dna testing essay

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DNA Profiling in Forensic Science: A Review

Jaya lakshmi bukyya.

1 Department of Oral Medicine and Radiology, Tirumala Institute of Dental Sciences, Nizamabad, Telangana, India

M L. Avinash Tejasvi

2 Department of Oral Medicine and Radiology, Kamineni Institute of Dental Sciences, Narketpally, Telangana, India

Anulekha Avinash

3 Department of Prosthodontics, Kamineni Institute of Dental Sciences, Narketpally, Telangana, India

Chanchala H. P.

4 Department of Pedodontics and Preventive Dentistry, JSS Dental College, Mysore, Karnataka, India

Priyanka Talwade

Mohammed malik afroz.

5 Department of Oral Surgery and Diagnostic Sciences, Oral Medicine, College of Dentistry, Dar Al Uloom University, Riyadh, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

Archana Pokala

Praveen kumar neela.

6 Department of Orthodontics, Kamineni Institute of Dental Sciences, Narketpally, Telangana, India

T K. Shyamilee

7 Department of Oral Pathology, Private Practice, Hyderabad, Telangana, India

Vammi Srisha

8 Department of Oral Medicine and Radiology, Private Practice, Bangalore, Karnataka, India

DNA is present in most of the cells in our body, which is unique in each and every individual, and we leave a trail of it everywhere we go. This has become an advantage for forensic investigators who use DNA to draw conclusion in identification of victim and accused in crime scenes. This review described the use of genetic markers in forensic investigation and their limitations.

Introduction

Forensic identification is a universal method used to establish the veracity in the process of forensic investigation. Both criminalities and medico-legal identification are integrative parts of forensic identification, having probative value. The value of an identification method resides in the specialist's ability to compare traces left at the crime scene with traces found on other materials such as reference evidence. Through this procedure, one can compare traces of blood, saliva, or any biological sample left at the crime scene with those found on a suspect's clothes and with samples from the victim. Medico-legal identification is based on scientific methods or intrinsic scientific methods absorbed from other sciences, usually bio-medical sciences. Scientific progress in the last 30 to 40 years has highlighted and continues to highlight the role of the specialists in identification. Their role proves its significance in cases that have to do with civil, family, and criminal law, as well as in cases of catastrophes with numerous victims (accidents, natural disasters, terrorist attacks, and wars). Together with the discovery by Mullis in 1983 of the polymerase chain reaction (PCR), Sir Alec Jeffreys in the field of forensic genetics used this technique by studying a set of DNA fragments that proved to have unique characteristics, which were nonrecurring and intrinsic for each individual, the only exception being identical twins. Alec Jeffreys named these reaction products “genetic fingerprints.” 1 PCR procedure is correct as per the reference.

Brief History of Forensic Genetics

• In 1900, Karl Landsteiner distinguished the main blood groups and observed that individuals could be placed into different groups based on their blood type. This was the first step in development of forensic hemogenetics. 2
• 1915: Leone Lattes describes the use of ABO genotyping to resolve paternity case. 2
• 1931: Absorption–inhibition of ABO genotyping technique had been developed. Following on from this, various blood group markers and soluble blood serum protein markers were characterized. 2
• In the 1960s and 1970s: Developments in molecular biology, restriction of enzymes, Southern blotting, 3 and Sanger sequencing 4 enabled researchers to examine sequences of DNA.
• 1978: Detection of DNA polymorphisms using Southern blotting. 5
• 1980: First polymorphic locus was reported. 6
• 1983: A critical development in the history of forensic genetics came with the advent of PCR process that can amplify specific regions of DNA, which was conceptualized by Kary Mullis, a chemist; later he was awarded Nobel Prize in 1993. 7
• 1984: Alec Jeffrey introduced DNA fingerprinting in the field of forensic genetics, and proved that some regions in the DNA have repetitive sequences, which vary among individuals. Due to this discovery, first forensic case was solved using DNA analysis. 8

DNA Structure and Genome

DNA was first described by Watson and Crick in 1953, as double-stranded molecule that adopts a helical arrangement. Each individual's genome contains a large amount of DNA that is a potential target for DNA profiling.

DNA Structure

DNA is often described as the “blue print of life,” because it contains all the information that an organism requires in function and reproduction. The model of the double-helix structure of DNA was proposed by Watson and Crick. The DNA molecule is a polymer of nucleotides. Each nucleotide is composed of a nitrogenous base, a five-carbon sugar (deoxyribose), and a phosphate group. There are four nitrogenous bases in DNA, two purines (adenine and guanine) and two pyrimidines (cytosine and thymine). Each base is attracted to its complimentary base: adenine base always pairs with thymine base whereas cytosine base always pairs with guanine base ( Fig. 1 ). 9

Structure of DNA. Image courtesy: National Human Genome Research Institute.

Organization of DNA into Chromosomes

There are two complete copies of the genome in each nucleated human cell. Humans contain ∼3,200,000,000 base pairs (BPs) of information, organized in 23 pairs of chromosomes. There are 2 sets of chromosomes; 1 version of each chromosome is inherited from each parent with total of 46 chromosomes. 10 11 12

Classification of Human Genome 2

Based on the structure and function, Classification of Human Genome into following different types ( Fig. 2 ).

Classification of human genome.

• Coding and regulatory regions: The regions of DNA that encode and regulate protein synthesis are called genes. Approximately, a human genome contains 20,000 to 25,000 genes; 1.5% of the genome is involved in encoding for proteins.
• Noncoding: Overall, 23.5% of the genome is classified under genetic sequence but does not involve in enclosing for proteins; they are mainly involved with the regulation of genes including enhancers, promoters, repressors, and polyadenylation signals.
• Extragenic DNA: Approximately 75% of the genome is extragenic, of which 50% is composed of repetitive DNA and 45% of interspersed repeats. Four common types of interspersed repetitive elements are: (i) short interspersed elements, (ii) long interspersed elements, (iii) long terminal repeats, and (iv) DNA transposons. Tandem repeats consist of three different types: (i) satellite DNA, (ii) minisatellite DNA, and (iii) microsatellite DNA.

Genome and Forensic Genetics

DNA loci that are to be used for forensic genetics should have the following ideal properties:

• Should be highly polymorphic.
• Should be easy and cheap to characterize.
• Should be simple to interpret and easy to compare between laboratories.
• Should have a low mutation rate.

With recent advances in molecular biology techniques, it is possible to analyze any region with 3.2 billion BPs that make up the genome. 2

Biological Material

Three most important steps are collection, characterization, and storage.

Sources of Biological Evidence

Human body is composed of trillions of cells and most of them are nucleated cells, except for the red blood cells. Each nucleated cell contains two copies of individual's genome and can be used to generate a DNA profile. Usually, samples show some level of degradation but when the level of degradation is high, more cellular material is needed to produce a DNA profile. 13

Biological samples with nucleated cells are essential for forensic genetic profiling, such as: 14

• Liquid blood or dry deposits.
• Liquid saliva, semen, or dry deposits.
• Hard tissues like bone and teeth.
• Hair with follicles.

Collection and Handling of Material at the Crime Scenes

Whole blood is considered as one of the widely used source of DNA. It is preserved in an anticoagulant (ethylenediamine tetra acetic acid) and conserved at 4°C for 5 to 7 days initially. After this period, DNA samples are kept at –20°C for few weeks or at –80°C for longer periods of time. Epithelial cells collected from crime scenes are harvested with sterile brush or bud. After harvesting, they are wrapped in plastic envelope or paper envelope and kept in a dry environment at room temperature. 15 It is essential that proper care is taken, such as maintaining integrity of the crime scene, wearing face masks and full protective suits during the investigation of scene, 16 17 18 as inappropriate handling of the evidence can lead to serious consequences. In worst cases, cross-contamination leads to high level of sample degradation; this can confuse or avert the final result of evidence.

Characterization of DNA Analysis: Basic Steps 1

Analysis of DNA involves four basic steps, which are as follows ( Fig. 3 ):

Extraction of DNA.

• DNA extraction.
• DNA quantification.
• DNA amplification.
• Detection of the DNA-amplified products.

DNA Extraction

The first DNA extraction was performed by Friedrich Miescher in 1869. Since then, scientists have made progress in designing various extraction methods that are easier, cost-effective, reliable, faster to perform, and producing a higher yield. With the advent of gene-editing and personalized medicine, there has been an increase in the demand for reliable and efficient DNA isolation methods that can yield adequate quantities of high-quality DNA with minimal impurities.

There are various methods of extraction as mentioned below, though commonly used are Chelex-100 method, silica-based DNA extraction, and phenol–chloroform method.

• Chromatography-based DNA extraction method.
• Ethidium bromide–cesium chloride (EtBr-CsCl) gradient centrifugation method.
• Alkaline extraction method.
• Silica matrices method.
• Salting-out method.
• Cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB) extraction method.
• Phenol–chloroform method.
• Sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS)-proteinase K method.
• Silica column-based DNA extraction method.
• Magnetic beads method.
• Cellulose-based paper method.
• Chelex-100 extraction method.
• Filter paper-based DNA extraction method.

Chromatography-Based DNA Extraction Method

Chromatography-based DNA extraction method is used to isolate DNA from any kind of biological material. 19 This method is divided into three different types:

• Size-inclusion chromatography: In this method, molecules are separated according to their molecular sizes and shape.
• Ion-exchange chromatography (IEC): In this method, solution containing DNA anion-exchange resin selectively binds to DNA with its positively charged diethylaminoethyl cellulose group. 20 This method is simple to perform when compared with other DNA extraction methods. 19
• This procedure is used for isolation of messenger ribonucleic acid (m-RNA).
• It is time-efficient.
• It yields a very good quality of nucleic acids. 21

EtBr-CsCl Gradient Centrifugation Method

In 1957, Meselson et al developed this method. 22 DNA is mixed with CsCl solution, which is then ultra-centrifuged at high speed (10,000–12,000 rpm) for 10 hours, resulting in separation of DNA from remaining substances based on its density. EtBr is incorporated more into nonsupercoiled DNA than supercoiled DNA molecules resulting in accumulation of supercoiled DNA at lower density, and location of DNA is visualized under ultraviolet (UV) light.

• This method is used to extract DNA from bacteria.

Limitations:

• Greater amount of material source is needed.
• Time-consuming.
• Costly procedure due to long duration of high-speed ultra-centrifugation.
• Complicated method. 23

Alkaline Extraction Method

First introduced by Birnboim and Doly in 1979, this method is used to extract plasmid DNA from cells. 24 Sample is suspended in NaOH solution and SDS detergent for lysis of cell membrane and protein denaturation. Potassium acetate is then added to neutralize the alkaline solution, which results in formation of precipitate. Plasmid DNA in the supernatant is recovered after centrifugation.

Limitation:

• Contamination of plasmid DNA with fragmented chromosomal DNA. 25

Silica Matrices Method

The affinity between DNA and silicates was described by Vogelstein and Gillespie in 1979. 26

Principle: Selective binding of negatively charged DNA with silica surface is covered with positively charged ions. DNA tightly binds to silica matrix, and other cellular contaminants can be washed using distilled water or Tris-EDTA. 27

Advantages:

• Fast to perform.
• Cost-efficient.
• Silica matrices cannot be reused.

Salting-Out Method

Introduced by Miller et al 55 in 1988, this method is a nontoxic DNA extraction method.

Procedure: Sample is added to 3 mL of lysis buffer, SDS, and proteinase K, and incubated at 55 to 65°C overnight. Next, 6 mL of saturated NaCl is added and centrifuged at 2,500 rpm for 15 minutes. DNA containing supernatant is transferred into fresh tube and precipitated using ethanol. 28

• This method is used to extract DNA from blood, tissue homogenate, or suspension culture.
• High-quality DNA is obtained.
• Reagents are nontoxic.28,29

Cetyltrimethylammonium Bromide (CTAB) Extraction Method

This method was introduced by Doyle et al in 1990. 30

Samples are added to 2% CTAB at alkaline pH. In a solution of low ionic strength, buffer precipitates DNA and acidic polysaccharides from remaining cellular components. Solutions with high salt concentrations are then added to remove DNA from acidic polysaccharides; later, DNA is purified using organic solvents, alcohols, phenols, and chloroform. 20

• Time-consuming method.
• Toxic reagents like phenol and chloroform are used.

Phenol–Chloroform Method

This method was introduced by Barker et al in 1998. 31 Lysis containing SDS is added to cells to dissolve the cell membrane and nuclear envelope; phenol–chloroform–isoamyl alcohol reagent is added in the ratio 25:24:1. 28 Both SDS and phenol cause protein denaturation, while isoamyl alcohol prevents emulsification and hence facilitates DNA precipitation. The contents are then mixed to form biphasic emulsion that is later subjected to vortexing. This emulsion separates into two phases upon centrifugation, upper aqueous phase, composed of DNA, and the lower organic phase, composed of proteins. Upper aqueous phase is transferred to fresh tube and the lower organic phase is discarded. These steps are further repeated until the interface between the organic and aqueous phase is free from protein. 31 Later, sodium acetate solution and ethanol are added in 2:1 or 1:1 ratio, followed by centrifugation for separation of DNA from the solution. The pellet is washed with 70% ethanol to remove excess salt from the DNA and subjected to centrifugation for removal of ethanol. The pellet is dried and suspended in an aqueous buffer or sterile distilled water.

• Used to extract DNA from blood, tissue homogenate, and suspension culture.
• Inexpensive.
• Gold standard method.
• Toxic nature of phenol and chloroform. 28

SDS-Proteinase K Method

It was first introduced by Ebeling et al in 1974. 32 For extraction of DNA, 20 to 50 µL of 10 to 20 mg/mL proteinase K is added. SDS is added to dissolve the cell membrane, nuclear envelope, and also to denature proteins. The solution is incubated for 1 to 18 hours at 50 to 60°C and then DNA can be extracted using the salting-out method or phenol–chloroform method. 33

Silica Column-Based DNA Extraction Method

In this method, 1% SDS, lysis buffer (3 mL of 0.2 M tris and 0.05 M EDTA), and 100 mg of proteinase K are added to sample and incubated at 60°C for 1 hour, and this mixture is added in a tube containing silica gel. To this, phenol–chloroform is added in the ratio of 1:1 and centrifuged for 5 minutes. This separates the organic phase containing proteins beneath the silica column while aqueous phase containing DNA above the gel polymerase, and then aqueous layer is transferred to the tube and dissolved in TE buffer.

• Increase in purity of extracted DNA.
• Silica gel prevents physical contact with toxic reagents.
• DNA yield is 40% higher than organic solvent-based DNA extraction method.34

Magnetic Beads Method

Trevor Hawkins filed a patent “DNA purification and isolation using magnetic particles” in 1998. 35

Magnetic nanoparticles are coated with DNA-binding antibody or polymer that has specific affinity to bind to its surface. 36 In this method, a magnetic field is created at the bottom of the tube using an external magnet that causes separation of DNA-bound magnetic beads from cell lysate. The supernatant formed is rinsed, and beads aggregated at the bottom can be eluted with ethanol precipitation method; and the magnetic pellet is incubated at 65°C to elute the magnetic particles from the DNA. 28

• Time taken is less than 15 minutes.
• Faster compared with other conventional methods.
• Little equipment is required.
• Less cost.19,37

Cellulose-Based Paper

It was first introduced by Whatman in 2000, who filed a patent titled “FTA-coated media for use as a molecular diagnostic tool.” Cellulose is a hydroxylated polymer with high binding affinity for DNA. Whatman FTA cards are commercially available as cellulose-based paper that is widely used for extraction of DNA. 38 They are impregnated with detergents, buffers, and chelating agents that facilitate DNA extraction. About 1 to 2 mm of sample area is removed with micro punch and further processed for downstream applications. 19 39

• Extraction of DNA using cellulose-based paper is fast.
• Highly convenient.
• Does not require laboratory expertise.
• Easy storage of sample.40

Chelex-100 Extraction Method

In 2011, Xlonghui et al 40 patented a DNA extraction method using Chelex-100. Chelex resin is used to chelate metal ions acting as cofactors for DNases. After incubating overnight, 5% Chelex solution and proteinase K are used to degrade the added DNases, which are later boiled in 5% Chelex solution to lyse the remaining cell membranes, and to denature both proteins and DNA. Also, 5% Chelex solution prevents DNA from being digested by DNases that remain after boiling, hence stabilizing the preparation. The resulting DNA can then be concentrated from the supernatant after centrifugation.

• Reduced risk of contamination.
• Use of single test tube.
• Isolated DNA can be unstable. 38

Filter Paper-Based DNA Extraction Method

This method was described by Ruishi and Dilippanthe in 2017. DNA extraction method using filter paper can be used to isolate DNA from plant sources. A spin plate composed of 96-well plate is used, with a hole 1 mm in diameter drilled into bottom of each well used, and each well containing a disk of 8 mm diameter Whatman FTA filter paper. Samples subjected to lysis buffer are filtered with centrifugation.

• Less cost. 41

DNA Quantification

After DNA extraction, an accurate measurement of the amount and quality of DNA extract is desirable. When the correct amount of DNA is added to PCR, it results in best quality within short duration of time. Adding less or more amount of DNA will results in a profile that is difficult or impossible to interpret. 40

Quantity of DNA that can be extracted from a sample depends on the type of model. Quantity of DNA in different biological samples is shown in Table 1 . 42

Classification of Quantification 43

DNA quantification can be classified as follows:

• Microscopic and macroscopic examination.
• Chemical and immunological methods.
• ○ PicoGreen homogenous microtiter plate assays.
• Intact vs degraded DNA–agarose gel electrophoresis.
• Human total autosomal DNA.
• Y chromosome DNA, mitochondrial DNA (mt-DNA), Alu repeat real-time PCR.
• Multiplex real-time PCR.
• End-point PCR DNA quantification and alternative DNA detection methods.
• RNA-based quantification.

Visualization on agarose gels

• It is relatively easy and quick method for assessing both quality and quantity of extracted DNA.
• Gives indication of size of extracted DNA molecules.

Disadvantages:

• Quantification is subjective.
• Total DNA obtained can be mixture of human DNA and microbial DNA and this can lead to overestimation of DNA concentration. 2

Ultraviolet Spectrometry

Spectrometry is commonly used for quantification of DNA in molecular biology but has not been widely adopted by the forensic community. Usually, DNA absorbs light maximally at 260 nm; this feature is used to estimate the amount of DNA extraction by measuring wavelengths ranging from 220 nm to 300 nm. With this method, it is possible to assess the amount of protein (maximum absorbance is 280 nm) and carbohydrate (maximum absorbance is 230 nm). If the DNA extract is clean, the ratio of absorbance should be between 1.8 and 2.0.

• Difficult to quantify small amounts of DNA.
• It is not human specific. 2

Fluorescence Spectrometry

EtBr or 4′,6 diamidino-2-phenylindole can be used to visualize DNA in agarose gels. In addition to staining agarose gels, fluorescent dyes can be used as an alternative to UV spectrometry for DNA quantification. PicoGreen dye is commonly used because it is specific for double-stranded DNA as it has the ability to detect little amount of DNA as 25 pg/mL.

Disadvantage:

• Nonhuman specific. 44

DNA Amplification

There are eight DNA- and RNA-based techniques, but PCR and reverse transcription-PCR have been the predominant techniques.

PCR is the commonly used method of amplification of DNA. PCR amplifies specific regions of DNA template; even a single molecule can be amplified to 1 billion fold by 30 cycles of amplification. 45

DNA amplification occurs in cycling phase, which consists of three stages.

• Denaturation.
• Extraction.

Normal range of PCR cycle is between 28 and 32; when DNA is very low, then cycles can be increased to 34 cycles. 46

Other methods are as follows: 47

• Nucleic acid sequence-based amplification method.
• Strand displacement amplification.
• Recombinase polymerase amplification.
• Strand invasion-based amplification.
• Multiple displacement amplification.
• Hybridization chain reaction.

After the amplification of DNA, the final step is detection of the DNA-amplified products.

Detection of the DNA-Amplified Products

The following methods are used in forensic human identification:

• Autosomal short-tandem repeat (STR) profiling
• Analysis of the Y chromosome
• Analysis of mt-DNA.
• Autosomal single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) typing.

Autosomal STR Profiling

STRs were discovered in 1980. Since then, they are considered as gold standard in human identification in forensics. STR or microsatellites are the most frequently genotyped to distinguish between individuals. STR consists of mononucleotide, dinucleotide, trinucleotide, tetranucleotide, pentanucleotide, and hexanucleotide repeats of which tetranucleotide repeats are used for genotyping. 2

STR profiling is used in paternity/maternity testing, rape perpetrators' identification, kinship testing, and disaster victim identification. 48

STR-based DNA analysis in forensic has been well accepted by professionals and population as an important tool in criminal justice and in human identification.

• The test is simple.
• Can be done rapidly. 49

Analysis of the Y Chromosome

Typically, biologically a male individual has 1 Y chromosome and contains 55 genes. Because of this unique feature, analysis of Y chromosome is done in crime cases. 50

Application of Y chromosome in forensic medicine: It is present only in males. Thus, in crime cases, the investigators expect to find Y chromosome at the crime scene. Also, when talking about male–female ratio in body fluid mixtures, such as sexual assault or rapes, by analyzing the Y-STR component, the investigators can obtain more information regarding the male component. It is well known that azoospermic or vasectomized rapists do not leave semen traces, and it is impossible to find spermatozoa on the microscopic examination. In such cases, the Y-STR profiling is very useful, offering information regarding the identity of the accused person. 50

Analysis of Mitochondrial DNA (mt-DNA)

mt-DNA is inherited from mother; thus all the members of a matrilineal family share the identical haplotype.

• mt-DNA has 200 to 1,700 copies per cell.
• Increased probability of survival when compared to nuclear DNA.

Applications:

• Analysis of biologic samples that are severely degraded or old.
• Samples with low amount of DNA (e.g., hair shafts). 51

Autosomal Single-Nucleotide Polymorphism Typing

SNP has a lower heterozygosity when compared with STRs. Advantage of SNP typing over STR is that the DNA template size can be as large as 50 BPs, compared with STRs that need a size of 300 BPs to obtain good STR profiling. 52 Due to this reason, SNP has become an important tool in analyzing degraded samples. Thus in the 2001 World Trade Center disaster, victims were identified using SNP typing. 53 54

Impact of Genetic Identification in Justice 1

Genetic testing using DNA has been widely applicable to the field of justice. This method is being used for the following:

• Identification of accused and confirmation of guilt.
• Exculpation of innocent ones.
• Identification of persons who commit crimes or serial killers.
• Identification of victims in disasters.
• Establishing consanguinity in complex cases.

Currently, the DNA genotyping of all types of microtraces or biological traces containing nucleated cells is possible if they are not entirely demolished, either chemically or by bacteria. The DNA analysis is an important tool in solving caseworks in forensic medicine, such as establishing the custody of a child through paternity or maternity tests, identifying victims from crimes or disasters, or exonerating innocent people convicted to prison.

Conflict of Interest None declared.

Realizing the benefits of human genetics and genomics research for people everywhere.

Annual DNA Day Essay Contest

ASHG is proud to support National DNA Day through the Annual DNA Day Essay Contest. DNA Day commemorates the completion of the Human Genome Project in April 2003 and the discovery of the double helix of DNA in 1953.

This contest is open to students in grades 9-12 worldwide and asks students to examine, question, and reflect on important concepts in genetics. Essays are expected to be well-reasoned arguments that indicate a deep understanding of scientific concepts related to the essay question. They are evaluated by ASHG members through three rounds of scoring.

The submission deadline has passed. Winners will be announced on Thursday, April 25. 

2024 Question

Many human diseases have a genetic component. Some diseases result from a change in a single gene or even multiple genes. Yet, many diseases are complex and stem from an interaction between genes and the environment. Environmental factors may include chemicals in the air or water, nutrition, microbes, ultraviolet radiation from the sun and social context. Provide an example of how the interplay of genetics and environment can shape human health.

Important Dates

• Early January, 2024: Submission site opens
• March 6, 2024: Submission site closes
• April 25, 2024: DNA Day! Winners and Honorable Mentions announced

1st Place Winner: $1,000 for student $1,000 genetics materials grant

2nd Place Winner: $600 for student $600 genetics materials grant

3rd Place Winner: $400 for student $400 genetics materials grant

Honorable Mentions : 10 student prizes of $100 each

Questions? Email [email protected]

The rubric below is used by judges to evaluate every essay in the second and third rounds of judging.

Rules & Requirements

• No LLM (large-language model) tool will be accepted as a credited author on this essay. That is because any attribution of authorship carries with it accountability for the work, and AI tools cannot take such responsibility. Students using LLM tools should document this use in the citations section.
• Essays must be submitted by a teacher or administrator and written by high school students (grades 9-12) in the U.S. and internationally. Parents may submit essays if the student is home schooled.
• Essays must be written by one individual student; group submissions are not permitted.
• Essays must be in English and no more than 750 words. Word count includes in-text citations, but not reference lists.
• Submissions should not include the student’s name in the essay text. This helps with impartial judging.
• Essays must include at least one reference. References should be clearly documented with both in-text citations and in the references list. The reference list should be separately entered in the “References” section of the submission page.
• APA or MLA style can be used for citations. There is no limit on how many references students may use, but they should avoid too many references, as judges want to know the student’s opinion on the question and not the opinion of the resources.
• Quality of references will be considered by judges when scoring.
• Only classroom teachers are eligible for the equipment grant.
• Teachers of first-place winners from 2020, 2021, 2022, and 2023 are not eligible for equipment grants in 2024.

Please Note Text from essays may be used for research purposes to identify misconceptions, misunderstandings, and areas of student interest in genetics. Student text may be published on the ASHG website, newsletter, or in other ASHG publications.

Plagiarism will not be tolerated. The text of the student’s essay must be his or her own words unless quotations are explicitly noted. If plagiarism is suspected during any point of the contest, the essay in question will be examined. Essays found to contain the uncited work of others will be disqualified and the student’s teacher will be notified. Plagiarism.org gives a helpful explanation of what plagiarism is.

How many essays can one student submit? Only one entry per student.

How many essays can one teacher submit on behalf of students? Each teacher may submit up to six student essays per class, for up to three classes.

What are low-quality a high-quality sources? A low-quality source is one that doesn’t guarantee accurate information, such as Wikipedia. High-quality sources include research journals, such as those accessible through PubMed.

What is included in the 750-word count, and what is not?

• All text in the essay, in-line citations/references, headings and titles, and image captions are included in the word count
• The reference list is the only text not included in the word count.

Should references have a separate page? The reference list will be submitted separately in the “references” section of the submission site. Everything will be included on one page once the essay is submitted.

Is there a standard font or margin size preferred? No. Once the essay is copied and pasted into the submission site, it will be formatted to fit our standard margins and fonts.

How do I submit my essay if my teacher cannot do it for me? Try to find any other teacher or guidance counselor at your school who can submit for you. If this isn’t an option, please email us at [email protected] .

Can my guidance counselor or another school administrator submit my essay for me? Yes.

Can I submit for my student who is currently studying abroad? Students must be studying at the same school as the teacher who submits their essays.

Can I change information after I have submitted? No, please make sure all information is correct before submitting because it will be final.

How does the teacher vouch for the originality of the student’s work? Your submission represents your authentication that the essays are the original work of your students.

I submitted late. Will my essay still be judged? Late submissions will not be judged.

Where’s the confirmation email? It may take some time for the email to get to you. If you haven’t received it by the end of the day, either check your junk mailbox or double check that the email address you provided is correct. If neither of those options work, email [email protected] .

Summarized below are some of the most common issues judges note in reading submitted essays.

• Too much focus on details. A focus on details to the detriment of demonstrating a clear understanding of the big picture. Judges are much more forgiving of errors in details than errors in fundamental concepts and larger ideas.
• Overstating. Sweeping and grandiose overstatements of the current/future state and/or utility of biotechnology or biomedical science.
• Inaccuracy in technical language. Judges know you do not know all the “science jargon,” so don’t feel obligated to use it.
• Lack of in-text citations in, or lack of citations for information that is not considered common knowledge. If you got the information from somewhere else, cite the source.
• Using out-of-date references. Scientific understanding changes very rapidly, and references that are more than five years old are likely to have outdated ideas.
• Using too many quotes. Although occasional use is warranted, too many quotes lead judges to think the author doesn’t grasp the topic.

Check out the links below for excerpts from past winners’ essays!

Want to become a judge? If you are a current-year ASHG member, you will receive an email each February inviting you to volunteer. If you did not receive the email or cannot locate it, please contact [email protected] . You can also volunteer by the visiting the ASHG involvement page. You may forward the judge recruiting email ONLY to fellow ASHG current members. The deadline to sign up as a judge is the usually the end of February for that year’s Contest. If you have questions about future years, please contact [email protected]

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163 DNA Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

🏆 best dna topic ideas & essay examples, 💡 most interesting dna argumentative essay topics, 📑 good research topics about dna, 📌 simple & easy dna essay titles, 👍 good essay topics on dna, ❓ questions about dna.

• Moral and Ethical Issues of Recombinant DNA Technology In my opinion that debate is of the greatest importance and my hope is that these six lectures may have contributed to it.
• The Use of DNA Technology in the O. J. Simpson’s Murder Trial The tests revealed that the blood samples taken from the crime scene, the victims’ blood and the blood at the gate matched Simpson’s blood. We will write a custom essay specifically for you by our professional experts 808 writers online Learn More
• Biochemical Metabolism: Foreign DNA Molecule The virtual gel should show the band pattern that would result from incubating the plasmid with restriction enzymes as indicated below.
• DNA Cloning and Sequencing: The Experiment The plasmid vector pTTQ18 and the GFP PCR product will be digested with restriction enzymes and the desired DNA fragments obtained thereof will be purified by Polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and ligated with DNA ligase resulting […]
• The DNA Extraction Procedure: Scientific Experiment It touches on plant cell DNA extraction, animal cell DNA extraction, sequence used in DNA extraction and composition of the sample.
• Benefits and Challenges of DNA Profiling The simplest option is to take a sample from the suspect and compare it with the DNA found at the crime scene.
• Rosalind Franklin: The Discovery of the DNA Structure The discovery of the spatial structure of DNA undoubtedly made a decisive contribution to the development of modern biological science and related fields.
• DNA in Criminal Investigations In fact, it is possible to speak about the advent of a new field of criminalistics, DNA profiling. RFLP analysis is very discriminative, though, it is worth mentioning, that the samples have to be undamaged, […]
• The Concept of DNA Barcoding The first step towards safeguarding and gaining from biodiversity involves sampling, identifying, and studying the biological specimens to identify the extent of the diversity and use that knowledge for the benefit of the country.
• Forensic DNA Analysis: A Technique to Achieve a Conclusion of Identity Thus, a DNA match corroborates the fact that the suspect was at the scene of the crime and this evidence can help in establishing a case against the suspects.
• DNA Testing Techniques and Challenges Therefore, even though the major part of the evidence can be inaccessible, the sample can be amplified due to the development of technology. The final stage is the evaluation of the accuracy of the analysis […]
• Wildlife Forensic DNA Laboratory and Its Risks The mission of the Wildlife Forensic DNA Laboratory is to provide evidence to governmental and non-governmental organizations to ensure the protection of the wildlife in the country.
• The Amplification of DNA Samples The isothermal amplification of nucleic acids represents a simplified process that allows for the quick and efficient accumulation of nucleic acid sequences in an environment of constant temperatures.
• Application of DNA in Criminal Forensics In phylogenetic studies, the analysis of DNA from fossil remains allows one to determine the taxonomic identity of a species, while in forensics, one can find the connection between traces and the perpetrator or the […]
• Ethics of Informed Consent in DNA Research The ethical issue that is the focus of the current study is the use of patient DNA for research by a company without their knowledge and consent.
• Neanderthal DNA in the Genomes The article shares the reasons behind the presence of Denisovans; genetic fingerprints are present in many parts of the world today.
• The Nature of DNA Structure Discovery Thus, scientists should expand the idea about the nature of discovery without relying only on insight or results, acknowledging Franklin as a discoverer of DNA structure. It is time to reconsider the nature of discovery […]
• The Discovery of the Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) Structure Watson and Crick are independent; they come up with the idea of building a DNA structure on their own. Chadarevien argues that the image of Crick, Watson, and the double-helical DNA model has a great […]
• Transfer of Beta-Carotene via DNA Techniques Adding yeast as a vector may significantly alleviate the incorporation of the new genes into any species because it includes protein which is vital for the species’ growth and rapid gene manipulation.
• DNA Sequencing with Polymerase Chain Reaction Sixteen possible combinations of the four nucleotide bases of the DNA would give rise to the 16 amino acids. This explains the high melting point of a high G + C content DNA.
• Mitochondria DNA (mtDNA) in Genealogy It is the development of mtDNA that enabled Sykes to trace and guess about the lives of the clan mothers since through it he was able to assess the genetic makeup of modern Europeans.
• Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA): Structure and Function This is true of the current article, “The Structure of DNA,” which describes the function, structure, and biological significance of the most important molecule in nature.
• DNA Evidence: The Case of the Golden State Killer Thus, DNA evidence should be used to narrow the circle of suspects before the technology is improved and other people could safely submit their DNA samples.
• DNA Analysis in Criminal Cases The murderer, Bradley Robert Edwards, was recognized to be guilty after committing two rapes in 2016 his DNA samples were taken from under the nails of the victim as she was fighting the rapist in […]
• Sex and Biology of Gender, From DNA to the Brain The video helped me actualize my prior knowledge on sex and gender as well as enriched my understanding of what biological processes make people transgender. In conclusion, the video under analysis helped me improve my […]
• DNA Profiling and Required Genetic Testing The reliable tests for conducting genetic testing should be more than one in order to remove the element of doubt on matching DNA bands.
• DNA Microarray Technology and Applications These DNA microarrays are used by scientists in order to determine the appearance levels of a big number of genes, and also to the manifold region of a genome.
• Covalent Modification of Deoxyribonucleic Acid Regulates Memory Formation The article by Miller and Sweatt examines the possible role of DNA methylation as an epigenetic mechanism in the regulation of memory in the adult central nervous system.
• Short Tandem Repeat (STR) DNA Analysis and the CODIS Database The core STR loci developed provides a foundation for global databases of DNA and has future implications in the field of forensic science.
• DNA Barcoding Sequence Analysis of Unknown Plant The efficiency of this instrumental method is built on the idea of close similarity in the structure of DNA molecules to be more precise, the arrangement of nucleotides in it between closely related species: the […]
• DNA Analysis in Criminal Investigations DNA analysis is a method aimed at the identification of a person according to his or her characteristics of DNA. In the earlier stages of an investigation, when the mentioned technique serves as a powerful […]
• Ethical Issues on DNA Testing On some occasions, parents and clinicians have used such knowledge to manipulate the fetus’s genetic structure, hindering natural reproduction and messing with God’s creation.
• Importance of Deoxyribonucleic Acid The history of the discovery of DNA dates back to 1865 when Gregory Mendel used theories of heredity in analyzing the genetic profiles of pea plants.
• Knowing One’s DNA Genetic Makeup: Pros and Cons In addition, the knowledge that one might not get a job or insurance because of their genetic makeup is stressful and depressive.
• Forensic Analysis of DNA and Biological Material This was the first stage when carrying out the DNA test on a biological material. Notably, the forensic analyst was not allowed to touch the collection pad of the swab as a precaution measure.
• Developmental Biology: DNA and MicroRNA This is augmented by the strengthening of patterns and the increase in the number of lateral cells that are crucial for the process to be successful.
• Deoxyribonucleic Acid: Review The goals of this experiment are: to enable us to become well acquainted with the physical characteristics of DNA by separating it from living tissue, and the use of each stage in the isolation process […]
• Interesting and Relevant Applications of DNA Technology Week One Activities Learning Outcomes DNA Technology in Laboratory Medicine Diagnostic Relevance and future prospects. Interesting and Relevant Applications of DNA Technology Areas Most striking and need further review in my career – modernized to detect pathogens from the clinical samples in the diagnostic hospitals. Preferred method of identifying organisms based on genomic make up. […]
• DNA Retention and National Security The experiences of Kuwait and the UAE are yet to demonstrate the consequences of the extreme expansion of DNA retention system, but another country has also provided some information for the consideration in the worldwide […]
• Deoxyribonucleic Acid Profiling in Forensics The last part of the analysis includes discussion of the potential for error in DNA profiling. It has to do with the fact that DNA is a material that fulfills most of the criteria making […]
• DNA Tests in the O.J. Simpson’s Case The fact that John’s DNA results match the crime blood DNA results does not prove beyond reasonable doubt that he is responsible for Sally’s murder.
• The E.Z.N.A Commercial Kit: Soil DNA Extraction Optimisation In this paper, the researcher sought to investigate the effectiveness of using the kit for the purposes of optimising the extraction of DNA from marine soils.
• The Helical Structure of DNA: Watson and Crick’s Opinion In addition, the author of this paper makes a comparison between the structure proposed by the two biologists and the information provided in recent textbooks.
• Restriction of Lambda DNA in the Laboratory The DNA in the head of the virus has a unique structure. The restriction site is used for the purposes of recognizing a particular DNA molecule.
• DNA Vaccines: Optimization Methods The three optimization methods scientists have been using to optimize DNA vaccines are the use of regulatory elements, optimization of the codons, and addition of the kozak sequences.
• Comparative Sequence Study in Human and Primate DNA Samples In general, the differences between DNA samples are qualitative and quantitative, and this is explained by the fact that these are responsible for the key biological differences between humans and primates.
• Molecular Components of the DNA Molecule The DNA serves as storage of the genetic information in the form of codes. The DNA polymerase is the enzyme that is responsible for the combination of the phosphate and the nucleotide.
• FRET Detection or DNA Molecules It is for this reason that the method is possibly applicable in the DNA sequencing methods that are composed of single molecules and these are viewed as belonging to the “next-generation”.
• The Concept of DNA Cloning In the approach based on cells both the replicating molecule or the biological vehicle known as the vector and the foreign DNA fragment are cut using the same restriction enzyme to produce compatible cohesive or […]
• Biotechnology, Nanotechnology Its a Science for Brighter Future, DNA This means that there should be efforts that are aimed at the promotion of this field so that we can be in a position of solving most of these problems.
• Post Conviction DNA Testing The DNA was first presented as evidence in court in the year 1986 in the USA, and in the subsequent years it presented serious challenges in the court rooms, presently it is been accepted in […]
• Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) Explained to Students In the chromosomes, DNA is organized and compacted by chromatin proteins. The interaction of DNA and other proteins is guided by compact structures.
• DNA Fingerprinting as Biotechnology Application DNA fingerprinting, also known as genetic fingerprinting or DNA profiling is a method used to identify a specific individual. DNA fingerprinting is used to determine the parents of a person i.e.establish paternity.
• Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) Nanotechnology: Chemical and Physical Structure and Properties The essence of DNA in every living organism and certain viruses is that it forms the basis of the genetic instructions that are essential in the development and functioning of these organisms.
• Use of the Information Technology to Solve Crimes: DNA Tests and Biometrics The modus operandi of the IAFIS is as follows: The fingerprints are taken after arrest, processed locally, and then electronically transmitted to state or federal agencies for processing.”The fingerprints are then electronically forwarded through the […]
• Criminal Justice and DNA: “Genetic Fingerprinting” DNA is one of the popular methods used by criminologists today, DNA technique is also known as “genetic fingerprinting”.the name given the procedure by Cellmark Diagnostics, a Maryland company that certified the technique used in […]
• Structure of Deoxyribonucleic Acid The nucleotides join to one another by covalent bonds between the sugar of one nucleotide and the phosphate of the next. The sequence of nucleotides in the DNA strand can be different and vary in […]
• The Innocence Project, Habib Wahir’s Case: DNA Testing During the appeal, the court found that the semen left in the lady by the culprit did not match Habib’s DNA.
• DNA and Genealogy Solving Cold Case Murders: The Modern Technology The issues above are essential, and they make people ask questions of whether it is reasonable to use modern technology in DNA and genealogy.
• Modern Technology in DNA and Genealogy Solving Cold Case Murders The purpose of the study lays in establishing the relationship between ethical, legal, and privacy challenges of using genomics during the investigation.
• DNA and Evolution – What’s Similar Transformation, in molecular genetics, is a change in the hereditary properties of cells as a result of the penetration of foreign DNA into them.
• The Main Objective of DNA Fingerprinting in Agriculture Therefore, the main objective of DNA fingerprinting in agriculture is to overcome the limitation of insufficient dissimilarity among prior genotypes and come up with the best ideas to discover new molecular markers and collect data […]
• DNA Diagnostic Technologies Description This has made it possible to understand the aspects concerning the development of human life as well as genetic causes of abnormalities that are seen in the human body. In the treatment of genetic diseases, […]
• Importance of Expanding FBI’s Forensic DNA Laboratory In addition, acceptance of DNA analysis results as evidence in the Court of law has entrenched DNA analysis in forensic investigations. These have increased the number of samples for DNA analysis in FBI forensic laboratories.
• Meiosis and Splitting of the Dna Into Gametes Meiosis is the basic process happening in the cells carrying the genetic information about the organism into two cells, while the number of chromosomes in the resulting cells is divided into two equal parts, thus […]
• Biotechnology: Copying DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) It refers to a new but identical collection of cells acquired from an original cell by the process of fission, wherein a cell divides itself forming two cells, or by the process of mitosis, wherein […]
• DNA as the Secret of Life Deoxyribonucleic Acid which is commonly referred to as DNA is the nucleic acid that is used in the study of the genetics of the development and the functioning of almost all living organisms with an […]
• Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA): Structure & Function The significant factor was that the two strands run in the reverse directions and the molecule had a definite base pairing.
• Oswald T. Avery and the Discovery of the DNA Oswald Avery was a man driven with the desire to contribute to humanity but when he finally discovered something of utmost importance the world of science was not quick enough to give recognition to his […]
• Biomedical Discovery of DNA Structure The first parts of the book comprised of the opening of Sir Lawrence Bragg, who gave an overview of the entire book and talked about the significance of Francis Crick and James Watson’s discovery with […]
• Artificial Manipulation of DNA Technology There is microinjection of genes in the zygote pronuclear and the other technique is by injecting the stem cells of the embryo into blastocoels.
• Infectious Bacterial Identification From DNA Sequencing The first is the preparation of the DNA sequence and matching it with the database of known DNA sequences. Given below is a screenshot of the process PCR Amplification: To prepare the polymerase chain reaction, […]
• Mattew Warren: Four New DNA Letters Double Life’s Alphabet In this article, the author describes the work of Steven Benner and other scientists who contributed to the improvement in understanding the nature of synthetic DNA bases.
• DNA Profiling and Analysis Interpretation Regarding the case of the robbery and murder of a man and a woman, different types of physical evidence can be collected. However, this method can be less effective in case of the contamination of […]
• Species Identification Reveals Mislabeling of Important Fish Products in Iran The article under discussion is devoted to the method of DNA barcoding in fish species identification and its ability to shed light on the situation with product identity in Iran.
• Sleep Helps to Repair Damaged DNA in Neurons The researchers found that the chromosomes in the fish’s neurons would often change shape while their owners slept, enabling the repair of the damage accumulated in periods of activity.
• DNA Replication as a Semiconservative Process The process of DNA replication has been studied extensively as the pathway to understanding the processes of inheritance and the possible platform for addressing a range of health issues occurring as a result of DNA […]
• Obtaining a DNA Sample Legally Furthermore, it is impossible to search not only the suspect’s house but also the curtilage, which is also protected according to the Fourth Amendment because it is a private territory.
• Dr. Michio Kaku’s Predictions of the DNA Screening In the documentary, the city planners warn the public that the insufficient growth and the development of the suburban areas threaten both the economy of the country as well as its community.
• Exponentials and Logarithms: the Cell and DNA The result will be; log to the base of 2 of ‘x’ equals ‘y’.’y’ usually refers to the power to which one raises ‘2’ to get ‘x’ This can be simplified as follows; F =2x […]
• Bird DNA Extraction: Sex Determination of Gallus Gallus DNA was obtained from blood, muscle tissue and feathers of the bird. The last step was to visualize the DNA extract through gel electrophoresis and making conclusions of the bird’s sex.
• Recombinant DNA Technology and pGLO Plasmid Use Transformation of bacterial cells, which is one of the approaches used in genetic engineering, involves the transfer of genetic material from one bacterium to another using a plasmid vector.
• DNA in Action: Sockeye Salmon Fisheries Management The researchers in the article carried out an analysis entailing a total sum of 9300 salmon fish species. The latter was followed by mixed stock samples in the lower region of Fraser River and test […]
• DNA-Binding Specificities of Human Transcription Factors The main purpose of the experiment was to analyze and determine how human transcription factors are specifically bound by DNA. Most human transcriptional factors have been systematically analyzed in the methodology and result sections of […]
• Innovator’s DNA: Entrepreneurial Assessment With time, I discovered that the questioning spirit was a reflection of what goes on in the mind of an entrepreneur.
• DNA Evidence and Its Use in the US Criminal Law The concluding statement of the Supreme Court of the United States defined the procedure of obtaining DNA samples as a procedure identical to taking fingerprints or taking pictures of the crime scene.
• Genes, Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA), and Heredity Others said RNA and DNA are the same and that they are responsible for making proteins. The statement “you are your genes” is virtually right because DNA is the basis of heredity and it is […]
• How Has DNA Changed the Field of Physical Anthropology? It is indeed correct to argue that contemporary DNA research has not only changed the field of physical anthropology in major ways, but it continues to alter and broaden our understanding and perceptions in a […]
• Organizational DNA Analysis Moreover, due to the spontaneous growth of the organization that took a snowball design, it experienced a challenge in supplying its products to the target consumers.
• DNA as an Evidence From a Crime Scene The mitochondrial DNA is transferred directly from the mother to the offspring and in this case, there is no DNA of the father present here.
• DNA Definition and Its Use by the US Police The location for most DNA is the nucleus though some may be found in the mitochondria and is called mitochondrial DNA.
• DNA Analysis: A Crime-Fighting Tool or Invasion of Privacy? This paper set out to demonstrate that DNA analysis offers a versatile tool for fighting crime and therefore ensuring the success of our civilization.
• The DNA of an Entrepreneur: Is There an Entrepreneur Gene
• The Use and Importance of DNA Profiling in the Police Force in America
• The Role of DNA Technology in Crime Investigation
• The Future of Computers and DNA Computing
• Will a National DNA Database Decrease Crime in the U.S
• The Human Genome Project and Patenting DNA
• The Essential Features of the Watson-Crick Model on the DNA
• The Structure of the DNA and the Future of Genetic Engineering
• The Effectiveness of DNA Evidence in Obtaining Criminal Convictions
• The Evolution of DNA Silencing Technology over the Years
• The History, Function and Advancement in DNA Technologies
• The Different Uses and Importance of DNA Replication
• The Advancement of DNA Testing in Criminal Trials and Its Benefits
• The Idea of Cloning Animals and Humans since the Discovery of DNA
• The Biochemical Description of the DNA and Its Importance in Cloning
• Why Ageing Occurs Are All Under The Guideline Of DNA
• Self Assembling Circuits Using DNA, The Next Computer Breakthrough
• Significance of Discoveries in Genetics and DNA
• Understanding Recombinant DNA Technology
• The Contribution of DNA Profiling to Changing the Crime Solving System
• Understanding How Genetic Engineering Works from the Perspective of the DNA
• The Use of Recombinant DNA Technology
• The Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA Polymerase Chain Reaction
• The Genesis of DNA Profiling and Its Use in the Modern World
• The Effects Of Gene Editing On Human DNA
• Use Of DNA In Criminal Investigations
• Tools and Techniques for DNA Manipulation
• Timeline on Our Understanding of DNA and Heredity
• Rosalind Franklin: Unsung Hero Of The DNA Revolution
• The Impact of the Use of DNA Analysis for Forensic Analysis
• Your DNA: Who Has Access To It And How It Should Be Used
• Structure and Analysis of DNA and Implications for Society
• The Light and Dark Side of DNA Technology
• The Functions Of DNA And Protein Synthesis
• Watson and Crick and the Discovery of DNA’s Structure
• The Uses of DNA Technology in Forensic Science
• The Discovery and Understanding of the Structure of DNA by James Watson and Francis Crick
• The Work of James Watson and Francis Crick on the Exploration of DNA Structure
• Uses Of DNA And Fingerprints In Crime Scene Investigation
• The Structure of DNA and the Risks Inherent in Understanding It
• The Concept and Role of DNA Fingerprinting in Solving Crimes
• How Is DNA Deciphered?
• Which Scientists Participated in the Discovery of DNA?
• What Experiments Did Scientists Use to Discover DNA?
• What Is the Structure of DNA?
• What Are the Methods of Diagnosing Plant Diseases Based on DNA?
• DNA: What Are the Potential Effects on Skeletal Muscle Aging in Humans?
• How Many Crimes Are Solved by DNA?
• What Does Vitamin Help With DNA Repair?
• Why Do Researchers Study DNA?
• Is It Possible to Control the Aids Virus With a DNA Vaccine?
• How Does DNA Help Fight Crime?
• What Are the Analytical Methods of DNA Extraction?
• What Is a DNA Sequence?
• How Would You Analyze the DNA Matches of Identical Twins?
• When Was DNA Discovered?
• How Different Is Human DNA From Animal DNA?
• Is It Possible to Clone the DNA of Animals and Plants?
• How Many DNA Molecules Are in a Chromosome?
• Is It Possible to Artificially Create DNA?
• Can Cancer Be Detected in DNA?
• How Accurate Is DNA Evidence?
• What Is the DNA Replication Process?
• Can Siblings Have Different DNA?
• Why Does ATM Deficiency Accelerate DNA Damage in HIV-Infected Individuals?
• Can DNA Evidence Ever Be Wrong?
• A Bioethical Question: Is DNA Fingerprinting Mandatory?
• Which Part of DNA Carries Genetic Information?
• How Is DNA Used in Research?
• What Are the Types of DNA?
• What Is the Basic Structure of DNA?
• Chicago (A-D)
• Chicago (N-B)

