attempted to develop their curricula based on research and data, integrating the findings of developmental psychology and behavioral science into their lesson plans and teaching strategies. Recent debates have centered on how much information should be tailored to individual students vs. the class at large, and, increasingly, whether and how to integrate technology into classrooms. Students’ age, culture, individual strengths and weaknesses, and personal background—as well as any learning disabilities they may have—all play a role in the effectiveness of particular teachers and teaching methods.

The idea that education should be tailored to children’s different “learning styles”—typically categorized as visual, auditory, and kinesthetic—has been around for decades. But research has not found that creating targeted lessons based on children’s learning styles helps them learn more effectively ; some has even suggested that characterizing children as having one particular learning style could be unfairly limiting, and may stop them from tackling tasks outside of their comfort zone.

Children are by nature highly active, and an inability to move throughout the day often triggers inattention and poor mood—neither of which are conducive to learning. And moving during learning, not just before or after it, has been shown to be similarly beneficial; children who are allowed to move in class learn better , research shows, paying more attention and achieving higher outcomes.

Whether homework is beneficial is the subject of debate. Proponents argue that homework reinforces lessons and fosters time management and organizational skills. Opponents argue that excessive homework has been correlated with lower scores in critical subjects, like math and science, as well as worsened physical and mental health. Most experts argue that if homework is assigned, it should serve a specific purpose —rather than just being busywork—and should be tailored to a child’s age and needs. 

In general, evidence suggests that online-only courses are less effective than courses where students are able to meet in person. However, when in-person learning is not possible—such as during the COVID-19 pandemic—well-designed  distance learning  programs can bridge the gap. Research indicates that online programs that mix passive instruction with active practice, and that allow students to progress at their own pace, tend to be most effective.

Depression, anxiety, and other mental health disorders appear to be significantly more common in today's college students than they once were. Nearly 1 in 5 university students suffer from anxiety or depression, research suggests, and many colleges—particularly larger ones—will face at least one student suicide per year. The reasons for this are complex, experts warn, but may be due to factors including the increased prevalence of social media , the financial and academic stress of college, reduced economic opportunity upon graduation, and decreased resilience among today's youth as a result of parental over-involvement.

The world is changing rapidly, and so are children’s educational needs. While many people agree that education should prepare children for a competitive global economy, there has also been a push to recognize that children's well-being should be taken into consideration when planning curricula and structuring the school day.

To this end, parents and educators are confronting pedagogical questions such as: What is the optimal time to start school to make sure students can learn effectively—and get enough rest? How many and what kind of breaks do students need during the day? What are the best ways for students to learn, and do they differ depending on the subject being taught—or the students themselves?

In some of these areas, big changes are already taking place. Some states, for instance, are considering or have already passed laws that would delay school start times, making them more conducive to children's sleeping schedules. Other states have passed laws requiring recess, ensuring that children have access to physical activity throughout the day. These reforms, along with others, aim to protect children's physical and mental health—in addition to making them better able to focus, learn, and grow.

Many experts now believe that starting school later—typically after 8:30 A.M.—is better for children than starting earlier. This is particularly true for middle and high school children, who naturally sleep later than adults and may struggle to function if made to wake too early. Many school districts have implemented later school start times to account for this biological reality.

First and foremost, school recess provides the physical activity that is critical to a child’s physical and mental health. But recess is also an opportunity for children to socialize without (excessive) adult interference, which allows them to learn cooperation and conflict resolution skills.

Kindergarten and preschool programs are increasingly focusing on teaching children academic skills like math and reading. But evidence suggests that because children are not yet cognitively or emotionally equipped to handle most academic material, such early academic training can produce lasting harm . Some research has found that children in such programs do worse over the long term than children who spent preschool and kindergarten playing and socializing.

Children and young adults today are significantly more likely to experience mental health problems—especially anxiety and depression—than in decades past, and many will require mental health interventions at school. Evidence suggests that schools of any level can best support and help treat students with mental health disorders by proactively identifying students who need help, fostering a school culture that makes mental well-being a priority, and working to decrease stigma surrounding mental health care, both among students and their families. For students without diagnosable mental illnesses, schools can still be supportive by ensuring workloads are reasonable; providing opportunities for movement, creativity , and social connection; and reminding children, teenagers , and young adults that it's OK to ask for help.

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Under the surface of teacher occupational wellness and effectiveness in higher education: a look into the mediator roles of work passion and emotion regulation via SEM analysis

• Xiumin Yu 1 &
• Tongxiu Ying 1  

BMC Psychology volume  12 , Article number:  166 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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Teacher occupational wellness and effectiveness are crucial aspects of a teacher's capacity to contribute to the advancement of excellence in education. Nevertheless, there is a dearth of considerable studies regarding the interconnections between work passion and emotion regulation in higher education. This study developed a model to demonstrate the interplay between the above-mentioned constructs to fill this research gap. To gather this information, the required scales were sent to 401 different university professors. Based on the findings of Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) and Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA), it is suggested that work passion and emotion regulation have the potential to enhance teacher occupational wellness and effectiveness in higher education. In the end, implications and directions for the future were presented to educators and researchers who are enthused about the potential of work passion, emotion regulation, and self-compassion for improving instructive practices.

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Introduction

Educating in higher education is intrinsically complex due to the multitude of external and internal variables involved. The outcome is contingent upon the self-perception of language teachers and the instructional techniques they use with their students. Typically, educators devise many teaching methods, influenced by the interplay of their individual and institutional dimensions [ 1 , 2 ]. Educators have a crucial function in the educational system. The significance of university teachers in molding the student intellects should never be undervalued. Furthermore, it is evident that some professors possess a greater ability to exert influence on students compared to their peers.

In the course of this inquiry with educators, the first idea that is taken into consideration is work passion (WP). The notion of WP has garnered increased attention in the twenty-first century, as evidenced by the proliferation of research that highlights its advantageous consequences and how organizations can profit from employing an impassioned staff [ 3 ]. WP is a disposition toward action or endeavor that individuals esteem highly, find enjoyable, and devote a substantial amount of time and effort to [ 4 ]. Passion increases well-being, motivates individuals, and imparts significance to their existence. WP among university teachers may also lead to teacher effectiveness (TE). The efficacy of education is contingent upon the efficacy of instructors [ 5 ]. In such a case, it becomes essential to conceptualize the meaning of TE. The National Comprehensive Centre for Teacher Quality has developed a concise definition of TE, consisting of five characteristics [ 6 ]. Firstly, an effective teacher sets high expectations for all students and supports them in achieving their goals. Secondly, an effective teacher positively influences students' academic, social, and attitudinal outcomes. Thirdly, an effective teacher utilizes a variety of resources to plan and structure learning opportunities. Fourthly, an effective teacher promotes diversity and civic-mindedness within schools. Lastly, an effective teacher collaborates with colleagues, parents, and school administration.

Efficiency and production are two factors that teachers may use to determine whether or not they will be successful in their careers. In their definition of teacher effectiveness, [ 7 ] outlined the interplay between internal factors (such as instructors' motivation, beliefs, and dispositions) and external factors (such as students' cultural, social, and educational backgrounds) that influence students' final results. Given that discoveries about TE have significant implications for education policy and reform, the correlates of TE become a matter of utmost importance. For teachers to be able to teach in a manner that is inventive, motivating, and meaningful, they need to be in excellent emotional and mental health. In the course of their trip through the world of education, teachers could feel a wide range of emotions. These events and feelings have a significant influence on their ability to succeed as well as on the achievement of their students. It is believed that teachers who effectively regulate their emotions throughout their work are more accomplished [ 8 ]. In accordance with the definition provided by [ 9 ], the concept of teacher emotion regulation (ER) refers to the capacity of a professor to control and administer their own emotional experiences and expressions. Teacher ER gives educators the ability to control the intensity and length of their emotional contact in the context of their professional work [ 10 ]. It will be substantially more difficult for teachers to show their efficacy as a result of these changes. It is necessary to do further study on the subject of ER since it is still in its infancy, especially in the realm of higher education [ 11 ].

