case study method in psychology class 12

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CBSE Class 12

CBSE Class 12 Psychology Important Case Study Based Questions 2023: Read and Solve for Tomorrow's Exam

Psychology important case study questions for cbse class 12: practice important psychology case study-based questions for cbse class 12. these questions are important for the upcoming cbse class 12 psychology board exam 2023..

CBSE Class 12 Psychology Exam 2023: Hello students! kudos to the efforts you put into tackling your 2023 board examinations. We understand that the last few weeks were tremendously tiring, both mentally and physically. Don’t worry, take a deep breath and relax as this is the final phase of your CBSE examination 2023. The class 12 Psychology exam is the last in the lane. Its paper code is 037. The exam is planned for 05th April 2023, that is, tomorrow. The exam will be for 3 hours scheduled between 10.30 AM to 01.30 PM. We believe you have already solved the sample question and previous year papers for Class 12 Psychology and must be aware of the exam pattern. If not, please refer to the links below.

CBSE Class 12 Psychology Previous Year Question Papers: Download pdf
CBSE Board Class 12 Psychology Sample Paper 2022-23 in PDF

CBSE Class 12 Psychology, Important Case Study-Based Questions:

Case 1: .

Read the following case study and answer the questions that follow:

Sundar, a college-going 20-year-old male, has moved from his home town to live in a big city. He has continuous fear of insecurity and feels that enemy soldiers are following him. He gets very tense when he spots anyone in a uniform and feels that they are coming to catch him. This intense anxiety is interfering with his work and relationship, and his friends are extremely concerned as it does not make any sense to them. Sundar occasionally laughs abruptly and inappropriately and sometimes stops speaking mid-sentence, scanning off in the distance as though he sees or hears something. He expresses concern about the television and radio in the room potentially being monitored by the enemies. His beliefs are fixed and if they are challenged, his tone becomes hostile.

Q1. Based on the symptoms being exhibited, identify the disorder. Explain the other symptoms that can be seen in this disorder.

Q2. Define delusion and inappropriate affect. Support it with the symptoms given in the above case study.

Read the case and answer the questions that follow.

Alfred Binet, in 1905, was requested by the French government to devise a method by which students who experienced difficulty in school could be identified. Binet and his colleague, Theodore Simon, began developing questions that focused on areas not explicitly taught in schools those days, such as memory, and attention skills related to problem-solving. Using these questions, Binet determined which were the ones that served as the best predictors of school success.

Binet quickly realised that some children were able to answer more advanced questions than older children were generally able to answer and vice versa. Based on this observation, Binet suggested the concept of mental age or a measure of intelligence based on the average abilities of children of a certain age group. This first intelligence test is referred to as the Binet-Simon Scale. He insisted that intelligence is influenced by many factors, it changes over time, and it can only be compared in children with similar backgrounds.

Q1 . Identify the approach on which the Binet-Simon Intelligence Scale is based. Discuss its features.

Q2 . ‘Binet quickly realised that some children were able to answer more advanced questions than older children were generally able to answer and vice versa’. Why do individuals differ in intelligence? Using examples, give reasons for your answer.

Read the following case study and answer the questions that follow :

All the Indian settlers were contemptuously and without distinction dubbed “coolies” and forbidden to walk on footpaths or be out at night without permits.

Mahatma Gandhi quickly discovered colour discrimination in South Africa and confronted the realisation that being Indian subjected him to it as well. At a particular train station, railway employees ordered him out of the carriage despite his possessing a first-class ticket. Then on the stagecoach for the next leg of his journey, the coachman, who was white, boxed his ears. A Johannesburg hotel also barred him from lodging there. Indians were commonly forbidden to own land in Natal, while ownership was more permissible for native-born people.

In 1894, the Natal Bar Association tried to reject Gandhi on the basis of race. He was nearly lynched in 1897 upon returning from India while disembarking from a ship moored at Durban after he, his family, and 600 other Indians had been forcibly quarantined, allegedly due to medical fears that they carried plague germs.

Q1. What is the difference between prejudice and discrimination ? On the

basis of the incidents in the above case study, identify a situation for each

which are examples of prejudice and discrimination.

Q2. What do you think could have been a source of these prejudices ? Explain

any two sources.