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The Ethicist

Does my cousin get a say in whether i have a dna test.

The magazine’s Ethicist columnist on familial duty, genetic ancestry testing and privacy.

By Kwame Anthony Appiah

I was recently at a family gathering and, in the course of the conversation, casually mentioned that I had always wanted to take a DNA test and find out more about the background of our family history. When I said that, my cousin reacted strongly, saying that she didn’t want any family member to take one and have their DNA in the hands of an organization or government that might use it with malicious intent. She feels uncomfortable with having related DNA in the system, because she worries this data will somehow triangulate back to her. She has not committed any crimes, but for her this is a serious privacy issue. My family is small, and my cousin has always been my closest family member. We speak several times a week, so taking the test and hiding it from her feels wrong, but I’m not sure if her wishes in this case override mine. How much am I required to consider her feelings about this? — Name Withheld

From the Ethicist:

The National Human Genome Research Institute says that we humans share 99.9 percent of our genetic makeup. Of the other 0.1 percent, you and a first cousin will share, on average, 12.5 percent of your DNA (with a range, according to 23andMe, from 4 percent to 23 percent). Because what DNA you share is a result of random processes, it won’t be possible to tell much about her genetic makeup from yours. The fact that you have genes associated with some health condition, for instance, doesn’t mean that she does.

I can imagine scenarios — in which, say, she left blood at a crime scene or had placed a child for adoption — where investigators might conclude that they’re looking for a cousin of yours. But it doesn’t sound as if she’s worried about finding new relatives or being nabbed for a crime. In principle, certain inferences about her base-line probabilities could be affected by having your DNA data; if you had a genetic predisposition to some health condition, her odds of having it — absent additional information — would be higher than average. (Note that employers and health insurers in the United States and many other countries are prohibited by law from discriminating on the basis of genetics.) Yet it seems very unlikely that someone with malicious intent is going to be able to make much of this. And to let yourself be trammeled by hypothetical harms so indeterminate we can’t even spell them out can lead to a pretty straitened existence.

In the end, your cousin’s objections, as you describe them, come across as less reasoned vigilance than mistrustful vibe. And it seems unfair that you should have to give up on joining an ancestry site owing to a vibe. Still, she’s family, someone with whom you have, and will want to maintain, a warm and trusting relationship. So try to talk the matter through — discussing the knowable facts, her fears and your hopes.

Readers Respond

The previous question was from a reader who was unsure of what to do with an object she inherited. She wrote: “I own a Nazi helmet my husband, now deceased, inherited from his father. For a long time it didn’t bother me; it only left me wondering about the soldier who wore it. But with the resurgence in white supremacy, neo-fascism and antisemitism, I am now very uncomfortable with it. I can’t seem to figure out what to do with it. I don’t think a museum would be interested in it. I certainly would never sell it, being uneasy about who might buy it. Donating it to a theater costume shop is a possibility. Or should I save it as a piece of history for my great-grandchildren to learn from?”

In his response, the Ethicist noted: “From what I understand, people who collect World War II helmets are typically military-history buffs who don’t identify with the politics of the regimes their wearers fought for. … Besides, the standard German combat helmet of that period was minimally decorated, and probably less than ideal for those looking to dress up as Nazis. … The fact that an object can play a role in someone’s creepy imaginative life doesn’t mean that you shouldn’t own it. Almost anything can play a role in a creepy imaginative life. What’s wrong with people who collect Nazi memorabilia out of a rooting interest isn’t their objects; it’s their morally repugnant attitudes. Keep it, donate it, sell it — just don’t endow the helmet with talismanic powers.” (Reread the full question and answer here .)

I believe it is important and necessary to evaluate the ethical implications of how we interact with historical artifacts. However, it seems to me that the letter writer is quite clear in expressing her own moral judgments. She explicitly states that she would never sell the helmet. Rather than suggest that the writer reconsider that decision, I would suggest that she re-examine her assumption that a museum would be uninterested in the artifact, and consult resources on how to transfer objects with such history in a way that allows others to learn from them. I would also like to push back on Dr. Appiah’s suggestion that a combat helmet is “probably less than ideal for those looking to dress up as Nazis.” Perhaps this helmet does not contain the type of insignia that may be found on a “parade” helmet, or other objects from Nazi Germany, but it can certainly satisfy the purposes of a Nazi glorifier. — Brennan

The letter writer may wish to sell the helmet and donate the proceeds to the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum in Washington or a similar organization. It would certainly ease her conscience knowing that some good came from the loathsome object. — Lisa

I agree with all that the Ethicist wrote but would add one option — destroy the helmet and put it in the garbage. Somehow I think that the letter writer may be more satisfied if she could smash it up! — David B.

Our family faced a similar problem. My wife’s maternal grandfather was an officer in the Ku Klux Klan. Among his effects were printed materials, an embosser and other items. We offered them to the Oregon Historical Society, and asked, should they be displayed, that the provenance be listed as “an Anonymous Donor.” — Steve

My father, a Cuban citizen of Scottish descent living in Cuba, joined the Canadian Black Watch, an elite regiment, in 1942 because he wanted to fight Hitler. His unit swept through northern France in the summer of 1944 and suffered many casualties. He brought back a Nazi flag, a dagger with a swastika on the handle, a “potato masher” grenade filled with sand and a Walther P38 sidearm, gotten I think from a German officer. He was neither a Nazi sympathizer — he joined the Black Watch to fight the Nazis! — nor did he hold morally repugnant attitudes of any sort. After getting out of Cuba, my mother, who followed him a few days later, brought the flag with her. I inherited it. I still have it, stashed in a closet. I had forgotten about it until I read this column. The flag is a reminder of my father’s service in the Black Watch. The letter writer’s deceased husband may simply have regarded it as a war souvenir inherited from his father, who perhaps picked it up on a battlefield. — David T.

Kwame Anthony Appiah is The New York Times Magazine’s Ethicist columnist and teaches philosophy at N.Y.U. His books include “Cosmopolitanism,” “The Honor Code” and “The Lies That Bind: Rethinking Identity.” To submit a query: Send an email to [email protected]. More about Kwame Anthony Appiah

The Ethicist’s Answers to Your Moral Quandaries

Kwame anthony appiah helps us handle the tricky situations that put our values to the test..

Should I Speak Out When I Overhear a Person Saying Something Hateful?: No one is obliged to confront everyone who says reprehensible things, but it would be better if more of us did so .

Should I Have Refused a Stranger’s Offer to Buy My Groceries?: Sometimes the greatest gift we can give people is to accept their gift graciously .

As a Scientist, What Should I Do About My Mother’s Alternative-Medicine Views?: When reconciling two very different belief systems between family members, the aim should be not conversion to a single view but mere toleration .

Do I Owe a Boss Who Harassed Me Credit for Past Work?: Professional peers won’t know about a private situation, and some may see your failure to mention the collaboration as misleading or even dishonest .

To submit a question to the Ethicist, send an email to [email protected].  To receive advice directly in your inbox, sign up for the Ethicist newsletter .

COVID-19 continues to impact all of us. Please know the DDC team is doing everything possible to keep all sample processing on time. Click for more info.

How To Read Your Paternity DNA Test Results

Aug 18, 2019 | Paternity

How to Read Your Paternity Test Results

DNA Diagnostics Center (DDC) is the world leader in DNA Paternity Testing at home , performing over one million paternity tests each year. Each test is processed at our state-of-the art facility outside Cincinnati, providing online results as soon as 24 to 48 hours after the samples arrive at our lab and go into testing. This detailed paternity test report contains scientific as well as legal terms to describe our highly precise process and your results. Here’s a breakdown of the different sections in the report, and what they mean for you and your family.

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Ddc paternity test results report overview.

Your DDC paternity test results report contains the following main sections, with each displaying important information.

• Genetic System Table (Locus/Allele Sizes chart)
• Combined Paternity Index
• Probability of Paternity
• Test Conclusions

Call us for a FREE confidential consultation at 800.929.0847. We’re here to help.

Paternity test results: genetic system table.

Paternity Test Results: Combined Paternity Index

The Combined Paternity Index is the number on the lower left side of the report (in the Interpretation section), directly under the Genetic System Table. If you are considered the biological father, there is a number listed for the Combined Paternity Index. If you are not considered the biological father, the report shows “0.” The Combined Paternity Index is an odds ratio indicating how many times more likely it is that the possible father is the biological father than a randomly-selected unrelated man with a similar racial background. In the example shown above, this man is 533,475 times more likely to be the biological father. This number varies on a case by case basis. The higher this number, the stronger the results.

Paternity Test Results: Test Conclusions

The report also shows one of two conclusions: “is not excluded as the biological father” or “is excluded as the biological father.”

• If the conclusion states, “ is not excluded as the biological father ,” this means the possible father most likely IS the biological father of the child, since all data gathered from the test supports a relationship of paternity.
• If the conclusion states, “ is excluded as the biological father ,” this means the possible father IS NOT the biological father of the child, since all data gathered from the test do not support a relationship of paternity.

Frequently Asked Questions

Q: My test shows a mismatch in one location between the possible father and the child, yet the probability of paternity is over 99%. How can this happen? A: Chances are good that there was a mutation in either the child’s or the possible father’s genetic code at that location. Analysts take mutations into account when doing their calculations and reaching conclusions. So even if there is a mismatch, the man might still be considered the biological father of the child tested. Q: Can your paternity test results be wrong? A: DDC processes every sample twice, by a separate team of technicians, to eliminate the possibility of human error for extremely accurate results. If your results say that the alleged father is “excluded”, this means there is zero probability that the person is the biological father, based on the DNA analysis. If your results say that the father is “not excluded”, this means that there is almost 100% probability that the person is the biological father – in the example above, a 99.9998% probability. However, if two possible fathers are close relatives, such as brothers, they share much of the same DNA. It is important to let us know if two possible fathers are relatives. We can do additional testing to increase accuracy in this situation. Q: Why aren’t there names on my paternity test report? A: When doing an at-home test, there are no names on the report, only an identifying number for each set of samples and their role in the test (alleged father, child, or mother). We do this because we cannot verify whether a sample submitted to us belongs to the person indicated by the customer. However, if you choose to do a legal, witnessed, chain-of-custody paternity test with court-admissible results, then the report includes both names and our company branding. For both at-home and legal testing, the testing process itself is exactly the same, and you can be sure results are guaranteed accurate for the samples provided to us. Q: Can the Probability of Paternity ever be 100%? A: No. DNA test results are calculated based on statistics. Quite simply, in order to get a 100% probability, we’d have to test every man in the world with a similar ethnic background to the alleged father being tested. And for obvious reasons, that’s not possible!

About DNA Diagnostics Center (DDC)

DNA Diagnostic Center is the world leader in paternity and relationship testing. We serve healthcare professionals, government agencies, and individuals around the world to determine family relationships with trusted accuracy. More Questions? Don’t hesitate to call us at 800-929-0847 . We’re here to help. Note: If you have performed a Non-Invasive Prenatal Paternity Test , a paternity test conducted during pregnancy, your results will contain different information. For help understanding a prenatal report, or to order a Prenatal Paternity Test, please contact our prenatal testing specialists at 1-800-929-0847 (M-F, 8 am to 5 pm Eastern).

  If you have a general question about the info above, leave a comment and we’ll answer.

848 Comments

Hey got the invasive prenatal paternity test done. I got my results but no chart.

Hi, Trice. The prenatal paternity test is different from a postnatal test: For a prenatal test, approximately 2,698 genetic markers are compared, whereas with a postnatal test, comparison of 16 markers are generally all that’s needed for conclusive results. It would be impractical to list data for nearly 3,000 markers on a report, so we give the conclusion only. Hope this helps!

Heya i recently done a home paternity test with ddc . Results 99.9998% and index is : 947,710 There was 3 of us that done the test “Mother , Child , alleged father. It says one possible mutation was observed ? Just didn’t get mutation ? But the mutation was included in the calculation of 99.9998 % . Does this mean I’m the child’s father from results as Shown above ? Even tho it says there was a possible mutation ? Also from the results as shown with one mutation mean there can be another alleged father ? even tho the index and percentage is high ?

Hi, Matt. Based on your results, you are considered the biological father of the child with a 99.9998% probability, and there’s a 947,710 to 1 chance that someone else who’s unrelated to you but with the same racial background could be the father instead. Had you done a legal test with court-admissible results, your report would be considered proof of paternity. The possible mutation you mention was taken into account by our analysts as they calculated your results, so it’s nothing to worry about at all. That statement is just for your information and it doesn’t mean there can be another alleged father.

Had a 46 marker test done on blood relative brother ( same father mother) with alledged son. 5 of the markets came back as n/a. Yet the test came back as the brother was the father and not the deceased. What do the n/a markets mean ?

Hi, Lori. I asked one of our PhDs on your behalf, and they’ve never heard of any markers showing as n/a. Sorry!

What does it mean likelihood they share the same father is 19-1 combined sibling index, 19

Hi, Erica. Without seeing the report and data, I can’t elaborate on this more than you already have.

If the test says its 99.99996 and the other number say 31,278,495,363? They wouldn’t be the father right?

What you describe is an “inclusion,” meaning, the man tested is considered the biological father of the child tested.

Hello i was wondering if you have heard of Private testing center in kentucky. Ive got a test through their company but looked up their business and it says it has been shut down. Im confused and the results seem very off

Hi, Marsha. With so little information, I cannot give you an accurate answer. You may want to contact the BBB about them.

What exactly does it mean when the results come back with an extremely high percentage and probability.. The percentage is 99.9999999999996% And the probability is 297,042,561,703,816…. last I checked there weren’t even that many people on the planet??

Hi, Mariah. You’re right…there aren’t that many people on that planet. But these numbers are statistically derived, and the math isn’t limited by number of people on the planet. The higher the probability percentage and the higher the CPI number, the more likely it is that the man tested is the biological father of the child tested. There was apparently plenty of data from their DNA that was rare for their racial population!

If an alleged grandmother and child do a kinship test and the results are a combined kinship index of 3.17 76% is this a positive relation result?

Hi, Christy. No, that is considered an exclusion. Here are the ranges for probability of relationship:

90% or higher: the relationship is supported by DNA testing 9% – 89%: inconclusive result, and additional parties need to be tested Below 9%: the relationship is not supported by DNA testing

I needed to take a dna test so I did but I ended up buying the wrong kit i bought a 23andme kit which my baby was too young to take.. me and his father live hours away so he bought the kit and took it he added the buffer solution and everything but when I got home I called and they said my child was too young too take that test so when I did get a chance to really look at it the kit was expired also so I bought a ddc test and dipped the q tips inside of his spit and ever since then I was wondering if this could have messed my results up i called and they said no but I’m just curious ..

No, the results are fine.

My report said 96 % probability What does that mean?

Hi, Raymond. If that is a paternity result, it is considered inconclusive. I suggest you contact the lab through whom you tested and ask why they didn’t test additional markers in order to provide you with a conclusive result of 99% or higher (or 0%).

On our dna test to find out if we are full or half siblings it says we are 95.2?% siblings, the likeihood that they share the same father is 20 to 1. We are confuse, do we share the same biological father?

Yes, you do. The man tested is 20 times more likely to be the father of both of you than an untested man.

Hey asking for a friend… My friends brother has passed away a lady has contacted them stating that the brother had a child and she wanted a DNA test from my friend (which would be potential uncle of the child) for confirm his brothers was the father … so the results came back that it was …John *** was 99.9 he was the uncle of the child but at the top it also said that john** was 9.99 percent chance he was the biological father of the child …

What’s this mean ? Is he the uncle or father ?

He is the uncle of the child.

What all ways does a lab test for paternity and what all is the process and what all shows up on the possible results? Never had a DNA test, it says it can be swab or blood,dcs ordered mine so idk what to expect to establish paternity

My alleged Dad and I done a DNA test and results came out: Probability of Paternity 99.9997% and CPI=359,627. Does that mean his my Dad. If yes is there any reason why they would think otherwise?

Hi, Hope. Because paternity testing uses statistics, the only way your result could be 100% is if every other man in the world with your possible father’s racial background were also analyzed. This obviously isn’t possible, so this is why any probability of paternity percentage higher than 99% (preferably higher than 99.9%) is considered conclusive. He is considered your biological father with a probability of paternity of 99.9997%. You can put your worries to rest.

Pls help can O+ parents give birth to A+

Not usually. But if there’s a genetic mutation, then it is possible. Determining paternity via blood type is not absolutely reliable; only DNA can tell for sure.

Hi A dna test with son and alleged father. 23 markers were tested, result inconclusive. Lab tested another 5 markers and test results 99.996% with a combined CPI 12,000. I dont believe this man is the father. Could a related man be the father instead?

Hi, Karen. Usually the lab will make mention in their conclusion statement if they believe there is a possibility that a related man could be the father instead.

On test results, are the numbers separated into 2 sides because 1 is X and 1 is Y? Can a number on the left be matched to a number on the right? I’m asking because only matching one side of numbers, I shared 12 matching numbers. Just matching either number on the same locus, all 20 lines had a match.

Hello, Kyle. Other than the amelogenin genetic marker that show X and Y specifically, the other loci are unrelated to X and Y. In other words, in the presentation of the report, there is no “X side” and “Y side.” An allele on the left side for a possible father can definitely match one listed on the right side for a child at the same genetic location.

I did a test for two kids that could be siblings and the test said 99.98 % the likelihood they share a common parent is 7,062 to 1 Assume prior probability equal 0.50 does that mean they are related

Yes, that is a very conclusive result.

Hi DDC I would like to ask in our case the two father’s are relatives we did blood test not a DNA test so my son is not the father of the child can it happen with a blood test because I strongly believe it is my son’s child

Hi, Jeane. DNA testing is the only sure way of determining paternity.

Hi, I had a Half-Siblingship DNA test done by DDC at a facility in California. Unable to fully understand the results, I’m reaching out for a little clarity. The Half-Siblingship results read, combined sibling ship index 25, probability of Half-siblingship 96.2 percent and likelihood we share a father is 25 to 1. I’m not sure what the ratio means 25 to 1 and after reading some of the messages here a 99 percent or higher is recommended. So is this my half brother with a percentage of 96.2 percent. Also my Mother his Mother and our alleged Father are all deceased no test was done on them.

Hi, Shawn. It is extremely rare to get a 99% or higher for a half-sibling test. 96.2% is considered conclusive that you are half-siblings. As for the other verbiage, it can be read this way: The odds are 25:1 that an untested, unrelated man with the same racial background is the father.

Can a potential father take a child to get tested at a lab without the permission of the biological mother?

Can the mother get the results in a case like this?

Hi, Ash. Whether it’s an at-home test or a legal test, the responsibility is on the testing adult to ensure the legal guardian of a minor child has provided consent. For legal tests where chain of custody is maintained and DNA collection is witnessed, the lab must have proof that the legal parent consents to testing. If the proper documentation for the child isn’t provided, testing cannot take place. Because all these safeguards are in place, for legal tests, the mother can request a copy of the results. For at-home tests where DNA is collected by the parties themselves at home, the lab has no way of verifying whether the DNA submitted for testing actually belongs to the names provided by the tested parties. In other words, there is no way to know if the possible father actually submitted the child’s DNA or his friend’s. Therefore, the mother cannot petition to see results. This is one of the main reasons why reports for at-home tests are not court admissible.

Good day I did a DNA test on my baby with my ex boyfriend but I boyfriend don’t know but the results came back 99.99999998 % not excluded but my son looks nothing alike he is the spilting image of my boyfriend how is that possible that my ex is a possibility

Hi, Denise. Physical characteristics are never a determination of paternity and whether or not someone “looks” like a parent is often subjective. Only DNA can give a sure answer, and from what you said it appears that the man tested was given a very conclusive inclusion for paternity. If you used an accredited lab, you can trust that result to be accurate.

Hi, is there any way I can have someone look at the results I received for a father/child buccal test? The probability is 99.99999%, the PI is over 12 million, however, my daughter had breast milk in her mouth when I cheek swabbed her, which was very light so not much of her cheek skin cells would’ve been on the swab, so I’m a bit confused as to how 14 of the 15 alleles match, except FGA, yet the saliva assessed predominantly had my breast milk with her saliva, and it’s compared against a Hispanic (he is Puerto Rican) ethnic group. Also, what if another potential father is not Hispanic (I am Native American and German), how does the probability work with varying ethnic group comparisons?

Hi, Alexis. The racial background identified for test participants is used to help determine the strength of the biological relationship only (for example, a PI of 12 million for Hispanic vs. a PI of 11 million for caucation). Any racial misidentification does not affect the actual conclusion of the test (exclusion or inclusion). If the swab had been contaminated by breast milk enough to make DNA extraction impossible, testing would have been suspended and a result would not have been issued. Breast milk does not change DNA itself; it can only affect the quality of the sample. Since you were issued a report, this is not a problem.

Hi I was wondering what does it mean when the alleged father has an N and a percentage of 89.7% on a paternity test

Hi, Kerri. I’m not sure what you mean by “N” and so I cannot help with that. An 89.7% probability of paternity is considered inconclusive. You should ask the lab where you tested about including the mother in testing to strengthen results and/or see if they will test additional markers. With the advanced technology employed for paternity testing nowadays, it’s hard to imagine why any customer would be provided with an inconclusive result.

I had an avucular aunt/uncle test. The combined relatedness index number is 1,289,but the two were half siblings,how accurate is this result

Hi, Nikki. Can you please rephrase your question? It sounds as if you did an avuncular test with two half-siblings.

My daughter and her alleged father did a DNA test all the same numbers but at the bottom it says there is a zero possibility that he is the father then why did the numbers match?

Hi, Ladaesha. Without seeing the data and where you think the matches are, I really can’t provide an answer. I suggest you contact the lab where you tested.

Hey did you ever get the answer to your question?

Why would om a DNA test result not show the loci TH01 alleles at all?

Hi, Jazmine. It is most likely that measurable data was not able to be obtained from that locus. Additional analysis is conducted to compensate.

IF THE PI VALUE IS 0.00 FOR SEVERAL THEN WE CAN AUTOMATICALLY RULE OUT HE IS NOT THE FATHER.

Hi, Cassandra. As a general rule, I would say that is usually a correct conclusion to make, but without seeing your physical report, I cannot confirm that it is true in your case.

Hello my daughter me and the alleged father did a dna test and came out to be 99.98% and stated can not be excluded what does it mean that is the biological father

Yes, that means he is considered the biological father with a 99.98% probability of paternity.

Hi, I recently had a DNA test done on my son Kysen, & I had 2 men tested to see if they were the father. It came back that brendan, one of the men tested was 99.5%. I was also with Brendan’s half brother Matthew. So does that mean that Brendan’s the father or is their a possibility that Matthew could be kysens father?

Hi, Savannah. Were the other men who were tested excluded, I presume? And is there a reason why Matthew didn’t also test? Matthew should also test, and be sure to tell the lab ahead of time about his relationship with Brendan and the results of Brendan’s test.

I did a sibling home dna for my sons and can’t understand the results. COMBINED SIBSHIP INDEX (FULL-SIBLING): 247036697.51, PROBABILITY: 99.999999%

COMBINED SIBSHIP INDEX (HALF-SIBLING): 516445.42, PROBABILITY: 99.999%

Hi, Sara. It wouldn’t be wise of me to answer without the full data or context for this test. I suggest you contact the lab where you tested directly for an explanation.

When it say alleged father 14.15 n child 14.16 n father 13.14 and child 14 what does that mean

Hi, Donnae. When the two alleles are the same length at any given genetic location (such as 14,14 in the case of the child you referenced) then the report shows just a single 14.

How many locus will show on a paternity test? How many matched loci are needed to prove paternity? Will a dna paternity test be resulted with only 9 locus listed?

Hi, Jessica. With today’s technology and processes, a minimum of 20 loci is the gold standard for paternity testing.

Hi I did a dna with ddc to test a relationship with a deceased father I used his brother instead I did not let ddc know I was testing child uncle test came back negative. Will the give me a for sure answer?

Hi, April. Because you didn’t let the lab know that the man participating in the paternity test was the child’s possible uncle and not his possible father, the result provided was for paternity; so it’s no wonder the result was an exclusion. You would need to test again and this time order an avuncular test.

I had done a NIPP test at like 30wks pregnant and results came back 99% could not exclude. I had also done a paternity test after baby was born with a potential other baby father and thay came back 99.9 can not exclude. How is this possible?

Hi, Court. What you describe is extremely unlikely. Without any of the details of either test and the circumstances surrounding them or where you had them performed, it’s difficult to provide any type of answer. I suggest you contact the lab(s) where you tested directly and start asking questions.

How come siblings % is different when they have the same parents? 98.9999998 99.9999999

Hi, Dragon. Siblings only share 50% of the same DNA, unless they’re identical twins, and so the strength at the data is going to be different for each sibling. Siblings inherit all their DNA from their parents, but siblings don’t inherit the exact same DNA from each. That’s what makes siblings unique!

Hay my sons dna results say greater than 1,000,000,000,000 if alleged is the father…. What does this mean? because probability of paternity is 99.9999% why does it say if alleged the father wouldn’t it say he is the dad

Hi, Lou. Paternity is determined using genetic data from the general population and is derived using statistics. This is why we can never give a 100% probability of paternity; to do so, we’d have to include all the men in the world with the same racial background as the man tested. The 1,000,000,000,000 number you give is the combined paternity index. It could be read this way: There is a 1 in 1,000,000,000,000 chance that the biological father is an unrelated man who was not tested. You can rest assured that the man tested is considered the biological father of the child with a 99.9999% probability…that’s as conclusive as it gets!

Hi DCC. Thank you for your reply on 8th August. My results showed a CPI 12 000 and did include in the statement that if there was a possibility a relative was the father he too should be tested. Does this mean I maybe correct in thinking this man may not be the father and ask for another test to be done? Thanks

If my home dna test has names of partcipants. On results is it fake

Hi, Rick. Although we do not put names on our at-home reports since identifies of participants have not been independently verified, there may be other companies who do. So I cannot confirm that the report you have is fake. If you’d like to post it for us to look at privately, contact us via Messenger on our Facebook page: https://www.facebook.com/DDCPaternity

Can a man be the father if it’s 98.7 or 90.2?

Hi, Heather. For paternity testing, those are considered inconclusive probabilities of paternity. The lab should test more genetic markers in order to attain either a 99.9% or higher percentage for an inclusion, or 0% for an exclusion.

I got this results back from a dna test a few months back. The question I have is why does the mother have same numbers as I do and also the child. I understand the child but the mother in many boxes has the same exact numbers as mine and the child??

Hi, Gerardo. As human beings we share 99.9% of the same DNA, so it would not be unusual at all for you and the mother to match genetic data at certain loci. It doesn’t mean you’re closely related, of course.

Hello I did a DNA test my my nephew and I and I came to 52to 1 and 98.1 . Can you tell me I am the uncle yes or no

Hello, Esteban. What is the probably percentage of relationship?

DNA test came back 99.99996% and Cpi 2.862.991 What does this mean.

If it’s a paternity test, you can read it this way: The man tested is not excluded and is considered the biological father with a 99.99996% probability of paternity. The odds of an unrelated untested man with the same racial background being the father are 2,862,991 to 1.

If the marriage happens with close relationships..wife is daugher of husband’s paternal aunty.

Is there any possibility of inclusive paternal report though father is not biological father of child ?

Most likely not a problem.

Hi. I am a white mother who has a son who is biracial (black & white) .My son who has dark brown hair dark brown eyes had a child with his white girlfriend who also has dark brown hair brown eyes. My grandson is now 4.5yrs old. He has white blonde hair & bright blue eyes & doesn’t look nothing like my son. We have loved & provided for him since the day he was born & while personally, dna makes no difference to me, we recently were sent a Pic of a man that his girlfriend admittedly had sex with around the same time she got pregnant & was floored by the resemblance..he has light hair & blue eyes.. My grandson does look a lot like him.. however, my son went ahead & did a DNA test at a local facility called “any lab test now” located in Knox TN with only him & my grandson were tested. The results came back 98.4% positive that my son is the father. Is there any possibility that the test could be wrong due to human error? It’s not at all that I want the test to be wrong, bcuz as I said we love this baby & I will be his grandmother no matter what. I just think it’s vital for my grandsons well being later on in life that he knows with certainty who he comes from as I’ve heard horror stories from people who were lied to. That question may sound strange or stupid considering the results we just received but I’m just curious as to if there are situations such as ours where false positives have been reported? Thanks & have a blessed day.

Hi, Michelle. Only DNA can provide an accurate answer for a biological relationship, and from what you said, it appears you received an inclusion. Physical characteristics are seldom proof. It may very well be that your son and/or his girlfriend have recessive genes for light hair and blue eyes and those genes are being expressed outwardly by your grandson. No worries…enjoy being grandma with no more doubts.

I have a question how long saliva stay on a Q-tip and I read up on it expired in 28 months is that true

Hi, Michelle. The material collected for testing is actually cheek cells scraped from the inside of the cheek, rather than saliva. If kept in a breathable paper container in a cool, dry place, such a sample is viable for testing for about 6 months.

Hello My results read 99.999997% cannot be excluded as biological father with a pi of 39,151,316. I only tested father and son and they tested at 20 loci. All were matches. However the other father and mother never tested. If humans share mostly the same DNA and it is impossible to determine if the child in fact received that number from the father instead of the mother at that particular loci how can they gives results with such certainty? For example a son has 8 as does a father probably the mom does as well but it’s not shown. And most likely the other father has an 8 as well that may belong to him. It seems that statistics and probability has nothing to really do with exact science. It is making no sense to me. Without all parties how could you possibly conclude this certain allele was passed from father to son? Can you please clarify. I offer to send my maternal results and companies tell me it’s not necessary. But how

Hi, K. You are correct that all relationship-testing results are statistically obtained and that the statistics and data used are race based. The only way a test could provide 100% probability of paternity is if every man in the world with the same ethnic background were also tested, which is (of course) impossible. The chances of the other possible father also having all the same data as the man tested is 39,151,316 to 1, as indicated by the combined paternity index you provided. Had the mother’s DNA been required to strengthen results even further, it would have been requested by the lab. I hope this helps!