Occupational wellness ( OW) involves maintaining a healthy balance between work and leisure activities to promote well-being, personal fulfillment, and financial success. The OW component is influenced by nurturing. The dimension recognizes personal satisfaction and improvement in an individual's life via employment. In a study by [ 12 ], four interconnected resources that contributed to the teachers' OW are highlighted: Psychological, social, human, and health capitals. Research to depict OW in the realm of language teaching in particular higher education is scarce. To fill this lacuna, the current research has constructed a mediation model to investigate the potential transmission of OW and TE to WP and ER within the context of higher education. This investigation offers an opportunity to enhance the understanding by examining the underlined connections. The data collected have sparked a discussion and created possibilities for subsequent studies.

Literature review

As a motivational process, WP helps teachers tackle different activities successfully. WP manifests itself in their propensity to engage in physically demanding tasks, which they eventually come to consider as fundamental to who they are [ 13 ]. As per the dichotomous paradigm for passion established by [ 14 ], passion may be categorized into two distinct forms: harmonious and obsessive. Harmonious passion is the result of an individual's autonomous engagement in an activity and its assimilation into their character. Harmonious passion refers to the deliberate acceptance of behaviors that are deemed important and meaningful, promoting a feeling of unity with one's whole being. Obsessive passion occurs when an individual internalizes an activity to the point that it becomes incorporated into their psyche, resulting in a sense of control. This preoccupation is often initiated by internal pressures and/or external factors linked to self-esteem or societal validation, or by the excessive level of enthusiasm generated by the engaged activities [ 15 ]. An increasing number of scholars have directed their attention towards investigating the impacts of passion in an academic setting. These researchers have established connections between passion and various academic outcomes, including students' academic achievement, intentional effort, perseverance, goal-oriented thinking, resilience in learning, and overall well-being [ 13 , 16 ] Research has indicated that an increase in a learner's passion correlates positively with their propensity to maintain concentration on enhancing their self-competence [ 17 , 18 ].

Considering TE, the educational frameworks developed by [ 6 ] and [ 19 ] are extensively used in educational environments to ascertain the efficacy of instructors in the modern day [ 18 ] 's procedure defines the four categories that are used to assess teachers' effectiveness: organizing and preparing, the setting of the classroom, teaching, and job responsibilities. Similarly, [ 6 ] presented his framework as ten inquiries that represent the correct order for effective educational design. These inquiries include setting learning goals, providing opportunities for learners to apply what they have learned and deepen their comprehension, facilitating student interaction with new knowledge, interacting with learners in the educational process, fostering productive relationships between learners and educators, implementing successful instructional strategies, communicating high expectations for learners, and employing effective, standards-based formative and summative assessment methods that utilize multiple indicators of student competency. According to [ 20 ], TE refers to their capacity to teach successfully in the classroom. Moreover, [ 21 , 22 ] argued that efficiency for instruction is a complex concept that is difficult to define due to its intangible nature. The present research is grounded on self-efficacy theory [ 23 ] and productivity theory [ 24 ]. Self-efficacy, as defined by Bandura, refers to an individual's belief in their ability to effectively affect their activities, leading to successful outcomes.

ER, the last construct in this research, refers to a broad framework that involves psychological, cognitive, and biological elements. It is used to effectively change conditions of emotion [ 25 ]. The concept of ER is not static, but rather a fluid process that impacts and motivates individuals' emotional experiences and expressions [ 26 ]. ER affects not only the initiation, but also the length and delay of emotional reactions, as well as cognitive, emotional, and bodily functions [ 27 ]. Creating a favorable emotional atmosphere enables instructors to better regulate not only their own emotions but also the emotions of their students. To elucidate the construct of teacher ER, [ 28 ] devised a model consisting of six dimensions. These dimensions are Situation selection, Situation alteration, Attention deployment, Reappraisal, Suppression, and Seeking social support. The first three dimensions of the model were formulated based on Gross' process model of ER [ 29 , 30 ]. The reappraisal and suppression aspects were developed based on the results of [ 26 ]. In their pursuit of social support, they used the research conducted by [ 2 ] and [ 31 ]. This model was applied in the present research. One study that looked at the link between burnout, classroom norms about emotional expression, and ER methods was the one conducted by [ 32 ] among teachers. The findings of [ 11 ] in higher education evidenced that university instructors who possess a comprehensive understanding of productive immunity and ER exhibit more resilience and autonomy. More precisely, ER provides university professors with the means to effectively address the challenges and difficult circumstances that arise in their careers. Moreover, the study by [ 33 ] uncovered that the emotional regulation, reflective teaching, self-efficacy, and identity of language instructors could be important factors influencing their psychological well-being. This study emphasizes the need to include reflective practices, emotional management skills, self-efficacy beliefs, and identity reconstruction within teacher training programmers' curricula.

Methodology

Research questions and aims.

Researchers have not yet examined the connections between OW, TE, WP, and ER in terms of their effectiveness in helping EFL teachers in higher education. Given the scarcity of research in this particular domain and the criticality of the enumerated elements in higher education, the objective of this investigation was to assess the effects of WP and ER on OW and TE among EFL instructors. The results of this research could potentially yield beneficial consequences for educators and learners, encompassing both theoretical and practical domains. In consideration of these perspectives, the subsequent areas of inquiry are suggested:

RQ1: Are work passion and emotion regulation for EFL university teachers indicative of their occupational wellness?

RQ2: Are work passion and emotion regulation for EFL university teachers indicative of their effectiveness?

Context and participants

There was a total of 401 individuals who took part in this research; among the language teachers, 250 were men and 151 were women. In China, they were teaching in higher education. Their ages range from twenty-nine to fifty-one, and their years of teaching experience range from a year to twenty-five. Among the participants, 401 had a PhD degree, while the remaining individuals had a master's degree in Applied Linguistics.

Research tools and procedures

The occupational well-being scale.

The 12-item Occupational Well-Being Scale (OWS) developed by [ 34 ] was used to assess teachers' well-being. This measure is designed to assess the overall health and happiness of educators. The participants were asked to rate how much they felt anxious, content, depressed, or enthusiastic concerning their occupation in the previous week. Anxiety is defined as a state of tension-ridden unease, or worry; contentment is defined as a state of being at ease, happy, or relaxed; and despair is defined as a state of sad, depression, or drained. From 1 (never) to 6 (always), there were a total of six possible answers. Based on Table 1 , dependability in this investigation was good.

The teacher effectiveness scale

The evaluation of TE was carried out with the assistance of the scale that was manufactured and verified by [ 35 ]. On this scale, which is comprised of 25 items that are separated into five sub-sections, some of the characteristics that are included are preparation and planning for teaching, classroom management, mastery of subject matter and its delivery, teacher attributes, and interpersonal interactions. In all, five different replies could be given, ranging from 1 (never) to 5 (always). In line with Cronbach's alpha, which varied from 0.806 to 0.881, the ABS dependability in this investigation was good.

The work passion scale

The work passion scale (WPS) by [ 3 ] was used for evaluating WP. The scale has 14 questions, with 7 items measuring harmonious passion and the remaining 7 items evaluating obsessive passion. The answer scale spanned from 1 ("Strongly disagree") to 7 ("Strongly agree"). According to Table 1 , the internal consistency of WPS is acceptable.

The language teacher emotion regulation inventory

The language teacher's emotion regulation inventory (LTERI) evaluated participants' ER techniques [ 28 ] developed this scale, which includes 27 questions and six sub-factors: scenario selection, situation alteration, attention deployment, reappraisal, suppression, and seeking social support. The LTERI questions were designed to be answered on a five-point Likert scale, with 1 indicating "never" and 5 representing "always". Cronbach's alpha scores ranged from 0.788 to 0.924, indicating excellent reliability for the LTERI in this study.

A web-based platform was created to facilitate the data collection process for this research project over a period of five months in 2023. The objectives of this four-part survey are to evaluate OW, TE, WP, and ER. To Analyze the data, the data was screened to check its normality using the Kolmogorov-Smirnov (K-S) test. Once it was determined that the data followed a normal distribution, parametric procedures were suggested for data analysis. The analysis was performed using CFA and SEM with Linear Structural Relations (LISREL) 8.80. As stated by [ 36 ], SEM is a reliable multivariate process that is used to verify the suggested structural theory using a confirmatory hypothesis-taking strategy. The measurement model and the structural model are the two components of a SEM model [ 37 ]. The links between the latent variables and the observable variables are investigated using the measurement model. The associations between the latent variables are measured using the structural model. It is recommended to use CFA to assess all latent variables before testing a structural model [ 38 ].