Read the given case carefully and answer the questions that follow:

Harish belonged to a family of four children, him being the eldest. Unlike any first born, he was not given the attention he should have had. His father worked as an accountant, while his mother stayed at home to look after the kids. He dropped out of school and could barely manage to get work for a little salary.

His relationship with his family played an important role in building his disposition. He felt a certain feeling of insecurity with his siblings, especially his brother Tarun, who was able to finish college because of parental support.

Due to the hopelessness Harish felt, he started engaging in drinking alcohol with his high school friends. Parental negligence caused emotional turmoil. He also had insomnia which he used as a reason for drinking every night.

Over time, Harish had to drink more to feel the effects of the alcohol. He got grouchy or shaky and had other symptoms when he was not able to drink or when he tried to quit.

In such a case, the school would be the ideal setting for early identification and intervention. In addition, his connection to school would be one of the most significant protective factors for substance abuse. His school implemented a variety of early intervention strategies which did not help him as he was irregular and soon left school. Some protective factors in school would be the ability to genuinely experience positive emotions through good communication.

(i)It has been found that certain family systems are likely to produce abnormal functioning in individual members.

In the light of the above statement, the factors underlying Harish's condition can be related to model.

(A) Humanistic

(B) Behavioural

(D) Psychodynamic

(ii) Over time, Harish needed to drink more before he could feel the effects of the alcohol. This means that he built a alcohol. towards the

(A) Withdrawal

(B) Tolerance

(D) All of the above

(iii)He got grouchy or shaky and had other symptoms when he was not able to drink or when he tried to quit. This refers to

(A) Low willpower symptoms.

(B) Addiction symptoms

(D) Tolerance symptoms

(iv) Which of the following is not true about substance related and addictive disorders?

(A) Alcoholism unites millions of families through social interactions and get-togethers.

(B) Intoxicated drivers are responsible for many road accidents.

(D) Excessive drinking can seriously damage physical health.

Read the given case carefully and answer the questions that follow:

Monty was only 16 years when he dealt with mixed emotions for every couple of months. He shares that sometimes he felt like he was on top of the world and that nobody could stop him. He would be extremely confident. Once these feelings subsided, he would become depressed and lock himself in the room. He would neither open the door for anyone nor come out.

He shares, "My grades were dropping as I started to breathe rapidly and worry about almost everything under the sun. I felt nervous, restless and tense, with an increased heart rate. My family tried to help but I wasn't ready to accept." His father took him to the doctor, who diagnosed him. Teenage is a tough phase as teenagers face various emotional and psychological issues. How can one differentiate that from a disorder? Watch out when one is hopeless and feels helpless. Or, when one is not able to control the powerful emotions. It has to be confirmed by a medical practitioner.

During his sessions, Monty tries to clear many myths. He gives his perspective of what he experienced and the treatment challenges. "When I was going through it, I wish I had met someone with similar experiences so that I could have talked to her/him and understood why I was behaving the way I was. By talking openly, I hope to help someone to cope with it and believe that it is going to be fine one day."

Now, for the last five years Monty has been off medication and he is leading a regular life. Society is opening up to address mental health issues in a positive way, but it always helps to listen to someone who has been through it.

(i)Monty's symptoms are likely to be those of

(A) ADHD and anxiety disorder

(B) Bipolar disorder and generalised anxiety disorder

(D) Schizophrenia

(ii) During his sessions, Monty tried to clear many myths. Which one of the following is a myth?

(A) Normality is the same as conformity to social norms.

(B) Adaptive behaviour is not simply maintenance and survival but also includes growth and fulfilment.

(D) Genetic and biochemical factors are involved in causing mental disorders.

(iii) With an understanding of Monty's condition, which of the following is a likely symptom he may also be experiencing?

(A) Frequent washing of hands

(B) Assuming alternate personalities

(D) Prolonged, vague, unexplained and intense fears that are not attached to any particular object

(iv) Teenage is a tough phase as teenagers face various emotional and psychological issues. The disorder manifested in the early stage of development is classified as,

(A) Feeding and eating disorder

(B) Trauma and stressor related disorder

(D) Somatic symptom disorder

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On what day CBSE Class 12 Psychology 2023 exam is? + As per the official schedule, the CBSE class 12 psychology exam will be conducted on 05th April 2023. It would a Wednesday.
Is it important to solve case study questions for CBSE Class 12 Psychology exam? + Yes, as per the updates made by the CBSE Board in the past few years, the psychology paper now carries case study questions. It is of 4 marks with multiple subparts. Thus, students are advised to practice case-based questions to score fully in this section.
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What Is a Case Study?