My 2 sons one dad , he died then I took a test for my son , idk it’s 99.7%……457to 1 so they don’t share the same father ? Just mother

Hi. I don’t understand what you described. Who was tested exactly?

what if a Dna test was mishandled by a privated collector is it possible for a DNA sample to be switched or Tampered with? At the Philadelphia Family Court on the 8floor 02/13\2020 There was three children down there and there mother has family who works down there Are there any witnesses to verify that this is not possible. Person maybe corrupt or Persuaded, I Damm a investigation on the collector Who ministered the test on 02/13/2020 was done in private with no witnesses overseeing this test. The results say I’m black I’m mix

Hi, Shawn. If a participant in a paternity suspects foul play on the part of the collector, it is their responsibility to press charges. Paternity testing does not provide genetic answers for race. Rather, test participants state their race before testing is conducted.

I have a question. I had a private DNA test done. My son looks identical to this man not to mention my pregnancy term (conception/due date) would be with him. I went to an any lab test now and dna came back 0%. How do you find out whether not a lab is credible? Also can I have the dna samples sent somewhere else?

Hi, Geny. AnyLabTestNow is a reputable company that we work with. If you’re sure the DNA the possible father submitted was his own, then you have no reason to test further. Physical characteristics are very subjective and should never be the basis for making any decisions or assessments about paternity…only DNA can tell for sure.

I sent my samples to my alleged dad’s sister from Nigeria to USA, she told me that the two samples out of three I sent, the two could not read out anything (toothbrush and cotton bud), just the chewing gum and the result was 0%. I will love to be sure if the test was carried out or need a better clarification about it

Hello, Ejoh. The company from whom you purchased the test is your best resource for answers to your questions.

My daughter did a DNA test from Walgreens the results came back with them having two matches and she was told there was not enough matches to say the baby was her biological grandson. Could there be a chance the baby is her grandson.

Hi, Patricia. From what you told me, it sounds as if she was given an “exclusion” result, meaning she and the baby are not related.

I had a test done and dad’s test result most o them don’t math but it saying he is most likely the father y would this be

Hi, Rebecca. I suggest you contact the lab where you tested and ask questions. It may be you are just misinterpreting the data.

Hi, can you explain this:

the probability of full-siblingship is 0.02%. The likelihood that they do not share the same biological father is 5,854 to 1.

Do they share the same father or not?

They most likely do not share the same biological father.

Hi, I recently took a home peace of mind test. Me, my child and the father. The result came back as can not be exluded 99,999999997%, and the cpi: 36 156 712 007. I know that paternity test are not 100%, but I can’t find any study proving that the test is actually 99,99 % accurate. I have a lot of anxiety that someone else could match the 20 loci since I live in a small town.

Hi, Loni. You can trust the result. The odds of someone else who is unrelated to you being the father are 36,156,712,007 to 1. This is true whether you live in a small town or the largest city in the world.

Hi, I did a prenatal paternity test with ddc and the results came back 99.9% non excluded. Is this sufficient to believe that the alleged dad is the biological dad so i can get a good rest at night beause i’m trying to trust everything is correct. I did not test the other potetial man.

Hi, Yale. Yes, as long as the other alleged father is NOT a close biological relation to the man tested, you can get a good rest at night.

My dna test was inconclusive, likelihood of grandmaternity was 7to1. What does this mean?

Hi, Lacy. It means that the genetic data for tested parties (the amount of DNA you share) was not enough to provide a conclusive result one way or the other. Additional tested parties (such as mother of the child) are needed to strengthen results.

If the test came back with 87% and says”not excluded” does that mean I’m the father? Me and the kid are blood cousins. What does this mean?

Hi, Bianca. Was this for a paternity test or some other test such as grandparent or sibling?

Hi if my test shows 98.9 percent what does this means

Hi, Mario. If you did a paternity test, it means you are considered the biological father of the child tested with a 98.9% probability of relationship.

Why is the combined paternity index different than when I multiplied it myself. It’s off by around 20,000

No worries! Multiplying the CPI data together is a basic first step and there are additional factors involved (including rounding) in the calculations, and so the CPI you obtain may not be exactly what the report says.

99.9998 prob of paternity would make me the father correct?

If a child is a female, will the amelogenin have an X and a Y or just an X?

Only males have a Y chromosome. So a female would show an X on a paternity report (meaning X,X).

What’s it mean when you only see and have 19 markers that were supposedly only tested.. isn’t there supposed to be a total of 20 alleles that are tested? I’m not understanding that part

For assistance in understanding your report, Whitney, please contact us directly via 800-831-1906 or you can reach out via Facebook Messenger on our page: https://www.facebook.com/DDCPaternity

Hii can you help me please what means reliability of paternity greater than 99.99% and he is not father . thanks

Hi, Krischen. Can you please clarify? Were you given a 99.99% probability of paternity yet the conclusion says he is not the father?

MY TEST CAME BACK 97. PROBABILITY OF THE FATHER IS HE’S THE FATHER OR NOT?

Hi, Sherrie. As high as that probability is, it’s not considered conclusive. With today’s technology, a good accredited lab should be able to test enough genetic markers to provide either a 99% or higher probability of paternity (if the man is considered the biological father of the child tested) or 0% (if he’s not considered the biological father of the child tested). You may want to call the lab where you did your testing and ask some questions.

Just got results and it says 0% chance that my brother in law is the father. The girl swears he is and is wanting another test done tomorrow. We paid for overnight shipping $90. Same day results so we are at about $300 for this paternity test. Is there anyway your results are wrong?

FYI the baby was not quite a week old when he did the test

Hi, Amanda. The age of the baby doesn’t affect test results. You didn’t mention if your brother-in-law did a home test or a legal (witnessed) test with court-admissible results, so I’m going to assume you mean a home test. You also didn’t mention whether we did the testing or not, so I’ll assume we did. You can be sure the results are accurate for the samples we were provided . Every test is run twice, each by a separate team, to ensure accuracy once samples arrive at our lab. What we don’t have control over is the DNA collection process. For example, we have no way of knowing if the alleged father really swabbed himself or used someone else’s DNA instead in order to commit fraud. If you’re absolutely sure he submitted his DNA and the baby’s, then there is no question that he’s not the biological father. If you want to do a legal chain-of-custody test just to put the issue to rest once and for all, then that’s an option.

What does it mean when it says 99.999992 why is is 2 instead of 8 or 9?

Hi, Dee. That is not a cause for concern, nor does it mean that the person tested is any “less” related that if it had been an 8 or 9. Probability of paternity is determined using statistical calculations and that tiny number at the end can vary depending on the strength of the data.

hii they send me so the tests involved taking buccal swabs from each person .l have ensured a clear and verifiable strict chain of custody of each sample provided These tests produce a reliability of paternity of greater than 99.99% and under Results Shane is not father Kate.l dont undertand this is possitive or negative results thanks

Hi, Krischen. If the probability given on your paternity test is 99% or higher, then the man tested is considered the biological father; however, due to accreditation requirements, the language that is used on the report is “not excluded,” and perhaps that’s why you’re confused. It’s a different way of saying it, but it also means that he is considered the father.

I have concerns I was not present when my son swap the baby and himself in the mom but when I was given the packet it was very wet my question can you tell if the mom swap the baby and use the same swab to swab the dad to ensure that they match

Hi, Sheliia. Yes, we can tell if swabs that are supposed to be for different people actually have the same DNA.

Hi I have a question, when done a home paternity test, why don’t you put names of alleged father and child? How does the alleged father know if the result are his or not?

Hi, Ontario. The samples are all tracked by bar code, so you can be sure the results are for the people who contributed DNA to the test. We don’t put names on at-home tests because the identities of test participants have not been independently verfied. However, our reports for legal tests do have names since DNA collection is witnessed and chain of custody is maintained.

I took a dna test for a child my son supposed to had father.. my son refused to take the test.. I don’t understand it.. the test came back and stated most likely he’s not .. 20% is what i shared with the child can you please explain that to me..

Hi, Renne. Without having your report in front of me, I can’t comment on specifics. But from what you’ve said, it appears your test result says you are not the biological grandparent of the child; in other words, your son is not the father.

My Fiance had one if this friends with benefits relationship several years ago with this woman but she was also sleeping with his nephew as well at the same time. After 6 years we receive papers claiming my fiance is the father of her 2 youngest boys. Je did the DNA test and it came back that hes is not excluded as the father. But seeing how his nephew was sleeping with her 2 could they have close enough DNA and my fiance really isn’t the father? His nephew was never tested.

Hi, Heather. An uncle and nephew share 25% of the same DNA. When two possible fathers share a relationship this close, both parties should be tested and the lab should be informed ahead of time of the biological relationship between the two men being tested. If possible, the mother of the children should also include her DNA.

Hi my tests show the probability of half siblingship is 99.999% can you explain please what it means thx

Hi, Victoria. It means you received a conclusive result for your relationship test. You are half siblings with a 99.999% probability, which is extremely high.

My half siblingship is 98.9% positive that we have the same father. Is that a good percentage? I keep seeing over and over that it should be 99.%

99% or higher is generally only seen in paternity tests or grandparent tests where the mother’s included. A 98.9% probability of relationship is very conclusive for a half-sibling test.

If alleged father used swabbed the mouth of his nephew, and placed it as his swab when sending in samples would it give a negative result for being the father to my daughter.

Hi, Heather. That is very likely, yes.

I conducted DNA test on two different laboratories for the same child, the results came back positive but the CPI is not the same.what might be the reason?

Without your tests in front of me, it’s hard to give a sure answer. It may be possible some of the information provided by test participants, such as ethnic background, may have been slightly different.

I added up the numbers and they are child 562.8 and alleged father 504.3 the paper says combined paternity index 0. When researching to figure out if the test was wrong they have 12 out of 21 markers the same. Please help explain this to me.

Hi, Melissa. Because we are human beings sharing 99.9% of the same DNA, there are always going to be a number of matches in a paternity test between a child and a possible father. But what’s most important in determining a biological relationship is that ALL of the markers match (with the possible exception of 1 or 2 mutations). In this case, there are 9 markers that don’t match. Anytime a PI of 0 is determined at one or more of the tested loci, it voids all other data and a result of exclusion is given.

My test came back 99.9% so that means he is the father?

Yes, an inclusion means he is considered the biological father.

If there was something wrong with the childs blood type at birth could that have an effect on the results causing them to say negative

Hi, Tere. I’m not sure what you mean by something wrong with the blood type at birth. The only thing that might affect a DNA test is if the child had a recent blood transfusion.

Hi I did DNA test with the company called DNA test they said they working with you I want to knowbhow long does it takes to get the results from you m in South Africa

Hi, Xoliswa. We perform the testing only. How soon you get results is between you and our corporate partner, so you’ll need to ask them that question.

Hi, i did a prenatal paternity test, a month ago and i got result 0,00 (father is excluded). I just want to know does it mean that person is not father 100% and can i be sure that the result is correct? Thanks

Hi, Maya. Yes, that result means that the man tested is not considered the biological father. You can be sure the report is correct for the samples we were provided to test.

My husband just did a dna test that came back saying he is 99% the father but his first cousin also slept with the same girl. Can the dna test be wrong if there is another blood relative who can be the possible father?

Hi, S. In order to affect a paternity test, it would have to be a closer biological relationship (first degree), such as father or brother. Cousins only share 12.5% of the same DNA, generally. Your husband is not excluded as the biological father, with the probability percentage he was provided.

I did a prenatal paternity test with a q-tip with earwax and my results said 99.99% he was the father. When the baby was born we did a mouth swab test and it came back negative, how is this possible?

Hi, Sabrina. The most likely reason for that happening is that the possible father submitted someone else’s DNA for the second test instead of his own.

The alleged father did a home test for our daughter with your company. I was not present, however, the alleged father gave me a printout and results were 0% . I saw no ddc logo on the printout. Is there supposed to be a logo in result or printout?

Hi, Aisha. For an at-home test report, no.

Wait, so an at home test shouldn’t come with DDC in the corner of the paper the results are printed on? What if the results were allegedly mailed.

The ONLY time an at-home test has our logo and names is if it was performed on behalf of one of our corporate partners. If the test was ordered directly through DDC, then there is no logo or names.

7 of the 23 markers did not match to the alleged father making him not the father, since there was 7 differences does it mean there’s a possibility it’s his brothers baby?

Hi, T. No, there is no correlation.

Hi my husband had sex with his step sister and she claims he’s the father of her daughter but she doesn’t look like him. I told him to take a DNA test and they took a at home DNA test & said the results came back and said “Y” which he thinks stands for yes & he also said that the link says it expires in 20 days. Does that mean he’s the father because I thought DNA test says “99.99999%” if yu are the father

Hi, Kayla. A “Y” is not a conclusion for paternity testing. I’m guessing he is looking at the data in his column that shows the Y chromosome. The conclusion should be underneath the table of data.

My dude did a test on his son without his mom and the results was 76% how likely is that his child Thank u

Hi, Kami. With today’s technology, there is no reason why a paternity test shouldn’t return a 99.9% probability for an inclusion. 76% probability of paternity is considered inconclusive, so it’s impossible to say whether he might be the father or not. He should test again and make sure it’s with an accredited and reputable laboratory.

Hi my test came back 0.00% probability of me being my child but we had 15 matches out 23 can explain why I’m not the child’s father.

Hello, Eric. As humans, we share 99.9% of the same DNA. You and I could match at 15 genetic locations (or more!) even though we’re not biologically related. A child gets 50% of their DNA from mom and 50% from dad, so what is needed for an inclusion (is the father result) for a paternity test is for there to be a genetic match at (EVERY location), unless there is a genetic mutation present. With eight loci not matching, your result is definitely an exclusion.

My dna test results came with two different results one that I couldn’t see because it was on the other person’s screen and the other was paper results it is possible for the paper results to be wrong?

Hi, Kiandra. I suggest you contact the lab where you tested and ask questions. What you are describing does not sound likely at all. Online results and hard-copy results should be identical.

Hi! I did a full-siblingship test with you all and it came back 99.98% that they share the same father. Is this completely accurate? How do I know it wasn’t for half-siblingship?

Hi, Moni. If you ordered a full sibling test, then those are the results you received. If you have questions about your report, give us a call.

Hi I have recently done an at home DNA test, the results of whom we tested came bakc to be 99.9999999% but the alleged father seems to think that because years ago we may have come form the same blood line that the child was more likely to be his because of the shared blood but, I am trying to tell him that is incorrect right? Because we don’t have the same blood but our son has his DNA

Hi, Awa. The DNA test results are scientific evidence of the biological relationship. Whether or not there may have been a shared bloodline years ago doesn’t make a difference.

What is a Buccal?

A buccal swab is another term for a cheek swab.

Hello I did a test to see if the guy was my uncle and the test came back 95.2% and the combined raletedness index: 20. Is hes my father or my uncle?

Hi, Terell. That is considered a conclusive inclusive result for an uncle relationship. If you wanted to determine if he is your father instead, you should have done a paternity test.

How much is paternity dna test

Hi, Kemi. Because pricing could change over time, we don’t publish prices in blog comments. Check here: https://dnacenter.com/blog/how-much-does-a-dna-test-cost/

What if the test is for the alleged father but the other possible father is his cousin since they share the same dna would that effect the test? Or would it not matter

Hi, Joanna. A cousin relationship is too distant to make a difference.

My boyfriend did a paternity test on his alleged child after he was born. The test came back that he was not the father. The mother said it was wrong and refused another test. Eventually, she granted him another one, but she refused to do it infront of him. The test came back inconclusive. After that she sent a forged paternity test. The DNA did not match the original, it was clearly a legal test (which he did not participate in), and the child in the test was a girl not a boy. Finally, she just did another at home test, but this time it came back that he is the father. My boyfriend’s dna is the same as the first test this time. We are planning to have a legal test done, but i am curious to know what could yeild two seperate results?

Hi, Lisa. From what you describe, it might be a good idea not to believe any document the mother shows you as “proof.” You are wise to go the legal route since that type of test helps to prevent fraud. But let’s say the results for the first at-home test and the latest at-home test are legitimate. There is no way the results would be different if the exact same DNA was submitted for both tests…it’s just not possible. What we see most often is people submit someone else’s DNA in an attempt to manipulate results.

I have 2 sons , one dad but he died , he said my last son wasn’t his , so I tested both it’s came back 99.7% sibling index number 457 to 1 do they have the same father or not it said common mother

Hi DDC doea 86% consider as not excluded from being the Father?

Hi, May. Was this a paternity test or some other type of relationship test? Because there is no reason why an accredited lab nowadays would release an inconclusive result of 86% probability of paternity. The report should be 99% or higher or 0%.

Does 99.998 mean I’m the biological father

Hi, Pat. 99.998% probability means you are not excluded as the biological father with a 99.998% probability. You are most likely the father, yes.

I still haven’t received my results but they took the money out of my account and I paid an extra $30 for next day results and it’s been 5 business days already.

Hello, Kyndal. As publicly announced on our website, we have been having some systems issues and there are delays in issuing results. Thanks for your patience and we sincerely apologize for the inconvenience.

Hi, i took a paternity test without the mother for 3 years ago. The result came back as 99,999995%, and the cpi : 23,066,180. But can the result be wrong? I think there was like 20 str markers that where tested, but is it a smal change that someone else would match the same 20 markers? Do i have to take a paternity test with the mother?

Hi, Johnny. You received very conclusive results and there is no reason to test again.

Yo me hice una prueba a la 8 semana de gestación y salio excliyente este resultado lo puedo considerar sin margen de error

Gracias, Yherith. Buena suerte con tu hermoso bebé.

Una pregunta me hice una prueba a las 8 semanas salio excluyente ese resultado lo puedo considerar que no hay margen de error

Oh ya veo. Lo siento! Nuestros procesos de prueba de ADN son confiables y seguros y garantizamos resultados. Puede estar seguro de que los resultados son precisos para las muestras de ADN que nos dieron.

Do you send anything (receipt, info, etc) to the billing address?

Hi, Hannah. What an excellent question! Nothing is sent to the billing address unless the customer requests it. Most often they request a hard-copy of their results, but that’s the only time.

Would you send the hard copies to the shipping address or the billing address?

We would send a hard copy to the address requested by the customer: it could be either billing or shipping.

Mine was 96% and says I’m the father. But we are doing blood for me to be on the birth certificate..am I looking at any suprises? Is there any possible way for blood to be negative but swabbing be positive? I just wanna know what I’m walking into without beening crushed. >

Hi, Alex. DNA is DNA, and there’s no difference between a blood sample and a cheek-swab sample. If you recently had a paternity test done, I’m surprised you were given a 96% probability of paternity. With today’s technology, additional markers can be tested and/or the mother’s DNA can be added to the test to reach at 99.9% probability if you are the biological father.

Hi , so I did prenatal paternity test when I was close to 11 weeks and it came out my bf was excluded with 8 mismatches , however they rerun it again and I was told that out of 8 mismatches 4 matched and the other 4 seem to be matching too , so I was told to do another blood draw and I told I can ask another guy to send his chick swab and the lab said they don’t need it but will run my boyfriends and after I received a letter that my boyfriend was the father with the probability higher than 99.0% so I don’t know or can I trust this lab now , besides that on a letter wasn’t shown the alleys that matched just written his the father , and the answer how come that first time it was excluded they said it’s because there was not enough fetal DNA signal or too weak so now I’m concerned can I trust the final results ?

Hi, Natalie. Our lab doesn’t analyze prenatal tests the way you describe and so we’re not sure how the lab you used came up with its findings. If you have any doubts about the results from that lab, then it would probably be wise to do a postnatal test once the baby’s born.

How many days does it take to receive results back ?

Hi, Kat. Once samples arrive at the lab and go into testing, results are ready in 1-2 business days for a postnatal paternity test.

Will a guy get the results to an in office dna test if he is found not to be the father? Who get the test results? Do the guy recieve results only if he is found to be the father or does he receive results if he is not the father as well? How low does results take?

Hi, Summer. Test results are posted to a secure online account that is set up by the customer. If you participated in a legal, witnessed DNA test and do not have access to the login information, you still have a right to see the results. You just need to call us. Once samples have arrived at the lab, results are posted in 1-2 business days. If you have more questions, feel free to contact us directly at 800-681-7162.

If the test was done in a lab who gets the results and how ? How can you tell the difference between doing a home test DNA and going into the clinic test results ? If you go to a clinic would the names of the people tested be on the test results ?

Hi, Karla. All DDC testing is done right here at our full-accredited on-site lab. I’ll be happy to address each of your questions: (1) Results for an at-home test are posted to a secure online account, with the username and password being set up by the decision-maker on the test (usually the person who pays for it). Results are never given over the phone, but a hard-copy of the results can be mailed for a small extra fee. If the test is a legal witnessed one, the process for obtaining results is exactly the same, if it was paid for by a customer. If it was paid for by the courts, results go to the court. (2) and (3) The difference on the results report between an at-home test and a legal test (where DNA collection and submission to the lab is supervised at an approved facility, such as a clinic, or by an approved party) is that the at-home report does not have names but the legal report does have names. The reason we don’t put names on at-home tests is that we have no way of being sure that the DNA samples submitted actually belong to who test participants say they do. So instead, we assign numbers to identify the samples. Now, when the test is witnessed, IDs for participants are verified and the DNA collector handles all the samples, from collection to mailing, so we can be sure samples are from the correct people listed on the test. I hope this helps. If you have any other questions, feel free to reach out again!

We are having two results from the same lab conducted on different days. Separate months. The first analysis says excluded ans not the recent says 99.9999 is that even possible. Because I believe if there’s uncertainty they should request new blood sample to be certain or something… I don’t understand. What must we do

Hi, Gloria. No, that’s not possible. If the same people’s DNA was submitted for both tests, then the results should be exactly the same. It sounds like the wrong person’s DNA was submitted for the exclusion.

I did a sibling test for my child and another child of the alleged father. The full sibling index was 0.000063 and the half sibling index was 0.27. What does this mean?

Hi, Nicole. Without seeing all the data I cannot give you a definitive answer, but it would appear from what you said that the two children are unrelated.

If it state the probability of full sibling ship is 99.5% the likelihood that they share the same biological father is 2,446 to 1. Does this mean they have the same father.

If what you stated is true, then yes, that is definitely considered a conclusive result.

If i went to a a lab to get the dna test done then why do my results say that they were not collected by a third neutral party ? Am i able to go to the clinic that i went to, to get my test results or how can i get that from you guys ?

Hi, Karla. I cannot discuss your particular case on a public forum. So I suggest you call us directly so one of our specialists can access your account and give you the information you’re looking for. That number is 800-681-7162.

What should I do if the alleged father don’t want to show up or I personally don’t want the possible father knows or realizes the prenatal DNA test, is there any other way to do the test? For example, could i use other sample, like nails or hair with root instead of swab ?

Hi, Linda. That’s an excellent question. Trying to use nail or hair samples instead of a cheek-swab sample from the possible father is risky, because there’s no guarantee the samples you send us contain enough quality DNA for testing. For this reason, we haven’t validated the use of alternative samples for prenatal testing…it’s too hit and miss. As a highly-accredited lab that does its own testing, we only accept cheek-cell samples from the possible father for prenatal paternity tests. This guarantees we have enough DNA to run the test twice to ensure accurate results.

If an at home test was done. Is there any way to get the names on the results? Could you pay extra money to get the names on it or would you have to see a valid drivers license? How does that work?

Hi, Whitney. The reason we don’t put names on at-home test results is because we have no way of verifying that the samples submitted really do belong to the participants named on the case. We still put identifiers on the report such as a sample number and the person’s role in the case (child, or alleged father, for example), we just cannot put names. Nevertheless, the results issued are guaranteed accurate for the samples we are given to compare . With at-home testing, the whole process is on the honor system, which is why results aren’t court-admissible. Once an at-home test is complete, you cannot pay extra to have names put on the report because the issue is still the same: not knowing for sure who the participants were. If you were to pay a little extra do a legal paternity test, then names are put on the report. This is because DNA collection and submission to the lab is witnessed by an approved and trained DNA collector who checks IDs and verifies that the samples for testing belong to the participants whose names are on the envelopes. Because the process is supervised by an impartial witness, names go on the report and results are court-admissible. In your case, if you want names on the report, you’ll have to do a whole new test and arrange for it to be a legal one. I hope this helps! For more details, you can visit the link below and/or call us at 800-681-7162. https://dnacenter.com/dna-paternity-test/legal-dna-paternity-test/

i done my dna testing at a building called medical testing resources and i see the paper have ddc on them my question is can i view my results online? is 99.99999999997 or 99.999999999996 accurate dna test results? I have taken dna test before and they never came out with these results.

Hi, Goldy. It depends on whether your test was ordered by the court or not. If it was, you may have to go through the court in order to see your results. If not, you’re welcome to give us a call at 800-831-1906 and we can help you out. As for your second question, 99.9% plus any other number after it (7 or 6) is as clear an indicator as you can get of a biological father/child relationship. That little bit of a difference in the numbers is insignificant. Either number would be accepted in any court of law in the country as an indication of paternity. Hope this helps!

Hace unos 7 meses me hice una prueba de paternidad prenatal el resultado es excluido mi pareja tenia justo 8 semanas puedo considerar que este resultado no tiene margen de error la prueba se hizo en la ciudad de mexico

¡Hola, Lian! Si la prueba se realizó en un laboratorio acreditado, puede confiar en los resultados. Sin embargo, para confirmar, es bienvenido a hacer otra prueba ahora que el bebé nace. Por favor llame a nuestra línea internacional al 1-513-881-7800 para discutir su caso.

Me hice la prueba con southgenetics mexico y el resultado biene con el membrete de DDC

If when I put the swabs in the envolope and they’re still wet can that in anyway effect the results of the test even if I put the cotton swabs in opposite directions so they wouldnt touch also if it was raining the day I turned it in can that there for carry the dna into the other swab and it be incorrect ? My results read 99.99999999998 does that last 8 mean there’s possibility I’m not

Hi, Gre. The lab can tell if there are two different DNA profiles on a swab. If it’s contaminated in this way, testing is suspended and the customer is asked to submit new samples. If you were issued results, then contamination was not a problem with your swabs. As for the probability of paternity you were given, that is an extremely high percentage…almost as high as you can get. Had this been a legal test, the court would recognize you as the biological father of the child. Results for a paternity test are obtained using statistics and a mathematical formula. Because it’s impossible to test every man in the world of the same ethnic background as you, there can never be a 100% probability of paternity. Hope this helps!

What does this sentence mean? Does it mean that the results show that the father is only 0.50% the real father? Help plz. >>>This probability of paternity is calculated by comparing to an untested, unrelated ,random Individual of the Hispanic population (Assumes prior probability equals 0.50)

Hi, Marii. No, it doesn’t mean that at all, so no worries! Paternity-testing analysis involves statistics, and this sentence just shows the baseline used to calculate results.

Could there be a false NIPP exclusion? Should I take a post paternity test in hospital? Can the cheek swab be contaminated and mess with result? Can not having enough DNA for the fetal profile draw an exclusion result, or no reslut? Has there been an outsome of no reslut? Exclusion and not exclusion? How can I retrieve my profile of mother, fetus, and alleged father?

Hi, lbk! Let’s address your questions one by one: Could there be a false NIPP exclusion? If the test is performed after 8 weeks’ gestation through a highly-accredited facility like DDC, then you can trust results. There are specific metrics we follow to ensure accurate results, and if those metrics are not met, then we do not issue a report. Ours is the only NIPP test on the market that’s been validated and published. Should I take a post paternity test in hospital? You can do a postnatal test (either an at-home or a legal one) also, but it’s not necessary to confirm results. Can the cheek swab be contaminated and mess with result? If a swab is contaminated, then the lab will suspend testing, not issue results, and ask for new samples. To ensure the man submits his own sample and not someone else’s, his cheek-swabbing should be witnessed either by the woman being tested (for non-legal testing) or by an approved witness (for legal, chain-of-custody testing with court-admissible results). Can not having enough DNA for the fetal profile draw an exclusion result, or no result? No. If there is not enough DNA for the fetal profile, then another blood sample will be drawn. No results are issued at all if there is not enough DNA to produce accurate results one way or the other. Has there been an outcome of no result? Exclusion and not exclusion? I can’t speak for other labs, but we do not issue “inconclusive results.” If there is not enough free-floating fetal DNA to get conclusive results, then we’ll ask for a new blood sample from the mother. How can I retrieve my profile of mother, fetus, and alleged father? For a postnatal test wherein only about 16 markers per participant is analyzed, we do provide each participant’s file in the report. Because we test thousands of SNPs (genetic data points) for the NIPP test, it is extremely difficult to format all the data, and so we do not make individual profiles available.

Hi I’d like to know if the mother is missing from a none ordered paternity test, if the lab has the right to do such testing

Hi, Ebony. I don’t understand your question. Will you please clarify?

Can a paternity test be done at any lab you guys are affiliated with at any given time without the mother being absent ?

Can I get an email address please…… very important

I was told you could be 7 weeks, has this changed? I was 7 weeks 5 days when I got mine done with DDC and I’ve been stressing about the accuracy.

Hi, Sarah. This situation is stressful, no doubt. But rest assured that we can perform the test as early as 7 weeks, and your result is accurate for the samples we were provided to test. Take care!

Hi, Where can i get blood type results of myself & My Son from a DNA test in 93 or 94?

Hi, Dianna. You can try contacting the lab that did the testing if they are still in business. DDC started in 1995.

Hi I did a NIPP test a couple months ago. it came back with a 99.9% probability…. which was actually in my favor…. Have you ever had instances where the results were wrong? I am so happy that the test is in my favor , but paranoid that it could be wrong. Also I didn’t request to find out gender of the baby and only now realise that i could have gotten that also, is it still possible to get the gender?

Hi, Kris. The technology has gotten so precise in the last few years and our processes are so strict that, at least at our lab, there have been no incorrect results. As for gender of your baby, you can still find that out, but there is an additional $100 fee. Please call us at 800-303-9085, and all the best with your pregnancy!

How long does it take to receive results in the mail? I am not the one who filed for testing, however I took part in one and would like the results.

Hi, Elizabeth. It can take up to 10 business days after the request if you opt to have it delivered via regular 1st class USPS. For an additional fee, you can choose to have it delivered via FedEx.

Hello, are the tests fully anonymous?

Hi, Denis. I’m not sure what you mean by “fully anonymous,” but let me give it my best shot based on what it appears you mean. We do not share any private information, either names of participants, results, or DNA data, with anyone whose name is not on the test or any outside entity. Hope this helps!

Yes, this clarified my question. Thank you!

Excellent. Take care!

Hey I was wondering when I will have the results for the NIPPT I did on Friday? And for the login to get results can I log in as many times as I want or is it only a one time use? Thanks

Hi, Brigitte. Thanks for testing with us! It generally takes two business days for samples to arrive at our lab, then results are posted to your secure online account in approximately seven business days (unless you paid extra for express results). Once your report is ready, you can access it as often as you like for 90 days. Most customers download the report so they have a permanent file. If you have further questions, by all means feel free to contact our NIPP specialists directly at 800-303-9085.

Hi, I had done a paternity test back in 2009, and I believe I misplaced my original test results document. Is there any way I could receive another copy by mail?

Hi, Mike. Please give us a call at 800-329-7519 and we’ll do everything we can to help you.

I had a DNA test completed in April of 2009, at the request of the paternal mother (no court order) and am now questioning the legitimacy of the DNA Test Report, as I’ve been reviewing multiple issues/items and in reviewing, realized that the “Date Collected” is showing 4/27/2009, and the date completed “Subscribed and sworn before me on April 30, 2009”. Everything I’ve read on your FAQs and estimated testing timelines would indicate that there is no possibility of a 3 day turn around on these results. Is this a feasible turn around time for a DNA Paternity test in 2009, or should I investigate the potential that this document was forged, and seek legal counsel?

Hi, CJ. If the samples were overnighted to our lab, it’s very possible that we could have met that time frame. In 2009, turnaround times for paternity tests were 1-3 business days. You are welcome to contact us directly and we can look up your case for you: 800-831-1906.

Hello. What information does a home test report contain? Logo? Racial Background? Official Signatures? Please clarify.

Hi, Crystal. Since a home-paternity test is for personal knowledge only and the identities of participants have not been verified through chain-of-custody process, it does not contain the same information found on a legal test with court-admissible results. When purchased directly from DDC, the report contains the roles of test participants (alleged father/child) with their corresponding data, plus a Combined Paternity Index (CPI) ratio and probability of paternity. It does not have a logo or official signatures nor does it specify the racial background of participants (although this information is used to calculate results).

Thanks. I have read your response so many times , and yet I find myself worried daily that when I finally have this baby the test will be wrong and I will lose my husband and family forever. I have faith in God and know that the science behind this test is accurate but cant help but be super worried. Everything is at stake for me. As mentioned before the test shows that my husband is the father…. 99.9% probability of paternity, he does not even know he was testing for paternity, he thinks we were chosen for a random test , thanks to my Doctor….. so he has no clue that paternity of this child is in question…. can’t wait to have this baby and for all this stress to be over. i feel like i need constant reassurance that the results of this test is accurate 🙁

Kris, it is a very reliable test, so you can put your heart at rest. You know, it might help you to call in and speak with one of our prenatal specialists and get additional reassurance. You’re welcome to call us at 800-303-9085 and specialists are available 8-5 pm Eastern Time. Of course, all call are completely confidential.

THANK YOU. I THINK I WILL DO THAT

Hi sent off the swabs Thursday when will I get the results? Will they be emailed to me

Hi, Amy. Your report is posted to your secure online account within 2 business days after samples are received at the lab. Once samples arrived, a notification is sent to the email address associated with the test. For security reasons, we do not email results directly.

Dont cheat and you dont have to worry.

Hello… I did a DNA test exactly when i turned 8 weeks. It was determined that alleged father was not the father. Any way that there wasnt enough DNa still and is why it gave those results or 8 werks is sufficient to determine?

Hi, Jeanette. You don’t mention whether or not you tested with us. I can’t speak for other labs, but in our case, had there not been enough non-cell fetal DNA in your bloodstream to effectively test, we would not have issued results. Instead, you would have been asked to submit a new blood sample a week or so later. We can definitely get conclusive results as early as 8 weeks.

I did it through you guys yes. I thought maybe “not having enough dna” would just give me a result showing “hes not the father” . So there is indeed a way to know if it was “to soon to test”?

Yes. As I mentioned, if there hadn’t been enough DNA to test, the lab would have determined so during testing and would not issue results at all, one way or the other.

Greetings, What are the odds of having a mismatched number due to a mutation of the gene? I had a test done through a different facility and it showed there were two mismatched loci strings present. I understand it is somewhat of a rare occurrence to have one different due to a mutation but with two, I can be pretty certain with the results or no?

Hi, Erik. The frequency of a mutation at a particular locus in a specific population group depends on many factors. The odds for a mutation (or two in your case) is taken into account in calculations for paternity. In some cases, the lab will test will test additional genetic markers, if necessary, to confirm results. If you went with an accredited lab and you were issued results, they can be trusted.

I will be retesting with the same individuals as our first test. I’m happy with our results, but fear they could be wrong based on what I’ve read online.. my question is, if we are doing the same exact test with the same people, will the alleles match up or will they be different? I will be comparing the two tests side by side so I’d like to know in advance so I’m not confused or worried the lab mixed something up one of the two times! Thanks

Hi, Blaine. If the exact same people are being tested the second time as the first, all data would match exactly.

Blaine, something doesn’t add up. If the exact same parties are tested, then the data at each locus will be exactly the same. You’re welcome to call us directly so that we can have a look at both your reports and answer your questions regarding them. Sorry I can’t help you more on this public forum. I can’t be more specific about your case(s) due to HIPAA. Our number is: 800-329-7519.

Hi I recently did a DNA test between me the mother, alleged father and the child but the results came back as no match and I found it really hard to understand the results because there was no percentage

Hi! All paternity tests should give one of two results, with a percentage: Either 99.9% or higher for an inclusion or 0% probability for an exclusion (not the father). Is it the 0% that has you confused, perhaps?

Do you think you don’t need to know the origin of alleged father? I have such a doubt that, if the potential fathers have the same origin however the mother has different origin ( for example, fathers have African origins but mother has Asian origin). Paternity test will give positive for most of the African man. Probably, laboratories where test done, they don’t have the entire genetic codes in their genetic pool from African. So that I am pretty sure that in his situation not easy to verify since as far as I know DNA test using basically Alleles similarities.

Hello, Siga. When doing paternity testing, ethnicity is taken into account when calculating probability of paternity. The mother’s ethnicity does not matter. Because a child inherits 50% of their DNA from their mother and 50% from their father, the only way a man can be considered the biological father is if every genetic marker tested matches exactly with the child. This is regardless of ethnic origin. If they do all match, then a probability of paternity is generated, taking into account ethnicity. If they don’t all match, the man is not the biological father, and the man’s ethnicity is a non-factor.

How long do results normally take? We sent in the kit 3 business days ago?

Hi, Carol. If you used the postage-paid envelope included in the kit, it can take 7-10 business days for the post office to deliver your samples. Once samples arrive at the lab and testing begins, however, your report is posted to your secure online account in 1-2 days, depending on which kit you purchased. Hope this helps!

i wanna issue my question again. Do you think you don’t need to know the origin of alleged father? I have such a doubt that, if the potential fathers have the same origin however the mother has different origin ( for example, fathers have African origins but mother has Asian origin). Paternity test will give positive for most of the African man. Probably, laboratories where test done, they don’t have the entire genetic codes in their genetic pool from African. So that I am pretty sure that in his situation not easy to verify since as far as I know DNA test using basically Alleles similarities.

I did a sibling DNA test of mine n my two kids in the mother of two kids.the result is both kids safe same biological father.without fathers swab how can it tell 100 true result please tell me.its writer DDC name in the mail in I’m from srilanka

Hi, Maaa. It’s like putting together a genetic puzzle. Analysts can put all the pieces of each individual’s DNA together to create a picture of their biological relationship, so to speak. In many instances, relationships can be established in this manner if the alleged father is not available for testing.

I have typed below the DNA Laboratory Report. Conclusion: “The DNA profile from Child is consistent with having come from an offspring of her Mother and Alleged father. The DNA profile from Child in this nation’s population is 367,400 times more likely to be obtained if she is an offspring of her Mother and Alleged father than if she is an offspring of a random, unrelated man.” Only these two statements are in the conclusion. My question is: Are the two statements enough to say that the Alleged father is the biological father? TAKE NOTE: 1. Combined Paternity Index either 99.9% or 0% IS NOT INDICATED in the report. 2. There is NO CONCLUSION stating either “is not excluded as the biological father,” OR “is excluded as the biological father,” Please reply to this so it could help us with our existing problem.

Hi, Rojh. The language used by the lab you tested with would certainly seem to indicate that the child is the biological offspring of the alleged father. However, this is not the language that must be used by accredited laboratories, as you mentioned in your “TAKE NOTE” section. It would be advisable to contact the lab where you tested and ask questions.

Does your results have ddc logo and choice DNA testing logo on it?

Hi, Rene. When you test with one of our partners like Choice DNA, both the DDC’s and the partner’s logos are on the report.

If I tested through one DNA but went to another for the legal sample collection who logo will be on the results? Also if I had a test mailed to me from DDC and mailed it back will your logo be on the results that I log in to?

Hi, Kim. I cannot speak for other companies’ processes: only for ours. If you purchase through a third-party company but the testing is performed by DDC, the report will include both the company’s logo and ours. If you purchase from DDC directly, reports for at-home tests do not have a logo, but a report for a legal test does have a logo.

If my child and I took a DNA in 2014 is it possible to get accurate results if the alleged father was tested in 2016?

Hi, Princess. The short answer is yes, it’s possible, since DNA doesn’t change.

i was told by the mother that my test showed i was only 80% that the child could be mine..i dont know much about DNA but i think its either 99.9% or zero…question is can it really be at 80%? ..thanks

Hi, Douglas. You are absolutely correct. Today’s tests from accredited labs either show 99% or higher in the report, or 0%.

If you out source to the lab natura for testing as it states in my prenatal paternity results and they are not aabb accredited how can the results by ddc be aabb accredited for the test?

Hi, Bethany. We do not outsource to Natera. They invented the algorithm used for testing and license that algorithm exclusively to DDC, which is why their name is also on the report. We perform the testing.

I had myself and my son tested in oag office in one county.. The alleged father got tested 2 months later in oag in another county.. Would the timeframe between the two separate tests change the test results or how does that work?? I was shown a picture of the guy tested but I could tell if it was him because it was so blurry.. Should I have another test done w the other parent in the same county/office??