This section presents a concise overview of the data analysis, along with an elaborate explanation of every element of the report. Firstly, the gathered data underwent the K-S test to identify any patterns in the recurring presentations.

Table 2 shows that the significance values of all the instruments and their components were more than 0.05. This suggests that the findings follow a normal distribution, which justifies the use of parametric approaches for analyzing the data.

After that, the relationships between OW, TE, WP, and ER were investigated using structural equation modeling and a causal analytic framework. A statistical program termed LISREL 8.80 was employed to conduct these experiments. The chi-squared magnitude, RMSEA, CFI, GFI, and NFI were among the metrics used to assess the reliability of the model's predictions in relation to the actual data.

Figures  1 and 2 vividly illustrate the relationship between the factors. Table 3 presents standardized estimates and t-values to analyze the impact of OW, TE, WP, and ER. WP has a significant positive effect on occupational wellness with a beta coefficient of 0.59 and a t-value of 7.12. Similarly, WP also has a significant positive effect on TE with a beta coefficient of 0.52 and a t-value of 6.30. Additionally, ER has a significant positive effect on OW with a beta coefficient of 0.72 and a t-value of 15.66. ER has a positive impact on TE (β = 0.81, t = 21.53).

The Path Coefficient Values for the Connection among OW, TE, WP, and ER (Model 1)

Path Coefficients with T Significance Values (Model 1)

Figures  3 and  4 , together with Table 4 , demonstrate the connections found between the WP and ER components as well as OW and TE. A correlation was discovered between OW and Harmonious Passion (β = 0.54, t = 6.12), Obsessive Passion (β = 0.51, t = 5.97), Situation Selection (β = 0.80, t = 20.59), Situation Modification (β = 0.71, t = 14.08), Attention Deployment (β = 0.67, t = 11.45), Reappraisal (β = 0.74, t = 14.35), Suppression (β = 0.63, t = 9.75), and Seeking Social Support (β = 0.70, t = 12.69). The relationships between TE and Harmonious Passion (β = 0.54, t = 6.12), Obsessive Passion (β = 0.51, t = 5.97), Situation Selection (β = 0.80, t = 20.59), Situation Modification (β = 0.83, t = 22.51), Attention Deployment (β = 0.82, t = 21.76), Reappraisal (β = 0.85, t = 24.47), Suppression (β = 0.76, t = 16.47), and Seeking Social Support (β = 0.78, t = 18.63) are also valid.

The Path Coefficient Values for the Interconnections between OW, TE, WP, and ER (Model 2)

Furthermore, according to [ 39 ], the chi-square is considered to be insignificant, and the ratio of chi-square to degrees of freedom ought to be less than three. It is also noted that the root means square error of approximation (RMSEA) should be less than 0.1. Additionally, a good match is indicated by the NFI where the cut value is larger than 0.90, the GFI where the cut value is higher than 0.90, and the CFI where the cut value is greater than 0.90 [ 39 ].

As can be shown in Table 5 , Model 1 fit criteria are met by the chi-square/df ratio of 2.819, the RMSEA of 0.067, the GFI of 0.925, the NFI of 0.934, and the CFI of 0.959. Additionally, Table 5 provides a brief overview of the fact that every model fit index associated with Model 2 is suitable. Examples include the RMSEA (0.070), the GFI (0.945), the NFI (0.938), the CFI (0.952), and the chi-square/df ratio (2.908).

Moreover, this research used a Pearson product-moment correlation to examine the association between OW, TE, WP, and ER.

Table 6 displays the connections between OW, TE, WP, and ER that were determined to be significant. It was found that WP was associated with OW ( r = 0.615) and TE ( r = 0.602). The connections between ER and OW ( r = 0.745) and TE ( r = 0.841) were also confirmed. The details of these connections are illustrated in Table 6 .

Table 7 illustrates the positive and statistically significant link that exists between the OW, TE, WP, and ER subcomponents. OW and harmonious passion ( r = 0.593), obsessive passion ( r =0.624), Situation Selection ( r =0.678), Situation Modification ( r = 0.734), Attention Deployment ( r =0.703), Reappraisal ( r =0.760), Suppression ( r = 0.655), and Seeking Social Support ( r = 0.721), all supported this conclusion. Furthermore, it was established that the subsequent correlations between TE, WP, and ER subfactors were positive and statistically significant: harmonious passion ( r = 0.560), obsessive passion ( r =0.531), Situation Selection ( r =0.824), Situation Modification ( r = 0.856), Attention Deployment ( r =0.841), Reappraisal ( r =0.879), Suppression ( r =0.780), and Seeking Social Support ( r = 0.804).

The overall theme of this research was to investigate the impact of EFL university teachers' WP and ER on their OW and TE. The results, particularly Model 1, indicate that WP and ER are important factors in predicting OW and TE. In accordance with the findings, notably Model 1, WP and ER are significant determinants in determining the likelihood of OW and TE that will occur. Self-determination, autonomy, enthusiasm, resilience, and persistence are all traits that may be developed via the cultivation of a powerful degree of protection and a skilled ability to manage emotions. Disregarding one's emotional balance and displaying maladaptive emotional intelligence, on the other hand, might have negative consequences. As a result, teachers in higher education need to use more ways that are contemplative and self-analytical to face the complex challenges and changes that are occurring in educational contexts [ 40 ]. It is of the utmost importance to improve teachers' understanding of the underlying principles that underlie the notions of WP, ER, OW, and TE, as well as the critical role that these competencies play in their job performance.

Firstly, it was revealed that enthusiasm for teaching and emotion management was an essential predictor of teacher OW (QR1: Are work passion and emotion regulation for EFL university teachers indicative of their occupational wellness?). This conclusion is corroborated by various researchers who have emphasized the relevance of teachers’ emotion control in classroom environments and its consequences on teacher welfare [ 41 , 42 ]. It is plausible to suggest that instructors’ coping methods could enhance the association between emotional control and emotional health. For instance, teachers who apply more suitable emotional control tactics may suffer less fear from disordered learning situations and learners’ disobedience as they are adept at addressing stresses that arise in the educational setting. As a consequence, the perception of capability may make it possible for educators to achieve a higher level of psychological well-being, which in turn helps them to increase the likelihood that they will be satisfied with their job and the teaching they do in the classroom [ 42 , 43 ]. On the other hand, when EFL instructors are unable to successfully manage their emotions, they are unable to successfully cope with the challenges that arise in the classroom; thus, they may consider their job to be emotionally draining [ 12 , 43 , 44 ]. In addition, teachers who can control their emotions can devise strategies that are suitable for their emotional state and establish a profound and pleasurable connection with their students. Consequently, teachers are more likely to experience satisfaction and joy in their work, and they are also more likely to boost their personal growth as they achieve strong emotional well-being throughout their careers. This conclusion is congruent with study findings of [ 45 ] which indicated that instructors’ effectiveness judgments were connected with their psychological and physical participation in instructional activities.

Secondly, it was established that teacher perception of effectiveness may strongly predict the psychological wellness of EFL instructors. This conclusion corresponds with the outcomes of a substantial body of literature indicating that high levels of teachers’ self-efficacy are connected with an elevated state of emotional wellness [ 46 ]. For instance, [ 47 ] observed that the self-worth of teachers was connected to their overall mental health. In other words, instructors with high self-efficacy reported greater degrees of good emotions and contentment and had a lower proportion of unfavorable sentiments. A possible reason could be that educators with a higher level of optimism (e.g., perceptions that they have a substantial effect on student’s development and learning) may be extremely motivated and exceedingly satisfied with their profession, which in turn may enhance their emotional health. This is corroborated by [ 48 ] who suggested that one’s intrinsic drive adds to their psychological wellness. Additionally, instructors’ enthusiastic mindset about their instruction could assist them in nurturing their teaching abilities and instructional efficacy by palliating their emotional burdens and problems. It may also be suggested that educators have a feeling of fulfillment and suffer less fatigue if they are equipped with stronger efficacy views and confidence in their skills to teach effectively and energetically engage their learners.

It may be suggested that educators’ substantial degree of competency and efficacy in their teaching abilities would lessen the levels of fear, dissatisfaction, and sadness. This explanation fits with the findings of several recent research that identified teacher self-efficacy as a negative indicator of disengagement and burnout [ 49 ]. From this approach, greater degrees of self-worth in teaching could be associated with increased work satisfaction and positive employment desires. The truth is, that teachers with a higher degree of instructional efficacy may grow confidence-boosting in employing methods for emotional regulation if they run into challenging and demanding situations; subsequently, they encounter fewer concerns in their position than instructors who have lower degrees of self-worth. As a consequence, teachers’ good feelings (i.e., reduced worry and further job satisfaction) might boost their psychological welfare as well as optimum functioning, pushing them to further devotion to instructional operations and work commitment. This is corroborated by [ 50 ] who illustrated that teachers’ contentment in educational settings is highly connected with their involvement levels. This research provides important insights on OW and TE with the mediator roles of WP and ER, and it has significant implications for policymakers, teacher educators, and other relevant stakeholders who are interested in understanding how to help language teachers in their professional duties.

All in all, under the surface layer of teacher occupational wellness and effectiveness different factors are hidden. The study findings uncover that WP and ER are critical in determining the state of OW and TE in higher education. These results have significant implications for instructional administrators as a whole and the executive boards of higher education institutions specifically. The outcomes confirmed the significance of a teacher's WP and ER as strategic instruments for enhancing their OW and TE. Therefore, based on the results of this study, it is recommended that educators and strategists in higher education institutions focus on enhancing students' WP and ER by investing in the development of teachers' skills in this regard. This can be achieved by increasing teachers' knowledge through opportunities by providing them with training specifically tailored for teaching in higher education. The results of this research also provide evidence that emotional contagion fully mediates the transmission of a teacher's professional enthusiasm. This discovery indicates that a teacher's intense enthusiasm for their job may influence the ways they teach and act. Higher education planners must prioritize teachers' education. The results of this study indicate that the transmission of a teacher's WP and ER to OW and TE is more pronounced when the instructor has a Ph.D. degree. The results suggest that tactics in educational contributions and recruiters/hiring managers in higher education institutions should review faculty recruitment and selection policies. This will help them assign the most competent applicants with higher education and requirements, ensuring the delivery of high-quality education.

Higher education faculty may benefit from considering the instructional implications of this study's results. Higher education programs should take into account the need to teach students how to effectively use ER techniques based on contextual and psychological variables. A wide variety of tactics should be the focus of such training programs, with an emphasis on demonstrating when and how each one works. Training should also place more emphasis on how university teachers' personal qualities, as well as preferences, impact the efficacy of their ER tactics. This data also encourages academics to change their negative ER methods to more positive ones, which should help their self-efficacy and second language grit.

Professionals in the field of EFL education would do well to assist their fellow educators by providing them with guidance and training in the identification and management of stress, as well as in the development of healthy pedagogical attitudes and emotional regulation skills. Managers may do their part to create a warm and inviting classroom environment where EFL instructors feel comfortable sharing their true sentiments and where they can get the information, they need to accurately assess different teaching situations. If teachers have a more positive outlook on their work environment, they may be more motivated to find solutions to the emotional challenges they face in the classroom. The findings of this research highlight the need to support EFL professionals in developing their self-worth and knowledge since these factors are known to play a significant role in ensuring their psychological health while working in the EFL field. One way to make this happen is to provide teachers with more opportunities to acquire the knowledge they need to address any gaps in their pedagogical repertoire. Furthermore, to foster a more favorable perception of EFL instructors' ability as educators, supervisors or administrators should provide them additional power.

Limitations and suggestions for future researchers

Some limitations are included in the results of this study: To begin, the research used a quantitative approach. Future research can utilize mixed-method approaches to examine the connections between various teacher-related concepts, such as ER, self-efficacy, L2 grit, work engagement, autonomy, critical thinking, job satisfaction, reflective teaching, self-regulation, and immunity, to gain a better grasp of the causal interactions among the variables in question. Secondly, as a point for future study, we did not investigate how participants' demographic factors impacted OW, TE, WP, and ER. Finally, individuals were selected via convenience sampling owing to practical limitations. Which is not accurately reflective. Consequently, findings from this research should be carefully understood and used broadly with caution. This research will concentrate on the ER methods used by EFL university teachers in the workplace. A trait method was used to evaluate EFL university teachers' ER. Moreover, ER methods in reaction to emotional events in the workplace were evaluated retrospectively, focusing on their frequency and intensity. Additionally, additional studies should be conducted to see whether ER affects their students' ER. Another idea is for academics to look at different types of educational settings, such as public and private language schools, to see how OW, TE, WP, and ER interact.

Availability of data and materials

The dataset of the present study is available upon request from the corresponding author.

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Yu, X., Ying, T. Under the surface of teacher occupational wellness and effectiveness in higher education: a look into the mediator roles of work passion and emotion regulation via SEM analysis. BMC Psychol 12 , 166 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-024-01656-2

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH article

Variables with a negative impact on the quality of life of gays and lesbians in spain: evaluation of homophobic and lesbophobic indicators to guide youth education.

• 1 Department of Pedagogy, Faculty of Education, Psychology and Sports Sciences, University of Huelva, Huelva, Spain
• 2 Center for Research in Contemporary Thought and Innovation for Social Development (COIDESO), University of Huelva, Huelva, Spain
• 3 Nursing Department, Faculty of Nursing, University of Huelva, Huelva, Spain
• 4 Department Clinical and Experimental Psychology, Faculty of Education, Psychology and Sports Sciences, University of Huelva, Huelva, Spain
• 5 Department of Social, Development and Educational Psychology, Faculty of Education, Psychology and Sports Sciences, University of Huelva, Huelva, Spain

Background: Despite the evidence about the negative impact of homophobic and lesbophobic attitudes on the quality of life of these individuals, the World Health Organisation (WHO) continues to report a lack of research and understanding regarding the health of gays and lesbians and LGTB people in general. There is a growing commitment in public health to understand and improve the health and well-being of LGTB people, and it is very important that professionals in social, educational and health care settings are adequately trained and informed to solve the problems that persist in this population. The aim of this study was to identify homophobic and lesbophobic attitudes in a Spanish youth population, analyzing the relationship of these attitudes with sociodemographic, cultural, political and personal variables.

Methods: A descriptive, cross-sectional study was carried out with 325 young people aged 18–30 years. The information was collected through the Modern Homophobia Scale of Raja & Stokes, in which sociodemographic and sociocultural variables were also gathered. The data were analyzed and correlations were estimated.

Results: The males showed a more negative attitude toward homosexual people compared to the females. The participants with a higher education level presented more positive attitudes toward homosexual people. Younger people with a heterosexual orientation had more negative attitudes toward homosexual people compared to those with a homosexual orientation. The participants with a stronger right-wing political tendency presented a greater percentage of negative attitudes toward LGTB people.

Conclusion: Variables such as education level, sexual orientation and political ideology may have a significant influence on the attitudes toward homosexual men and/or lesbian women. Different results were obtained as a function of sex, thus it is important to consider the gender perspective in future studies that tackle this topic.

1 Introduction

The LGTB collective is a collective made up of lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, intersex, queer and others. This research will only focus on attitudes towards homosexual men and women, i.e., gays and lesbians.

One of the main contributions of the 20th century was the consolidation of the welfare state, which consists in the intervention of the public authorities in the economic and social life of the country, with the aim of correcting the functioning deficiencies of the market, redistributing the resources and creating a legal system for the protection of the citizen against the severe social problems that are generated in society ( Briceño and Gillezeau, 2012 ).

When referring to the term welfare, it is important to remember that the WHO ( Organización Mundial de la Salud, 2006 ), in its constitutive act of April 7th 1948, defined health as a complete state of physical, mental and social welfare, and not merely as the absence of affectations or diseases. From that date, this concept has not been modified. This means that both the planning and management of health by the different regimes of the welfare state must be based on prolonging such complete welfare state to its maximum extent and preventing its deterioration and disappearance.