Hi, Melissa. The short time-frame between when he got his DNA collected and you did will make no difference here.

I believe my DNA results was tampered with by the Lab in Guyana, is that possible

Hi!Not if you used our accredited facility, no.

it was done in January at the Eureka Labs in Guyana and send up to your company. The results received is on the letter head of Eureka Labs, would that be so or would the results be on your company’s letter head? The results only shows 3 columns instead of the 4 shown as example. The column with the figures are missing, would that be so. Thanks for your help in this regard

Hi, Patrick. Please contact Eureka Labs for clarification about your results report.

I got a full siblingship test done on my son and daughter and myself (I’m the bio mom) it came back that there was a 35.7% percent chance they are full siblings and .55 sibling index. How accurate is this?

Hi, Natalie. This is not considered a conclusive result. You may want to contact the lab where you tested for clarification.

Hi just a question about the prenatal paternity test I was wondering if there was a lab error in labeling samples and the mothers DNA ended up being tested against the fetal DNA instead of the fathers then this would give a false positive result?

Hi, Madison. The mother’s DNA profile is determined from the blood sample, along with the baby’s. The alleged father’s comes from the cheek-swab DNA sample. As a highly-accredited lab we have processes in place to prevent any type of errors in testing and analysis. So, no, a “false positive” result is not possible.

I just need some reassurance. I did the prenatal DNA test and the test came back in my favor but so much is at stake for me so I need to know I can trust my results and I can quit stressing. I am due in 3 weeks

Hi, Leslie. You can trust your results. All the best to you and your little one, and we wish you a safe delivery!

Was your test correct?

I took a grandmother/grandchild dna. Results show index 94.08; probability of relatedness 98.9%. I just want to be sure I’m reading this as he is my grandchild. Am I correct?

Hi, Gloria. That is considered a conclusive result, yes. Congratulations, grandma!

Hi with the prenatal paternity test how many snps are analyzed between the fetal DNA and the fathers? And how many of these have to match to determine a 99.9% positive result?

Hi, Ariana. The process of analysis for determining a probability for paternity with prenatal testing is different than for postnatal testing. Over 2,000 SNPs are analyzed in total, vs. the standard 16 for postnatal testing. However, the upshot is the same: all markers must match the alleged father in order for there to be a 99% or higher probability of paternity.

Ok thank you. Also I was reading that it’s better to submit samples from all potential fathers if you can only test one person will this affect the result?

Not necessarily. If you get a conclusive result of 99% or higher with the first man tested, that answers the question of paternity (unless there’s another possible father who’s a close biological relation of the man being tested). Of course, if the probability of paternity comes back at 0%, then others would need to be tested.

I was wondermg the same thing. I only tested 1 man and my results were >99.9 so am I good? I can trust these results? No need to test the other man?

That’s correct, Ayanna.

Is there a Report Date listed at the bottom of the DNA Test Report alerting to when that particular report was received and/or tested?

Hi, Mike. Yes, there is a report date at the bottom of the report.

We are having trouble understanding the test results. The possible father has passed away and we had his sister tested with my daughter and myself. The combined relatedness index is 0.0491 and the probability of relatedness is 4.7%. The lady that read the results to us said that she has never seen the (probability of relatedness) come back like this. She said that they should of came back 0%. Is that true? What does it mean since it came back 4.7% on a avuncular? Could his sister be my daughters aunt? Could he be her father? Would it of been better to test his mother and not his sister? What percentage of DNA does he share with his sister? Are the results inconclusive and if so what do we do next?

Hi, Chasity. It’s actually not unusual with an avuncular test (or any other family-relationship test other than straight paternity) to have a probability of relatedness with a number like 4.7%, so I’m not sure why the lady at the lab where you tested would say what she did. Your results mean that there is a 4.7% probability that your daughter and her aunt are biologically related. This very low percentage of probability and weak support for that relationship. Unless there are other close biological relatives of the possible father that you can test with, there really isn’t anything else that you can do.

would testing his mother give us a clearer answer? Or would the results be the same as testing the aunt? His mom wasn’t well at the time of testing, so that’s why we tested his sister.

Testing his mother could definitely be helpful, yes.

So if I were to receive my results online and the date of the report was 04/01/2018, that would be the date it was tested or the date in which I received my personal DNA report online?

Neither, actually. It is the date on which the analysis was complete, the report was generated, and the case was closed. It isn’t necessarily the date on which you received that report, because the lab fee must be paid in full before the report is released. For some people, that could be a week later, for example.

How can I verify my test was actually performed here and the paper work/test results were not compromised prior to my self receiving it, do you keep all results on file? If so how can I receive results directly from here

Hi, Aj. I’m assuming you did your test through an affiliate of ours and not directly through our lab? If so, they own the results and we do not have the authority to send them to you directly. It would be fraudulent for anyone to compromise the integrity of results and highly unlikely that anything of that sort would have occurred.

My test was preformer at natera are they reliable? It says on my report DDC ! Just that the test was done there. And whats the difference between 99.9% and 99.999% percent?

My test said 0% would is there any possibility I made a bad stabbing???? Or incorrectly I’m actually devastated but need to know

Swabbing***

Hi, David. If there had been any issue with swab contamination or if there had not been enough DNA to test thoroughly, the lab would have suspended testing temporarily and asked for new samples (without issuing results), so your swabbing wasn’t a problem. If you used an accredited lab like ours, you can be sure the results are correct for the samples we were provided. Did you personally witness the swabbing of the child in the test? Are you sure the DNA submitted was the child’s? When doing an at-home test, we always recommend that everyone swab in the same room together, if at all possible. If you did not witness swabbing or live in a different state, you may want to consider doing a legal, witnessed test, for your own peace of mind. If the test you did already was a legal one, then there would be no need to test again.

I had a DNA test done a couple years ago and I am just now going to go to court(yes I know it can not be used in court). I tried calling to see how to better understand how they received the results. I am asking because none of my #s matched those of my daughter but they did match the apparent father. Could there of been a mix up with the samples that were sent in? How could none of my #s match but every single one of his matched? I just want to be sure I do not need to retest before going to court.

Hi, Araceli. I cannot discuss a case in a public forum, per HIPAA regulations, but I have sent you an email. Please look for it in your inbox or spam folder. It is from DDC (DNA Diagnostics Center). Thanks!

On the results: 1. If the child is a girl, are numbers in the Y column for the potential father factored in as matches in either XX column for the child? How is it shown which parent contributed the allele number listed or is it mix and match from the parents in pursuit of a positive match? 3. Ethnicity- What if the Ethnicity of the alleged father is listed incorrectly? If the father is listed as a specific ethnicity but is in not that ethnicity but instead mixed.

Hi, Vivian. Yours is an excellent question. No, the X and Y columns do not reflect which gene the child got from the dad and which the child got from the mom. The data is mixed. As long as the alleged father and child match at every one of the markers (regardless of the order in which they are presented), that’s what matters for a positive probability of paternity. The ethnicity helps calculate the Paternity Index for each location and can also help if there’s a mutation, but it doesn’t change the conclusion of the test. Hope this helps!

i had one question if the test reults read 72,678 cpi and only had 99.998% isnt this questionable especially if the mother has slept with other close family members. also ddc wasnt aware before the testing but now they are do you think the results will be different when they do the extended testing since now they know..?

Hi, Melissa. The original calculations for paternity were made and the numbers you gave reflect the fact that the assumption was made that there were no other possible fathers who are related to the man who was tested. This type of situation is exactly why we advise customers to let us know ahead of time prior to testing. I can’t make a prediction on the outcome of new testing and anything I say would just be an opinion. You’ll have to see what the science has to say.

Hi, my question is; even though the alleged father and child is being tested (not mom) how many swabs or packs come inside of the home DNA Test? Are the amount of swabs or packs of swabs based on how many people are being tested or is there a set amount?

Hi! Standard for retail kits sold at stores come with testing materials for three people (12 swabs total). When you order from the website, the total of swabs is customized to the number of people being tested.

So we had a test done Sept 2017 that came back and said I was 99.9% the father, then we had another test done May 2018 now it says I’m not the father. My concern is the person who did the 2nd test says in her letter she has been an expert in paternity testing since Dec 2016. Is there any way she could be wrong, I heard the fetus testing is not always accurate but how can one be 99.9% I am the father and now the baby is born coming back total opposite. Who is right and doing a 3rd test is just adding more stress.

Hi, AJ. It’s impossible to get a 99.9% probability of paternity by mistake. Please make sure you’re using an experienced, accredited lab for all your testing.

My test read 17.6 percent probability that the lady is my half sibling. What doe that means is it yes or no?

Hi, Tee. Anywhere between 9% and 89% is considered an inconclusive result. In order to get more conclusive results, additional biological relatives would need to be added.

So with a 74% possibility would that be inconclusive. I tested only two potential siblings with two different mothers. Me and the other mother have no relation to eachother at all but there’s no way to get dna from anyone on his side of the family at all. What can i do ?

Hi, Justice. For a sibling test, 74% is considered inconclusive, yes. I suggest you contact our experts directly so they can talk through all your options with you directly…it would be too difficult to do a back-and-forth on a blog post like this. That number is 800-681-7162.

hi if a prenatal paternity test gives me the result of paternity being higher than 99.0% is that reliable result? I’m not sure should it say 99.9%?

Hi, Lisa. Whether your results are 99.0%, 99.5% or 99.999999999%, the difference is teeny tiny and really doesn’t matter. The probability of paternity you get depends on many factors and data that go into the analysts’ calculations, and as long as the probability is higher than 99%, the results are definitely conclusive. Hope this helps!

Thank you it definitely does!

On the test it asks for your race if you put the wrong race could you get wrong results? The test says it uses your race for comparative calculations. So if the mom is white and the dad is black and you put the baby is white which is obviously not the case could the results be a false negative on my mistake?

Hi! That’s a great question. Making that kind of mistake doesn’t affect the conclusion of whether or not the man tested is considered the biological father; all it might affect is the percentage of probability number if the man is considered the father. For example, the probability of paternity might be 99.5% instead of 99.99%. But it would still be considered a conclusive result.

I got my results back on the non invasive prenatal paternity test & it was a 0%. Is there anyway this could be inaccurate? I could see a 99.9% easier to mess up rather than a 0% due to being related, blood transfusion etc. This is determining if I keep my child or not so I really need to know that my results are correct. Thanks!

Hi, Madi. If you tested with us, be assured your results are accurate.

How many numbers can you have between the mother and the father that’s alike before it becomes a false test I have 8 numbers alike between the both of us she white I’m black so how can you determine I thought it couldn’t be no more than 4 that can be alike on a test

Hi, Snoop. With a paternity test, the question is more about not how many matches there are, but rather, how many mismatches . As human beings, we all share DNA in common; in fact, if you and I did a relationship test, chances are good we could match up at 7 or 8 or more loci, just because we’re human beings. What matters in trying to establish a father/daughter or father/son relationship is if ALL the numbers match at the same locations for the genes tested. Because a child gets 50% of their DNA from their bio dad, one of the numbers at each location would have to match his if he’s the dad. That being said, there are sometimes exceptions. One or even two mismatches might be acceptable if analysts determine there’s a genetic mutation at a particular locus. Some mutations are common at certain genetic locations for Asian people, for example. That’s why we ask for participants’ race when setting up the test. All of that is factored in when analysts do their calculations to determine a probability of paternity. With today’s technology, getting an “inconclusive” result for a straight paternity test (father/child) doesn’t happen if you test with an accredited lab like ours. We just keep testing more markers, as necessary, to get a conclusive result: either 99%+ if the man is considered the biological father, or 0% if he’s not. Hope this helps!

I’m talking about the single numbers say if its 16 16 I had 8 of those like that

I thought it couldn’t be no more than 4 that can be like that on a paternity test

That’s not unusual either.

Do you ever give NIPP chain of custody test results over the phone? Does every NIPP chain of custody test include online test results? My son is being told he is the father of a child but he has never seen any written or online test results. Only a verbal comment from the mother who said she was given results over the phone (she used one of your testing facilities).

Hi, Elaine. We do not give answers over the phone. All NIPP chain-of-custody tests provide online results. As a participant in the test, your son has the right to request his own set of results. Your son should give us a call at 800-303-9085.

Thank you very much for the information. I will pass this along to my son.

My question is, my brother recently had a DNA test done to see if he’s the father. The results were 99.99, so my question is, is it possible to have a 99.99% and the child doesn’t have any resemblances of him at all?

Hi, Jeff. Yes, for sure. There are many children who doesn’t resemble either parent, even though they are their biological parents. What we look like just depends on the genes for traits we happened to inherit over several generations.

If I didn’t test all possible fathers and just did 2 out of the 3 and got a result back saying one is the father how accurate would that be ?

Hi, Dorthy. Unless any of the alleged father are close biological relations, then you can absolutely trust results.

Hello,I would like to know if I pay for a second parental paternity test (the first one I did was trough a clinic in Romania who said they have parternship with DDC Ohio but somehow I don’t trust the results ),Can I pay for a second test at DDC Hammersmith London (this time I wanna make it for legal purposes as well,the first one was just piece of mind )but the main question is :if I pay for a new test it will be runed a second test again?I hope it won’t be use the names from the first one to match the results without being verified again .Thank you

Hi, Irina. We analyze every set of samples we receive, no matter if the same people already tested with us.

Because I tested with a clinic (in Romania )who said they send my blood samples to ddc ohio can I email you my case number and get more details about my case and the results ?

Hi, Irina. All communications must be made with the clinic in Romania. We are a contractor for them and do not own the results, therefore we cannot comment on them.

If I got pregnant straight away afther a miscarriage (I misscaried in end of may and got pregnant mid of June ),now I am 16 weeks pregnant with the second baby ,can the previous DNA of the first baby who I lost in 5 weeks influence my new results ?

Hi, Ali. You ask a very good question, and I offer my condolences on your loss. The answer to your question is no. Fetal DNA is expelled very quickly following the end of a pregnancy, so there would be no effect on your test now.

Thank you for your answer .I would like to also ask you how reliable is the prenatal paternity test?If it comes positive or negative can I rely 100 procent of my result in order to make a decision with my pregnancy?Is any chance to retest afther birth and have a different result from the prenatal test?Also are human or genetics error common?

Took a court ordered paternity test 5 months ago and never received resluts…does that mean its negative? When will i receive the results? Does the court have to send me a copy?

Hi! You need to contact the court to see why you never received results.

Hello,I would try to make a little summary to get the best answer for my question .I have a booking for a legally prenatal tomorrow morning in London .In the last 24 hours because I experienced huge chest pain I went to the doctor .Long story short it was not the heart who gave me problems it was the lungs ,so they gave me an injection in my belly to stop potential clots to develop in my body (they injected a certain type of coagulant )Because I started to throw away blood in the morning I came back and I need to have like a special X ray to check some things about the lungs ,that will also involve giving some medicine to make lungs more clear at the scan (I don’t know the substance who I will be given yet ).My question is all these coagulants and the other substance can affect my blood test?Can it give me a false positive or a false negative or it will come back worse case scenario not concludent and I will need to retake blood .I would appreciate a lot if you have the amiability to ask a doctor or a person from the laboratory about the effect of coagulants regarding to DNA.Can they affect my DNA in any way?I already paid the deposit and I have a booking tomorrow at 10 in London but if my blood is not concludent I will like to rescheduale .Thank you a lot for your help

Hi, Anna. This type of treatment would not affect your DNA.

Hello, I am reading all the question and I am very impress with the responses, such a good explanation about the alleles and the CPI, and everything in between. Now, have you ever seen a case where two men one being the real father and another totally (unrelated) test positive on the paternity test, on the same child? meaning both having all the 15 markers positive on the paternity test I understand this it is a very difficult and an unlike situation, since your company probably run thousands of DNA paternity test per day, I would like to know how rare this situation can be

It is as rare as the CPI for each case. For example, if a CPI is 1,000,000, there is a 1,000,000 to 1 chance that an unrelated, untested man with the same ethnic background could be the biological father. I’ve never heard of an unrelated man also getting a positive result. If you think about it, the chances of one woman having sex with the other man who might also test positive is practically impossible. This is why legal paternity-test results are accepted as proof by courts worldwide.

Thank you for the reply, I have been trying to learn more or as much as a can about predisposition for a certain genetic diseases, in particular I am trying to learn if there is a genetic marker or, if there is any genetic predisposition for MCTD, I found genetics to be a as fascinating as challenging, I did not know anything about the process of unveiling the information of DNA, my knowledge about DNA is very limited, I found DDC to be a good source of information, and explain everything in a way that any body can understand the very basics of DNA . Reading other people questions and your answers responded to many of mine, and undoubtedly new questions pop up in my head, It is obvious that DDC is a very dedicated company and conduct everything in a very professional manner. One last question, It is possible for your company today or in the near future to analyze DNA to see if we carry one o many genetic diseases? Thank you very much and keep up the great work

Thanks for the kind words, Rosamaria. We do not test for genetic diseases at this time.

Hello,are parental legal paternitaty tests double checked in comparison with the piece of mind ones ?What is the exactly my difference between them?Also are the blood tests analized by 2 teams or just one team?Would you run the test again even the same people already tested with you?

Hi, Gina. I’ll address your questions one by one. (1) Legal paternity tests are run twice to ensure accuracy, and so are at-home tests (2) There are two main differences between legal and at-home tests. Simply put: DNA collection for legal tests is supervised by an independent, approved witness and IDs are checked to ensure that test participants are who they say they are; and results for legal tests are court-admissible (since a chain of custody for samples is maintained throughout). At-home test results are not court-admissible since there is no way of verifying participants’ identities. (3) With certain exceptions, we use cheek-swab DNA samples for post-natal paternity tests and not blood tests. But samples are tested by two separate teams. (4) We run every test, regardless of whether the same people have tested with us before.

Hello I did a prenatal test last month and I tested the guy who I was hoping was not the father and he was indeed excluded. I am just hoping the results are accuracte. I did go through DDC and was sent to a lab here in my city at “Any Lab Test Now”. The only thing is he went on one day and I went the next day so we got our test taken on two different dates but mailed off together. When I first got there they couldn’t find his swabs, then they “found” them. Is there anyway possible that the lab facility could have shipped off another man’s test result that wasn’t my baby’s alleged father? How can I be sure that the swabs that were sent for my baby’s alleged father were sent off with mines. I really want these results to be accurate stating he is NOT the father. I’m just paranoid.

Hi, LeahMarie. Thanks for testing with us! All samples for a case are linked together with bar codes, so there’s no chance of a mix-up with someone else’s. No worries!

If my child had a DNA test done, and there were 2 alleged fathers who were brothers but only 1 brother was tested and it came back he was her father, would the results be absolutely right or is there still a chance the brother could be her father since he was not tested as well.. ? I know this sounds awful but there is a huge story behind this..

Hi, Sami. In cases like this, a false positive may occur. It really depends on how much DNA the brothers happen to have in common at the locations tested. It’s essential that your daughter be tested again, hopefully this time with both men. If that’s not possible, then the lab definitely needs to be made aware of the other alleged father and his biological relationship to the man being tested BEFORE they do the testing.

Hi, what about if the results show 0% for one brother? I just received results that my alleged father had a 0% probability and then my mom told me that it could be his brother. Is there some kind of indication in the chart that might show relatedness between brother #1 and me?

It would have been handy if your mother had mentioned this before, since the lab would have taken this information into account when performing their analysis. However, this isn’t usually an issue or concern unless the result of the test with the first brother had come out with a positive probability of paternity. Is it possible for the brother to test also?

What is the difference between an inclusion result of >99.9% and 99.99% ? I keep seeing people say they got a result of 99.99%, but is that just for the paternity test and not the NIPP? I took the NIPP and got a result of >99.9% just curious if I can be assured with that result or if there is a slight chance of error. I’m asking in regards to two men. So hoping that with this inclusion result, I can be confident in the result! Thank you

Hi, Lucy. You can be absolutely confident in the result. The “>” symbol doesn’t mean anything. Also, there is an infinitesimally small difference between 99.9% and 99.99% probability, and it’s also nothing to worry about. They are both equally conclusive numbers.

Hi, is there any possible way to have a false positive? I am happy with my results as he came back as not excluded but is there anyway way it could be a false positive. My life is literally on the line with this prenatal test. My ultrasound for gender was also accurate with the gender yhu guys gave me so it gives me confidence but still Can I trust my results? Do I have to make a post dna test ? Are my results guaranteed? And yes I did test with you guys ddc. also what does it mean when there is gene mutation causing an inaccurate result?

Hi, Mj. You can be absolutely confident in your test results with no post-natal DNA test needed. Any gene mutations are taken into account when a highly-accredited lab like ours does the analysis, so there is no chance that a mutation could cause an inaccurate result.

What does it mean when it says one possible mutation was observed?

It means that if there is a mismatch between alleged father and child in the data, it could be due to a possible mutation. That possibility was taken into account when calculating the probability of paternity.

This is Venky, My Patternity Test results are : The alleged father is not excluded as the biological father of the tested child. Based on testing results obtained from analyses of the DNA loci listed, the probability of paternity is 99.9998%. and Combined Paternity Index: 553,223. Please clarify two things: 1) Is I am the father of the tested child? 2) The report shows only 18 markers + 1 Amelogenin. They have ingnored other 2 markers such as D2S1338 and D22S1045. Will the still the report is correct.

Hi, Venkat (1) Yes, you are considered the biological father of the child tested (2) You didn’t mention if you tested with us or elsewhere. But if you used an accredited lab, your report is most likely correct

Hello I asked previously about DNA results between 2 brothers and a child, the results showed the one brother was the childs father but only he was tested not the second brother, my question is on the DNA test thay proved the first brother was the father two columns didn’t match in numbers, the column numbers were mother: 8 child: 8 father: 8,9 Mother: 11,12 child: 11 father: 11 How does this work in this case.. im so confused.. please help..

One number in a column actually means that allele is duplicated. For example, if a child’s column shows a single 8, then that’s really 8,8. So, in the examples you gave me: (1) Mother is 8,8/ child is 8/8, father is 8/9: Child gets one 8 from mom and one 8 from dad (2) Mother is 11,12/ child is 11,11/ father is 11/11: Child gets one 11 from mom and one 11 from dad

Can I see the CPI from my test if I did the prenatal paternity test? Probability of Paternity for the man I tested was >99.9%, what is the CPI? Is there a way for me to see my actual results other than just the conclusion?

Hi, Kj. If you tested with us, you’re welcome to contact our prenatal support line at 800-303-9085 with any questions about your specific results.

Is there a reason to even ask for those results or is that conclusion pretty definitive

Kj, your results are as conclusive as they come! 🙂

Hi DDC, We have tested in DDC and report got signed by DDC Laboratory Director – Jessica Ann Wagoner Ph.d

I can’t vouch for results from a different lab, but since you tested with us, I can confidently tell you your results are corrected.

Thank You so much DDC.

You’re most welcome. Thanks for testing with us!

HI DDC, Event though the results are conclusive and I am the biological father (tested in DDC). Why below 2 markers are ignored or not published in the report. Please advise. The report shows only 18 markers + 1 Amelogenin. They have ingnored other 2 markers such as D2S1338 and D22S1045. Report states: The alleged father is not excluded as the biological father of the tested child. the probability of paternity is 99.9998%

If I took a test with one possible father and it comes back that he is not the father , can I take the results and compare them to another dna test taken by another possible father will the alleles stay the same or will they vary depending on the child ?

Hi, Jessica. The alleles for the child should be the same no matter what test they participate in. But I would leave the analysis to DNA experts.

Hi I have a questions can a grandparent test come back 99.9 for their grandchild?

Hi, Sophie. We see 99.9% or higher most often when both grandparents test and the mother also contributes her DNA.

Hello ,I just got the results from DDC yesterday regardless to my prenatal paternity test ,the results is what I expected but the only thing who concernes me and doesn’t let me enjoy my pregnancy is that there is no index or chart .I do think if you reached that conclusion you analysed a chart even if that chart includes 2,688 or whatever how many are loci.My question is :is any way I can get in the Posesion of my detailed chart ,I do belive in DDC and in science but some things you wanna see them with your own eyes especially when it comes to such a big life choice as keeping a baby or not .I am looking for your answer and if you don’t want to send me the report because is too long or I won’t be able to understand it ,I do have a doctor who will be able to understand it and I don’t mind reading 2,688 markers when it comes to something that important .Thank you

Hi, Alina. We do analyze thousands upon thousands of data-points for absolute accuracy, and we have found in the past that this type of extensive data was overwhelming to most customers and they prefer the simpler report. If you have questions about your results or the data used for the test, you’re welcome to contact our Prenatal Hotline at 800-303-9085. Thanks for testing with us!

Why my comment was deleted ?I asked yesterday if I can have a more detailed report of my test and you said to contact that phone number which I did in the morning.The lady over the phone told me she can’t give me the numbers of my test because there are close to 3000 and I said fine ,I do have a doctor who is specialed in dna who I wanna consult so a doctor will be able to explain to me if DDC doesn’t have time for that .My question is how do I get that results ?I did paid for that test and I guess all the numbers who belong to my case ,I have a right to ask about it .This is my life and my pregnancy and I do have the right to see with my own eyes my data .I would like someone to give me an email adress who I can actually get in touch with a person who sends me the report of my test .Thank you

Hi, If a DNA test was done between a minor child(girl) and alleged grandmother(alleged father deceased) and the results came back stating “Using the Bayesian method of calculating probabilities and accepting a prior probability of 0,5, the final probability is that the alleged grandmother is 93,2131% the biological grandmother of the minor child however the figures obtained are relatively low and it is recommended that additional testing of the X chromosome or other family members be done in an attempt to strengthen these findings.” Could this results be a conclusion that the alleged grandmother is related to the minor child? Thank you

Hi, Herbert. These results are certainly supportive of that relationship, but the lab you used was correct in recommending additional testing because this percentage is not conclusive. Adding the mother of the child, for example, would have most likely strengthened these results.

If two brothers are the possible father and only one is tested and that information about possible siblings being the father was not disclosed how accurate is the testing for just that one brother? Both brothers have the same mother and father.

Hi, Jae. If the results show 0% probability of paternity, then you can trust that answer. If there was a positive probability of paternity, there is the possibility of having a “false positive.” This is why all accredited labs, including ours, emphasize that this type of information must be disclosed prior to testing.

Hi! I had a prenatal paternity test done in August. I had slept with two men in the time frame of 7 days. The second man came back with a probability of paternity at 99.9%. Should I have the other tested as well to completely rule the other man out? They are not related. Also, when this testing is performed, do ALL markers have to match up to the alleged potential father or is it just a few based on some sort of formula? Thank you so much!

Hi, Lisa. You didn’t mention whether you tested with us or not, but I’ll assume you did. A probability of paternity of 99.99% is about the strongest result you can get and, if a legal test is done, would serve as proof of paternity in any court of law. Because a child gets 50% of their DNA from their bio mom and 50% from their bio dad, all markers analyzed must match between the child and possible father, unless there is a mutation at a location. In this case, the frequency of the mutation in the population for the participant’s ethnic group is taken into account and included in the calculation for paternity.

Yes I did test with DDC! I did the prenatal test so the percentage was 99.9%, not 99.99%. Is there a difference?

Hi I did a peace of mind at home prenatal paternity test. The swabs were sent to my home, although I did go to a clinic to get blood taken. I got an inclusive result back. Just curious as to how accurate this is even though it wasn’t a “chain of custody test”

Hi, Rose. They are accurate.

I just got my results back but since I had 2 possible fathers tested, in the results it don’t say the names. How would I know witch is who’s ?

Hi, Joseph. You need to call us for clarification at 800-329-7519.

Legal chain of custody test performed by another lab indicates 99.99% probability, but the wrong race was used (mother is Chamorro, father is Chamorro but lab used Pacific Islander). Paternity has already been legally established, but everyone will feel better if results can be re-verified. Would it be best to have first lab re-calculate probability with the correct race or have a second test done by another lab, yours for example? 13 markers were compared and all matched. CPI was given as 6,831,963 to 1.

Hi, Carol. 13 markers is a very low number to use for a paternity test. The very minimum should be 16…we actually use 20 plus the sex chromosome. Was the lab you used fully accredited? All that being said, the numbers you were given are very conclusive, and it’s hard to say whether or not changing race would make a difference in the conclusion, although it could change the numbers. If it makes you feel better, you could test again with us if they’re unwilling to re-calculate.

Lab is accredited by AABB. Thank you for your response. I will look into using your services. Parties are located on Guam.

I’m so confused with your test cause how can our home dna test with just the alleged father and child come out positive and when they took my dna, child and alleged father dna in a local facility came out negative but when I talked to one of your representative she said that me and the alleged father haves similar dna and have some matches with the child and I so how can it come out negative doesn’t it suppose to be positive?

Hi, Brittany. We see you did your second, legal test with us. Did you do your home test with us too or with a different lab?

Chevon, I did an at home peace of mind dna paternity test and it came back to be 99.999998% I was just wondering if this was accurate for the father to be the biological father because I never had to do a dna test so I wanted to know if my test is true of what its saying and a accurate result

Hi, Chevon. That is a very high probability of paternity. If you used an accredited lab like ours, you can trust that those results are accurate.

My cousin’s son was lost from birth and wanted to check if the one claiming to be his son is true. It was explained here that a DNA paternity test shows that probability of the relationship. Moreover, it’s recommended to go to trusted businesses for a reliable DNA paternity testing services.

Hi, Sariah. Thanks for reaching out to us. Your cousin would need to order a home paternity test for him and the alleged son. If your cousin thinks he might need the results for court (such as if the alleged son wants to claim inheritance rights or have your cousin’s name place on the birth certificate), then he should order a legal paternity test with court-admissible results. Please have him call us at 800-681-7162.

WILL THEY SEND THE PATERNITY TEST RESULTS TO ME IN THE MAIL? CALL ME OR SOMETHING HOW WILL I GET IT

Hi, Eric. You access your report via a secure, online account that is created for you when you submit samples and payment. You’ll get email notifications letting you know what to do and when to access your report. Most people download the PDF report and print it out themselves, but if you want results in the mail, you can order a hard copy for a small additional charge. Hope this helps!

I have had 2 government paternity test done for my daughter. On both tests mine and my daughters test numbers are the same but the alleged fathers is different. All the other tests I have seen all the test numbers are the same. Has my test been tampered with?

Hi, Brittany. If two different men were tested, then you could expected the alleged fathers to have different DNA profiles. If the same man was tested twice, then it’s time to start asking the court questions.

I did a test through the at home identigene kit, but my results were through you guys. Is it still accurate? I made sure the swabs were correct and my results came back 99.99 possibility of paternity. But I still find myself questioning it

Hi, Jesse. HomeDNA Identigene is a DDC brand, so all testing is performed here at the DDC lab. No worries!

After a paternity test, can the mother object the results on the ground that the child was sick and non cooperative on the day the swabs were taken?

Hi, Anita. Sickness and/or being cranky doesn’t change the child’s DNA. If results were issued for the test, then the lab had a viable sample from the child.

I got a result of >99.9% for possibility of paternity. Does this mean that it’s greater than 99.9% that I am the biological father?

Our paternity reports don’t have the caret in front of that number, Bryan, and I really can’t peak to the practices of other labs. That being said, you were given a 99.9% probability of paternity, which is just about as strong a result as you can gt.

The prenatal test was performed through DDC

Ah! You didn’t mention it was a prenatal test; now it makes sense. Sorry about that! For your prenatal report, that caret does indeed mean that the probability that you are the biological father is greater than 99.9%, yes. Because several thousand markers are tested for a prenatal (instead of the standard 20 for a postnatal test), the calculation for paternity is done differently. The results do not get more granular beyond tenths. You are a daddy!

What exactly means in the report. “Based on testing results obtained from the analyses of the DNA loci listed, the probability of relatedness is 34.6%” in a test performed between Paternal Grandmother and female grandchild? Thanks

It means there is a 34.6% probability that the grandmother and child are biologically related. That is an inconclusive result.

It means there is a 34.6% probability that the grandmother and child are biologically related. That is an inconclusive result. Did the mother of the child participate? If not, she should, since that can greatly help to confirm results.

If the baby and the alleged paternal grandfather were tested (the mother nor the paternal grandmother were not tested) and the result came back 0%, is it most likely the alleged father is excluded as the biological father? A grandparent DNA test was not used.

Hi, Pat. The test answered one question and one question only: Is the man tested the biological father of the child tested? The answer is 0% probability of paternity, which is what you would expect. It does not mean there is no chance the alleged father is the biological father.

Hi, If i had an alleged father and child tested twice, both tests ran by you guys; why are the Paternity Index (PI) numbers different? Shouldn’t everything be the same since it was the same child and father?????

Hi, D. The most common reason for this is that, if the first test is non-chain and a race was not entered, PI numbers are based on “Other.” If the second test was a legal one and a race was entered (say, Black), then that would change the PIs also. Remember that paternity-testing is calculated using statistics.

Donna yes my paternity test came back 99.999998 and I was just wondering is this accurate cause I never had to do this type of testing and yes it was a peace of mind test and I sent in the father and child samples in I just really conserde that r my results accurate they cause most of the numbers are the same they couldn’t use the father samples as child and how would I know if my test was tampered or anything cause I’m conserde bout my results cause my child looks so different

Donna, those are very conclusive results. You needn’t worry.

So what you’re saying my samples didn’t get mixed with someone esles

I can’t speak for other labs’ processes, but if you tested with us, they didn’t get mixed up with anyone else’s. We have safeguards in place to prevent that. Keep in mind that many children don’t look like their biological fathers, so that shouldn’t be the criteria used to decide whether or not they’re related.

Hi, I think my DNA sample was replaced and the result was produced. Can I do my individual DNA and compare to the father column. Or do I need the sample of the child as well.

Hi, Newill. If you did an at-home test and you suspect that one of the participants included someone else’s DNA instead of their own, you can do a legal test, wherein DNA collection is witnessed and samples are submitted by an approved impartial party. That way, you can ensure that the right samples are submitted for testing. An additional benefit is that results from a legal test can be used in court.

Hi I did it in presence of Cort officer and got it sealed but the part has manged them and replaced the sample or manipulated the report . So I want to do individual DNA test and compare to this report to show Cort there is a fraud in the report. Is it possible to do individual test and compare to the result submitted in Cort

Do you guys guarantee accuracy in the prenatal tests even if the test itself isn’t AABB accredited? I got a >99.9 and am happy with the results, I just need to know if there is any way it could be wrong results? No relatives were involved and I’m not expecting multiples and I did test with ddc. Can my results be guaranteed correct?

Hi, Mj. Yes, we guarantee accuracy of our prenatal test. As you mentioned, the test itself isn’t yet AABB-accredited yet, although it’s in the works.

What is considered ‘close biological relations’. You use this term in some of the post.

Hi, Scott. Really, “close biological relations” in the context of DNA testing refer to 1st- and 2nd-degree relatives.

“Close relations” in this context would not include great-grandparents, or any cousins.

Is an uncle to far removed to cause a false positive on the paternity test? I know a brother can cause a false positive but could an uncle?

I had my test done with DDC it came back 99.99 and a CPI of 19,000

After a paternity test came back showing that my daughters father was 99.99% her father and shared 24/24 markers with him, I noticed that the alleged father and I also shared 16/24 markers. Are the alleged father and I related somehow too? Could we he cousins?

Hi, Cherie. By virtue of being human beings, it’s not unusual for two unrelated people to share some of the same DNA data. You and I share some of the same data too, probably. It doesn’t mean you’re biologically related.

Is it possible for someone at the diagnostics center to put his DNA up against my DNA to see if and how we are related since you already have our individual DNA results in your systems? In other words, if I called and asked and sent a payment in could this test be run without collecting anymore DNA from he or I? The thing is that; our daughter was diagnosed with a genetic disorder in 2014 of a 10p deletion and 12p duplication and on her test results it states “LCSH throughout the genome indicating possible familial relationship between parents”. Her genetic testing was done with blood via microarray. That is two DNA test that suggests that we could be related which freaks me out. Our family trees are a little hard to track previous to the 1920’s (great grandparents/grandparents) because of poor record keeping due to immigration and just flat out that generational time period, so I can not find the missing link on my own.

Hi, Cherie. I consulted our team of experts on this. They said you’d both need to submit your DNA again, and then determine what the relationship is that you want to test. Do you suspect you might be half siblings? We could do that. Do you suspect you’re cousins? We cannot test for that. You’re more than welcome to contact us to speak with someone directly, if that’s easier: 800-681-7162.

Donna well I had a test done through identigene but I recieved my results from Fairfield oh ddc way and I was just wondering are u guys with that lab or what cause I recieved my results from them and they came back saying is not excluded but I was just worried cause could anything been wrong with my samples like if I didn’t have enough samples sent for child would they have used the father ones for the child I’m just scared and worried cause I never had to take a paternity test so I’m really worried bout my results please give me some feedback to this

Hi, Donna. No worries! HomeDNA Identigene is a DDC brand and has been since DDC acquired it in December, 2016. The DDC lab is located in Fairfield, Ohio.

Donna so does mean its one of your labs

Donna just making sure I’m not getting any wrong results from my test

Donna, we have one lab. It’s here in Ohio and your test was performed here. You can trust your results. Thanks for testing with us!

Donna okay thanks and I really do appreciate your help

Sar, I have done a test through u guys and don’t know if I had enough samples sent in how would that work with my child

Hi, Sar. If the lab determines there aren’t enough samples to conduct testing, we’ll contact the responsible party to arrange for recollection. If you are issued results, then there was enough DNA. No worries!

Sarah, How accurate are homedna paternity test with peace of mind from u guys cause I didn’t one from u guys in September and I’m still trying to figure out if the results I received accurate of what how would I really know if my results are someone esle and maybe sent me the wrong results and they were not mind like a mix up in swabs

The process in the lab for an at-home paternity test is exactly the same as it is for a court-ordered test. The DNA is extracted the same way and the analysis is done the same way. We have tight safeguards in place to prevent mix-ups, which is why our lab is so highly accredited. You can be absolutely sure your results are correct for the samples you provided us.

The results I got are confusing me so I’m wondering if I can send them to u and for u to explain to me coz I’m really confused

Hi, Rebecca. You’re more than welcome to email us at [email protected] or call us at 800-831-1906 and we’ll be happy to explain your results to you.

Sarah,so how will I know if its not the father

Sarah, can father and child swabs get mixed up when both are males

It wouldn’t happen in our lab. But let’s say someone mixes up the sample envelopes at home before sending in their samples. We don’t check for age…just for gender. So even if we test the son as the “father” and the father a the “son,” the results will be the same: they share (or don’t share) a father/son biological relationship.

Sarah, so u think my results I received for my son were accurate even tho it was a piece of mind test cause what would it be if not I received a 99.99998 result I just scared that I got wrong results cause my son has no favor ness but I hope that they wouldn’t send out wrong results in just worried cause this my first time doin this and I brought my test from Walgreen the homedna identigene

Sarah hello I didn’t get a answer to my comment from the 7th of December

Sarah, you needn’t worry…you can trust your results.

Locus Child Father PI D8S1179 13,14 11,13 0.75 D21S11 30,32 29,31 0.0040 * D7S820 8,10 10 1.95 CSF1PO 12,11 12 1.38 D3S1358 14,15 15,17 0.91 D13S317 8,13 13,14 2.14 D16S539 11,13 10,11 0.79 D2S1338 23,24 19,24 2.17 D19S433 13 13 3.92 vWA 16,18 18,19 1.23 TPOX 8,10 8 0.95 D18S51 12,16 12,14 2.20 D5S818 9,14 12,13 0.0024 * FGA 21,23 21,22 1.39 PROBABILITY OF PATERNITY: 0.099% COMBINED PATERNITY INDEX: 0.00099 So obviously there are the two non matches in the results above. my question would be about the other four that are zero percent. If there is a match for one of the numbers, why are they not comparable with the other numbers of greater than 1.0?

Hi, Alex. I asked our Chief Science Officer to look at your data, and this is what he said: “The CPI is inconclusive. There are 2 genetic inconsistencies (exclusions). Each exclusion is a one step exclusion where there is a one number difference between the child and alleged father’s numbers, consistent with a double mutational event. This case needs additional testing to resolve; something we can provide (only 14 loci were examined here and we and test more than 30). It also may require having the mother included in the testing, if possible. Double mutations do occur. We see several double mutational events each month.” It looks like further testing would be a good idea, Alex. “

Whoever is doing this blog, I truly appreciate your work. This whole testing procedure (through a different company) and the results have been so disheartening personally and has put a huge strain on my relationship and trust with my wife. I’m going to go through DDC this time and hopefully put this to rest for good. She denies any infidelity of any kind and i’m more the type to believe science. If your lead person explanation of those results are correct, you have put a glimmer of hope into my life and my family’s as well. Thanks for following up on my question, for real, thank you!

Thanks for your kind words, Alex, and you’re most welcome. Happy to help! If you have additional questions, you’re welcome to reach out here again, or you can send a private Facebook message to our page: @ddcpaternity.

The man who could potentially be my father is deceased. I have no contact with his brothers or sister. Would the test still be accurate if I used the DNA from one of his children? If not what is the best way to get an accurate result

Hi, Jamie. The optimum way to do a half-sibling test is to test one of his children, you, and both your mothers.

Adam I had test done through identigene and it ask to use 4 swabs for each person I’m just wondering if everything was use correct for the results I received

Hi, Adam. HomeDNA Identigene is one of our brands, and all testing is performed here at our highly-accredited lab in Cincinnati. Each test is performed twice (by independent teams) to ensure accuracy. You can be sure your results are correct for the samples you submitted to us.

Adam I thought the lab was in Ohio that was the address on my package when I mailed it off Fairfield ohio

Yes. Fairfield is a suburb of Cincinnati, Ohio.

Adam ok thanks I just wasn’t sure so the names that are on ur samples is what the lab uses right cause I want to make sure I had enough swabs in to receive these results

Adam message

You’re good, Adam. Your results are correct for the samples you submitted.

Hello, Dee. We cannot locate any test in our system that matches the email address you provided for this comment, and we cannot publish that comment unless we can locate the cases in question. That way, we can address your concerns properly. You’re welcome to call us at 800-831-1906 if that’s easier for you.

Me (Husband), my wife and my child got tested Paternity Test with 24 Markers. All the Markers are exactly matching. The result is ‘Can not be exclude as Biological Father’ with Paternity Index : 99.99999999% & combined Paternity Index : 38,164,564,715. There was another Alleged Father who is not tested but we both are no way related to each other. He is not agreeing to give his mouth swab for test. I am bit worried about my test results. are my test results are okay without his test results as we both are no way related to each other? My heart is pumping like anything and bit nervous and anxiety.Please help.

Your probability of paternity is extremely high, so there’s nothing to worry about.

Thank You so much for quick response. Now I am cool down and relieved from pressure.

You’re very welcome. Take care!

Hi DDC, I have requested Alleged Father 2 for Paternity test. 15 Markers are not matching out of 24 Markers and Paternity probability is 0%. My earlier Paternity test are all 24 markers are matching with 99.99999999% Probability with combined Paternity Index : 38,164,564,715. I am very much happy to see these results. Thank You for with me in difficult times.

So if I understand correctly, you got an inclusion on your test while the other possible father was excluded as the biological father. We are pleased that you are happy and that we were able to confirm you biological relationship.

Chevon please help me on my question please cause I’m really worried bout this probability please or do I need to call somebody please answer my question

Hi, Chevon. We are researching your question right now. If we can answer here without violating HIPAA regulations, we will. Otherwise, we’ll contact you directly, OK?

There is only one test in our system associated with these participants. It looks like you’ve called us multiple times about the results of the test you did with us; as I’m sure you understand, if you did another test with a different company, we cannot comment on those results.

Chevon, I did send in a comment y haven’t I got a response see now I really worried and wondering

I cannot comment on your question here, since we only have a record of one test you did with us. Instead of going back and forth here publicly (where I can’t get into specifics with you due to HIPAA), I suggest you call and speak with one of our experts confidentially.

Chevon, ok I understand but so with the test I do have on ur record will I still need to speak with an expert confidentiality

Chevon, I did speak with a representative yesterday and she did tell me that my results were good for the samples I sent in I am just worried that they won’t cause like I said the test came back not excluded with a percentage of 99.999998 and I’m just worried that it was done wrong or I didn’t receive the right results or they got mixed up with somebody esles or I didn’t send enough swabs for my child I’m worried cause never had to do this actual test before so just please tell me if it accurate and correct cause don’t want him raising a child that’s not his. Thanks

Chevon, each test is performed twice by independent teams in order to ensure accuracy. Each set of samples is tracked via bar code through every step in the process, so there aren’t any mix-ups. We wouldn’t hold the highest levels of accreditation in the industry unless we had all kinds of safeguards like these in place to protect the customer and the integrity of the test. Our lab is the trusted provider of paternity testing for courts all across the country and around the world. You can trust your results are accurate.

Chevon, my test was a home dna test so is that the same guaranteed results that I recieved

Yes. Thanks for testing with us, and take care!

Chevon, hi please tell me how did I recieved the results that I recieved cause my child doesnt look like the father that was tested at all thats y I’m questioning my results something I think went wrong please help me please and yes it was a home dna test cause I don’t really know bout this cause I never had to do a test on my child and I really want him to be his father

Hi, Chevon. Children often don’t look like their biological fathers, but if your paternity test says the father is the father, you can trust those results.

Chevon,the reason I’m saying this cause I never had the other one tested but he looks like the guy also really so I don’t need to test the other guy if my test came out positive rite

Chevon, hello

No, you don’t need to test the other man. Again, thanks for testing with us. If you have any more questions, feel free to give us a call. Take care!

Chevon, thanks

Is it possible that two DNA tests can be wrong

Hi, Malvin. Can you give more details, please?

Chevon, i received another paternity test on the other guy but not with u guys and it can back positive but the test I had also did with u guys came out positive also what does this mean o my god please please help me

Are you saying that the tests were on two different men and they both came back positive? Were these legal, chain-of-custody tests?

Chevon, yes and no it was a home dna test

I can’t speak to the processes of other companies, but you can be sure that the results you received from DDC are accurate for the samples we were given. In fact, each test is run twice by independent teams to ensure accuracy.

How long do you keep a DNA siblingship testing on file. My son took a sibling ship testing with another child 14 years ago and want to know how can I retrieve those results.

Hi, Falisha. It’s one year for a non-legal test and five years for a legal test.

hello.I gave three paternal tests in three different labs. In all three cases, Pi is a different number in each locus. What is the reason for this difference?thanks

Hi, Parvin. Please clarify. Are you saying each of the tests has a different Pi for the same locus?

Chevon, is it possible that if I sent my child and father samples in together that I had enough swabs for the child cause I’m really concerned bout these results what would it be like if not the biological father in thinking my results were mixed up

Chevon, I can’t speak for the other lab, but we have safeguards in place to prevent mix-ups.

I know that the locus is the physical location of a gene on a chromosome, like an address. So, is there a way to determine what biological trait is expressed using the locus codes on the report?

Hi, Ashley. What a great question! Paternity tests use so-called “junk DNA” that don’t code for any traits.

Hi what is the meaning of 0% – 50% result for the father? Does it mean he is not the biological father? Is there any chance that the dna result is wrong?

Hi, Aj. With today’s technology, results for a paternity test should be either 0% or 99%+ percentage of probability if an alleged father is directly tested with a child. The number you gave is problematic and at best is inconclusive. I suggest you call the lab where you tested and ask why you were not given more conclusive results.

Can a paternity test be incorrect if the mother lies about her ethnicity?

Hi, Reba. Ethnicity is used only to determine the strength of a match at any given marker, to help determine CPI and probability of paternity percentage. It shouldn’t affect the actual conclusion of the test.

Chevon, is there anyway that u guys can look my test results up that I did with u guys and tell me if anything went wrong with the results I received cause I got a positive result but I’m thinking my test was actually not mind and received someone esle or didn’t have enough dna on my child some not rite and its a home dna test and yes I sent in my boyfriend and child swabs

Chevon, you’re always welcome to call us to discuss your results.

How accurate is a paternity test 14 years later? Meaning, the paternity test was not done until the child was 14. Can the father’s DNA change enough to skew the test over 14 years?

Hi, DW. The DNA won’t change unless one of the parties tested undergoes a bone-marrow transplant or has had a recent blood transfusion.

Chevon, do dna change

No, someone’s individual DNA sequence does not change over time, unless they’ve had a bone-marrow transplant.

I was wondering how do prenatal test results get back to us? Do they call the mother of father’s number for results? Does it get sent to the mothers doctor? Who gets the results first?

Hi, Jay. Online results are always sent to a secure online account connected to the email address attached to the case. Hard-copy version of the prenatal test report is sent to whomever gave an address for delivery (either mother, possible father, or both), so it depends on how you set things up with us.

Hello how is the combined paternity index calculated?

Hi, Ruth. The Combined Paternity Index (CPI) is obtained by multiplying all the individual Paternity Index (PI) numbers together.

Any way my results could have been wrong? My baby is two months old and looks nothing like the person that was tested. She looks like the other guy not tested. Ddc said that the person tested was not excluded when the prenatal dna test was done. Any possible way it was a false positive? Or is it just my guilt?

Hi, Mj. You can be sure your results are correct for the samples provided for your test. Physical characteristics can’t be used as proof that one person is the father over another, especially if the men are the same race…only DNA can give you that answer for certain.

Chevon, how would u know if you received a false positive result cause I’m very very worried bout my results I recieved and that’s a lot of money to receive wrong results I received a postive result at I did a home dna test

Hi, Chevon. I’ve answered your question as many ways as I can for several months now and don’t know what else I can add to reassure you. You can be sure your results are accurate for the samples provided to us.

Chevon. Ok thanks I just don’t see my baby in his father and I just was so worried

Not all babies look like their dads.

How do I understand grandparent results. Would my child inherit one and one as well

Hi, Genesis. I’m not sure what you mean by “inherit one and one.” Can you please clarify? Thanks.

What does .9978% mean in a grandparent test?

Hi, Megan. If you wrote it correctly, that percentage is considered an exclusion, meaning there is no biological relationship between the grandparent and child.

hi, my brother in law had a paternity test on what he thought was his daughter but it came back as 0% chance that she was his but now they are saying she belongs to my husband who is only the half brother to my brother in law, is possible he can be the father when his half brother came back at 0% chance?

Hi, Denise. Yes, absolutely. Half-brothers only share 25% of their DNA.

Hello, Back in 2016 I had a paternity test done on my granddaughter. My son passed away, so my other son (his full brother) was tested, along with myself, the mother of the child and the child. My son’s biological father wasn’t available for testing. The agency that did the swab tested my son and I together in one room, while the mom and child were tested in another room. The individual conducting the test filled out the paperwork as if my son being tested was the father (he’s the father’s brother), and his race was marked as “white”, but he’s 1/2 hispanic/latino. When we received the test results it showed 20% probability of my son being the biological father and that the population compared was “white” population. So, is it possible that the results we received are a False NEGATIVE? This little girl is my world, and the only connection I have left to my son. I love her regardless, I’m just wondering if the negligence of the person conducting the test could have resulted in the negative results of the test?

Hi, Serenity. It definitely sounds like you need to do another test. The race doesn’t matter nearly as much as the misidentified relationship of the child’s uncle. I’m also really surprised that they gave you a 20% probability of relationship for a paternity test where a supposed “alleged father” was involved. For a paternity test that involves a child and alleged father, the results given should be 99.9% or higher for an inclusion or 0% for an exclusion.

Hi, My child has the genetic mutation oesteogenisis type 2. The paternity test done with the alleged father returned negative. He matched with 14 alleles out of 21 in the home test, could the test be negative because of the mutation or is he definitely not the father?

Hi, Louise. Mutations are taken into account by our scientists when doing their analysis. Inasmuch as there were seven mismatches and not just one, you can be sure the man tested is definitely not the biological father of the child. It’s not unusual for unrelated people to match at many loci, just by virtue of being human and there is so much DNA we share. For example, I might match the man tested at 14 loci too, but that doesn’t mean we might be related. The key for a positive result for paternity is to have a match at every locus (barring any mutations), since a child gets one allele at each locus from mom and one from dad. Hope this helps!

I did a dna with my child’s possible grandmother (father’s mom) with only hers an my son’s dna (the store bought dna test) and it come back that she was no relation to my son but I know for a fact her son was the only person I was with besides my ex husband which was already tested an come back negative is it possible to get a fasle test result with a grandma ? She doesn’t believe me an I need help!!! ?

Adding to my last comment .. I actually did not test my ex husband against my son I tested our son together which I know for a 100% fact is his son an they came back half siblings which is how I knew that my ex husband was not the father of my new son. But I know the man whos mother I tested has to be his father because there isn’t another possibility I only slept with my husband and him that’s it so it has to be possible for one of them to come back as false correct ?

Hi, Nicole. If the DNA samples submitted were indeed for the alleged grandmother and your son, then you can trust results to be accurate if you used an accredited laboratory.

Hi I did a DNA test in 2017 but me and my son did it in a lab in Brooklyn by and the father played for it the result take 3 months but a month before the results I got a call from a private number the person say to me I get the date of birth of both you and you son and the name I gave it to them after I said to that person if you have all the information why are you calling it 2 months gone my ? How long those a DNA test take and the father call me with the result saying it’s negative he is not the father and I never get a copied of the results he lives in Texas I have no proof he did a DNA only he have the result I’m thinking to do a test with one of his uncle to get the result can I do that ?

Hi, Rita. That seems like a very long time to get results from the test, yes. And also yes, you can do a test with one of the alleged father’s siblings or one of his other known children. I suggest you contact us directly to see what your best options are: 800-681-7162.

Hi DDC, There are two Possible fathers involved for Paternity. Me (Alleged Father 1),My Wife and my child had been tested for 24 Markers Paternity Test. All of my child Markers are inherited from Mother and AF 1. Test results are The alleged father can not be excluded as being the biological father of the child with Probability of Paternity is >99.99999999% and Combined Paternity Index 38,164,564,715. There was 2nd test done with Alleged Father 2,Mother and Child had been tested for Paternity test. 15 Markers were not matching out of 24 Markers . Test results are The alleged father is excluded as being the biological father of the child with Probability of Paternity is 0% and Combined Paternity Index 0. My Question here is who is the Father of the Child? Whether Alleged Father 1 or Alleged Father 2? I am the alleged Father 1.Do I need to do some other tests to prove my Paternity. Please help me.

Hi, Suresh. Alleged Father 1 is considered the biological father, and that is an extremely strong CPI. You don’t need another test.

First, thank you (whoever you are) for answering all of these questions. Great work! My question is about race and CPI. I see a lot of CPI numbers at 1,000,000 or above. Mine was 229,542. For race, I put black/white for both my son and I. The mother’s DNA sample was not used. I feel like my CPI is low compared to others. Thoughts?

Thanks for the compliment…that’s very kind of you! CPI is obtained by multiplying together the individual paternity index numbers at each genetic locus tested. The individual PI numbers are determined by how frequently that data is seen at that locus for the ethnic population listed. The more rare the data is at that locus, the higher the CPI. It may just be that you and the child have some of the more “commonly seen” data in your profiles, but of course that doesn’t mean you’re any less his/her father. The way you can read your results is: the chance that someone else is the father other than you is 229,542 to 1. The chances of the mother having slept with that one person are pretty dang low. Yes, yours is a lower CPI than 1,000,000 or above, but if you were given a probability of paternity of 99.9% or higher (and I’m assuming you were), that’s the most important part.

If a guy test 87% is their a chance another guy could be the father.

Hi, Jody. Was this a paternity test that analyzed samples from a possible father, child, and maybe the mother? If so, an 87% probability of paternity is definitely considered inconclusive . I’m a little surprised a lab would give that result, because a good accredited lab would add the mother’s sample to testing (if it wasn’t done to begin with) and test additional markers until a conclusive result one way or the other could be reached.

Hi DDC if your paternity results comes as 93,4% mother not tested, does this mean that when she is tested this can come 99.9% even you always know that you used a condom

Hi, Simon. No, her participation won’t necessarily make the difference between getting inconclusive results (as you did) and conclusive ones. Did you get your paternity test done recently? Because with today’s technology and techniques, there’s no reason to get an inconclusive result. You may want to call the lab where you tested and start asking questions.

Hi DDC if I understand 93.4% doesn’t make me the father as I got the results yesterday. and on the report of the paternity it says as follows: ” the mother should be included in this test in order to determine whether the alleged father can be excluded as the biological father.”

Oh OK. Those details are helpful, but without seeing the data it’s hard to comment on specifics. But I can say this: 1) Adding the mother can definitely help determine conclusive results or it can make no difference at all 2) Adding the mother can help exclude the father or it can help include the father 3) In our opinion, the lab you used should not have said “determine whether the alleged father can be excluded as the biological father.” They have no way of knowing at this point whether adding the mother will result in an inclusion or an exclusion 4) There is no good reason today that a lab should ever issue an inconclusive result on a paternity test with an alleged father and child. Before issuing any results, they should have asked for the mother’s DNA or tested additional markers until they could give conclusive results

Hi DDC the Combined paternity index=14.2154278 the Probability of paternity = 93.427724% I would have loved to copy and paste the data but it doesn’t allow me on this so that you can study that data. I am just worried I am not forced to be a father wrongly in this regard as I am told only now after 18years that I am suspected to be the father of the child I don’t know. last question if I may ask, in your opinion 1-10 will above results change to 99.9% if the mother of the child is does the test.

Speaking generally, for an inclusion, the CPI needs to be at least 100. I cannot give you an opinion without seeing all the data, I’m afraid. Again, I strongly suggest you contact the lab and ask why they cannot provide conclusive answers for you by testing additional genetic markers. This is something they can do even without the mother. Or you can do another test with a different lab.

Hi DDC I have copied the data as per the results I received, so that if you check for me 1-10 if will below results change to 99.9% if the mother of the child does the test; STR LOCUS M0THER CHILD ALLEGED FATHER PATERNITY INDEX D8S1179 13/14 14/15 O.820 D21S11 28/28 28/27 1.567 D7S820 10/9 9/11 1.667 CSF1PO 12.11 11/8 1.302 D3S1358 16/16 16/15 1.370 THO1 7/9 9/8 1.471 D13S317 11/12 12/14 0.661 D16S539 11/12 12/9 1.667 D2S1338 23/19 19/19 2.941 D19S433 12/13 13/12 1.375 Vwa 14/17 15/15 0.185 TPOX 6/11 11/9 0.887 D18S51 16/17 18/19 0.455 D5S818 11/11 11/12 2.304 FGA 22/23 23/25 1.429 X/X X/Y Combined paternity index=14.2154278 Probability of paternity = 93.427724% thanks for your patience, explaining to me.

Thanks for this. Here is our conclusion based on what you gave us: Adding the mother would likely resolve the case. There is nothing to indicate an exclusion from the data presented. In other words, it’s important to add the mother, but in doing so, the results could go either way.

I just got test results back and only have a combine paternity index of 3,841,402. There seems to be many that arent the same on the chart. I was wondering if I was reading the chart wrong and if the collum of which each number is located is what i should be comparing or is it the rows? Also with my paternity index # is it possible for the father to be someone else?

Hi, Michael. Without your results in front of me, it’s hard to comment on specifics about whether you’re reading the chart wrong or which comparisons you’re trying to make. I’m assuming you looked through the article you’re commenting on, right? It should have some answers for you. A combined paternity index of 3,841,402 is actually quite high, which strengthens your results. As to whether or not it’s possible for someone else to be the father, paternity-testing is always a matter of statistics, since it’s impossible to test every man in the world with your ethnic background. This is why a probability of paternity can never be 100%. But the odds of someone else being the biological father other than you (the mother sleeping with that 1 in 3,841,402 man who’s not you) are infinitesimally small. If your test had been a legal one with court-admissible results, any court would deem your report as proof of paternity.

Are prenatal dna tests court admissable? Are you guys accredited yet for the non invasive prenatal paternity test? Do you guarantee results? What is natera? I have been reading alot of reviews where one of your locations was shut down due to inaccurate results. Is this true? Sorry I just want peace of mind. I did a prenatal test done with you guys ddc

Hi, Mj. Thanks for testing with us! I’ll answer each of your questions one by one. 1. Yes, results for prenatal DNA tests that are chain-of-custody (legal) tests can be used in court 2. Our prenatal test is THIS close to being AABB-accredited (we are finishing up and implementing some additional processes). Once we can claim AABB accreditation, ours will be the only test that can do so 3. As a highly-accredited lab, you can be sure results are correct 4. Natera is a leader in prenatal DNA testing of all kinds, and we partner with them in providing this test 5. No DDC location has ever been shut down due to inaccurate results or for any other reason

148,307,854,821,701 can this be an paternity index number looks like a fake number

Well, that is certainly a high Combined Paternity Index, but it is perfectly legit. All it means is that some or many of the shared alleles between alleged father and child were rare for the population. When all these rare data points are multiplied together, the resulting number can be in the trillions or even higher.

Hi, Maggie. Well, that is certainly a high Combined Paternity Index, but it is perfectly legit. All it means is that some or many of the shared alleles between alleged father and child were rare for the population. When all these rare data points are multiplied together, the resulting number can be in the trillions or even higher.

Hello, I received a in home from another company. All of the DNA (16 LOCI) matched w/ the alleged father. However, I did not use my DNA as well. When I look at his other child (with another mother) my child only matches that child’s DNA by at 4 markers-that test was performed by DDC (they would be half siblings). Does this sound like I should retest? I have two other children by the alleged father and they have very similar looks. The child in question does not favor him at all and if she didn’t come out of me I’d question her myself.

Hi, Angelique. Looks are never an absolute determinant of paternity. Many kids don’t look like either of their biological parents or their siblings. The two children matching at 4 markers is actually consistent, since they only share 25% of the same DNA.

Hi. I had my alleged son and I covertly tested almost a week ago and the results came back 0%. He was breastfed less than an hour before I swabbed his cheeks. Is there a possibility that the mothers dna from the breast milk may have affected the samples? And should I retest?

Hi, Mack. Breast milk can’t change DNA…it can only affect the quality of the sample. But since you were issued results, contamination wasn’t an issue. No need to retest.

Myself, my son and the alleged father had a paternity test done in 1996. My son’s blood was taken from his little arm–he was 6 months old. The cheeks were swapped from my mouth and the alleged father’s mouth. The results were mailed to each of our home addresses. His result printout stated he was excluded due to 0% probability. My result printout stated that the test was inconclusive due to 50% probability that he was the father. How is it possible that we got two totally different results from the same test? We took the test at the lab that the child support enforcement agency sent us to in our local county. The courts refused to allow us to take another test unless we paid $900 which is $300 per person. We never retested, my son is now 23 years old and a college graduate. Should we try again and do a home dna test? I did test one other man in 1996 because I was dating both men and the result printouts stated 0% for the other man as all three of us were swabbed. I know this is a long question, but please help. Thanks!

Hi, Lynn. Yes, something is fishy with your original reports. It’s a great idea to test again, especially since the technology is so much better and your original test was done 23 years ago.

Is it possible to have a paternity index number in the trillions?

Although it is comparatively rare, yes.

I did paternity tests for my 3 children. Their combined paternity indices are as follow: (1) 18,470,350 (2) 76,419,023 (3) 1,519 Is the 3rd child mine or not?  Why is her index low compared to others? My wife once said he may not be mine

Hi, Jay. It’s not unusual at all for a CPI to be low on one child when the others are much higher. It just means that the genes that the child shares with you are more common to the general population for your ethnic background and therefore each PI number is lower. You were given an inclusion, which is what matters most. Seeing as your wife raised the issue of that child possibly not being yours, it may be worth asking if the other possible father is a 1st-degree relative of yours, such as a brother or father.

Chevon, I receive my results with a 99.999998% back last year in September and I’m still worried bout my results being wrong and I did a at home paternity test I sent my child and the fathers in is there a possibility that the father and child swabs were mixed up and used to get the results I received cause my child does not favor his dad for the results I received please help I’m still worried

The samples were not mixed up. We follow very strict processes at DDC. However, even if the alleged father and boy child’s swabs happened to get mixed up, the results would still be the same, since this test cannot determine age of participants.

He was 2months and the father was 36 so u saying they were the correct results for the test I recieved

If you tested with us, you can be sure the results are correct for the samples we were provided.

please show the hole form of DNA test if the father is a match

Hey, I sent in my samples today for me, my daughter and her father. One of the swabs for my daughter broke but it didn’t completely break off? Will they still be able to collect dna from the swab even though it was bent a little and a little broke off but not completely. I am so nervous and just don’t want the results to be messed up.

Hi, Megan. The chance of one of the swabs not being viable for testing is one of the reasons why we have participants provide multiple swabs. If there is enough DNA on the others, there won’t be any problem. Also, the lab might still be able to use the sample from the bent one depending on the extent of the damage. No worries! If there are any issues at all, the lab will suspend testing and we’ll send you new recollection swabs free of charge. But chances are good that won’t be necessary.

I was wondering if I did an at-home DNA test would the lab sign the bottom to ensure that the test was indeed tested by professionals the results that I have received has no signature at the bottom so I was just curious. please help me if possible.

Hi, Kathy. I cannot speak for other labs: only for DDC. We only put names of participants and laboratory signatures on chain-of-custody tests, since these types of tests are accredited and identities of the participants have been independently verified. With at-home tests, we have no way of verifying if the samples we are given to test actually belong to who our customers say they do, and so participant names are not included, nor does the report include a director signature. That being said, customers who order at-home tests from DDC can be sure that their samples go through the exact same process during testing as chain-of-custody tests and that results are accurate for the samples we were provided. Hope this helps!

My test took wayyy longer then they said to come back. They also said the alleged father didn’t have enough DNA in his swabs… Does this mean they could have made a mistake???

Hello, Belle. If the alleged father didn’t have enough DNA in his swabs, did the lab you used request new swabs prior to issuing results?

with today? So, I just did a recent paternity test with my ex boyfriend (alleged father) and the results came back with 18/20 matching numbers for my son & alleged father, the probability came back 0% that he’s not the alleged father & on the far left side of the test results, there was a bunch of 0.00 with matching markers. I believe the father smoked marijuana before the test so it made me think it could of affected the test results if there’s over 50% matching markers, would he considered being the father if over half matched even tho it came back 0%? (One number matching, not two for alleged father & son) Or should we retake it but do a blood test?

Hi, Alexandra. Marijuana use won’t change DNA data; it can only possibly contaminate the swab. Since you were issued a report, swab contamination was not a problem. Each locus contains two alleles; for example: 16,17. One of those represents what the child inherited from its mother and the other what it inherited from its father. Therefore, in order to be “not excluded” as the biological father, the man tested must match one of the alleles for the tested child at each locus. If there is no match between child and possible father, then the PI for that locus will be 0.00. A paternity test performed with a blood sample will yield the exact same result as a swab test if the DNA for the same people is submitted.

Hi when sending results in a court ordered case do you DDC SEND results that are crooked and photo copied with the word copy hand written in red to the alleged father? or do you send a original result

Hi, Marty. No…we send a copy of the original result.

Received a DNA report and under fathers name it says “Private Designation” what does this mean?

Hi, Linda. None of us here at DDC has ever heard of that phrase being used in conjunction with DNA testing. Sorry! You’ll need to contact the lab that issued it, most likely.

Hey when y’all email y’all test results what do it say at the top this concerning case 34330713 this test look very fake

Hi, Cassie. Do you have a test report you’re trying to confirm is legitimate? I suggest you contact us directly via our Facebook page so that you can attach the report and our experts can have a look at it. Thanks! https://www.facebook.com/DDCPaternity/

Hello DDC, I hope you can answer my questions as I’m borderline crazy and paranoid. I did 2 separate peace of mind paternity tests, one for my oldest child and husband without neither one’s knowledge and on the second one I included my youngest child because that’s how paranoid I am. For their sample on the first test I used a nonstandard sample (toothbrush) for father and child and for myself I was swabbed at the collection facility which is contracted by you guys, so DDC did the testing. They explained about first making sure of the viability of the samples (toothbrushes) and the extraction of enough DNA which they were viable and they got enough DNA. They tested 17 markers and the child and alleged father matched at all loci the CPI is 2,608,735,487 with me included and POP is 99.99999996%. This has been an emotional rollercoaster for me and I’m so paranoid and doubtful so I decided to do a second test because my mind doesn’t stop nagging and telling me it must be a false positive because there’s a second possible father who is NOT related to my husband in any way. so I did a second test but this time my DNA wasn’t included and since I was so paranoid I also included my second child which I have no doubt about paternity whatsoever, but since my mind is toying with me really bad I did it. This second time I used buccal swabs for both children and a toothbrush for husband without anyone’s knowledge. I used the same collection facility but a different branch location, because I thought they would use a different lab but they are also contracted by you guys, so DDC did the testing again and this time 20 markers were tested for both children and father, they matched at all 20 loci with him giving a POP of child #1( previously tested) 99.999997% and CPI of 4,836,323 child #2 (first time tested) POP of 99.9999998% and CPI of 5,002,930. Are these results correct even though my DNA wasn’t used? I’ve read mother’s DNA has to be included in order to get an accurate result. Also there’s a second possible father for child #1 but he is NO way related to my husband in any way, but like I said I get so anxious and start questioning the results to the point of considering doing a 3rd test with the second man. Can i trust the results of these 2 tests? should I retest again with that other man? I have another question, if my husband were to do an ancestry test with the children will those results show him and the children as first degree relatives? I’m so afraid these paternity tests are positive here but not on an ancestry test. Is saliva DNA the same as cheek DNA? Also one more question, (I’m sorry) is it possible for father and children to have the same pair of alleles on one or two Loci ex. TPOX- 8|9 • 8|9 • 8|9 D22S1045- 15|16 • 15|16 • 15|16 D2S441- 10|14 • 10| • 10|14 (child1, child2, father) is this something for me to worry about or is it something that can affect the results in anyway? Are both tests reliable even though in the first one (me included) they only tested 17 markers? The loci they didn’t test me on in the first paternity test are THO1, TPOX, D16S539 are these important markers? Will they change the results of the first test had they been used? Please HELP I’m going crazy with all these doubts! I thank you in advance for taking the time to read and answer my questions. Please, please help!

Hi. You can trust the results of both tests. Although a mother’s participation in a paternity test can help to strengthen results, her DNA is usually not necessary in order to get conclusive results. Those CPI numbers are very strong as are the probabilities of paternity, and had you done legal tests, these reports would be concerned proof of paternity by a court. No need to worry!

So, what about them having same alleles in those markers? I read that if the mother’s DNA isn’t used there’s no way to know which allele comes from the father and which one comes from the mother is this true? Also if my husband is NOT excluded as the father does this mean I don’t have to test the other man anymore? And is DNA the same whether is saliva or buccal swab? And the markers I wasn’t tested on will those make a difference at all in the results? Believe me I want these positive results because I dont want my family to be torn apart because of a stupid mistake I made years ago. I had never ever doubted the paternity of my oldest child but one day all of the sudden I did and it’s not a fun feeling. I hope you can elaborate a little more on your answer. I truly appreciate your information.

Do you always test the same markers for paternity? What I mean is if you test between 16 to 24 markers are those specifically separated for paternity tests only? If not when and why do you test different ones? I’ve seen several samples online from different labs and they all seem to have the same markers, in different order but all the same.

I cannot speak for other labs: only ours. DDC uses 20 standard markers for paternity + the amelogenin (sex) gene, which include the CODIS markers used by law enforcement for identification purposes. We test as many markers as necessary to obtain conclusive results and/or to get a probability of inclusion over 99.9%.

If a paternity test came back with a 99.999996% this establishes paternity of an alleged father right? So my question is, is DNA the same whether you use saliva or cheek swab, meaning if I do one of those 23and me/ancestry test with the father and child will the results come back as them having a father/daughter/son relation? Regardless of any ancestry test used DNA doesn’t change does it??

If you do an ancestry test, Laura, it will come back as showing that paternal relationship.

I have tested only 1 father with 3 separate prenatal paternity tests, one test being from DDC. They have all yielded the same result, 99.9% not excluding the father of my hoping. My only concern is that my early ultrasound and due dates seem to match better with the other man. Am I correct in assuming that a) all 3 DNA tests are accurate and it would be pretty much impossible to have 3 incorrect results, and b) DNA is more science based than ultrasound and due date measurements? Just wondering if I should be concerned or if it is my guilty conscience making me worry. Thank you for all the work you do here reading these messages has given me much hope and confidence in DDC.

Hi, Ceek. Thanks for your kind words. I’ll answer your questions in order (a) Even if their conclusion is the same as ours, I cannot speak for other companies’ prenatal paternity tests: I can only speak for DDC, and that you can trust our test’s results (b) The two sciences are really apples and oranges. I can only say that we stand behind our test results and you can rest assured they are correct

Hello, I just had a prenatal test done through you guys and got the 99.9% I was hoping for. The two guys are both Hispanic and I’m sure they are not related. But I have these questions to ask. Does being the same race have anything to do with the testing? I know they aren’t brothers but what if they are cousins or distant cousins. Would they be able to tell on DNA sequence that this is a relative being tested or the actual father? Would they be able to tell the difference? I’m sorry I’m not trying to Offend ddc its my head coming up with all these scenarios. I know i put myself in this position i just need some clarity. Thank you.

Hi, Kaley. You’re not offending DDC at all. It’s normal to want to ask questions! A distant-cousin relationship has no effect on a paternity test, whether it’s prenatal or postnatal. The reason race is asked for when testing is because race helps analysts determine the strength of the matches at different genetic locations.

My girlfriend just had the prenatal paternity test done and I have my doubts. We got 99.9% that did not excluded me, how accurate is this? What happens if the results are wrong when the baby is born? Have you guys had false positives before? If have, how many? Have you guys have had people trying to sue you for inaccurate result? What are my chances of these test being wrong? Thanks for answering my absurd questions.

Hi, Danny. Your questions aren’t absurd at all. Our chain-of-custody prenatal test is the only one accredited by the AABB, which means our processes and standards are the very best in the industry and we have controls in place to ensure nothing goes wrong. The only way a “false positive” could occur is if there is another untested possible father who is a close relation to the man being tested. For example, a brother or father. That’s why we emphasize that customers need to tell us ahead of time if this is the case so that we can perform additional testing, if necessary. You can absolutely trust the results and we stand behind their accuracy 100%.

Thank you for answering my questions thoroughly. I have some other questions, I apologies I just want to get every question answered I have floating in my head. My gf briefly described how the test is performed, I know how collection goes but how do they give me the 99.9% and someone else the 0%. Should we test the other guy too? How do they test the genes and if so how many are compared. I have the paper in front of me and it says Paternity determined by 1655 SNP informative loci out of 2304 tested loci for generate probability of paternity. I thought I read some where that you guys test 300,000 gene. I’m a little confused on the wording. Thank you again for reading my long message.

The chances of another man being the father when you are given a 99.9% probability of paternity are practically non-existent, unless the other alleged father happens to be a close relative of yours like your brother or father. The information you provided about how many genes are tested is correct. I’m not sure where you get the 300,000 number, because that’s not us.

I thought I read on the website something about 300,000 genes being use to get the results I must be reading it wrong. I have one last question, I’ve call to clarify how you guys get the results and its a bit confusing when I hear it over the phone can you explain to me on here how they determine the father? How they get probability? How many markers they use and what excludes a person from being the father. Thank you for answering my questions things are settling better for me.

Because the test is proprietary, I’m not going to go into the weeds about the details of analysis. But I can tell you that we analyze 2,688 genetic markers. Because we have to isolate free-floating fetal DNA, the process for testing is different than it is for a postnatal test that analyzes at least 21 markers. Once we have all the data, the probability of paternity is determined in the same way it is for a postnatal. The science on this test is sound, trusted, and published. If you did a chain-of-custody test (with DNA collection being supervised), our test is AABB-accredited.

I have some questions regarding a DDC NIPPT that i know are a little illogical but I am afraid as my due date nears. I got the result I wanted which is 99.9% my partner. – if I was issued results that means my swabs were good? I am still worried I somehow contaminated them as I collected and sent them in for the alleged father. – I used a partner of DDC, any lab test now, to collect my blood and send it in. There isn’t any chance that they didn’t really send it in or didn’t actually use DDC is there? The letterhead is DDC and it is signed by Debra and looks legit and like other people’s that have also used DDC. Thank you again for providing this forum it has provided so much comfort.

Hi, Lani. You can be confident your test results are accurate.

Hi again. I just want to make sure somethings. The Chain of Custody you guys do during NIPP makes sure the fetal DNA isn’t compared to the mothers DNA? Do you guys even look at mothers DNA? And one more thing my test says Natera at the bottom? Do they work with you? Are they AABB certified? Thank you so much!

Hi, Kaley. The mother’s DNA is used to help isolate the fetal DNA. Natera is our partner in prenatal testing and their lab is CAP certified. Our chain-of-custody non-invasive prenatal paternity test is AABB accredited.

A lab I did my NIPPT with claims that they are in partnership with you guys. I received my one page results, that has a DDC header at the top. I would like to know if there is any way I can send it to you to get it legitimized or give the company name.

Hi, Sara. Of course! You’re welcome to contact us via Messenger on our Facebook page: https://www.facebook.com/DDCPaternity/

Hi, I had two alleged half siblings do a DNA test with my paternal aunt and it came back 99.95%. They then did a half sibling test with me and got 99.99% to be my sister with 5 million to one on half sibling index. I tested with another alleged half sibling and she is also 99.99% but with 91,176 to one on half sibling index. How is this? Shouldn’t they share more dna with my aunt if the tests are accurate. Also. Tests were done at the same lab. And on their names they were able to insert a middle name that’s not their real middle name. How can that happen if when I went they do a id check and finger scan?? Could they not have done this at the lab they went to? They set up the whole tests over the phone FYI

Hi, Mary. The probability of relationship difference between 99.95% and 99.99% isn’t of any real significance, so you have no need to worry. As for the differences in Combined Relationship Indexes, that has to do with the strength of the matches in each test, which is bound to be different since the tests are between different people. For example, the CRI between me and my sister might be 1,000,000 to 1, whereas with my brother and me it’s 500,000 to 1. It doesn’t mean we’re any “less” related…it just means that the strength of the data that my brother and I happen to share isn’t as rare as the DNA matches between my sister and me. As for the middle names, I can’t comment on that since I don’t have all the information about it. Hope this helps!

I did the peace of mind Non Invasive Prental Paternity test . I tested at exactly 7 weeks – results came back that excluded the alleged father which is what I was hoping for, but I am so fearful it is not accurate. Even though I ordered the peace of mind test, we “accidentally” went through the entire chain of command at the collections center we went to together. Id’s verified and photo copied by the nurse, all samples signed and sealed by the nurse etc. The chain of command on the test was absolutely followed. Because I am paranoid I am hoping to get court admissible test results. Do I need to do the entire process over? The records will show that the chain of command was absolutely met every step of the way. Had anyone explained to me that my report would not be signed off on or not contain names I would have absolutely chosen the court admissible test from the jump. I asked what the difference was and was told they were exactly the same – just one was official legal documentation which I do not need. I am scared my results are not accurate and really need reassurance.

Hi, Robin. Unless the case is set up as a chain-of-custody case at the time of purchase, results cannot be used for court, even if the DNA-collection site follows chain-of-custody procedure, which they often do. Once samples arrive at the lab, the testing process is exactly the same for a peace-of-mind test as it is for a legal test and you can absolutely trust the results.

Thank you! I appreciate the prompt response and am going to trust the process as I know that the samples came from the right people as wee were both there. Any sort of lab mixup is an impossibility correct? The sample #’s on the report both start with the same code and mine has -10 by the blood sample and his -30 by the buccal swab. I assume that these are barcodes that were on the samples sent in correct?

No mix-ups. The 7-digit number is the case associated with the report, and the numbers 10 and 30 indicate the role in the test, with 10 being the code for mother and 30 being the code for the possible father being tested.

hello I was wondering what does “can be excluded” means on the results and the probability is 59.9999% I dnt quite understand the probability

Hi, Kadia. What question were you trying to get answered with your DNA test? Was is a paternity/aunt/uncle/sibling/grandparent?

Hi, DDC I have another question in fetal DNA. If i had a miscarriage a month or two before this pregnancy that didn’t even reach 6Weeks. Is there a way they could have confused old fetal DNA with the new one? I tested around 16 weeks during this pregnancy. Thank you so much again.