The concept of quality of life is directly related to health and welfare ( Mceberg, 1993 ). Fernández et al. (2001) defined health-related quality of life as the level of welfare derived from the person’s evaluation of different dimensions of her/his life, considering how these are influenced by her/his health state.

Some researchers ( Guyat et al., 1993 ; Beckie and Hayduk, 1997 ) state that, in order to measure quality of life, it is necessary to focus, on the one hand, on purely objective variables, such as the biochemical parameters of the human body, and, on the other hand, on indicators proposed by social sciences, such as happiness, satisfaction with life and subjective welfare. However, WHO recommends the contemporary biopsychosocial model and approach to disease and health, which takes into consideration the dynamic interaction of its three components: biological, psychological and social.

Subjective welfare may present unfavourable results, due to multiple risk factors, in certain populations, such as that of LGTB people, which includes homosexual, bisexual, transsexual, intersexual and queer people, as well as any other gender identity, expression and sexual/romantic orientation ( Biglia and Cagliero, 2019 ).

Focusing on sexual orientation, a historical-cultural overview of the perception ( Foucault, 1980 ) and conception of homosexuality as a mental disorder ( Ardila, 2022 ) shows that the attitudes toward this orientation have evolved. Their evolution seems to go in the same direction as that of racism and sexism, with the current differentiation between explicit and subtle attitudes ( Rodríguez-Castro et al., 2013 ). Explicit homophobic attitudes include verbal, physical or psychological aggression toward homosexual people, whereas subtle homophobic attitudes include cultural or medical discourses about the pathological character of homosexuality and the incapacitation of homosexual couples to adopt children. For Kate Millett ( Del-Olmo-Campillo, 2018 ), the rejection of homosexuality is a consequence of the oppression of a patriarchal state. Sexuality has a relevant role in social transformation. A revolution is necessary that makes us reconsider politically relationship between the sexes. A scenario in which sexuality occupies a free and priority role. Thus, social transformation can be achieved from a sexual revolution, one that eliminates strategies of domination and power present in sexual relations between men and women, and that achieves make all taboos and prohibitions relating to sexuality disappear, including homosexuality ( Del-Olmo-Campillo, 2018 ).

In the European Parliament Resolution about homophobia in Europe, held in January 9th 2006 ( Resolución del Parlamento Europeo sobre la homofobia en Europa, 2006 ), the concept of homophobia was defined as an irrational fear and aversion toward homosexuality and the LGTB community (lesbians, gays, bisexuals and transsexuals), based on prejudices and comparable to racism, xenophobia, antisemitism and sexism. In this resolution, it is considered that homophobia manifests in the public and private scopes in different forms, such as hate speech and encouragement of discrimination, ridicule, verbal, psychological and physical violence, prosecution and even murder. It has also been found that microaggressions can have an equally detrimental impact as explicit aggressions. Microaggressions are comments that are used in everyday life and may go unnoticed, but which equally denigrate, belittle and often insult, are so ephemeral and so normalized within language that they seem almost imperceptible. In the countries of the European Union, differences are observed in terms of tolerance towards the LGTB community. While in Spain, close to 70% of the Spanish population knows someone who is gay, lesbian or bisexual, and the Knowledge of transgender people has doubled in 7 years, now rising to 2 out of every 10 Spaniards; Italy and Poland, for example, are the European countries that they have less direct contact with LGTB people and less knowledge along with a greater denial (“non-existent” discrimination) about their situation of discrimination within the country, particularly in transgender and intersex people ( Cantó and Arregui, 2022 ). In this sense, Poland, for example, has regulations such as the Equal Treatment Law. However, this is insufficient legislation since fight against discrimination reasons of sexual orientation only in the field of employment and vocational training. However, ethnic/racial and gender discrimination offers a broader scope ( Bojarski, 2021 ).

Some studies ( O’Hanlan et al., 1997 ) highlight that homophobia operates in two well-differentiated levels: internal and external. Internal homophobia represents the prejudices that all individuals internalise from their environment (family, school, religion, etc.). External homophobia is the open expression of such prejudices, which may range from social evasion or prohibition from the legal and/or religious perspective to all forms of violence.

Negative attitudes towards gays and lesbians have a great impact on these individuals, not only on a physical level, but also on a psychological level. For example, homosexual students have been reported to suffer from high levels of anxiety, somatic distress and even post-traumatic stress symptoms, situations that affect the quality of life of homosexual people ( D’Augelli et al., 2002 ).

Despite the evidence about the negative repercussions of homophobic and lesbophobic attitudes on the quality of life of LGTB people, the WHO continues to report a lack of research and understanding regarding the health of this population, and it highlights the attitudes of civil workers (healthcare, education and social service professionals) toward LGTB people as significant barriers to solve the health disparities related to sexual minorities ( Yingling et al., 2017 ). There is an increasing commitment in public healthcare to understanding and improving the health and welfare of this population, and it is especially important that professionals in the social, educational and healthcare sectors are adequately trained and informed to solve problems that persist in this group ( White-Hughto et al., 2015 ; Thomas et al., 2017 ). In addition to solving problems, the professionals must provide support and, especially, empower individuals and communities.

Currently in Spain, progress has been made in equal treatment and opportunities for LGTB people and, especially, for trans people. This advance has been made possible thanks to the approval of Law 4/2023, for the real and effective equality of trans people and for the guarantee of the rights of LGTB people. This law represents a before and after in defining public policies aimed at preventing and acting against discrimination against LGTB people. However, there are many people and political parties with conservative ideology who are fighting to try to repeal it ( Iglesias-Bárez, 2003 ).

Therefore, the present study was designed with the aim of identifying homophobic and lesbophobic attitudes in a Spanish young population, investigating the association of these attitudes with sociodemographic, cultural and political variables.

Regarding the hypotheses of this study:

Women are expected to have more positive attitudes than men.

Young people with higher levels of education are expected to have more positive attitudes.

Older people are expected to have more positive attitudes.

Heterosexual youth are expected to have more negative attitudes toward homosexual persons.

Young Catholics are expected to have more negative attitudes compared to those who consider themselves atheists or agnostics.

It is expected that the greater the inclination towards a more conservative political orientation, the more negative attitudes.

2 Materials and methods

2.1 participants.

A total of 325 young people participated in this descriptive, cross-sectional study, with an age range of 18–30 years ( xˉ = 23.63; σ  = 2.99) (65.8% women ( N  = 214) and 34.4% men ( N  = 111). With respect to sex and gender, participants self-identified as such. Table 1 shows the distribution of the sample with respect to the variables of education level, place of residence, political ideology, religion and sexual orientation.

Table 1 . Distribution of the sample as a function of the independent variables.

2.2 Procedure

The information was gathered using a questionnaire created with the Google Forms platform, which was administered online. The link to the questionnaire was disseminated in social networks and messaging apps, such as WhatsApp, Instagram and Facebook.

The participants were selected by convenience sampling, which consists in selecting the participants intentionally, based on their age and their willingness to participate in this study voluntarily, respecting their anonymity at all times. The snowball technique was also used, which is a non-probabilistic sampling method by which the selected participants recruit new participants from among the people they know. The dissemination of the questionnaire and the gathering of the data were carried out from August 15th 2020 to October 31st 2020.

The first page of the questionnaire contained written information about the in-formed consent, in which the participants agreed to participate in the study voluntarily. In addition to informing them about the anonymity of their answers, they were given contact details in case they needed to clarify any doubts. This study respects the ethical principles of the Declaration of Helsinki and was approved by the Human Research Bioethics Committee of the University of Almería (Spain) (registration code: 201699600000098).

2.3 Instruments

All participants completed a sociodemographic information gathering protocol that was designed ad hoc for this study, which collects information about the following variables: sex, education level, age, place of residence, political ideology, religion and sexual orientation.