Hi, Kay. No, that’s not possible. Any DNA from the previous pregnancies would flush out of your system quite quickly.

Thank you!! Also if they would have found two sets of DNA would they have stopped the testing and notified me? Thanks(:

I am sure I must be the oldest person who took a DNA test to confirm my father was my father. For many years my sister told me I was adopted. A friend told me about the in home test and I bought one. My father was dying in his 80’s and I am in my 60’s. My parents were married for 55 years, my mother passed away in her 70’s and a couple years ago I sat watching my father die. I had bought the test and when he was sleeping and his mouth was wide open, I swabbed him twice. Days later he died, I mailed off the DNA sample with shaky hands. A week later I returned from his funeral and not long after the results arrived in the mail. My hands were shaking and I thought, why am I doing this, what if he wasn’t my father! I would have been heartbroken and certainly couldn’t ask him questions. I opened it and to my relief he is my father and always will be. I cried like a baby and felt guilty for even wondering, but now I know for sure and if I hadn’t done it, there would never be another chance. So you siblings out there that tell your little brother or sister they are adopted as a joke; it can stick with a child forever. And for those of you who have been teased by a sibling and told your adopted and you are older, I strongly recommend testing to put your mind at ease. Thank you to DDC for confirming my dad was my dad.

What am amazing story, and thanks for sharing. So glad we could help give you peace of mind, Hannah.

When taking the Non invasive prenatal test if the guy 1 kisses someone else and drinks water or eats before getting his checks swabbed does this affect the test? And if you had abortion in the past with another guy (Guy 2 didn’t test) does it affect your dna and the test to be an exclusion?

Hi, Sara. Neither of these would affect the results of your test.

Okay do any any infections during pregnancy or diseases affect the test? Or any infection or disease for the guy for the buccal can affect it as well? Thank you, I’m extremely worried.

Should the numbers on the labels of the blood vial and buccal swabs that are received in the kit match the test number under the sample type on your report?

Hi, Robin. I hesitate to answer your question without having a conversation to determine exactly what you’re asking about. Please contact our customer-service line and we’ll be happy to clarify for you. Thanks!

I recently purchased a legal chain of custody Non Invasive Prenatal Paternity test from DDC. In the very beginning when they explained to me how it works they confirmed DDC has it’s own lab and they do ALL the testing there and no other lab does it. When I received the results it said: Probability of paternity was performed by Natera Inc and provides their address. Why if DDC promotes their own lab and testing? Nobody could explain that. Also, if a amniocentesis test with DNA is performed, the results should be the same correct??

Hi, Kelly. Thanks for testing with us. We do indeed perform all DNA testing here. Natera is our business partner and they provide the analysis. I wonder if you misunderstood what our team told you: We are the only lab that offers this AABB-approved test, and Natera does not offer this analysis through any other company. Of course, all data is completely confidential and is not used for any other purpose other than your test. If the DNA for the same man is submitted for a test using an amniotic sample from the mother, then the results will be the same, yes. If you have other questions, you’re welcome to contact us directly at 800-303-9085.

My concern is that on the actual results I got back, the last paragraph reads just that: Probability of paternity was performed by Natera Inc.. then it list their address. Basically makes it awwm as they were the ones that ran the labs for me. I can Sens you a copy if you would like. I just sont understand why Natera would even be on my results whatsoever.

I’m still waiting g on a response to this..

Hi, Kelly. I did answer your question, so I’m not sure why you say you didn’t get a response?

Hi. I wanted to know if the alleged father is actually the grandparent of the child, how does the result will look like? Surely not 99.99% right? I believe my ‘father’ is actually my grandfather and he is hiding things because of an unknown reason. Can I still order this at home test and perform DNA testing if this is the case? Or do I need some other kind of test to prove he is my grandparent?

Hi, Katrina. You should start with a paternity test. But it’s extremely important to notify the lab ahead of time that you suspect he may be your grandfather instead. This way, they can take that knowledge into consideration when performing the analysis. Since your circumstance is a special one, I suggest you not order online and instead contact us directly to speak with one of our experts. That way, they can insure all the necessary info about your suspicions is included in the case notes and that the case is set up properly: 800-681-7162 (M-F, 8 am to 8 pm Eastern).

Hello, I am from a small town. and I had a non-invasive prenatal paternity test through you guys and it came back that I am 99.9% the father. I know the other guy, he is not my brother or first cousin. But my mind keeps coming up with these stupid scenarios of being distant relatives. If that happened to be “true” could I have got a false positive? could our DNA share that much similarity? I read above that first cousins don’t cause a false positive which gives me relief is that true? Adding to my question above.. Since I did a legal Non-Invasive prenatal test can DDC take another look at my results and see to make sure I couldn’t be a distant relative to the child? I am the only one who can be tested. or do we have to re-test..

Hi, Danny. Distant relatives have no bearing on this test whatsoever. The only way there could be a “false positive” is if the other man were a first-degree relative (father, brother, son, etc.). You and a distant relative simply don’t share enough DNA in common for it to affect your test one way or the other. No worries! You are the father with a 99.9% probability, which is extremely conclusive.

Thank you so much!

You’re very welcome, Danny.

Hey Danny..does your results also say that the probability of paternity was performed by Nstera and not DDC??

Yes, mine does say Natera on it. I’ve done a lot of research and isn’t DDC partners with Natera.

Yes, Danny. You are absolutely right. We partner with Natera on this test.

Hi again DDC. This will be my last question asking about this. So when it comes to first cousin both being possible fits for the father and one was only tested and came back 99.9% the father. Should the test be redone with other cousin and if he cant, what can be done? Do cousins share that much DNA for a false inclusion?

First cousins only share about 12.5% of their DNA, and for other cousins it’s even less. There is no need to worry.

When I called Natera to see if they ran my labs they said they cant find my name in their database nor do they so these types of test anymore. This is what causes more confusion to me as to why it would have that wording on there in reference to Natera. They confirmed to me that they do not run the test and many years ago they were partners with DDC but not anymore? So confused about this. If you call any lab no matter who it is that ran your labs, they will confirm they did it and provide information once you answer their questions.

Unfortunately, you were completely misinformed, Kelly. And it’s not really true that any lab will provide information once questions are answered. For example, we have corporate partners around the world who use our lab only to provide testing. If one of their clients reaches out to us directly about their test, we are required to have them contact our corporate partner instead. We cannot provide any information to that client.

I received a DNA test it shows 25 boxes or Alleles my DNA number matches 12 of those they said I’m not the Father but because of the other 13 boxes being different but there is no numbered or percentages it just says your not but how is my dna mating 12 I don’t understand the test.If I match 12 of the 25 boxes can you still not be the father just trying to learn how to read the test

Hi, James. It is not unusual for a possible father’s data to match the child’s in multiple locations just because humans share 99.9% of the same DNA. In fact, you and I probably would match at multiple locations (loci) if we were to test together. The key is that, since a child receives 50% of their DNA from dad, there must be a match between a possible father and child at EVERY locus (except where there may be a genetic mutation). Having 13 loci that do not match, therefore, means that you are excluded as the biological father of the child. The article you’re commenting on answers your questions further and this video can help too: https://dnacenter.com/project/how-to-read-and-understand-paternity-test-results/

A paternity test is about to be carried out on Mr. A (Father) and 1-6 (Children) Their mother had an affair with Mr. A grown up son (Mr. B her step-son) for many years If she had a Child or 2 for Mr. B during that time, And the test is down between Mr. A and the 1-6 Children Will the result be 99.998% for the child/children that belong to Mr. B? Should we inform the lab that the mother had an affair with Mr. B her step-son? or will DNA single out the child/children belonging to Mr. B Please i need a detailed Responds. Thanks

Hi, Adam. Hi, Sam. You definitely need to tell the lab ahead of time of the possibility that the step-son of the man being tested may be the father of one or more of the children. That way, the lab can take this information into account when doing its analysis and test additional genetic markers too, if necessary.

Thanks For your quick reply, The paternity test is been order by the court and the Lawyer said we cant give the Lab leads. And the result will be addressed to the court. Assuming the Lab has no ideal that the mother had an affair with her step son and the test is done, WILL THE RESULT STILL SAYS 99.99%?

This is a real dilemma. I understand the lawyer’s point of view, but it sounds as if the lawyer may not understand the science. It really is important to let the lab know of the possibility of another father who is closely related to the man being tested. It most likely will be 99.9% or higher if the man tested actually is the biological father. But remember, that 99.99% probability of paternity is obtained when comparing the man tested to a random, unrelated male. If the man tested is definitely not the father, then the result will be an exclusion…whether or not the child might be the stepson’s is a non-factor in an exclusion.

Hello, My daughter will be turning 7 years old in March, in 2015 (she was 2) we had a dna test done via child support division. Here is my concern only one/two of the alleged father’s were tested, this has bothered me for years. Due to her resembling much of the man that was NOT tested. What are the odds that she could still possibly be his?! Combined paternity index: 391,967,139 probability of paternity: 99.9999997%

Hi, Aerial. The chances of the other man being the biological father are one in 391,967,139. That’s over 300 million to 1. Those are very telling numbers. I caution you against putting too much emphasis on physical appearance…saying someone “resembles” another possible father more is very subjective.

As I was taught basic genetics in school, every chromosome would have to match to be 100 percent “The Father”, but if even just ONE DID NOT MATCH, then there is ZERO percent chance of being “The Father”. You conclusions seem to be the opposite of what we learned in college – 16 markers and its 99 percent, but yet there are thousands of markers outside the 16 you test for. I don’t get it.

Hi, John. You’re confusing probability of paternity percentage with the percentage of markers that need to match in order for a man to be considered the biological father. Those are two very different things. (1) You’re correct that there needs to be 100% matches across the board between a child and the man tested in order for that man to be considered the biological father. The exception to that rule is cases of genetic mutation. In those cases, up to 2 mismatches may occur in the basic battery of 20 loci tested, but mutations are taken into account during analysis and, depending on the data, a man may still be considered the biological father. (2) 99.9% in an inclusion (IS the father) does not refer to the number of loci that match. Rather, it is the percentage of probability that the man tested is the father, based on the data. It’s obtained through statistical calculations when measured against an unrelated, untested man with the same racial background. Genetic relationship testing is all about statistics. Because it’s impossible to also test every man in the world with the same racial background as the man tested, a probability of paternity can never be 100%. The highest it can ever be is 99.9%+. Thanks for your questions. I hope this answer is helpful! P.S. There is no need to test thousands more markers or the entire genome to prove relationship. The 20 markers we test (plus the sex gene) are plenty to determine a father/child relationship.

I was wondering the odds of missing one marker is it like 1 out of 1,000 test done you have a father that missed one marker? I missed 3 markers on the test so i was wondering the odds i could still be the father?

Hi, Ray. Unless there is a genetic mutation, there must be a match at all markers in order for the man tested to be considered the biological father of the child tested. In many cases, there is only one mismatch yet the man is not considered to be the father. Because 99.9% of our DNA is identical as humans, it’s not unusual at all to have genetic matches with people we are not related to.

yes i understand i would like to know the frequency of genetic mutations. Like 1 out of 100 test done. One out of a million test found ?

Oh OK. It depends on the locus…some have more frequency of mutation than others. The chances of mutation range from 1 in 100 to 1 in 1,000 or more for any given locus. The average rate of mutation for paternity-test loci as an aggregate is 1 in 500. As for the number of tests that involve a mutation, it’s about 1-2%. Keep in mind that when mutations are found, that data is taken into account when performing the analysis.

How long does it usually take for the half sibling test also testing mother of one of them?

Hi, Courtney. A half-sibling test generally takes 5 business days.

How accurate is it when one of the mothers test as well?

I assume you want to know if you share a common biological father? In these cases, it’s best if both mothers can participate since it optimizes the chances of getting the most conclusive results possible. If only one mother is willing to test, that’s still better than none!

Yes, I want to know if they have the same father. I just shipped our test in and wasn’t informed both mothers needed to test when I spoke with someone on the phone or I could have tested her as well. I hope it doesn’t affect our results.

Oh, that’s surprising, because our case specialists usually do ask for both, as part of their list of customer questions for a sibling test. No worries! If the lab believes conclusiveness can be enhanced by adding the second mother, they’ll request her samples as well. If not, then her participation wouldn’t have made a significant difference.

Well now I’ll just be stressed out over it until we get results. Lol

Aw. No worries. PROMISE! 🙂

Does stds or diseases of any kind affect the test results?

Hi, Mz. No, they don’t.

I recently completed a DNA Test with a man I assumed would possibly be my father. We mismatched at 5 different loci’s which would be D3S1358 , D13S317, D19S433, D18S51 and Penta E. At these specific loci’s we were either one number higher or one number lower. Is there a possibility that there may have been genetic mutations at these loci’s?

Hi, Ben. If you were tested at an accredited lab, any genetic mutation would have been taken into consideration during the analysis. With five mismatches, a conclusion of exclusion would be expected.

Asking this question for a friend, so if the mother of the child and the possible father are third cousins would this not cause the tests to be indecisive. They tested the birth mother, the child in question and the mother of the possible father. Both the mother of the child and the third cousin carry some of the same genes?

They don’t share enough genes to make a difference in the outcome of a paternity test. 3rd cousins don’t even share 1% of the same variable DNA.

Is this information the same for maternity tests? Could it be possible that a mother’s sister is tested 99.99993% being the probably bioligic mother? Or could it be possible to exclude any related person like a sister, aunt or a female family member with the same DNA heritage or not? If the child tested and the alleged mother were to have the same father, would the results expect differences?

Hi, Buggedi. Yes, maternity tests work a lot like paternity tests. A mother’s sister could get an inclusion when she’s not the biological mother if the lab is not notified ahead of time of this possibility. I’m not quite sure I understand your last question.

We had a test done on 2011, however I lost the original, can I still request a copy?

Hi, Rlyn. For security reasons, we keep legal test reports on file for 5 years, and at-home test reports on file for 1 year. After that, they are destroyed. Sorry about that!

Hi if a paternity test was done in a local child support office, how long do it take for results? They use DDC

Hi, Tracey. It takes us about 2 business days to perform testing and issue a report. How quickly they deliver results is entirely up to the child support office.

Can giving a baby a bottle 5 minutes before the test affect the test results?

Hi, Robert. This won’t affect the result of the DNA test itself, but it could affect the quality of the sample, making it impossible to extract enough DNA for testing.

If I am the father, can I call and get the results mailed? Is there a fee?

Hi, Hb. The answer depends on your unique situation. Please contact us directly at 800-831-1906 (M-F, 8:30 am to 5:30 pm Eastern Time).

How long does it normally take to get results? We took the test Monday.

Hi, Trish. The overall time frame depends on the method chosen for sending samples back to the lab. Once samples arrive and testing begins, results are ready in 1-2 business days.

Hi, I recently did half sibling testing. There are three of us we all have different moms but allegedly the same father. My mother was tested and another mom was tested also. The alleged father is deceased. It came back that I’m half siblings with her and him but the two of them are unrelated. I came back 99.99 her half sibling and 96 percent his half sibling. But the two of them came back unrelated at .0108:1 ratio.. how is that so. I’m confused and we went into the lab for testing we didn’t do home testing.

Hi, Tati. Without all the reports and data in front of me, I really can’t offer any reasons. I suggest you contact the lab where you tested and ask for assistance with understanding results.

Hi, my daughters father sent in our at-home test weeks ago and he hasn’t told me if he’s gotten them back yet & he’s been too busy to reply to me lately so is there a way I could get the results emailed to me?

Hi, Brittany. You’ll need to contact us directly at 800-831-1906 (M-F, 8:30 am to 5:30 pm Eastern).

Hello. A relationship test was completed because the alleged father passed away before the birth of the baby. The mother, the child, the uncle, and the grandmother were tested. The relationship probability is 4.5%. After receiving the results, the grandmother indicated that the uncle (brother of deceased) is possibly a half brother, not full. Would not disclosing that before completing the tests alter the probability of being related, if not, is it impossible that the alleged father (deceased) could be the father? The document says it was processed by DDC so I believe it was done through your lab. We are in the process of obtaining a court order to have an actual paternity test completed using the sample from the coroner. Is that even worth the try it is is very unlikely to be a match?

Hi, Amanda. A 4.5% probability of relationship is considered an exclusion. Seeing as the grandmother was also tested, it probably wouldn’t make much difference in the results if the uncle was a half brother instead of a full one. You are welcome to do a paternity test with a coroner’s sample if that will provide you with greater peace of mind, but you can expect the result to also be an exclusion.

Hi, after collecting samples for non invasive prenatal paternity test we got a phone call and were ask if alleged father had a bone transplant or if he and the second man may be related… Answer was “no” to both of those questions. We were asked to repeat the collection of samples. We did that and got test result saying that alleged father is excluded and probability of paternity is 0.00%. Is there ANY chance the results may be wrong?

Hi, Elisabeth. I cannot vouch for other companies’ tests, but if you tested with DDC, you can be sure the results are correct for the samples we were provided to test.

There was a DNA test done on a grandfather and a granddaughter and the results came back 1,588 but no percentage is it possible that this could be his son child

Hi, Angelia. Without having complete data and the exact wording of the report in front of me, I cannot offer an answer. Sorry! You’re welcome to contact the lab where the test was performed directly and they can help you understand results.

Let me explain More the test was done with the grandfather and a granddaughter we received the results but what I am trying to ask is on the results where the Combined Paternity Index reads 1,588 and they do not have the Probability of Paternity results are no on the test results, could this be a possible that this child could not be his son child

Hi, Angelia. Every paternity-test report should have a probability of paternity in addition to the CPI. I would call the lab where you tested and ask questions. By the way, a grandparent test is not the same as a paternity test…the grandfather and granddaughter should retest with a grandparent test.

It was a grandparent test

Hello, My Son will be turning 7 years old in March, in 2020 (she was 4) we had a dna test done. Here is my concern only one/two of the alleged father’s were tested, this has bothered me for years. Due to her resembling much of the man that was NOT tested. What are the odds that he could still possibly be his?! Combined paternity index: 38,164,564,715 probability of paternity: >99.99999999%

Hi, Sai. Those odds are teeny tiny. You could read these results this way, to put it in perspective: The odds of another man being the biological father of the child are 38,164,564,715 to 1.

How many working days from the lab testing day does results via post come in? For Paternity home kit testing. father and child only.

Hi, Ann. Once samples are at the lab and testing begins, the report is posted to a secure online account in 1-2 business days.

I only received a screenshot of my daughters test results from her father. The match ups on the left side are “234,781” but states probability of paternity “0.0”. I don’t trust that this picture sent to me was not altered. How could the probability be “0.0” if there are 234,781 matches? Thank you for your time.

From what you describe, the report has been tampered with.

II had a grandparent and grandchild paternity test it say inconclusive but the likelihood of grand maternity is 9.95 to 1 please advise chance of relationships.

Hello, Annette. Inconclusiveness can often be overcome by including the mother of the child in testing. If that’s possible, that would be best.

What does it mean when it says the likelihood that the alleged relative is not the biological father. It said the probability of relatedness id 0.02%.

Hi, Bee. I would ask questions from the lab where you tested. For paternity testing, results are generally given as 99.9%+ or 0% probability.

my boyfriend took a dna test with his son and it came back he is the father, but they only matched on one thing which is dsy391. The kid looks nothing like him and has a different blood type than either parent.

Hi, Alice. Is it possible you’re misinterpreting results? I suggest you contact the lab where you tested and ask questions.

Ok my test came back 99.999999999996 am I the father

Jalil, you are considered the biological father with a 99.9%+ probability. Those are conclusive results, yes.

I am the mom of fraternal twin girls. We DNA tested the bio dad. He is 99.999% the father to both. One is combined index of 2,838,850 and the other is 3,126,077. They want to know if there is a way, from their results, to know if one has more genetic traits with bio dad than the other.

Hi, Stacy. This type of test uses non-coding DNA only, which is unrelated to traits.

How much is an individual paternity test?

Hi! We do not list pricing in blog comments, since pricing could eventually change over time. For details about pricing, call us at 800-681-7162 (M-F, 8 AM to 8 PM Eastern) if you are in the U.S.A, or email [email protected] if you live outside the U.S.

My test came back 0% probability but what does the missing numbers in the alleged father’s column means?

Hi, Sanofa. There are two numbers (alleles) for each participant at each genetic location. For example: 11, 12. If the alleles are the same for a participant at a genetic location (for example: 11,11), then the report only shows the number once, as a single 11. This doesn’t just happen with an alleged father’s data, as it did in your case; it can happen with any test participant.

I had a test done a while ago, in lab, for both my daughters. On one results page, they had tested 16 markers, but for my other daughter, they tested 18. Why were more markers tested for one than the other? This has made me concerned

Hi, Lana. Chances are good that the lab just needed to test a few additional markers for daughter #2 in order to obtain conclusive results. This is not an unusual practice at all.

Hi I took the perternity test with my father’s brother and mistakenly we didn’t mention that he was not my father so we took the test and the came out with 55 percent match result, so could this mean his brother could be my biological father?

Hello, Karabelo. That result shouldn’t be used as proof of a biological relationship, no. The samples were analyzed for paternity only.

Can I take a picture of them and send it to you because I totally do not understand what they really mean.

And on the other hand can they conclude that they could be my parternal family? Because I looked at the perternity results on this page, and I realized that it is 99.999 percent and those results are a bit similar to mine not exactly though. Because mine will match exactly 11 x and y with the same results and others just match with only one so I don’t know why I got this feeling that they were misinterpreted to us by that company.

Hi. I submitted dna for a prenatal paternity test with the alleged father for our peace of mind and it determined paternity inclusion. I submitted the child’s mouth swab after he was born and it returned a 100% inclusion. Could there be any factors, such as breastmilk contamination, that could have triggered the wrong result in the postnatal test?

I meant to say 100% EXCLUSION, not inclusion. It listed the alleged father at 0% probability.

Hi, Bree. Breast milk can only contaminate the sample; it cannot change the DNA data itself. If you were issued a results for the postnatal, then breast-milk contamination was not a problem. What may have happened is that different DNA was submitted for the alleged father for the postnatal test. I suggest contacting the lab where you tested and hopefully they can do a case review. If you tested with DDC, then we definitely can.

What does >99.9% mean? Is he the father Or not the father? It had a negative sign in front of it

Hi, Sarina. That’s a “greater than” symbol. So the man tested is considered the biological father with a “greater than” 99.9% probability.

If the test came back with no percent and says”can not be excluded, probabilty he could be the father” and 830 million of probability of being the father. Me and the kid are blood cousins. What does this mean? It was a paternity test but the lab was not notified that the mother and legit father were blood related. does that mean I’m the father?

Hi, B. Your report should have also included a probability of paternity percentage such as 99.9%. Is that correct?

Ive called both the DDC and Any Lab Test Now just to go over the results, and they’ve referred me to each other. I just have a few questions about the results I received on a prenatal paternity test, through Any Lab Test Now. I gave my cheek swab sample on 3/1, and the mother blood draw was on 3/2. She saw the same kit, everything was well labeled with our names and signatures. We received the email results from Any Lab Test Now on 3/10. It was 0.00%, excluded. 1540 SNP, 2304 tested loci. These are the results that I wanted, but I’m a bit paranoid. Do I have any reason to think these results are inaccurate? Are these acceptable testing numbers? And an acceptable timeline? Thank you for your help.

Hi, J. Those are acceptable testing numbers and an acceptable timeline, based on the information you provided. If you are sure it was your DNA that was submitted for testing, then you can be sure the result is accurate.

Can a brother do dna with his niece to find out it they are truly related?

Hi, Sarah. Yes, it’s called an avuncular test. However, if the niece is a minor child then the brother would need to obtain permission for testing from a legal parent. You can learn more about this test here: https://dnacenter.com/relationship-testing/avuncular/

Hi I received my DNA results and just want to clarify. I did the Avuncular DNA test with myself and a poetical aunt. My results read – combined relativeness index 0.0006. The probability of relativeness is 0.1% and the likelihood that the alleged relative is not the biological relative of the tested child is 1,550 to 1. Just to conform. She would NOT be my aunt correct?

That is correct. She is an exclusion and she is most likely not your aunt.

I received results from a full siblingship test 99.99% and CSI over 10,000. Both siblings and the mother were tested- is this result considered conclusive that the siblings share the same biological father.

Yes, that is a conclusive result.

Re: above- I received results from a full siblingship test 99.99% and CSI over 10,000. Both siblings and the mother were tested- is this result considered conclusive that the siblings share the same biological father. Is it possible that the relationship could be misinterpreted and they are actually half siblings? How reliable are these results?

Hello, I did A DNA with DDC on December with my daughter and my ex boyfriend (Antony)the results are 99.96% why does it says 96 at the end ? I’m also going to have her tested again with my other ex boyfriend (Juan)cause he just wants to make sure, This results are goin to court also, it’s this lab for sure accurate? So that means Antony it’s her dad since the results are 99.96%? Would I be worried if the lab made a mistake ? Also I want to know if I can take my daughter to go to lab again on a different time or day cause I don’t want Juan to see her he can go on a different day or time,can that be possible? Since this results are going to court also ? The collector took a pic with Antony and my daughter cause we all had went together I just want to know if Juan can go on a different time or date ? Thanks

Hi, Jennifer. Yes, Juan can go at a different time and on a different date. Paternity is determined based on statistical calculations performed on each individual test’s data points. For some people, that result will be 99.99% and for others it might be 99.96%. Either way, that is considered a completely conclusive result and should not be a matter for concern. As for accuracy, we have all kinds of safeguards in place to prevent mix-ups or incorrect results. You can be sure your report is accurate.

Hi. With the prenatal paternity test how many snps are analyzed between the fetal DNA and the fathers? And how many of these have to mismatch to determine a 0% negative result?

Hi, G. Our prenatal-paternity analysis is performed differently from a postnatal one in that up to 2,688 genetic markers are tested instead of 21. The algorithm we use for determining paternity is proprietary.

So in order to receive a 0% probability would more than 4 markers have to not match in order for the father to be excluded?

Hey my question is if the CPI is not right can the DNA test be wrong or fake. On the paper it shows 83, 266, 906 as the CPI. But it’s not right it’s suppose to be 83, 599, 491.

Hi, Tee. I hesitate to comment without seeing all the data. I suggest you contact the lab where the test was conducted. If you are a test participant, they can talk to you about results and how they were calculated.

Okay I’ve called they told me to email them then when I email they say call then back to email. But when I multiplied all the numbers it was different from what was on the paper.

I did a full siblingship test with my 4 day old daughter my 7 year old son and myself I’m 100 percent sure they have the same father but the results were 0.0002

Hi, Bee. That result is considered an exclusion, meaning the children are most likely not full siblings.

What are the protocols of the lab once they receive the prenatal swabs and bloodwork. I received 99.9% inclusion with the man I tested, and I want to be reassured that DDC has thorough, accurate handling of the results. Has there ever been typos or entering mistakes that have led to people receiving false results? How can I be reassured that DDC handled my specimens properly and didn’t mix our results up with someone else’s? Please help explain the protocols so my mind can be at ease. How can I know that my positive results aren’t mixed up with someone else’s negative results? Or that the lab just typed 99% to get it over with? I didn’t order the court prenatal test, just the peace of mind.

Hello, Lena. Samples for a test are matched by barcode at every single step during the test so you can be sure there was no mix-up. We are a highly-accredited lab trusted by private citizens, companies, and governments since 1995 and our protocols for all tests are second to none.

Are there barcodes labeled onto the swabs immediately when they reach the lab? I can’t remember there being a barcode on the swab when we used them.

The barcodes are on the sample envelopes.

What does it mean when it says combined paternity index : 0 Probability of paternity: 0%?

Also is chimerism considered during testing?

Hi, Cal. The result you provided means the man tested is not the biological father. The chances of chimerism affecting a paternity test are infinitesimally small.

I took 2 paternity test with two different guys. One had 21 marker and the other only had 15 both said not the father. Why one had more than the other?

Hi, Dee. Did you test with two different companies? If so, that’s why.

Hello me and my alleged half sister did an at home dna test. The dna test report says that based on the results, the probability of half siblingship is 87.5%. And that the likelihood that we share the same biological parent is 7 to 1. So does this mean that we are half sisters?

Understanding results for a sibling DNA test is a little tricky, since there can never be a straight “yes or no” answer in this type of relationship testing. Calculations for relationships such as grandparent, avuncular (aunt/uncle), and siblings all involve statistics, and a probability of relationship is given as a percentage in the report:

90% or higher: the relationship is supported by DNA testing 9% – 89%: inconclusive result, and additional parties need to be tested Below 9%: the relationship is not supported by DNA testing If a probability of relationship (PRI) of 87.5% is given for your test, the result could be understood as: “There is a an 87.5% probability that the persons tested share a half sibling relationship.” The odds of sharing a parent are 7 to 1.

Delsi, your result is very close to being conclusive, so you may very well be half sisters. Adding more parties to a subsequent test, if possible, would be very helpful. If you’d like to consult with one of our DNA experts, you’re welcome to call 800-929-0847.

Hello, I have a DNA test result that was done in the year 2000. That test had nine markers – CSF1PO, TPOX, TH01, F13A01, FESFPS, vWA, D12, D3, and D18. I’m confused on the results, can you possibly tell me what they could mean as far as the putative father? The results: Cumulative Paternity Index – 599.87 Cumulative Probability of Paternity – 99.83% PS I can’t find anything that shows that the original company exists, at least, with the original name.

Hi, Mark. Based on the percentage of probability provided (99.83%), it is most likely an inclusion (is the father) result. Is it possible for you to test again using the more modern technology available today? If so, you may want to consider doing so for your own peace of mind.

I made a paternity test on my son and the person I believed is his father and it came back at 99.99991% and index at 1,204,197. Can you explain what exactly does this mean.

Hi, Lucy. It means that the man tested is considered the biological father with a 99.99991% probability of paternity and the odds of a different unrelated male being the father are 1,204,197 to 1. The blog on which you commented explains this well and you’re also welcome to watch our video: https://dnacenter.com/project/how-to-read-and-understand-paternity-test-results/

Are the locus shown in results marked locations of a random segment? Are the alpha/numeral combo in the column just point markers of a random segment or are they classification names of the locus?

Does the testing locus only match when the dna is sequenced and compared in the same test? If I had my results from test of me with my child and compared the alleles at each locus of a test with a different man and child?

Hello, Matthew. A locus (or loci, plural) is a specific location in the DNA. The alpha-numeric name is included in the Locus column. This designates a specific location in the DNA.

An individual will have the same DNA results at a particular location (locus) every time they’re tested. The combination of all the results at each locus is considered an individual’s DNA profile. An individual’s DNA profile could be used in multiple relationship tests. This will be the same profile in every test.

Thank you. I was afraid I didn’t phrase the question enough to be understood, but you must be a genius at filtering. That is the answer I was wanted.

Glad we could help clarify!

If an alleged father is deceased, can a paternal aunt, uncle or grandparent participate in a paternity test and gain conclusive results? Could the probability results be 99.9%?

Hi, Jeanette. If both paternal grandparents and the child’s mother participate, then the probability of relationship can be as high as 99.9%. With these types of test, it’s always best if the mother of the child also participates. Conclusive results can be obtained with a paternal aunt or uncle but the probability of relationship will most likely not be 99% or higher.

Hi, If a maternity test results are CPI: 2,170,338,204 to 1 and probability to maternity is 99.99% does it mean that the tested woman is the mother for sure? Is there a possibility of exclusion? The samples were taken from the mother and the body of deceased child, will it somehow affect the results? Thank you.

Hello, Tatevik. Because statistics are used in calculating a relationship, the probability of relationship can never be 100%. However, that CPI combined with the probability of 99.99% make for an extremely conclusive result. The fact that the child is deceased has no effect.

Did a siblings dna test Here are the results

probability of full siblings 0.3% Combined sibling index 0.0027 and it says Probability of not sharing same Father is 369 to 1 Does this mean half siblings

Hi, Daniela. From what you provided it would appear you are unrelated.

Hi, I had a paternity test for two children, the first with Combined Paternity Index: 3,950,612 Probability of Paternity: 99.99997% and the second child, Combined Paternity Index: 2,654,805 Probability of Paternity: 99.99996%. Is there a probability that other close relative of mine, like my brother, could be the father? An if so, how would I proceed to clarify the situation (what type of test? etc.).

Hi, Brad, if you read your report conclusion you’ll see that the data you were given is for an unrelated and untested male with the same racial background. Chances are excellent that you are the biological father, but if you suspect your brother might be you have two options: You test again and this time let the lab know ahead of time of the possibility that your brother might be the father. This way, the lab can test additional genetic markers if necessary. Or your brother can test; he should also notify the lab that his brother is also a possible father.

I would like to ask for your advice. I want to do paternity test because I am concern about hospital baby switching issues. For your information, I have done two paternity test (father, mother and child) at two different AABB accredited lab. One lab report shows all locus of us matching but another lab report shows a mismatch between one locus “D22S1045” which is “18, 18” and “15,15” between son and father and “but the probability of paternity is still high which is 99.999999999953 and mention that the reason of mismatch may be due to mutation. However, another lab shows a perfect match between the same locus “D22S1045” which is “15, 18” and “15,15” between son and father. Do I need to be concern about that? They told me maybe it is because of the different kit they are using causing detection of mutated null allele. Do I need to do another paternity test at your lab? I am wondering why there is a mismatch of the same locus on another report but there is a perfect match of the same locus on another different report. I am worried about baby switching issues at hospital and all 24 of the markers of the baby matched with mine and I only have one partner. I would like to ask for your advice. Thanks

Hi, Nicole. Without access to all the data, we can only provide an educated opinion and cannot give you a sure answer. Since there is a high likelihood of paternity and no other inconsistency between the tests, there is probably no reason for concern unless there is another possible father who is closely related to the man who was tested. The difference may be due to the kit that was used, as you were told.

Hi How common is a maternal mutation? In our motherless paternity test done at your lab, the father and child matched at all 20 loci and had a 99.99999 percent probability of paternity. I have the mother’s allele sizes from a different test. Everything matches, except the mother has one mismatch at locus D19S433. The mother ’14, 16′, the father ’14, 16.2′, and the child ’15, 16.2′. What does this mean? There is no doubt of maternity. Would this information change the results of the paternity test? Thank you for your help.

Hi, Harriet. It is very likely that there is a genetic mutation in the maternal data at the locus you mentioned. However, since the child and the possible father match exactly, this would not have an effect on the outcome of the paternity test.

Hi thanks for replying. There is no other possible father. I have only one partner. Does that mean I can be sure my baby has not been switched at the hospital? as all 24 of my genetic markers matched the baby and the father has only one mismatch (but no mismatch at another report of the same locus)

Yes, a 99.999999+ probability of relationship is as conclusive as these reports come.

did a half sibling test results are 29.89 Probability 96.7% . are they half siblings?

Hi, Juanita. Yes, that is considered an inclusion result.

Hi, how many alleles need to be tested for a relationship test? Does it matter which ones? I have a test that didn’t test SE33 but tested other alleles. Does this matter? Thank you!

Paternity testing should include a minimum of 16 loci. DDC does a minimum of 20. In your case, SE33 may have been tested but the data obtained didn’t meet quality thresholds for testing. Since a result was issued, the lack of data at SE33 didn’t affect the outcome of your test.

Thank you! It was actually a different AABB company. That’s why they didn’t test SE33. I was just wondering if it mattered that that allele wasn’t tested.

Does SE33 need to be tested for a dna test? Thank you.

I had a non invasive parental dna test done by yourselves at just over 7 weeks, the alleged father came back with 0.00% there’s only one other possible father so I wouldn’t need to test again would I? I am still worried about the result and just hope that is it accurate with me being just over 7 weeks at the time of testing.

Hi, Pauline. If there’s just one other possible father, then you may want to just wait and test with man #2 after the baby’s born. You can be absolutely sure the result you were given is correct for the samples we were provided to test. If you are sure man #1 tested swabbed his own cheeks and the DNA submitted was his, then you have no reason to worry.

Can the results from any AABB-accredited lab be trusted?

Not all AABB-accredited labs are created equal, but being accredited certainly legitimizes any lab.

Hi, does SE33 need to be tested for a dna test? Thank you.

SE33 is included in DDC relationship tests as part of our minimum panel of 20 markers (loci) tested. If it does not appear on one of our reports, it’s an indicator that data for that marker did not meet quality thresholds. In most cases, data from other markers can compensate or we’ll test additional markers, so SE33 not absolutely necessary.

How do I know if the results i received from a lab are trustworthy? I got results from Universal Forensics (an AABB lab) and am trying to decide if I need to do another test. Thank you.

I took a DNA test with another company (FastDNA) but the results came back on a DDC letter head. Do you all process results for other companies?

Hi, Kim. Yes, we maintain an extensive network of partnerships with third-party providers.

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Getting a paternity test is an important decision, and DNA Diagnostics Center (DDC) can guide you through the process. A DNA paternity test is highly accurate and can determine the biological father of a child if doubt arises regarding parentage.

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Environmental Factor

Your online source for niehs news, papers of the month.

Intramural By Janelle Weaver and Meklit Daniel

Standardizing zebrafish studies for toxicology testing

Zebrafish experiments across different laboratories produce generally consistent results regarding test substances’ activity, but not their potencies, according to researchers from the Division of Translational Toxicology.

Embryonic zebrafish represent a useful test system to screen substances based on their ability to perturb development. However, the exposure scenarios, endpoints captured, and data analyses vary among the laboratories that conduct screening. A lack of harmonization impedes the comparison of substance potency and toxicity outcomes across laboratories and may hinder the broader adoption of this model for regulatory use.

To address this problem, the researchers developed the Systematic Evaluation of the Application of Zebrafish in Toxicology (SEAZIT) initiative to investigate the sources of variability in toxicity testing. This initiative involved an interlaboratory study to determine whether experimental parameters altered the developmental toxicity of a set of 42 substances in three diverse laboratories.

The researchers observed reasonable agreement across the three laboratories as 33 of 42 test substances (78.6%) had the same activity call (i.e., a test substance generated a response [active] vs. no response [inactive]). However, the differences in potency seen using variable in-house protocols emphasize the importance of harmonizing exposure variables under evaluation. According to the authors, the lessons learned from the study emphasize the potential benefits of standardized testing protocols for the zebrafish research community interested in toxicology testing. (JW)

Citation : Hamm JT, Hsieh JH, Roberts GK, Collins B, Gorospe J, Sparrow B, Walker NJ, Truong L, Tanguay RL, Dyballa S, Miñana R, Schiavone V, Terriente J, Weiner A, Muriana A, Quevedo C, Ryan KR. 2024. Interlaboratory study on zebrafish in toxicology: Systematic Evaluation of the Application of Zebrafish in Toxicology's (SEAZIT's) evaluation of developmental toxicity. Toxics 12(1):93.

Personal care product use during puberty may affect breast cancer risk

Frequent use of personal care products (PCPs) during puberty may lead to increased breast cancer rates later in life, according to NIEHS researchers. The study is the first to investigate the use of “everyday” PCPs, such as makeup and skincare products, around the time of puberty in relation to breast cancer incidence.

Many PCPs contain endocrine-disrupting chemicals that may affect breast cancer risk. Racial and ethnic differences in PCP use patterns and the chemicals in products marketed to specific groups may contribute to breast cancer disparities. Breast tissue undergoes rapid changes during puberty and may be vulnerable to the effects of chemicals in PCPs.

To examine how use of 37 everyday PCPs during puberty may affect breast cancer incidence, the researchers analyzed self-reported data from 4,049 Black, 2,104 Hispanic, and 39,312 White women in the Sister Study. PCP use patterns at ages 10-13 years were not clearly linked with breast cancer diagnosis. However, breast cancer rates were elevated among Black women who reported frequent nail and perfume product use during puberty and among Black and Hispanic women who reported frequent hair product use during the same period.

According to the authors, these findings provide some evidence that frequent PCP use during puberty is associated with increased breast cancer risk, especially among racially and ethnically minoritized groups. More research is needed to determine whether reducing PCP use during this critical developmental window may reduce breast cancer risk.