Furthermore, the participants completed the Modern Homophobia Scale ( Raja and Stokes, 1998 ). This instrument consists of two scales: one of them evaluates the attitudes toward gay people (22 items), and the other evaluates the attitudes toward lesbian people (24 items). Therefore, these scales measure homophobic and lesbophobic attitudes, respectively. In turn, each of these scales consists of three subscales: personal discomfort, deviation/changeability, and institutional homophobia. Personal discomfort measures direct attitudes toward homosexuality at the personal level. Deviation/changeability measures the conception of homosexuality from the psychological/biological perspective, considering it as a deviation from heterosexuality that can change. Institutional homophobia measures those attitudes that occur in the institutional scope. The scales have a Likert answer format from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The lower the score, the more negative the attitude toward gays and lesbians. The reliability estimated through Cronbach’s alpha was 0.951 for the scale of homophobic attitudes, and 0.920 for the scale of lesbophobic attitudes ( Raja and Stokes, 1998 ).

The scale that measures homophobic attitudes is structured as follows: items 1–9 measure personal discomfort; items 10–13 measure deviation/changeability; and items 14–22 measure institutional homophobia. This scale has been validated, presenting a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.927 for personal discomfort, 0.928 for deviation/changeability, and 0.847 for institutional homophobia. The scale of lesbophobic attitudes is structured as follows: items 1–11 measure institutional homophobia; items 12–21 measure personal discomfort; and items 22–24 measure deviation/changeability. The Cronbach’s alpha for this scale was 0.785 for institutional homophobia, 0.921 for personal discomfort, and 0.961 for deviation/changeability ( Raja and Stokes, 1998 ).

Rodríguez-Castro et al. (2013) validated this instrument by subscales, obtaining in the subscale of attitudes toward gays a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.94, and 0.93 for the subscale of attitudes toward lesbian people.

León et al. (2017) , in their adaptation of the Modern Homophobia Scale of Raja and Stokes, also validated this instrument, obtaining correlations between different items whose values ranged between 0.27 and 0.59 in the homophobia scale, and between 0.28 and 0.66 in the lesbophobia scale, presenting a high Cronbach’s alpha (0.89). In this study, the construct validity was also determined, showing a variance of 54.5% for the scale of homophobia toward homosexuals, and 54.3% for the scale of lesbophobia toward lesbians.

2.4 Data analysis

The data analysis was conducted using the SPSS v25 statistical software.

Firstly, a univariate descriptive analysis was performed, including the mean and standard deviation of the variable age, as well as percentages and frequencies of the variables sex, education level, political ideology, religion and sexual orientation.

Normality tests of the quantitative variables were used to determine whether we could apply parametric or nonparametric tests in subsequent analyses. In addition, since the number of data points used was greater than 50, the Kolmogorov–Smirnov statistic was selected for the normality tests. Since the normality tests for the quantitative variables showed a normal distribution, ANOVA and Student’s t were used for the tests of independence. The correlations between the different study variables were also analyzed using Pearson’s correlation tests.

The homophobic and lesbophobic attitudes were compared between men and women using a two-independent-means test, with Student’s t statistic. These attitudes were also compared through single-factor ANOVA as a function of education level, sexual orientation, religion and place of residence.

Lastly, to relate age and political ideology to the scores obtained in the scales and estimate correlation coefficents, Pearson’s correlation tests were carried out.

3.1 Homophobic and lesbophobic attitudes as a function of sex

Table 2 shows the results obtained in the Modern Homophobia Scale for men and women. In this instrument, the lower the score, the greater the affectation of homophobic and lesbophobic attitudes presented by the person.

Table 2 . Comparison of homophobic and lesbophobic attitudes between men and women.

All the factors of the scale show more positive attitudes in women compared to men. Moreover, it was observed that the relationship of homophobic and lesbophobic attitudes with the variable sex was statistically significant ( t  = 4.592 and p  < 0.001 in homophobic attitudes; t  = 3.688 and p  < 0.001 in lesbophobic attitudes) ( Table 2 ).

3.2 Homophobic and lesbophobic attitudes as a function of education level

Table 3 presents the descriptive statistics ( xˉ and % ) and differences in the scales of homophobic and lesbophobic attitudes based on the education level of the participants. The single-factor ANOVA shows that there were significant differences in these attitudes as a function of the education level ( F  = 4.325 and p  = 0.002 for homophobic attitudes; F  = 3.946 and p  = 0.004 for lesbophobic attitudes).

Table 3 . Comparison of homophobic and lesbophobic attitudes as a function of education level.

In the homophobic attitudes, the comparisons showed differences between the participants with compulsory secondary education and those with higher secondary education, higher vocational training and higher education. In the lesbophobic attitudes, differences were found between the participants with compulsory secondary education and those with higher secondary education and higher education. The participants with compulsory secondary education presented more negative attitudes, that is, the lower the education level, the greater the percentages of negative attitudes toward homosexual people ( Table 3 ).

3.3 Homophobic and lesbophobic attitudes as a function of sexual orientation

Regarding the relationship of homophobic and lesbophobic attitudes with sexual orientation, significant differences were only identified in the lesbophobic attitudes ( F  = 4.571; p  = 0.011) ( Table 4 ).

Table 4 . Comparison of the homophobic and lesbophobic attitudes as a function of sexual orientation.

On their part, the comparisons showed differences between the participants with a heterosexual orientation and those with a homosexual orientation. The participants who identified themselves with a heterosexual orientation presented more negative attitudes ( Table 4 ).

3.4 Homophobic and lesbophobic attitudes as a function of religion

Table 5 presents the descriptive statistics ( xˉ and % ) and the differences in the scales of homophobic and lesbophobic attitudes as a function of religion. There were significant differences in such attitudes based on religion ( F  = 6.142 and p  = 0.002 for homophobic attitudes; F  = 11.963 and p  = 0.000 for lesbophobic attitudes).

Table 5 . Comparison of the homophobic and lesbophobic attitudes as a function of religion.

In both attitudes, the comparisons showed differences between the Catholic participants and the Atheist and Agnostic participants. The Catholic participants presented more negative attitudes ( Table 5 ).

3.5 Homophobic and lesbophobic attitudes as a function of the place of residence

Regarding the relationship between homophobic and lesbophobic attitudes as a function of the place of residence, no statistically significant differences were observed in any of the contemplated cases ( F  = 0.345 and p  = 0.709 for homophobic attitudes; F  = 0.893 and p  = 0.410 for lesbophobic attitudes) ( Table 6 ).

Table 6 . Comparison of the homophobic and lesbophobic attitudes as a function of the place of residence.

3.6 Homophobic and lesbophobic attitudes as a function of age and political ideology

After investigating the relationship between homophobic and lesbophobic attitudes as a function of age, the Pearson’s correlation coefficients showed that age was negatively correlated with the scale of homophobic attitudes ( r  = −0.138; p  < 0.05) and with the scale of lesbophobic attitudes ( r  = −0.131; p  < 0.05). Therefore, the younger the participant, the more negative the attitudes presented by her/him.

It was also observed that political ideology was positively correlated with the scale of homophobic attitudes ( r  = 0.443; p  < 0.01) and with the scale of lesbophobic attitudes ( r  = −0.131; p  < 0.505). In participants with a left-wing ideology, more positive attitudes were observed toward gays and lesbians.

4 Discussion

The general aim of the present study was to identify homophobic and lesbophobic attitudes in a young Spanish population, analysing the relationship of these attitudes with sociodemographic, cultural, political, and personal variables. This study was conducted to respond to the discrimination of a minority group, i.e., people with a non-heterosexual orientation, whose quality of life may be negatively affected by certain explicit and implicit behaviours targeted to them ( Yingling et al., 2017 ).

In this study, the male participants showed a more negative attitude toward homosexual people compared to the female participants. These results are in line with those of previous studies, which reported greater percentages of men than women with homophobic attitudes ( Rodríguez-Castro et al., 2013 ; Borja-Gil and Núñez-Domínguez, 2014 ; Bosch, 2015 ; Penna-Tosso, 2015 ; Monzonís-Hinarejos, 2016 ). Moreover, this study detected that the men presented a more negative attitude toward lesbians compared to the women. This finding could be related to the behavioural roles and rules established by cultural norms. Men tend to internalise gender role norms more strongly than women. This would lead men to evaluate homosexual people more negatively, perceiving the latter as representatives of some sort of violation of the traditional norms of gender roles ( Caycho-Rodríguez, 2010 ). In this sense, the consequences of a patriarchal system and toxic masculinity can be perceived.

Furthermore, Borja-Gil and Núñez-Domínguez (2014) detected that variables such as education level and age were also related to homophobic attitudes. Although there is a low correlation in this study, they found that younger and, therefore, less educated participants showed more intolerant attitudes toward homosexuality. It was also detected that, the greater the education level, the more positive the attitudes toward homosexual people. To validate these results, we could relate age to abstract thinking. Thus, the older the person, the greater their capacity for reciprocity in their relationships with other people, and the greater their capacity for critical thinking, reflection, and exploration ( Melendres-Yallerco and Velarde-Torres, 2018 ).

Regarding the relationship of sexual orientation with homophobic/lesbophobic at-titudes, the present study demonstrated that the participants with a heterosexual orientation had more negative attitudes than those with a homosexual orientation. This result is in line with that found by other authors ( España et al., 2001 ), who stated that the sociocultural influence could play an important role, since beliefs, values and traditional gender roles have an impact on the homophobia that heterosexual people develop. For instance, hypermasculinity is expressed and reaffirmed in men, and when a man moves away from the established parameters, the others may express and feel homophobia ( Orcasita et al., 2020 ).

Moreover, some studies have shown that there is a greater percentage of Catholic people who present homophobic and lesbophobic attitudes compared to Atheists and Agnostics ( Penna-Tosso, 2015 ; Monzonís-Hinarejos, 2016 ). The present study obtained results in the same line. Religion could contain a series of implicit requirements about the behaviours and roles expected of each gender, thus their transgression would be considered as a direct attack on these sacred beliefs ( Barrientos-Delgado et al., 2014 ). However, Gastelo-Flores and Sahagún-Padilla (2020) observed in their study that discrimination against sexually diverse people was observed internationally; that is, in all cultures and religions. These findings suggest a socialization of heterosexuality. In other words, a subtle way of imposing a specific sexual orientation, which could give rise to homophobic situations in part of the population internationally ( Gastelo-Flores and Sahagún-Padilla, 2020 ).

Concerning the political ideology variable, this study detected that, the greater the tendency toward right-wing ideologies, the greater the percentage of negative attitudes toward LGTB people. This result is consistent with those found by Rottenbacher (2012) , who identified a positive correlation between conservatism and homophobic behaviours, as well as with the conclusion of the meta-analysis of Penna-Tosso (2015) . Most people with right-wing and extreme right-wing ideologies present a high degree of adherence to the rules that support specific ideas about what they consider to be “normal,” i.e., to conservative (hetero) normative dictates. Right-wing ideologies, and especially extreme right-wing ideologies, do not usually adhere to rules based on acceptance or civil human rights. In addition, a strong relationship has been found between value conservatism and identifying oneself with traditionalist ideas and support for right-wing parties ( Barrientos and Cárdenas, 2013 ). In this sense, the progress of all political parties towards recognition of gender and sexuality diversity is of vital importance. This situation would facilitate an increase in tolerance towards the LGTB community in many people of different ideologies. In addition, more public educational policies could be carried out to facilitate the visibility of education for equal opportunities in educational centers. This situation, in turn, could deconstruct all types of prejudices, discrimination and violence, especially regarding issues of gender and sexuality ( Souza and Fialho, 2020 ).

Lastly, with respect to the place of residence and its relationship with negative attitudes toward homosexual people, this study did not detect differences in such attitudes in the participants as a function of their place of residence. This result is in line with that reported by Tate (1991) . However, other studies confirm that living in a large city could be a protective factor, as it provides people with better social support networks, which allow them to better avoid the negative effects of homophobia ( Institute of Medicine, 2011 ; Barrientos-Delgado et al., 2014 ). This social support networks are one of the most important protective factors for the LGTB community.

4.1 Limitations

This study presents important strengths. First, the veracity of the hypotheses put forward has been demonstrated. Moreover, very useful and updated information was generated on a set of indicators of homophobia and lesbophobia in a young population in Spain, thereby contributing to future research lines in the approach of this problem from current data. This fact shows that even though Spain is one of the European countries which is making progress in the recognition of the human rights of the LGTB community, and that it is the fourth European country in terms of LGTB rights, there are still homophobic and lesbophobic attitudes that may pose a problem for the well-being of homosexual people. Based on our current results, it would be interesting to draw up a programme to raise awareness in society about the consequences that certain negative attitudes may have on the LGTB community, and not only on homosexual men and women. Furthermore, a possible roadmap is set for future, larger investigations in this line. However, this study also presents some limitations that must be pointed out.

One of the weaknesses of this research is that other negative attitudes towards other LGTB populations, such as bisexual, transgender, or intersex people were not studied. It would be interesting to carry out further research in order to detect certain biphobic or transphobic attitudes since this part of the community, i.e., gender non-conforming, transgender, or intersex people are still invisible in this type of research. Additionally, future research could also incorporate qualitative methods to gain deeper insights into personal experiences and social influences on homophobic and lesbophobic attitudes.

Due to the complications generated from the circumstances that took place during the field work, such as the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic, the questionnaire was administered online, which limited the number of people and specific population groups that could be reached, as some people still lack access to social networks. It is also important to remark that the questionnaire also reached out to more conservative people who refused to participate in the research, thus presenting a negative attitude towards issues related to homosexuality. In addition, it is also acknowledged that some groups were small as well as some effect sizes, which can be related to the type of sampling used. This limited the representativeness of the sample and therefore the chances of obtaining more representative results. It would be recommended that future research on this topic be carried out with random sampling techniques and with larger samples in different countries. In this way, the potential to extrapolate results would increase.

5 Conclusion

This study shows the relationship of certain sociodemographic, political, personal and cultural variables with homophobic and lesbophobic attitudes. It is shown that some of the categories of these variables may negatively influence gay men and lesbian women.

This study also reports different scores in the results obtained according to sex, which corroborates the importance of considering the gender perspective in future studies. Here we can consider the effects of toxic masculinity, which has to be taken into account as a factor for future research, since it is not only the fact of being a woman or a man that affects homo/lesbophobia, but also the ideals of masculinity to which men adhere.

On the other hand, in today’s society homogeneous heterocentrism is still preserved, where the leader of the nation is analogous to the father in the traditional patriarchal family. Therefore, it is necessary to carry out research and interventions on gender and cultural construction of human sexuality in secondary education ( Stanley, 2018 ).

In short, the present work highlights the need to use these results from a psychosocial and educational approach to modify vulnerable targets through the design and implementation of training and preventive programs. This will exponentially improve the quality of life of homosexual persons.

Data availability statement

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.

Ethics statement

The studies involving humans were approved by Human Research Bioethics Committee of the University of Almería (Spain) (registration code: 201699600000098). The studies were conducted in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements. The participants provided their written informed consent to participate in this study.

Author contributions

J-RG-S: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft. F-JG-V: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft. M-JL-L: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft. AS-C: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft. L-CS-d-l-T: Writing – review & editing, Supervision, Formal analysis, Funding acquisition.EM-S: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft.

The author(s) declare that no financial support was received for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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Keywords: quality of life, homophobia, lesbophobia, public health, health care, social sciences

Citation: García-Sánchez J-R, Gago-Valiente F-J, López-López M-J, Segura-Camacho A, Saenz-de-la-Torre L-C and Moreno-Sánchez E (2024) Variables with a negative impact on the quality of life of gays and lesbians in Spain: evaluation of homophobic and lesbophobic indicators to guide youth education. Front. Psychol . 15:1323208. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1323208

Received: 17 October 2023; Accepted: 29 February 2024; Published: 15 March 2024.

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Copyright © 2024 García-Sánchez, Gago-Valiente, López-López, Segura-Camacho, Saenz-de-la-Torre and Moreno-Sánchez. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Francisco-Javier Gago-Valiente, [email protected]

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• Published: 14 March 2024

Unlock the potential of a physics education

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This month in Nature Physics , we publish a Focus issue that highlights the importance of physics education research.

Physics curricula and education systems have remained largely unchanged for decades, and much can be done to improve them. For example, the well-documented lack of diversity in physics starts at undergraduate level. As a result, much potential talent is missed and the under-representation of minoritized groups is amplified at each career stage. Additionally, the aim of many physics courses is still to train students to work in academia, thus making graduates less prepared for careers in industry.