Citation : Goldberg M, Chang CJ, Ogunsina K, O'Brien KM, Taylor KW, White AJ, Sandler DP. 2024. Personal care product use during puberty and incident breast cancer among Black, Hispanic/Latina, and White women in a prospective US-wide cohort . Environ Health Perspect 132(2):27001. (MD)

Autoantibodies signal poor prognosis for inflammatory condition

Myositis-associated autoantibodies (MAAs) are a prevalent marker of poor prognosis for patients with juvenile myositis, according to NIEHS researchers and their collaborators.

Myositis is a medical condition characterized by inflammation affecting the muscles. The manifestations of this condition may include skin issues, muscle weakness, and the potential involvement of other organs. MAAs are immune system proteins that are directed against one or more of the individual's own proteins. They are present in patients with myositis and other autoimmune connective tissue diseases. Overall, MAAs remain largely uncharacterized in juvenile-onset myositis. Moreover, it is unknown whether the number of MAAs is associated with disease severity.

To this end, the researchers characterized the prevalence, clinical features, and outcomes associated with MAAs in a large North American cohort of patients with juvenile-onset myositis. Among 551 patients, 36% had an MAA and 13% had more than one MAA.

MAA positivity was associated with certain clinical features, including Raynaud phenomenon and interstitial lung disease, as well as a chronic disease course and mortality. The number of MAAs also was associated with mortality. According to the authors, prospective studies are needed to determine whether early detection of MAAs may lead to improved outcomes for patients with juvenile myositis. (JW)

Citation : Sherman MA, Noroozi Farhadi P, Pak K, Trieu EP, Sarkar K, Targoff IN, Neely ML, Mammen AL, Rider LG; Childhood Myositis Heterogeneity Collaborative Study Group. 2024. Myositis-associated autoantibodies in juvenile myositis are associated with refractory disease and mortality . Arthritis Rheumatol; doi: 10.1002/art.42813. [Online ahead of print 25 Jan. 2024].

How smoking affects DNA methylation

Thousands of DNA methylation patterns have been linked to smoking, and most revert to normal within one year of quitting, according to NIEHS researchers and their collaborators.

Smoking causes adverse health outcomes throughout life as well as alterations in DNA methylation — a biological process by which methyl groups are added to the DNA molecule. Although it is well established that smoking leads to changes in DNA methylation at specific CpG sites, several important research gaps remain.

To address these knowledge gaps, the researchers analyzed data from 15,014 adults from four studies. They identified several thousand CpGs linked to smoking. The results also showed that the effects of smoking on DNA methylation can be largely reversed within one year of quitting. However, 25% of CpGs did not attenuate within one year. Smoking-related methylation at some CpG sites may differ by sex or dietary factors. In addition, exposure to smoking during pregnancy alters DNA methylation with effects that last into adulthood.

Taken together, the results address important gaps regarding impacts of smoking on methylation with potential insights into smoking-related health outcomes, many of which persist after quitting. Moreover, the findings demonstrate that pregnancy is a vulnerable window of susceptibility that can alter DNA methylation throughout life. (JW)

Citation : Hoang TT, Lee Y, McCartney DL, Kersten ETG, Page CM, Hulls PM, Lee M, Walker RM, Breeze CE, Bennett BD, Burkholder AB, Ward J, Brantsæter AL, Caspersen IH, Motsinger-Reif AA, Richards M, White JD, Zhao S, Richmond RC, Magnus MC; BIOS Consortium; Koppelman GH, Evans KL, Marioni RE, Håberg SE, London SJ. 2024. Comprehensive evaluation of smoking exposures and their interactions on DNA methylation . EBioMedicine 100:104956.

Outdoor air pollution may be linked to uterine cancer in U.S. women

Residential exposure to nitrogen dioxide (NO2), a possible proxy for vehicular traffic-related pollution, is associated with a higher incidence of uterine cancer among U.S. women, according to NIEHS researchers and their collaborators.

Outdoor air pollution consists of a heterogenous mixture of compounds, some of which may function as endocrine disruptors and therefore may be particularly relevant to hormone-related health conditions. For example, NO2 has been consistently associated with a higher risk of breast cancer. However, few studies have examined the relationship between ambient air pollution and uterine cancer.

To address this gap, the researchers investigated whether residential exposure to outdoor air pollution — specifically NO2 and fine particulate matter (PM2.5) — was associated with uterine cancer incidence among 33,417 women in the NIEHS Sister Study cohort. Although no association was observed for PM2.5, a five parts-per-billion increase in NO2 was associated with a 20% higher incidence of uterine cancer. This association for NO2 was also particularly apparent in women living in urban areas, but not those in rural or suburban areas.

These findings suggest a relationship between traffic-related emissions and uterine cancer, thus expanding the scope of health effects associated with outdoor air pollution and highlighting the need for policy and other interventions to reduce air pollutant levels.

Citation : Brown JA, Ish JL, Chang CJ, Bookwalter DB, O'Brien KM, Jones RR, Kaufman JD, Sandler DP, White AJ. 2024. Outdoor air pollution exposure and uterine cancer incidence in the Sister Study . J Natl Cancer Inst djae031. (MD)

(Janelle Weaver, Ph.D., is a contract writer for the NIEHS Office of Communications and Public Liaison, and Meklit Daniel is a fellow in the NIEHS Environment and Cancer Epidemiology Group.)

Assessing Genetic Risks: Implications for Health and Social Policy (1994)

Chapter: 8 social, legal, and ethical implications of genetic testing, 8 social, legal, and ethical implications of genetic testing.

Each new genetic test that is developed raises serious issues for medicine, public health, and social policy regarding the circumstances under which the test should be used, how the test is implemented, and what uses are made of its results. Should people be allowed to choose or refuse the test, or should it be mandatory, as newborn screening is in some states? Should people be able to control access to the results of their tests? If test results are released to third parties such as employers or insurers, what protections should be in place to ensure that people are not treated unfairly because of their genotype?

The answers to these questions depend in part on the significance given to four important ethical and legal principles: autonomy, confidentiality, privacy, and equity. A review of the meaning of those concepts and how they are currently protected by the law provides a starting point for the development of recommendations on the degree of control people should have in deciding whether to undergo genetic testing and what uses should be made of the results. The task is a pressing one. In a 1992 national probability survey of the public, sponsored by the March of Dimes, 38 percent of respondents said that new types of genetic testing should be stopped altogether until the privacy issues are settled. 1

This chapter reviews some of the conflicts that will arise in the research and clinical settings, and suggests general principles that should be the starting point for policy analyses in this evolving field.

KEY DEFINITIONS

Ethical analysis.

Autonomy can be defined as self-determination, self-rule, or self-governance. Autonomous agents or actions presuppose some capacity of reasoning, deciding, and willing. Moral, social, and legal norms establish obligations to respect autonomous agents and their choices. Respect for personal autonomy implies that agents have the right or power to be self-governing and self-directing, without outside control. In the context of genetic testing and screening, respect for autonomy refers to the right of persons to make an informed, independent judgment about whether they wish to be tested and then whether they wish to know the details of the outcome of the testing. Autonomy is also the right of the individual to control his or her destiny, with or without reliance on genetic information, and to avoid interference by others with important life decisions, whether these are based on genetic information or other factors. Respect for autonomy also implies the right of persons to control the future use of genetic material submitted for analysis for a specific purpose (including when the genetic material itself and the information derived from that material may be stored for future analysis, such as in a DNA bank or registry file).

Even though respect for autonomy is centrally important in our society, it is not absolute. It can be overridden in some circumstances, for example, to prevent serious harm to others, as is the case in mandatory newborn screening for phenylketonuria (PKU) and hypothyroidism.

Legal Issues

The legal concept of autonomy serves as the basis for numerous decisions protecting a person's bodily integrity. In particular, cases have held that competent adults have the right to choose whether or not to undergo medical interventions. 2 Before people make such a choice, they have a right to be informed of facts that might be material to their decision, 3 such as the nature of their condition and its prognosis, 4 the potential risks and benefits of a proposed test or treatment, 5 and the alternatives to the proposed intervention. 6 In the genetics context, health care providers have been held liable for not providing the information that a genetic test is available. 7

People also have a right to be informed about and to control the subsequent use of tissue that has been removed from their bodies. 8 There is some leeway under the federal regulations governing research involving human subjects for researchers to undertake subsequent research on blood samples provided for genetic tests (as in the newborn screening context) as long as the samples are anon-

ymous and as long as the subsequent use was not anticipated at the time the sample was collected. 9 If the additional test was anticipated at the time the sample was collected, informed consent for that use should be obtained prior to the collection of the original sample.

Such an approach is thought appropriate to avert conflicts of interest, such as a physician/researcher suggesting that a patient undergo a particular test when the researcher actually wanted the tissue for the researcher's own additional use in a research or commercial project. In such a situation, the patient's autonomy is compromised even if the sample is used anonymously in the subsequent use. A report from the Office of Technology Assessment similarly stressed the importance of knowledge and consent:

The consent of the patient is required to remove blood or tissue from his or her body, and also to perform tests, but it is important that the patient be informed of all the tests which are done and that a concern for the privacy of the patient extends to the control of tissues removed from his or her body. 10

Among the various definitions of privacy, one broad definition captures its central element: privacy is "a state or condition of limited access to a person." 11 People have privacy if others lack or do not exercise access to them. They have privacy if they are left alone and do not suffer unauthorized intrusion by others. Once persons undergo genetic tests, privacy includes the right to make an informed, independent decision about whether—and which—others may know details of their genome (e.g., insurers, employers, educational institutions, spouses and other family members, researchers, and social agencies).

Various justifications have been offered for rules of privacy. First, some philosophers argue that privacy rights are merely shorthand expressions for a cluster of personal and property rights, each of which can be explicated without any reference to the concept of privacy. In making this argument, Judith Jarvis Thomson holds that privacy rights simply reflect personal and property rights, such as the rights not to be looked at, not to be overheard, and not to be caused distress. 12

A second justification holds that rights to privacy are important instruments or means to other goods, including intimate relations such as trust and friendship. Being able to control access to themselves enables people to have various kinds of relationships with different people, rather than being equally accessible to all others.

A third approach finds the basis for rights to privacy in respect for personal autonomy. Decisional privacy is often very close to personal autonomy. The language of personal autonomy reflects the idea of a domain or territory of self-rule, and thus overlaps with zones of decisional privacy.

Whatever their rationale or justification, rights of privacy are the subject of ongoing debate about their scope and weight. However, their scope is not unlimited, and they do not always override all other competing interests, such as the interests of others.

In the legal sphere, the principle of privacy is an umbrella concept encompassing issues of both autonomy and confidentiality. The right to make choices about one's health care is protected, in part, by the right to privacy guaranteed by the U.S. Constitution, as well as state constitutions. This includes a right to make certain reproductive choices, 13 such as whether to use genetic testing. l4 It also includes a right to refuse treatment.

An entirely different standard of privacy protects personal information. A few court decisions find protection for such information under the constitutional doctrine of privacy, 15 but more commonly, privacy protection against disclosure of personal information is found under common law tort principles. 16 In addition, there is a federal privacy act, 17 as well as state statutes protecting privacy.

Confidentiality

Confidentiality as a principle implies that some body of information is sensitive, and hence, access to it must be controlled and limited to parties authorized to have such access. The information provided within the relationship is given in confidence, with the expectation that it will not be disclosed to others or will be disclosed to others only within limits. The state or condition of nondisclosure or limited disclosure may be protected by moral, social, or legal principles and rules, which can be expressed in terms of rights or obligations.

In health care and various other relationships, we grant others access to our bodies. They may touch, observe, listen, palpate, and even physically invade. They may examine our bodies as a whole or in parts; and parts, such as tissue, may be removed for further study, as in some forms of testing. Privacy is necessarily diminished when others have such access to us; rules of confidentiality authorize us to control and thus to limit further access to the information generated in that relationship. For example, rules of confidentiality may prohibit a physician from disclosing some information to an insurance company or an employer without the patient's authorization.

Rules of confidentiality appear in virtually every code or set of regulations for health care relationships. Their presence is not surprising, because such rules are often justified on the basis of their instrumental value: if prospective patients cannot count on health care professionals to maintain confidentiality, they will be

reluctant to allow professionals the full and complete access necessary for diagnosis and treatment. Hence, rules of confidentiality are indispensable for patient and social welfare; without those rules, people who need medical, psychiatric, or other treatment will refrain from seeking or fully participating in it. Another justification for rules of confidentiality is based on the principles of respect for autonomy and privacy, above. Respecting persons involves respecting their zone of privacy and accepting their decisions to control access to information about them. When people grant health care professionals access to them, they should retain the right to determine who else has access to the information generated in that relationship. Hence, the arguments for respect for autonomy and privacy support rules of confidentiality. Finally, duties of confidentiality often derive from explicit or implicit promises in the relationship. For instance, if the professional's public oath or the profession's code of ethics promises confidentiality of information, and the particular professional does not specifically disavow it, then the patient has a right to expect that information generated in the relationship will be treated as confidential. 18

There are at least two distinct types of infringements of rules of confidentiality. On the one hand, rules of confidentiality are sometimes infringed through deliberate breaches. On the other hand, rules of confidentiality are often infringed through carelessness, for example, when health care professionals do not take adequate precautions to protect the confidential information. Some commentators argue that both carelessness and modern practices of health care have rendered medical confidentiality a "decrepit concept," since it is compromised routinely in the provision of health care. 19

It is widely recognized that the rules of confidentiality are limited in at least two senses: (1) some information may not be protected, and (2) the rules may sometimes be overridden to protect other values. First, not all information is deemed confidential, and patients do not have a right to expect that such information will be protected from disclosure to others. For example, laws frequently require that health care professionals report gunshot wounds, venereal diseases, and other communicable diseases such as tuberculosis. Second, health care professionals may also have a moral or legal right (and sometimes even an obligation) to infringe rules of confidentiality, for example, to prevent a serious harm from occurring. In such cases, rules of confidentiality protect the information, but they can be overridden in order to protect some other value. Judgments about such cases depend on the probability of serious harm occurring unless confidentiality is breached. Any justified infringements of rules of confidentiality should satisfy the conditions identified earlier in the discussion of justified infringements of the principle of respect for autonomy.

The legal concept of confidentiality focuses on the information that people

provide to their physicians. The protection of confidentiality is thought to serve an important public health goal in encouraging people to seek access to health care. It is thought that the patient's interest can be served only in an atmosphere of total frankness and candor. 20 Without the promise of confidentiality, people might avoid seeking medical treatment, thus potentially harming themselves as well as the community. In fact, the first doctor-patient confidentiality statute was passed in 1828 in New York during the smallpox epidemic to encourage people to seek health care. Various legal decisions have protected confidentiality of health care information, 21 as have certain state and federal statutes.

Confidentiality of health care information is also protected because disclosure of a person's medical condition can cause harm to him or her. An alternative set of legal principles-those penalizing discrimination (see below)-protects people against unfair uses of certain information.

Issues of justice, fairness, and equity crop up in several actions, practices, and policies relating to genetic testing. It is now commonplace to distinguish formal justice from substantive justice. Formal justice requires treating similar cases in a similar way. Standards of substantive or material justice establish the identity of the relevant similarities and differences and the appropriate responses to those similarities and differences. For instance, a society has to determine whether to distribute a scarce resource such as health care according to persons' differences in need, social worth, or ability to pay.

One crucial question is whether genetic disorders or predispositions provide a basis for blocking access to certain social goods, such as employment or health insurance. Most conceptions of justice dictate that employment be based on the ability to perform particular tasks effectively and safely. For these conceptions, it is unjust to deny employment to someone who meets the relevant qualifications but also has a genetic disease. Frequently these questions of employment overlap with questions of health insurance. Practices of medical underwriting in health insurance reflect what is often called "actuarial fairness"-that is, grouping those with similar risks together so insurers can accurately predict costs, and set fair and sufficient premium rates. Although actuarial fairness may be intuitively appealing, critics argue that it does not express moral or social fairness. According to Norman Daniels, there is "a clear mismatch between standard underwriting practices and the social function of health insurance" in providing individuals with resources for access to health care 22 (see Chapter 7 ).

The fundamental argument for excluding genetic discrimination in health insurance amounts to an argument for establishing a right to health care. One of the central issues in debates about the distribution of health care is one's view of the

"natural lottery," in particular, a "genetic lottery." 23 The metaphor of a lottery suggests that health needs result largely from an impersonal natural lottery and are thus undeserved. But even if health needs are largely undeserved because of the role of chance, society's response to those needs may vary, as H. Tristram Engelhardt notes, depending on whether it views those needs as unfair or as unfortunate. 24 If health needs are unfortunate, but not unfair, they may be the object of individual or social compassion. Other individuals, voluntary associations, and even society may be motivated by compassion to try to meet those needs. If, however, the needs are viewed as unfair as well as unfortunate, society may have a duty of justice to try to meet those needs.

One prominent argument for the societal provision of a decent minimum of health care is that, generally, health needs are randomly distributed and unpredictable, as well as overwhelming when health crises occur. 25 Because of these features of health needs, many argue that it is inappropriate to distribute health care according to merit, societal contribution, or even ability to pay. Another version of the argument from fairness holds that health needs represent departures from normal species functioning and deprive people of fair equality of opportunity. Thus, fairness requires the provision of health care to "maintain, restore, or compensate for the loss of normal functioning" in order to ensure fair equality of opportunity. 26

Several committee members expressed concerns that these stated arguments are somewhat weakened by the fact that a number of diseases are not the result of random events, but are brought on or exacerbated by dispensable habits such as cigarette smoking and excessive alcohol ingestion. While our and other societies attempt to discourage such habits by education and taxation, there is general agreement that access to full health care must be ensured once illness develops. If a tendency to abuse alcohol, for example, were to have a genetic predisposition, an additional argument could be made for providing the same level of health care to everyone since a person does not choose his or her genetic propensities.

The argument that society should guarantee or provide a decent minimum of health care for all citizens and residents points toward a direction for health policy, but it does not determine exactly how much health care the society should provide relative to other goods it also seeks. And, within the health care budget, there will be difficult allocation questions, including how much should be used for particular illnesses and for particular treatments for those illnesses. Questions of allocation cannot be resolved in the abstract. In democratic societies, they should be resolved through political processes that express the public's will. In specifying and implementing a conception of a decent minimum, an adequate level, or a fair share of health care in the context of scarce resources, as the President's Commission noted in 1983, it is reasonable for a society to turn to fair, democratic political procedures to choose among alternative conceptions of adequate health care, and in view of "the great imprecision in the notion of adequate health care ... it is especially important that the procedures used to define that level be—and be perceived to be—fair." 27

The concept of equity serves as the underpinning for a variety of legal doctrines and statutes. Certain needy people are provided health care, including some genetics services, under government programs such as Medicaid (see Chapter 7 ). In addition, some legislative efforts have been made to prohibit discrimination based on genotype. For example, some states have statutes prohibiting discrimination in employment based on one's genotype. 28 And nearly all people over age 65 are deemed to have a right to care (under Medicare).

CURRENT PRACTICE OF PROTECTION IN GENETICS

The development of genetic testing has raised numerous concerns about autonomy, confidentiality, privacy, and equity that are exacerbated by the range of contexts in which such tests are undertaken, the sheer volume of tests that could be offered, the many uses that can be made of test results, and the variety of institutions that store genetic information. To date, most genetic testing has been done in the reproductive context or with newborns, to identify serious disorders that currently or soon will affect the fetus or infant. However, the types of genetic conditions or predispositions that can potentially be tested for are much broader than those signaling serious, imminent diseases. These include characteristics (such as sex or height) that are not diseases, potential susceptibility to diseases if the person comes into contact with particular environmental stimuli, and indications that a currently asymptomatic person will suffer later in life from a debilitating disease such as Huntington disease. The genetic anomalies that can be tested for range widely in their manifestations, their severity, their treatability, and their social significance. People's ability to define themselves, to manage their destiny and self-concept, will depend in large measure on the control they have over whether they and others come to know their genetic characteristics.

Most medical testing is done within a physician-patient relationship. With genetic testing, however, the potential range of contexts in which it can be undertaken is large. Already, in the public health context, more than 4 million newborns are tested annually for metabolic disorders so that effective treatment can be started in a few hundred. Researchers are inviting people to participate in family studies and undergo genetic testing, including collection of DNA samples for present or future analyses. There are a growing number of nonmedical applications of genetic testing as well. In the law enforcement context, DNA testing is undertaken to attempt to identify criminal offenders. At least 17 states have DNA fingerprint programs for felons. 29 The armed services are collecting DNA samples from all members of the military, the primary purpose of which is to identify bodies of deceased soldiers. Employers and insurers may require people to undergo testing for genetic disorders for exclusionary purposes. One challenge for policy posed by this wide array of testing settings is that many of the existing legal

precedents about autonomy, confidentiality, and privacy apply only to the traditional doctor-patient relationship. For example, some state statutes governing confidentiality deal only with information provided to physicians and might not cover information provided to Ph.D. researchers or employers.

There seems to be great variation among institutions and among providers in the amount of attention paid to autonomy, confidentiality, and privacy. For example, some obstetricians recognize the patient's autonomy by providing them the information about maternal serum alpha-fetoprotein (MSAFP) screening but acknowledging the patient's right to decide whether or not to undergo the test. Other obstetricians run the test on blood gathered from the woman for other purposes, so the woman does not even know she has been the subject of the test unless the obstetrician delivers the bad news that she has had an abnormal result.

Geneticists differ with respect to the emphasis they place on the confidentiality of the results of genetic testing. In a survey by Dorothy Wertz and John Fletcher, 30 numerous geneticists suggested that there were at least four situations in which they would breach confidentiality and disclose genetic information without the patient's permission, even over the patient's refusal: (1) 54 percent said they would disclose to a relative the risk of Huntington disease; (2) 53 percent said they would disclose the risk of hemophilia A; (3) 24 percent said they would disclose genetic information to a patient's employer; and (4) 12 percent said they would disclose such information to the patient's insurer. Primary care physicians may be even more likely to disclose such information. 31 Health care providers should explain their policies for disclosure in advance, including for disclosure to relatives.

Institutions that store DNA samples 32 or store the results of genetic tests also differ in the amount of respect they give to autonomy, confidentiality, and privacy. 33 Some institutions do additional tests on DNA samples without the permission of the person who provided the sample. Some share samples with other institutions. Some store samples or information with identifiers attached, rather than anonymously. Indeed, storage conditions themselves differ widely. Some newborn screening programs store filter papers in a temperature-controlled, secure setting; others merely pile them in a file cabinet or storage closet. Programs also differ in the length of time the sample or the test results are maintained.

Once DNA material has been submitted, there are few safeguards concerning other present or future uses that may be made of the material. DNA from the blood spots collected for newborn screening can now be extracted for further testing. 34 No standards or safeguards currently exist to govern the appropriate use of DNA analysis and storage from newborn screening tests. These possibilities raise questions about the need to obtain consent for additional and subsequent uses (particularly since consent is almost never obtained initially in newborn screening), as well as questions about the duty to warn if disorders are detected in the blood by using the new DNA extraction testing techniques.

The issue of confidentiality of genetic information will be underscored with

the introduction of ''optical memory cards," a credit card-sized device that stores medical information. 35 These cards have already been introduced for use in Houston city health clinics. There is sufficient computer memory on the cards to include genetic information about the person and, in the future, to include a person's entire genome.

Congressional legislation has been introduced that would require all patients to use optical memory cards. This bill, the Medical and Health Insurance Information Reform Act of 1992, would mandate a totally electronic system of communication between health care providers and insurers. Such a system would be based either on the optical memory card (with a microchip capable of storing data) or on a card similar to an Automated Teller Card (which simply provides access to data stored elsewhere).

APPLYING THE PRINCIPLES TO GENETIC TESTING

The principles of autonomy, privacy, confidentiality, and equity place great weight on individuals' rights to make personal decisions without interference. This is due, in part, to the importance placed on individuals in our culture and our legal system. However, individual rights are not without bound, and the area of genetics raises important questions of where individual rights end and where responsibilities to a group—such as one's family or the larger society—begin.

Medicine is generally practiced within this culture of individual rights (with provisions for patients' right to refuse treatment and right to control the dissemination of medical information about themselves), but there have been circumstances in which the medical model has been supplanted by the public health model, which encourages the prevention of disease—for example, by requiring that certain medical intervention (such as vaccinations) be undertaken and by warning individuals of health risks (e.g., through educational campaigns against smoking or through contact tracing with respect to venereal diseases). Some commentators have suggested that the public health model be applied to genetics, 36 with mandatory genetic screening and even mandatory abortion of seriously affected fetuses. A related measure might be warning people of their risk of genetic disorders.

There are several difficulties with applying the public health model to genetics, however. Certain infectious diseases potentially put society as a whole at immediate risk since the diseases can be transmitted to a large number of people in a short time. The potential victims are existing human beings who may be total strangers to the affected individual. In contrast to infectious disease, the transmission of genetic diseases does not present an immediate threat to society. Whereas infectious disease can cause rapid devastation to a community, the transmission of genetic disorders to offspring does not necessarily have an immediate detrimental effect, but rather creates a potential risk for a future generation in society. 37 U.S.

Supreme Court cases dealing with fundamental rights have held that harm in the future is not as compelling a state interest as immediate harm. 38

Moreover, the very concept of "prevention" does not readily fit most genetic diseases. In the case of newborn screening for PKU, treatment can prevent mental retardation. However, with many genetic diseases today, the genetic disease itself is not being prevented, but rather the birth of a particular individual with the disease is prevented (e.g., when a couple, each of whom is heterozygous for a serious recessive disorder, chooses not to conceive or chooses to terminate the pregnancy of a fetus who is homozygous for the disorder). This sort of prevention cannot be viewed in the same way as preventing measles or syphilis, for example. There is a great variation among people in their view of disability and what constitutes a disorder to be "prevented." Many people will welcome a child with Down syndrome or cystic fibrosis into their family. In addition, some individuals have religious or other personal moral objections to abortion; even mandatory carrier status screening or prenatal screening without mandatory abortion may be objected to because people who object to abortion are concerned that the abortion rate will rise among those in the general population who learn of genetic risks to their fetus. Furthermore, some people with a particular disability or genetic risk may view mandatory genetic testing for that risk or disability as an attempt to eradicate their kind, as a disavowal of their worth.

Mandatory genetic testing might also have devastating effects on the individuals who are tested. Unlike infectious disease (which can be viewed as external to the person), genetic disease may be viewed by people as an intractable part of their nature. Persons who learn, against their will, that they carry a defective gene may view themselves as defective. This harm is compounded if they did not choose to learn the information voluntarily. This assault on personal identity is less likely with infectious diseases, although AIDS and genital herpes (for example) can also have a negative impact on self-image. Moreover, most genetic defects, unlike most infectious diseases, generally cannot now be corrected. 39 Thus, the unasked-for revelation that occurs through mandatory genetic testing can haunt the person throughout his or her life and can have widespread reverberations in the family, including others who may be at risk or related as partners. The information can serve as the basis for discrimination against the individual.

Additionally, policy concerns raised by attempts to stop the transmission of genetic diseases differ from those addressed to infectious diseases because genetic diseases may differentially affect people of different races or ethnic backgrounds. For that reason, some commentators contest the applicability of the infectious disease model to government actions regarding genetic disorders. Catherine Damme notes that "unlike infectious disease which [generally] knows no ethnic, racial, or gender boundaries, genetic disease is the result of heredity"—leaving open the possibility for discriminatory governmental actions. 40

The government has discretion with respect to which infectious diseases it tackles. For example, it can decide to require screening for syphilis but not

chlamydia, or to require vaccinations for smallpox but not for diphtheria. Government action with respect to genetic diseases is likely to be regarded much differently, especially with respect to disorders for which an effective treatment does not exist and, consequently, the only medical procedure available is the abortion of an affected fetus. Minority groups who have been discriminated against in the past may view a screening program that targets only disorders that occur within their racial or ethnic group as an additional attack, and may view abstention from reproduction or the abortion of offspring based on genetic information as a form of genocide. 41

Those commentators who argue that the infectious disease precedents justify mandatory genetic screening fail to recognize that even in the case of infectious disease, very few medical procedures are mandated for adults. Adults are not forced to seek medical diagnosis and treatment even if they have a treatable infectious disease. Laws that required compulsory infectious disease screening prior to marriage (e.g., for venereal disease) are being repealed. For example, New York abolished its requirements for premarital gonorrhea and syphilis testing. One of the reasons for the abolition of the requirements was that they were not the most appropriate way to reach the population at risk. 42

Mandating diagnosis and treatment for genetic disorders is particularly problematic when the concept of disease is so flexible. Arno Motulsky has noted that "[t]he precise definition of 'disease' regardless of etiology, is difficult." 43 He notes that maladies such as high blood pressure and mental retardation are based on arbitrary cutoff levels. David Brock similarly noted that most disorders lie between the extremes of Tay-Sachs disease and alkaptonuria; what a physician advises "depends as much on the physician's ethical preconceptions as his medical experience." 44

Despite the fact that the public health model does not fit the situation of genetics, the individual rights model should not be seen as absolute. There are certain situations in which the values of autonomy, privacy, confidentiality, and equity should give way to prevent serious harm to others. Determining the exceptions to these general principles is no easy matter, however. There may be instances in which harm can be prevented by violating one of these principles, but in which the value of upholding the principles will nonetheless outweigh the chance of averting harm. In each instance, it will be necessary to assess several factors: How serious is the harm to be averted? Is violating one of the principles the best way to avert the harm? What will be the medical, psychological, and other risks of violating the principle? What will be the financial costs of violating the principle?

The following section addresses the issues raised by the application of these principles—autonomy, privacy, confidentiality, and equity—in the contexts of clinical genetics, other medical practices, genetics research, and so forth. It also provides guidance for determining the appropriate circumstances for exceptions to these principles. The chapter concludes with the committee's recommendations on these issues.

ISSUES IN GENETIC TESTING

One important way to ensure autonomy with respect to genetic testing is to provide adequate information upon which a person can make a decision whether or not to undergo testing. A proper informed consent in medicine generally involves the presentation of information about the risks, benefits, efficacy, and alternatives to the procedure being undertaken. In addition, recent cases and statutes have recognized the importance of disclosures of any potential conflicts of interest that the health care professional recommending the test may have, such as a financial interest in the facility to which the patient is being referred. In the genetics context, this would include disclosure about equity holdings or ownership of the laboratory, dependence on test reimbursement to cover the costs of counseling, patents, and so forth. It would also include disclosure of any planned subsequent uses of the tissue samples, even if such uses are to be anonymous.

Various kinds of information are relevant to people who are attempting to exercise their autonomy by deciding whether or not to undergo genetic testing. This includes information about the severity, potential variability, and treatability of the disorder being tested for. If, for example, carrier status testing is being proposed for a pregnant woman or prenatal testing is being proposed for her fetus, she should be told whether the disorder at issue can be prevented or treated, or whether she will be faced with a decision about whether or not to abort (see Chapters 2 , 4 , and 5 ). The proposed informed consent guidelines for research involving genetic testing suggested by the Alliance of Genetic Support Groups provide an excellent starting point for the development of informed consent policies in the genetics area (see Chapter 4 ).

The potential development of multiplex testing adds another wrinkle to the issue of informed consent for genetic testing. If 100 disorders are tested from the same blood sample, it may be difficult to apply the current model of informed consent in which a health care provider gives information about each disorder and the efficacy of each test to the patient in advance of the testing. The difficulty in applying the traditional mechanisms for achieving informed consent does not provide an excuse for failing to respect a patient's autonomy and need for information, however. New mechanisms may have to be developed to protect these rights. It will be possible to have results reported back to the physician and patient only about those tests (or types of tests) the patient chooses. The choices can be made by the patient, based, for example, on the patient learning through a computer program about the various disorders and the various tests. Or the choices can be made according to general categories—for example, the patient might choose to have multiplex testing but choose not be informed of the results of testing for untreatable or unpreventable disorders 45 (see Chapters 1 , 3 , and 4 ).

In addition to the recognition that people are entitled to information before

they make decisions, a second application of the autonomy principle comes with the recognition that the decision to participate in genetic testing and other genetics services must be voluntary. Voluntariness has been a recognized principle in past recommendations and practices involving genetics. This is in keeping with the recognized right of competent adults to refuse medical intervention, as well as the right to refuse even the presentation of medical information in the informed consent context. 46 If, for example, it becomes possible to accurately screen fetal cells isolated from a pregnant woman's blood in order to determine the genetic status of the fetus, state public health departments might be interested in requiring the test on the grounds that it is a minimally invasive procedure that can provide information to the woman (perhaps leading her to abort an affected fetus and saving the state money for care of that infant). Mandating such a test, however, would show insufficient respect for the woman's autonomy and would violate her right to make reproductive decisions.

Special Issues in the Screening and Testing of Children

The expansion of available tests fostered by the Human Genome Project will present complicated issues with respect to the testing of newborns and other children. Although there are clear legal precedents stating that adults are free to refuse even potentially beneficial testing and treatment, legal precedents provide that children can be treated without their consent (and over their parents' refusal) to prevent serious imminent harm. The U.S. Supreme Court has said that, while parents are free to make martyrs of themselves, they are not free to make martyrs of their children. 47 Medical intervention over parents' objection has been allowed in situations in which a child's life was in imminent danger and the treatment posed little risk of danger in itself. 48 Blood transfusions have been ordered for the children of Jehovah's Witnesses when the child's life was imminently endangered. 49

All states have programs to screen newborns for certain inborn errors of metabolism for which early intervention with treatment provides a clear medical benefit to the child, such as phenylketonuria. Currently, the statutes of at least two jurisdictions (the District of Columbia and Maryland) clearly provide that newborn screening is voluntary. 50 In at least two states (Montana and West Virginia), screening is mandatory and there is no legal provision for parental objection or refusal based on religious grounds. 51 In the rest of the states, there are grounds for parental refusal for religious or other reasons. However, although the majority of states allow objection to screening on some grounds, very few statutes require that the parents or guardians of an infant either be sufficiently informed that they can choose whether or not their infant should submit to the screening or be told they have the right to object. Two states (Missouri and South Carolina) have criminal penalties for parents who refuse newborn screening of their children. 52

The idea behind mandatory newborn screening is a benevolent one—to try to ensure that all children get the benefits of screening for PKU and hypothyroidism,

for which early treatment can make a dramatic difference in the child's well-being by preventing mental retardation. Yet there is little evidence that it is necessary to make a newborn screening program mandatory to ensure that children are screened under the program. Recent studies show that the few states with voluntary newborn screening programs screen a higher percentage of newborns than some states with mandatory newborn screening programs; for 1990, voluntary programs reported reaching 100 percent of newborns in their states, while some states with mandatory programs report reaching 98 percent, and some even less than 96 percent. 53 Relevant research has suggested that even when a newborn screening program is completely voluntary and parents may refuse for any reason, the actual refusal rate is quite low, about 0.05 percent (27 of 50,000 mothers). In that study, most nurses reported that it required only one to five minutes to inform a mother about newborn screening. 54

Newborn screening for PKU—like a necessary blood transfusion for a child over the parents' refusal—has been justified on the basis of the legal doctrine of parens patriae, where the state steps in to order an intervention to protect a child from substantial, imminent harm. In the era of the Human Genome Project, when additional tests are being developed, some people are promoting newborn screening in part for less immediate and less clear benefits. Proposed guidelines have suggested that another benefit of newborn screening "might take the form of inscription in registries for later reproductive counseling (material PKU) or of surveillance of phenotypes (congenital adrenal hyperplasia)." 55 To achieve such an outcome, the resulting children would need to be followed until the age when reproductive counseling was appropriate—or when symptoms manifest—a daunting task in this age of mobility.

The first newborn screening programs were for disorders in which early treatment of the newborn was effective. Increasingly, however, testing is suggested for untreatable disorders. In such instances, the justification is not the benefit to the newborn but the benefit to the parents for future reproductive plans. For such reasons, several countries—and some states in the United States (e.g., Pennsylvania)—screen newborns for Duchenne muscular dystrophy. This medical intervention has no immediate medical benefit for the newborn, and carrier screening of the parents could be obtained through other methods, even when (as in the case of Duchenne muscular dystrophy and some other conditions) they may not realize they are at risk.

Moreover, screening newborns for genes for untreatable disorders or carrier status may have disadvantages. The children may be provided with information that, at the age of consent, they would rather not have. Parents might treat them differently if the results are positive. Parents may stigmatize or reject children with the abnormal genes, or may be less willing to devote financial resources to education or other benefits for such children. In addition, release of the test results might cause them to be uninsurable, unemployable, and unmarriageable.

There are additional benefits from voluntariness in newborn screening. In-

forming parents about newborn screening in advance of testing allows quality assurance: parents can check to see if the sample was actually drawn. As children are being released from the hospital increasingly early, due to insurance pressures, they might receive a false negative result because blood levels of phenylalanine have not yet risen sufficiently to be detected if elevated. Informed motivated parents may need to bring their babies to be screened after release from the hospital in order to ensure an accurate test result. The recommended informed consent process can provide the necessary education and motivation that will be required to make the return trip far better than mandatory programs.

In the postgenome era, people will be facing the possibility of undergoing many more genetic tests in their lifetimes, and will need to master a wealth of genetic information that is relevant to their health, their reproductive plans, and the choices they make about what to eat, where to live, and what jobs to take. The more settings in which they can be informed about genetics, the more able they will be to make these decisions. In addition, when newborn screening programs are voluntary, there is a greater chance that parents will be provided with material in advance about the disorder and have their questions answered, thus presenting the possibility that they will view it more seriously and will make a greater effort to ensure that the child receives proper treatment if a condition is detected. The disclosure of information to parents about newborn screening prior to newborn screening can be an important tool for public education about genetics.

Mandatory newborn screening should only be undertaken if there is strong evidence of benefit to the newborn from effective treatment at the earliest possible age (e.g., PKU and congenital hypothyroidism). Under this principle, screening for Duchenne muscular dystrophy would not be justified. In addition, mandatory newborn screening for cystic fibrosis would currently not be justified. 56 A prospective double-blind study in Wisconsin (the only controlled study on the subject) has not found benefits of early detection in newborn screening for CF; the treatment of children could be initiated with just as successful results based on the occurrence of symptoms. In addition to its lack of clear benefit, newborn screening for CF has a clear downside. Screening by its nature is overly broad; in newborn screening for cystic fibrosis, for example, "only 6.1 percent of infants with positive first tests [in the Colorado and Wyoming program] were ultimately found to have cystic fibrosis on sweat chloride testing." 57 Yet one-fifth of parents with false positives on newborn screening for cystic fibrosis "had lingering anxiety about their children's health." 58 Of the parents whose infants had initial, later disproven positive reports of CF in the Wisconsin study, 5 percent still believed a year later that their child might have CF. 59 Such a reaction may influence how parents relate to their child. A report on the Wisconsin newborn screening for CF stated that of the 104 families with false positives, 8 percent planned to change their reproductive plans and an additional 22 percent were not sure whether they would change their reproductive plans. 60 In fact, in France, the newborn screen-

ing program for cystic fibrosis was terminated at the request of parents who objected to the high number of false positives. 61 Denmark stopped screening for alpha-1-antitrypsin deficiency because of negative long-term effects on the mother-child interactions associated with identifying the infant's alpha-l-antitrypsin deficiency. 62

Even in cases where a treatment is available for a disorder detectable through newborn screening, it may not be of unequivocal benefit if started after symptoms appear. Treatment of children identified through screening for maple syrup urine disease may have only limited effectiveness at best, and parents may face a quandary about whether or not to treat. Even if hypothetical benefits exist, newborn screening programs need close scrutiny to determine if the necessary treatments are actually provided to the children. In states that support screening but not treatment, families may be unable to afford treatment and thus children may not benefit from screening. Many children with sickle cell anemia, for example, do not get their necessary penicillin prophylaxis. 63 Although most states provide education about diet and nutrition to parents of infants with PKU, not all states provide the expensive essential diet or other food assistance.

Beyond the issue of the testing of newborns in state-sponsored programs, there are more general issues regarding the genetic testing of children in clinical settings. Some technologies designed to identify affected individuals will also provide information about carrier status. If an infant is tested for sickle cell anemia, for example, the test will reveal whether the infant is a carrier. In that case, the carrier status information is a by-product of the test for sickle cell anemia since obtaining information on carrier status is not the primary purpose of the testing. Questions arise as to whether that information should be reported to the infant's parents.

One advantage to reporting the information is that it is relevant to the parents' future reproductive plans. If the infant is a carrier, at least one of the parents is a carrier. If both are carriers, then they are at 25 percent risk of having an affected child. On the other hand, there are disadvantages to the reporting of such information to parents. Unless education and counseling are available, they may erroneously worry that the child will be affected with a disease related to the carrier status. They may stigmatize the child or otherwise treat the child as different. In addition, the disclosure of the child's carrier status may result in disruption to the family if neither of the social parents is a carrier (which most often indicates that another man fathered the child).

Since numerous tests can be added in a newborn screening program using the initial filter paper spot, the pressure to add new tests may be difficult to resist. Under the American Society of Human Genetics (ASHG) guidelines, however, before tests are added, a rigorous analysis should be made about who will benefit, who will be harmed, and who consents. In state programs for newborn screening, subsequent anonymous uses of samples for research may be undertaken.

Voluntariness of Subsequent Uses

Many state newborn screening programs, as well as research and clinical facilities, store the filter paper spots or other DNA samples for long periods after their initial use in genetic testing. Some states use newborn screening spots to experiment with new tests, and this would seem permissible as long as the samples are not identified and the uses were not anticipated prior to the initial test. 64 If the samples are identified, the person's permission would be required. However, researchers constitute just one group that might want access to the newborn screening spots. Such spots are of interest to law enforcement officials; in one case, police contacted a newborn screening laboratory when they were trying to identify a young murder victim.

The American Society of Human Genetics issued a statement on DNA banking and DNA data banking in 1990. 65 ASHG recommended the purposes for which samples are acquired for DNA analysis be defined in advance:

Later access to DNA samples or to the profiles for other purposes should be permitted only when (a) a court orders the information to be released, (b) the data are to be anonymously studied, or (c) the individual from whom the sample was obtained provides written permission. In general, regardless of the purpose for which it was compiled, this information should be accorded at least the confidentiality that is accorded to medical records. 66

Confidentiality is meant to encourage the free flow of information between patient and physician so that the patient's sickness may be adequately treated. The protection of confidentiality is also justified as a public health matter, since ill people may not seek medical services in the first place if confidentiality is not protected. As a legal matter, confidentiality is generally protected in the doctor-patient relationship. However, genetic testing may not always occur within a doctor-patient relationship: a non-M.D. scientist may undertake the testing, or screening may occur in the employment setting. Moreover, it is not just the result of the test that raises concern about confidentiality. The sample itself may be stored (as in DNA banking or family linkage studies) for future use.

Genetic information is unlike other medical information. It reveals not only potential disease or other risks to the patient, but also information about potential risks to the person's children and blood relatives. The fact that geneticists may wish to protect third parties from harm by breaching confidentiality and disclosing risks to relatives is evidenced in the study by Wertz and Fletcher, cited earlier, in which half of the geneticists surveyed would disclose information to relatives over a patient's refusal. The geneticist's desire to disclose is based on the idea that the information will help the relative avoid harm. Yet this study indicated that about the same number of geneticists would disclose to the relative when the

disorder was untreatable as when the disorder was treatable (53 percent would contact a relative about the risk of Huntington disease; 54 percent about the risk of hemophilia A). Since most people at risk for Huntington disease have not chosen testing to see if they have the genetic marker for the disorder, 67 geneticists may be overestimating the relative's desire for genetic information and infringing upon the relative's right not to know. They may be causing psychological harm if they provide surprising or unwanted information for which there is no beneficial action the relative can take.

In the legal realm, there is an exception to confidentiality: A physician may in certain instances breach confidentiality in order to protect third parties from harm, for example, when the patient might transmit a contagious disease 68 or commit violence against an identifiable individual. 69 In a landmark California case, for example, a psychiatrist was found to have a duty to warn the potential victim that his patient planned to kill her. 70

The principle of protecting third parties from serious harm might also be used to allow disclosure to an employer when an employee's medical condition could create a risk to the public. In one case, the results of an employee's blood test for alcohol were given to his employer. 71 The court held the disclosure was not actionable because the state did not have a statute protecting confidentiality, but the court also noted that public policy would favor disclosure in this instance since the plaintiff was an engineer who controlled a railroad passenger train.

An argument could be made that health care professionals working in the medical genetics field have disclosure obligations similar to those of the physician whose patient suffers from an infectious disease or a psychotherapist with a potentially violent patient. Because of the heritable nature of genetic diseases, a health professional who—through research, counseling, examination, testing, or treatment—gains knowledge about an individual's genetic status often has information that would be of value not only to the patient, but to his or her spouse or relatives, as well as to insurers, employers, and others. A counterargument could be made, however, that since the health professional is not in a professional relationship with the relative and the patient will not be harming the relative (unlike in the case of violence or infectious diseases), there should be no duty to warn.

The claims of the third parties to information, in breach of the fundamental principle of confidentiality, need to be analyzed, as indicated earlier, by assessing how serious the potential harm is, whether disclosure is the best way to avert the harm, and what the risk of disclosure might be.

Disclosing Genetic Information to Spouses

The genetic testing of a spouse can give rise to information that is of interest to the other spouse. In the vast majority of situations, the tested individual will share that information with the other spouse. In rare instances, the information will not be disclosed and the health care provider will be faced with the issue of

whether to breach confidentiality. When a married individual is diagnosed as having the allele for a serious recessive disorder, the spouse might claim that the health care provider has a duty to share that information with him or her to facilitate reproductive decision making. 72 A few court cases have allowed physicians to disclose medical information about an individual in order to protect a spouse or potential spouse. 73 The foundation for this approach is laid by cases allowing disclosure of communicable diseases. 74 In situations such as disclosure of information about venereal disease or AIDS, the argument is made that sacrificing confidentiality, by notifying spouses and lovers, is necessary for public health and welfare, and is essential as a warning to seriously endangered third parties where the risk of transmission is high.

Since genetic disorders are not communicable to the spouse, a counter argument could be made that there is no legitimate reason for disclosing them. However, the spouse might have a great interest in the genetic information because he or she would like to protect any potential children from risk. Consider the case of a doctor who learns that a young man will later suffer from Huntington disease. The wife would appear to have at least some claim to that information since, if she and her husband have children, there will be a 50 percent chance that each child would inherit the disease. Similarly, each spouse would seem to have a claim to the information that the other was a carrier of a single gene for a recessive defect. Because of the importance of reproductive decisions, such information is crucial to the spouse.

Another instance in which genetic risk information arises in the marriage context is through prenatal screening. A fetus may be found to have an autosomal recessive disorder, which occurs only if both parents transmit the particular gene. If, in the course of prenatal diagnosis, it is learned that the mother is a carrier of the gene but her husband is not, the health care professional has knowledge that the husband is almost certainly not the father of the child. A claim could be made that the health care professional has a duty, or at least a right, to advise the husband of his misattributed paternity, so that he will know that any future children he has will not be at risk for that particular disorder.

On the other hand, an argument could be made that spouses should not be entitled to genetic risk information about a patient, even if it is arguably relevant to their future reproductive plans. 75 The right of reproductive decision making is viewed as the right of the individual. 76 The U.S. Supreme Court has held that a woman can abort without her husband's consent even if this will interfere with her husband's reproductive plans. 77 More recently, the U.S. Supreme Court held that a husband was not even entitled to notice that his wife intends to abort. 78 The court expressed concerns that the husband might react to the disclosure with violence, with threats to withhold economic support, or with psychological coercion. 79 Similar reactions could occur with information about misattributed paternity, particularly because the primary purpose of the testing was not to get paternity information.

Disclosing Genetic Information to Relatives

Blood relatives of the patient may have a more convincing claim than spouses for requiring that health care providers breach confidentiality. They could argue that the information about genetic risks or the availability of genetic testing may be relevant to their own future health care. 80 The strongest case for a warning would exist when there is a high likelihood that the relative has the genetic defect, the defect presents a serious risk to the relative, and there is reason to believe that the disclosure is necessary to prevent serious harm (e.g., by allowing for treatment or by warning the person to avoid harmful environmental stimuli). Malignant hyperthermia is an autosomal dominant genetic condition causing a fatal reaction to common anesthesia. Prompt warning of families can literally save lives, especially from death due to minor surgeries such as setting broken bones in children.

If the patient does not want to inform relatives, however, questions arise as to whether the health care provider or counselor should contact the relative over the patient's refusal. The President's Commission for the Study of Ethical Problems in Medicine and Biomedical and Behavioral Research (1983) recommended that disclosure be made only if (1) reasonable attempts to elicit voluntary disclosure are unsuccessful; (2) there is a high probability of serious (e.g., irreversible or fatal) harm to an identifiable relative; (3) there is reason to believe that disclosure of the information will prevent harm to the relative; and (4) the disclosure is limited to the information necessary for diagnosis or treatment of the relative. 81

Even in the more compelling situation of disclosure to relatives, the health care provider is not in a professional relationship with the relative, and previous legal cases regarding a duty to provide genetic information have all involved a health care provider in a professional relationship with the person to be informed. Although infectious disease cases provide a precedent for warning strangers about potential risks, 82 genetic diseases are simply different from infectious diseases. The only potential argument that the health care professional could make for contacting the relative is that through diagnosis of the patient, the health care professional has reason to believe that the relative is at higher risk than the general population of being affected by a genetic disorder. If disorders are highly likely and are treatable or preventable, many medical geneticists would overrule a patient's refusal to disclose, and would inform a relative. Although there may be no legal obligation to single out relatives as creating a special duty for physicians, the knowledge that a defined, unknowing relative is at high risk for a serious or life-threatening, treatable disease may allow rare exceptions to the principle of confidentiality.

Confidentiality and Discrimination When Third Parties Seek Genetic Information

Many entities may have an interest in learning about people's genetic information. Insurers, employers, bankers, mortgage companies, educational loan of-

ficers, providers of medical services, and others have an interest in knowing about a person's future health status. Already, people have been denied insurance, employment, and loans based on their genotype. Such discrimination has occurred both when the information has been obtained through genetic testing and when the information has been obtained in other ways (e.g., inadvertent release of a relative's medical record or disclosure from payment for medical service for a child). 83

In the future, third parties may want access to genetic information or may wish to mandate genetic testing. In child custody cases, one spouse may claim that the other spouse should not get custody because of his or her genetic profile, for example, when the latter person has the gene for a serious, untreatable lateonset disorder. Professional schools (such as medical schools or law schools) may wish to deny admission to someone with such a disorder on the theory that such a person will have a shortened practice span.

Insurers underwriting individual health insurance currently use medical information to determine whether coverage should be granted and to determine how to price a particular policy. According to the Office of Technology Assessment, each year about 164,000 applicants are denied individual health insurance. 84 Far more Americans are covered by group plans—85 to 90 percent—with about 68 percent 85 covered by employment-based group plans rather than by individual plans. Although medical underwriting is not generally done as part of large employers' group policies, medical information is sometimes used against people in other ways in that context. People with medical problems or whose family members have medical problems have been refused jobs because employers do not want their insurance premiums increased due to payments for the care of the employee or the employee's family members.

In addition, employers that self-insure may choose to restrict coverage under their insurance plans so as not to pay for care for existing employees. One major airline already permanently excludes coverage for preexisting conditions for new employees. 86 Other employers have curtailed plan benefits once an employee has been diagnosed as having a particular disorder. In McGann v. H. & H. Music Co., for example, a man was covered by employer-provided commercial insurance that had a million dollar medical benefit maximum. 87 Once the employee was diagnosed as having AIDS, however, the employer switched to self-insurance and established a $5,000 limitation for AIDS, while keeping the million dollar cap for other disorders. The court held that an employer who is self-insured could modify its plan in this way—an ominous decision when one considers that at least 65 percent of all companies and 82 percent of companies with more than 5,000 employees are self-insured. 88 The U.S. Supreme Court decided not to hear the case and let stand the lower court's decision. Employees who are covered by their employers' self-insurance are thus in a precarious position, akin to having no insurance at all:

When one considers that many employees contribute substantial amounts of money to purchase this ''coverage," that many of them forego purchasing other insurance products in reliance on this coverage, and that few of them understand the precise nature of the self-insurance system, the entire system verges on fraud. 89

This is particularly true, given that many people choose jobs because of the health benefits. 90 The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission is reportedly endeavoring to use the Americans with Disabilities Act to challenge companies' practices of setting caps on health insurance payouts for employees with AIDS. 91

The advent of genetic testing, as well as the increasing identification of genetic diseases, makes genetic information, like other medical information, available for use as a basis for medical underwriting in health insurance. The danger, according to one study, is that "genetic testing made possible as we continue to map the human genome may result in many more individuals being denied private insurance coverage than ever before." 92 Genetic tests are not necessary to find out genetic information on applicants. Insurers already obtain genetic information from medically underwritten applicants through family histories and laboratory tests (e.g., cholesterol levels). This was of as much concern to the committee as the use of genetic information from other sources. Although insurers generally do not perform or require genetic tests when doing medical underwriting, they may seek to learn the results of any genetic tests from which an applicant may have information. This could deter people from seeking these tests.

The existence of medical underwriting can lead people to avoid needed medical services:

If people worry that their use of health services may disqualify them from future insurance coverage, they may limit their use of needed services, fail to submit claims for covered expenses, or pressure physicians to record diagnoses that are less likely to attract an underwriter's attention. The last two actions add error to data bases used for health care research and monitoring. 93

A survey of insurers undertaken by the Office of Technology Assessment (OTA) of the U.S. Congress found that insurers see a role for genetic information in medical underwriting. OTA surveyed commercial insurers, Blue Cross and Blue Shield companies, and large health maintenance organizations, which offered individual and medically underwritten small-group health insurance coverage. Data were gathered on underwriting practices, including requirements for diagnostic tests or physical examinations before an insurance policy can be issued. Data on reimbursement practices, as well as general attitudes toward genetic testing, were also obtained.

Insurers generally believed that it was fair for them to use genetic tests to identify those at increased risk of disease; slightly more than one-fourth of medical directors indicated that they disagreed somewhat that such use was fair.

Three-quarters of the responding companies said they thought "an insurer should have the option of determining how to use genetic information in determining risk." 94

OTA's survey of insurers found that genetic information is not viewed as a special type of information. 95 What seems important to insurers when making insurability and rating decisions is the particular condition, not that the condition is genetically based. OTA found that the majority of insurers did not anticipate using specific genetic tests in the future. However, a majority of medical directors from commercial insurers agreed with the statement that "it's fair for insurers to use genetic tests to identify individuals with increased risk of disease." In a comparison survey, OTA found that 14 percent of responding genetic counselors reported that they had clients who had experienced difficulties obtaining or retaining health care coverage as a result of genetic testing.

Surveys by Paul Billings and colleagues, 96 as well as by the Office of Technology Assessment, 97 uncovered specific examples of people being denied health insurance coverage based on their genotype. These incidents include cases in which a person with a positive test for a genetic disorder had his or her insurance canceled or "rated up" as a result; 98 where genetic disorders such as alpha-antitrypsin were defined as preexisting conditions, thus excluding payment for therapy; where a particular genetic condition resulted in exclusion from maternity coverage; 99 and where the birth of a child affected with a serious recessive disorder led to the inability of the parents and unaffected siblings to obtain insurance. 100

Genetic information provides serious challenges to the traditional operation of insurance. Health insurance in this country is premised on the notion that risks can be predicted on a population-wide basis, but not well on an individual basis; thus insurance becomes a mechanism for spreading risks. If, through genetic testing or the use of genetic information acquired by other means, insurers can learn of people's actual future health risks (e.g., the risk of a serious late-onset disorder), the benefit of risk spreading will be lost; the individual will be changed an amount equal to future medical costs, which may in some cases make insurance prohibitively expensive.

Currently it is permissible in most states to do medical underwriting based on genetic information. However, the expansion of genetic testing presents a serious challenge to medical underwriting and could lead to an alternative policy approach in which medical underwriting is eliminated altogether. Originally, health insurance was based on health risks for entire communities, known as community rating, rather than on individual rating of health risks or conditions. Insurers gradually began to offer lower rates to employers based on the generally better health and lower risks of employed persons, and competition ensued among insurers to insure the "best" (i.e., lowest) risks. This has led to many of the problems in our current health insurance system in which some people have become permanently uninsurable. 101 In a system of community rating,

. . . there would be no place for [the use of the results of] genetic testing, since applicants would not be rated according to their individual health risks and conditions. 102

Rochester, New York has had a successful system of community rating; a key factor in its success has been the belief of large employers who would normally self-insure that their participation in a system that emphasizes risk sharing and collective strategies to contain costs, results in a system that will keep costs lower over the long term than they would be in a segmented, risk-rated competitive health insurance market. 103 The states of Maine and New York have recently passed legislation requiring health insurers offering policies in their states to return to community rating by 1993. 104 Several other states have introduced legislation to protect people from discrimination based on their genotype. In addition, more general antidiscrimination laws may provide some remedy for people who are discriminated against because of their genotype.

Much of this legislation has been a direct response to the debacle in the early 1970s with respect to sickle cell screening. When mandatory sickle cell screening laws were adopted, some insurers and employers began making decisions about insurance coverage and employment opportunities based on the results of the testing. In particular, carriers of sickle cell trait were denied jobs and charged higher insurance rates without evidence that possession of the trait placed a person at a higher risk of illness or death. 105 As a result, some states have adopted laws protecting people with sickle cell trait. At least two states prohibit denying an individual life insurance 106 or disability insurance, 107 or charging a higher premium, 108 solely because the individual has sickle cell trait. A few states have similarly adopted statutes to prohibit mandatory sickle cell screening as a condition of employment, 109 to prohibit discrimination in employment against people with sickle cell trait, 110 and to prohibit discrimination by unions against people with sickle trait. 111

More recently, some states have adopted laws with a broader scope. A California statute prohibits discrimination by insurance companies against people who carry a gene that has no adverse effects on the carrier, but may affect his or her offspring. 112 Under a Wisconsin law, 113 insurers are prohibited from requiring that applicants undergo DNA testing to determine the presence of a genetic disease or disorder, or the individual's predisposition for a particular disease or disorder. Nor may insurers ask whether the individual has had a DNA test or what the results of the test were. Insurers are also prohibited from using DNA test results to determine rates or other aspects of coverage. However, insurance discrimination based on genetic information not obtained through DNA testing is not forbidden by the law.

There is also much concern about the use of genetic information in the employment context. The Council of Ethical and Judicial Affairs of the American Medical Association has taken the position that it is inappropriate for employers to perform genetic tests to exclude workers from jobs. 114 The opinion acknowl-

edges that the protection of public safety is an important rationale for medical tests of employees. However, the opinion states:

Genetic tests are not only generally inaccurate when used for public safety purposes, but also unnecessary. A more effective approach to protecting the public's safety would be routine testing of a worker's actual capacity to function in a job that is safety-sensitive. 115

The opinion points out that capacity testing is more appropriate because it would not cause discrimination against someone who has the gene for a disorder but who is totally asymptomatic, yet it would "detect those whose incapacity would not be detected by genetic tests, either because of a false-negative test result or because the incapacity is caused by something other than the disease being tested for." 116

In the employment context, a New Jersey law prohibits employment discrimination based on an "atypical hereditary cellular or blood trait." 117 In New York, a statute prohibits genetic discrimination based on sickle cell trait, Tay-Sachs trait, or Cooley anemia (beta-thalassemia) trait. 118 In Oregon, Wisconsin, and Iowa, even more comprehensive laws prohibit genetic screening as a condition of employment. 119

At the federal level, it is still an open question whether the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) 120 will provide adequate protection against genetic discrimination. There are three definitions of persons considered to have a disability and, therefore, protected under the statute. Individuals currently with a disability comprise the first group, persons with a history of a disability comprise the second group, and persons who have the appearance of being disabled constitute the third. This later category should protect carriers of genetic disease who are themselves healthy but could be refused employment because they have a high risk of giving birth to a child with a genetic disorder that might be expensive in insurance or health care costs to the employer. This third category for those with the appearance of disability should also protect persons with an increased risk of disease due to genetic susceptibility to breast cancer, or who have a gene for a late-onset disorder such as Huntington disease.

The NIH-DOE Joint Working Group on Ethical, Legal, and Social Implications (ELSI) of the Human Genome Project petitioned the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC), which is responsible for implementing the law. ELSI requested that the EEOC broaden its proposed rulemaking to include these protections related to genetic testing and genetic disorders, or susceptibility to a genetic disorder.

However, according to an interpretation by the EEOC, the act does not protect carriers of genetic diseases who are themselves healthy but could be refused employment because they have a 25 percent risk of giving birth to a child with a genetic disorder. Also, the EEOC does not view a person with an increased risk of disease due to genetic factors, or who has the gene for a late-onset disorder such as Huntington disease, as having a disability and thus being protected by the law.

Legislation has been introduced to extend the definition of disability to a "genetic or medically identified potential of, or predisposition toward, a physical or mental impairment that substantially limits a major life activity." 121

Another limitation of the ADA is that it allows employers to request any type of medical testing on an employee after a conditional offer of employment is made. In contrast, statutes in 11 states limit such testing to that which is job related. 122

There may in fact be a narrow set of circumstances in which genetic testing may be appropriate to determine a person's ability to undertake a particular job. For example, a person with an active seizure disorder might be excluded from a job in which he or she could cause serious harm. Such a possibility would seem to be appropriate only if the potential harm were serious and screening were the most appropriate way to avert the harm. The committee was concerned, however, that employers might confuse having the gene for, or a genetic predisposition to, a particular disorder with currently being symptomatic. The possibility that someone, later in life, might become incapable of doing a job does not provide a sufficient rationale for not letting him or her undertake the job at the current time. Consequently, in most situations, periodic medical screening for symptoms rather than genetic screening will be a more appropriate means of determining whether an employee presents a serious risk of harm to third parties. 123

FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Overall principles.

The committee recommends that vigorous protection be given to autonomy, privacy, confidentiality, and equity. These principles should be breached only in rare instances and only when the following conditions are met: (1) the action must be aimed at an important goal—such as the protection of others from serious harm—that outweighs the value of autonomy, privacy, confidentiality, or equity in the particular instance; (2) it must have a high probability of realizing that goal; (3) there must be no acceptable alternatives that can also realize the goal without breach of these principles; and (4) the degree of infringement of the principle must be the minimum necessary to realize the goal.

The committee recommends that regardless of the institutional structure of the entity offering genetic testing or other genetics services, there be a mechanism for advance review of the new genetic testing or other genetics services not only to assess scientific merit and efficacy, but also to ensure that adequate protections are in place for autonomy, privacy, confidentiality, and equity . The usual standards for review of research should be applied no matter what the setting. In particular, an institutional review board (IRB) should review the scientific and ethical issues related to new tests and services in academic research centers, state public health departments, and commercial enterprises.

These reviews should include any proposed investigational use of genetic tests, as well as more extensive pilot studies. In all instances the review body should include people from inside and outside the institution, including community representatives, preferably consumers of genetic services. In the clinical practice setting, professional societies should be encouraged to review studies and issue guidelines, thereby supplementing the guidance provided by IRBs (see Chapter 3 ).

The committee also recommends that the National Institutes of Health (NIH) Office of Protection from Research Risks provide guidance and training on how review bodies should scrutinize the risks to human subjects of genetic testing . IRBs may also need technical advice from a local advisory group on genetics (see Chapter 1 ). To the extent that a National Advisory Committee on Genetic Testing and its Working Group on Genetic Testing are established (see Chapter 9 ), these bodies should be consulted by IRBs and the NIH Office of Protection from Research Risks.

All laboratories offering genetic testing are included under the Clinical Laboratory Improvement Amendments of 1988 (CLIA88), and the committee recommends that the Health Care Financing Administration expand its existing lists of covered laboratory tests to include the full range of genetic tests now in use (see Chapter 3 ).

New tests, not validated elsewhere, that are added to the battery of tests should be considered investigational if they are used to make a clinical decision . The committee recommends that IRB approval be obtained in universities, commercial concerns, and other settings where new tests for additional disorders are being undertaken, even if the tests rely on existing technologies. IRB approval should be obtained before new tests are added to newborn screening.

Informed Consent

The committee recommends that for a proper informed consent to be obtained from a person who is considering whether to undergo genetic testing, the person should be given information about the risks, benefits, efficacy, and alternatives to the testing; information about the severity, potential variability, and treatability of the disorder being tested for; and information about the subsequent decisions that will be likely if the test is positive (e.g., whether the person will have to make a decision about abortion). Information should also be disclosed about any potential conflicts of interest of the person or institution offering the test (e.g., equity holdings or ownership of the laboratory performing the test, dependence on test reimbursement to cover the costs of counseling, patents). The difficulty in applying the traditional mechanisms for achieving informed consent should not be considered

an excuse for failing to respect a patient's autonomy and need for information.

The committee recommends that research be undertaken to determine what patients want to know in order to make a decision about whether or not to undergo a genetic test . People may have less interest in information about the label for the disorder and its mechanisms of action than they have in information about how certainly the test predicts the disorder, what effects the disorder has on physical and mental functioning, and how intrusive, difficult, or effective any existing treatment protocol would be. Research is also necessary to determine the advantages and disadvantages of various means of conveying that information (e.g., through specialized genetic counselors, primary care providers, single-disorder counselors, brochures, videos, audiotapes, and computer programs). People also need to know about potential losses of insurability or employability or social consequences that may result from knowledge about the disorder for which testing is being discussed.

Multiplex Testing

Performing multiple genetic tests on a single sample of genetic material—often using techniques of automation—has been called multiplex testing . The committee recommends that informed consent be gained in advance of such multiplex testing. New means (such as interactive or other types of computer programs, videotapes, and brochures) should be developed to provide people—in advance of testing—with the information described in the previous recommendations, such as descriptions of the nature of tests that are included in multiplex testing and the nature of the disorders being tested for (discussed in Chapter 4 ). A health care provider or counselor should also provide information about each of the tests, or if that is not possible because of the number of tests being grouped together, the provider or counselor should supply information about the categories of disorders so that the person will be able to make an informed decision about whether to undergo the testing.

The committee identified the area of multiplex testing as one in which more research is needed to develop ways to ensure that patient autonomy is recognized . The more general research the committee has advocated on determining what information should be conveyed and how it should be conveyed should be supplemented with additional research dealing with the unique case of multiplex testing where many disorders could be tested for at once, and those disorders may have differing characteristics. In multiplexing, tests should be grouped so that tests requiring similar demands for informed consent and education and counseling may be offered together. Only certain types of tests should be multiplexed; some tests should only be offered individually, especially tests for untreatable fatal disorders (e.g., Huntington disease).

The committee also recommends that research be undertaken to make

decisions about which tests to group together in multiplex testing, based on the type of information the tests provide. The committee believes strongly that tests for untreatable disorders should not be multiplexed with tests for disorders that can be cured or prevented by treatment or by avoidance of particular environmental stimuli.

Voluntariness

The committee reaffirms that voluntariness should be the cornerstone of any genetic testing program. The committee found no justification for a state sponsored mandatory public health program involving genetic testing of adults, or for unconsented-to genetic testing of patients in the clinical setting.

Screening and Testing of Children

The committee recommends that newborn screening programs be voluntary. The decision to make screening mandatory should require evidence that—without mandatory screening—newborns will not be screened for treatable illnesses in time to institute effective treatment (e.g., in PKU or congenital hypothyroidism) . The committee bases its recommendation and preference for voluntariness on evidence from studies of existing mandated and voluntary programs that demonstrate that the best interests of the child can be served without abrogating the principle of voluntariness. Voluntary programs have delivered services as well or better than mandated programs. There is no evidence that a serious harm will result if autonomy is recognized, just as there is no evidence that mandating newborn screening is necessary to ensure that the vast majority of newborns are screened.

The committee recommends that newborn screening should not be undertaken in state programs unless there is a clear, immediate benefit to the particular infant being screened . In particular, screening should not be undertaken if presymptomatic identification of the infant and early intervention make no difference, if necessary and effective treatment is not available, or if the disorder is untreatable and screening is being done to provide information merely to aid the parents' (or the infant's) future reproductive plans. The committee recommends that states that screen newborns have an obligation to ensure treatment of those detected with the disorder under state programs, without regard to ability to pay for treatment.

The committee recommends that in the clinical setting, children generally be tested only for disorders for which a curative or preventive treatment exists and should be instituted at that early stage . Childhood screening is not appropriate for carrier status, untreatable childhood diseases, and late-onset diseases that cannot be prevented or forestalled by early treatment. Because only certain types of genetic testing are appropriate for children, tests specifically di-

rected to obtaining information about carrier status, untreatable childhood diseases, or late-onset diseases, should not be included in the multiplex tests offered to children. Research should be undertaken to determine the appropriate age for testing and screening for genetic disorders in order to maximize the benefits of therapeutic intervention and to avoid the possibility that genetic information will be generated about a child when there is no likely benefit to the child in the immediate future.

The majority of the committee recommends that carrier status of newborns and other children be reported to parents only after the parents have been informed of the potential benefits and harms of knowing the carrier status of their children. Because of the risk of stigma for the newborn, such pretest information should be provided to parents when they are informed about newborn screening. Provision should be made for answering any questions the parents may have; these questions are best answered in the context of genetic counseling. The decisions of the parents about whether to receive such information should always be respected (see Chapter 4 ). Where such information is not disclosed after parents are given the option to get such information and then knowingly refuse the information, the courts should take this policy analysis and the recommendation of this committee into consideration and not find liability if parents sue because the carrier status of their child was not disclosed and they subsequently give birth to an affected child. Research is needed on the consequences of revealing carrier status in newborns to identify both harms and benefits from disclosing such information in the future.

Subsequent Uses

The committee recommends that before genetic information is obtained from individuals (or before a sample is obtained for genetic testing), they (or, in the case of minors, their parents) be told what specific uses will be made of the information or sample; how—and for how long—the information or sample will be stored; whether personal identifiers will be stored; and who will have access to the information or sample, and under what conditions. They should also be informed of future anticipated uses for the sample, asked permission for those uses, and told what procedures will be followed if the possibility for currently unanticipated uses develops. The individuals should have a right to consent or to object to particular uses of the sample or information.

Subsequent anonymous use of samples for research is permissible, including in state newborn screening programs. Except for such anonymous use, the newborn specimen should not be used for additional tests without informed consent of the parents or guardian.

If genetic test samples are collected for family linkage studies or clinical purposes, they should not be used for law enforcement purposes (except for body identification). If samples are collected for law enforcement purposes, they

should not be accessible for other nonclinical uses such as testing for health insurance purposes.

Disclosure to Spouses and Relatives

As a matter of general principle, the committee believes that patients should be encouraged and aided in sharing appropriate genetic information with spouses. Mechanisms should be developed to aid a tested individual in informing his or her spouse and relatives about the individual's genetic status and informing relatives about genetic risks. These mechanisms would include the use of written materials, referrals for counseling, and so forth.

On balance, the committee recommends that health care providers not reveal genetic information about a patient's carrier status to the patient's spouse without the patient's permission. Furthermore, information about misattributed paternity should be revealed to the mother but should not be volunteered to the woman's partner.

Although confidentiality may be breached to prevent harm to third parties, the harm envisioned by the cases generally has been substantial and imminent. 124 The spouse's claim of future harm due to the possibility of later conceiving a child with a genetic disorder would not be a sufficient reason to breach confidentiality. The committee found no evidence of a trend on the part of people to mislead their spouses about their carrier status. Moreover, since most people do tell their spouses about genetic risks, breaching of confidentiality would be needed only rarely.

The committee believes that patients should share genetic information with their relatives so that the relatives may avert risks or seek treatment . Health care providers should discuss with patients the benefits of sharing information with relatives about genetic conditions that are treatable or preventable or that involve important reproductive decision making. The committee believes that the disadvantages of informing relatives over the patient's refusal generally outweigh the advantages, except in the rare instances described above.

The committee recommends that confidentiality be breached and relatives informed about genetic risks only when attempts to elicit voluntary disclosure fail, there is a high probability of irreversible or fatal harm to the relative, the disclosure of the information will prevent harm, the disclosure is limited to the information necessary for diagnosis or treatment of the relative, and there is no other reasonable way to avert the harm. When disclosure is to be attempted over the patient's refusal, the burden should be on the person who wishes to disclose to justify to the patient, to an ethics committee, and perhaps in court that the disclosure was necessary and met the committee's test.

If there are any circumstances in which the geneticist or other health care professional could breach confidentiality and disclose information to a spouse,

relative, or other third party—for example, to an employer—those circumstances should be explained in advance of testing; and, if the patient wishes, the patient should be given the opportunity to be referred to a health care provider who will protect confidentiality.

On a broader scale, the committee recommends that:

all forms of genetic information be considered confidential and not be disclosed without the individual's consent (except as required by law), including genetic information that is obtained through specific genetic testing of a person as well as genetic information about a person that is obtained in other ways (e.g., physical examination, knowledge of past treatment, or knowledge of a relative's genetic status);

confidentiality of genetic information should be protected no matter who obtains or maintains that information, including genetic information collected or maintained by health care professionals, health care institutions, researchers, employers, insurance companies, laboratory personnel, and law enforcement officials; and

to the extent that current statutes do not ensure such confidentiality, they should be amended so that disclosure of genetic information is not required.

The committee recommends that codes of ethics of those professionals providing genetics services (such as those of the National Society of Genetic Counselors (NSGC), or of geneticists, physicians, and nurses) contain specific provisions to protect autonomy, privacy, and confidentiality . The committee endorses the NSGC statement of a guiding principle on confidentiality of test results:

The NSGC support individual confidentiality regarding results of genetic testing. It is the right and responsibility of the individual to determine who shall have access to medical information, particularly results of testing for genetic conditions. 125

The committee also endorses the principles on DNA banking and DNA data banking contained in the 1990 ASHG statement.

To further protect confidentiality, the committee recommends that

patients' consent be obtained before the patient's name is provided to a genetic disease registry and that consent be obtained before information is redisclosed;

each entity that receives or maintains genetic information or samples have procedures in place to protect confidentiality, including procedures limiting access on a need-to-know basis, identifying an individual who has responsibility for overseeing security procedures and safeguards, providing written information to each employee or agent regarding the need to maintain confidentiality,

and taking no punitive action against employees for bringing evidence of confidentiality breaches to light;

any entity that releases genetic information about an individual to someone other than that individual ensure that the recipient of the genetic information has procedures in place to protect the confidentiality of the information;

any entity that collects or maintains genetic information or samples separate them from personal identifiers and instead link the information or sample to the individual's name through some form of anonymous surrogate identifiers;

the person have control over what parts of his or her medical record are available to which people; if an optical memory card is used, this could be accomplished through a partitioning-off of data on the card; and

any individual be allowed access to his or her genetic information in the context of appropriate education and counseling, except in the early research phases during the development of genetic testing when an overall decision has been made that results based on the experimental procedure will not be released and the subjects of the research have been informed of that restriction prior to participation.

Discrimination in Insurance and Employment

In general, the committee recommends that principles of autonomy, privacy, confidentiality, and equity be maintained, and the disclosure of genetic information and the taking of genetic tests should not be mandated . Such a position, however, is in conflict with some current practices in insurance and employment.

Although more than half the U.S. population (approximately 156 million people) is covered by some kind of life insurance, 126 the use of genetic information in medical underwriting 127 decisions about life insurance appears to raise different and somewhat lesser concerns than the use of genetic information in health insurance underwriting. More of life insurance has historically been medically underwritten. Complaints of genetic discrimination in life insurance have been made. 128 Apparently, fewer Americans believe that life insurance is a basic right. In contrast, the Canadian Privacy Commission believes that life insurance is a basic right, and recommends that Canadians be permitted to purchase up to $100,000 in basic life insurance without genetic or other restrictions; underwriting for larger amounts of life insurance could be subject to a variety of life-style and health restrictions, including the use of genetic information. 129 Most of the committee agrees with the spirit of the Canadian Commission's recommendation that a limited amount of life insurance be available to everyone without regard to health or genetic status. However, health insurance was considered a much more pressing ethical, legal, and social issue.

The committee recommends that legislation be adopted so that medical risks, including genetic risks, not be taken into account in decisions on whether to issue or how to price health care insurance. Because health insurance differs significantly from other types of insurance in that it regulates access to health care, an important social good, risk-based health insurance should be eliminated. A means of access to health care should be available to every American without regard to the individual's present health status or condition, including genetic makeup. Any health insurance reform proposals need to be evaluated to determine their effect on genetic testing and the use of genetic information in health insurance (see Chapter 7 ).

The committee recommends that the unfair practices highlighted by the McGann case be prevented. Such situations could be eliminated by Congress in three ways. First, the antidiscrimination provision of the Employee Retirement Income Security Act (ERISA, see Chapter 7 ), section 510, could be amended to prohibit various types of employer conduct. For example, the legislation could prohibit: (1) the alteration of benefits or the alteration of benefits without a certain notice period; (2) the reduction of coverage for only a single medical condition; (3) the reduction of benefits after a claim for benefits already had been submitted, and so forth. At the very least, the committee recommends that an amendment be adopted making those practices illegal.

A second way of legislatively preventing McGann-type situations would be to amend the ERISA preemption provision, section 514. By amending this section to limit the preemptive effect of ERISA (e.g., that permits ERISA provisions to override state insurance regulations) or to eliminate ERISA preemption entirely, the result would be to allow the states to regulate self-insured employer benefits in the same way that state insurance commissions regulate commercial health insurance benefits. Although state regulation may be preferable to no regulation, it could lead to the burdensome multiplicity of state regulations that ERISA was intended to eliminate. For this reason, the committee believes that federal prohibition of the type of conduct in the McGann case would be preferable.

A third way to eliminate discrimination in employee health benefits by selfinsured employers would be to amend section 501 of the ADA. The ADA is essentially neutral on the issue of health benefits; clauses on preexisting conditions, medical underwriting, and other actuarially based practices, to the extent permitted by state law, do not violate the ADA. Thus, the ADA could be amended to prohibit differences in health benefits that result in discrimination against individuals with disabilities. Amending the ADA in this manner would, in effect, mandate uniform coverage (although it is not clear what conditions would be covered) at community rates for employees. If Congress wanted to mandate that all employers offer a package of health benefits, a good argument could be made that it ought to do so separately and not via amendments to the ADA.

The committee recommends that legislation be adopted so that genetic information cannot be collected on prospective or current employees unless it

is clearly job related. Sometimes employers will have employees submit to medical exams to see if they are capable of performing particular job tasks. The committee recommends that if an individual consents to the release of genetic information to an employer or potential employer, the releasing entity should not release specific information, but instead answer only yes or no regarding whether the individual was fit to perform the job at issue.

The committee recommends that the EEOC recognize that the language of the Americans with Disabilities Act provides protection for presymptomatic people with a genetic profile for late-onset disorders, unaffected carriers of disorders that might affect their children, and people with genetic profiles indicating the possibility of increased risk of a multifactorial disorder. The committee also recommends that state legislatures adopt laws to protect people from genetic discrimination in employment. In addition, the committee recommends an amendment to the ADA (and adoption of similar state statutes) limiting the type of medical testing employers can request or the medical information they can collect to that which is job related.

Ultimately, new laws on a variety of other topics may also be necessary to protect autonomy, privacy, and confidentiality in the genetics field, and to protect people from inappropriate decisions based on their genotypes . 130 The ability of genetics to predict health risks for asymptomatic individuals and their potential offspring presents challenges in the ethical and social spheres. The committee recommends that careful consideration be given to the development of policies for the implementation of genetic testing and the handling of genetic test results .

Raising hopes for disease treatment and prevention, but also the specter of discrimination and "designer genes," genetic testing is potentially one of the most socially explosive developments of our time. This book presents a current assessment of this rapidly evolving field, offering principles for actions and research and recommendations on key issues in genetic testing and screening.

Advantages of early genetic knowledge are balanced with issues associated with such knowledge: availability of treatment, privacy and discrimination, personal decision-making, public health objectives, cost, and more. Among the important issues covered:

• Quality control in genetic testing.
• Appropriate roles for public agencies, private health practitioners, and laboratories.
• Value-neutral education and counseling for persons considering testing.
• Use of test results in insurance, employment, and other settings.

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