A Focus in this month’s issue of Nature Physics provides an overview of the current state of physics education research and offers recommendations on how to make learning environments more equitable and inclusive, diversify graduates’ skillsets and enable them to tackle important societal issues and challenges.

With teaching sometimes perceived as being forced on researchers as one of the many additional tasks they must accomplish and with little departmental support, tackling inequity and updating curricula can feel overwhelming. However, a Review about equity and inclusion in physics learning environments by Chandralekha Singh and Alexandru Maries stresses that a physics instructor’s mindset and intentions can have a significant impact on the diversity in physics courses.

Unthinking comments about the ‘triviality’ of an assignment or preconceptions about who can and cannot do physics will have hugely damaging effects on people from minoritized groups. Informing oneself of the effects of one’s attitude during teaching can be the first step to prevent setting up courses that widen existing gaps in achievement. These actions at the individual level must be supported by departments. Singh and Maries provide structural advice for physics departments as a whole and emphasize that simple interventions can empower all students.

In a similar vein, a Comment by Geraldine Cochran and coauthors analyses the specific example of racial equity in physics education research. They highlight that much research up until now has focused on elite universities with predominantly white student populations and advocate for an emphasis (both in focus and in funding) on intersectional research aimed at decolonizing physics research.

On a more practical level, the Focus issue includes two pieces about how to structure physics courses and how best to engage with the Gen-Zers — often defined as those born between 1997 and 2012 — who make up the majority of today’s undergraduate classes. In a Comment that discusses how to put together a physics curriculum for these so-called digital natives, Jenaro Guisasola and Kristina Zuza discuss the benefits of a student-centred active learning approach in physics courses. They argue that traditional, lecture-based methods are insufficient to prepare students for the increasingly wide range of potential careers outside of academia. Such active teaching should be done in conjunction with diversity, equity and inclusion discussions, and students should be encouraged to consider their identity as physicists and their role in society.

The benefits of active learning are further elaborated in a Perspective that places them in the context of the current generation of learners. Nam-Hwa Kang emphasizes the importance of considering the defining characteristics of the students currently going through the education system in order to set up an effective curriculum. Today’s students are unlikely to be satisfied with traditional teaching styles and need an education structure that lets them take responsibility for their own learning with the help of digital technology. This approach will not only benefit students’ understanding of physics but will also help them effect change in the world around them.

On the topic of digital technology, a Comment by Marcos D. Caballero and Tor Ole Odden describes how to effectively integrate scientific computing into undergraduate physics courses. As the reach and importance of computing grows, it is crucial that students understand its power and pitfalls. This is valuable transferrable knowledge that will help regardless of whether the students continue into academia or take jobs elsewhere.

We at Nature Physics publish this Focus issue to highlight both the importance of physics education research and our interest in publishing primary research in this field. We would like to invite the physics education research community to consider submitting their work to our journal.

If physics research is to become more useful and physics groups more diverse, innovating in physics education systems is a good place to start. Physics departments should give more attention and resources to teaching to help all students feel like valued members of the physics community. Make teaching more equitable and relevant so that everyone can thrive.

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Gloomy Youth Pull US and Western Europe Down Global Happiness Ranking

A young couple look at their phone as they sit on a hillside after sun set in El Paso, Texas, U.S., June 20, 2018. REUTERS/Mike Blake

By David Milliken

LONDON (Reuters) - Rising unhappiness among younger people has caused the United States and some large western European countries to fall down a global wellbeing index, while Nordic nations retain their grip on the top spots.

The annual World Happiness Report, launched in 2012 to support the United Nations' sustainable development goals, is based on data from U.S. market research company Gallup, analysed by a global team now led by the University of Oxford.

War in Israel and Gaza

People in 143 countries and territories are asked to evaluate their life on a scale from zero to 10, with 10 representing their best possible life. Results from the past three years are averaged to create a ranking.

Finland remained in the top spot - with an average score of 7.7 - followed closely by Denmark, Iceland and Sweden, while Afghanistan and Lebanon held the bottom two spots, with scores of 1.7 and 2.7 respectively.

In broad terms, the rankings are loosely correlated with countries' prosperity, but other factors such as life expectancy, social bonds, personal freedom and corruption appear to influence individuals' assessments too.

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The United States dropped out of the top 20 for the first time, falling to 23rd place from 15th last year, due to a big drop in the sense of wellbeing of Americans aged under 30, the report shows.

While a global ranking of the happiness of those aged 60 and over would place the United States 10th, under 30s' life evaluations alone put the United States in 62nd place.

The findings are at odds with much previous research into wellbeing, which found happiness highest in childhood and early teens, before falling to its lowest in middle age, then rising around retirement.

"Youth, especially in North America, are experiencing a mid-life crisis today," said Jan-Emmanuel De Neve, a University of Oxford economics professor and one of the report's editors.

Millenials and younger age groups in North America were significantly more likely than older age groups to report loneliness.

But De Neve said a range of factors was likely to be lowering young peoples' happiness, including increased polarisation over social issues, negative aspects of social media, and economic inequality that made it harder for young people to afford their own homes than in the past.

While the phenomenon is starkest in the United States, the age gap in wellbeing is also wide in Canada and Japan, and to a decreasing extent in France, Germany and Britain, which all lost ground in this year's rankings.

By contrast, many of the countries with the biggest improvements in wellbeing are former communist countries in central and eastern Europe.

There, unlike in richer countries, young people report significantly better quality of life than older people, often on a par or better than in western Europe.

"Slovenia, Czechia and Lithuania are moving into the top 20 and that's wholly driven by their youth," De Neve said.

(Reporting by David Milliken; Editing by Emelia Sithole-Matarise)

Copyright 2024 Thomson Reuters .

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Cross-Cultural Patterns of Gender Differences in STEM: Gender Stratification, Gender Equality and Gender-Equality Paradoxes

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• Published: 19 March 2024
• Volume 36 , article number  37 , ( 2024 )

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Our study is among the first to provide a comprehensive review of cross-national patterns of gender differences in various STEM-related constructs—achievement, beliefs, attitudes, aspirations, and participation, concerning country-level gender equality. We complement our review with empirical analyses utilizing rigorous methodologies and richer datasets from individual and country levels. Specifically, we examine gender differences in relative strength measures (e.g., strength in science relative to math and reading) and STEM aspirations and graduation, using PISA 2015 and PISA 2018 data from 78 countries/regions ( N = 941,475). Our analysis corroborates our literature review, indicating that support for both the gender stratification hypothesis and the gender equality paradox (i.e., whether gender gaps favoring male students are smaller or larger in more gender-equal countries) is generally inconsistent and weak. Various factors contribute to this inconsistency, including specific outlier countries, different years of data collection, diverse data sources, a range of composite and domain-specific measures of gender equality, and statistical models. Our study also introduces a robust statistical model to compare performances in three subjects and evaluate the predictive power of relative strength measures for STEM aspirations at the student level. Our analyses reveal that general academic achievement and math achievement relative to reading are key predictors of STEM aspirations, compared with science achievement relative to math and reading. By juxtaposing both levels of analysis, our findings offer a more nuanced understanding of gender differences in decision-making processes that lead to careers in STEM-related fields.

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The present study is based on the analyses of secondary data that are freely available online (e.g., PISA data from https://www.oecd.org/pisa/data/ ).

We also conducted supplemental analyses to examine whether there was a non-linear relation between GGGI and gender differences in STEM aspirations. None of quadratic and cubic coefficients of GGGI were statistically significant.

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Acknowledgements

This research was supported by a grant from the Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China (Grant No. 23YJC880038) and a grant from the Renmin University of China (Grant No. KYGJD2023006). We thank Sarah S. Richardson, David Geary, Gijsbert Stoet, Marion Boulicault, Joseph Bruch, and Nicole E. Noll for their constructive comments on the earlier version of the manuscript.

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Guo, J., Marsh, H.W., Parker, P.D. et al. Cross-Cultural Patterns of Gender Differences in STEM: Gender Stratification, Gender Equality and Gender-Equality Paradoxes. Educ Psychol Rev 36 , 37 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-024-09872-3

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