Weighing the pros and cons of this method of research

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

case study method in psychology class 12

Cara Lustik is a fact-checker and copywriter.

Verywell / Colleen Tighe

Pros and Cons

What Types of Case Studies Are Out There?

Where do you find data for a case study, how do i write a psychology case study.

A case study is an in-depth study of one person, group, or event. In a case study, nearly every aspect of the subject's life and history is analyzed to seek patterns and causes of behavior. Case studies can be used in many different fields, including psychology, medicine, education, anthropology, political science, and social work.

The point of a case study is to learn as much as possible about an individual or group so that the information can be generalized to many others. Unfortunately, case studies tend to be highly subjective, and it is sometimes difficult to generalize results to a larger population.

While case studies focus on a single individual or group, they follow a format similar to other types of psychology writing. If you are writing a case study, we got you—here are some rules of APA format to reference.

At a Glance

A case study, or an in-depth study of a person, group, or event, can be a useful research tool when used wisely. In many cases, case studies are best used in situations where it would be difficult or impossible for you to conduct an experiment. They are helpful for looking at unique situations and allow researchers to gather a lot of˜ information about a specific individual or group of people. However, it's important to be cautious of any bias we draw from them as they are highly subjective.

What Are the Benefits and Limitations of Case Studies?

A case study can have its strengths and weaknesses. Researchers must consider these pros and cons before deciding if this type of study is appropriate for their needs.

One of the greatest advantages of a case study is that it allows researchers to investigate things that are often difficult or impossible to replicate in a lab. Some other benefits of a case study:

Allows researchers to capture information on the 'how,' 'what,' and 'why,' of something that's implemented
Gives researchers the chance to collect information on why one strategy might be chosen over another
Permits researchers to develop hypotheses that can be explored in experimental research

On the other hand, a case study can have some drawbacks:

It cannot necessarily be generalized to the larger population
Cannot demonstrate cause and effect
It may not be scientifically rigorous
It can lead to bias

Researchers may choose to perform a case study if they want to explore a unique or recently discovered phenomenon. Through their insights, researchers develop additional ideas and study questions that might be explored in future studies.

It's important to remember that the insights from case studies cannot be used to determine cause-and-effect relationships between variables. However, case studies may be used to develop hypotheses that can then be addressed in experimental research.

Case Study Examples

There have been a number of notable case studies in the history of psychology. Much of Freud's work and theories were developed through individual case studies. Some great examples of case studies in psychology include:

Anna O : Anna O. was a pseudonym of a woman named Bertha Pappenheim, a patient of a physician named Josef Breuer. While she was never a patient of Freud's, Freud and Breuer discussed her case extensively. The woman was experiencing symptoms of a condition that was then known as hysteria and found that talking about her problems helped relieve her symptoms. Her case played an important part in the development of talk therapy as an approach to mental health treatment.
Phineas Gage : Phineas Gage was a railroad employee who experienced a terrible accident in which an explosion sent a metal rod through his skull, damaging important portions of his brain. Gage recovered from his accident but was left with serious changes in both personality and behavior.
Genie : Genie was a young girl subjected to horrific abuse and isolation. The case study of Genie allowed researchers to study whether language learning was possible, even after missing critical periods for language development. Her case also served as an example of how scientific research may interfere with treatment and lead to further abuse of vulnerable individuals.

Such cases demonstrate how case research can be used to study things that researchers could not replicate in experimental settings. In Genie's case, her horrific abuse denied her the opportunity to learn a language at critical points in her development.

This is clearly not something researchers could ethically replicate, but conducting a case study on Genie allowed researchers to study phenomena that are otherwise impossible to reproduce.

There are a few different types of case studies that psychologists and other researchers might use:

Collective case studies : These involve studying a group of individuals. Researchers might study a group of people in a certain setting or look at an entire community. For example, psychologists might explore how access to resources in a community has affected the collective mental well-being of those who live there.
Descriptive case studies : These involve starting with a descriptive theory. The subjects are then observed, and the information gathered is compared to the pre-existing theory.
Explanatory case studies : These are often used to do causal investigations. In other words, researchers are interested in looking at factors that may have caused certain things to occur.
Exploratory case studies : These are sometimes used as a prelude to further, more in-depth research. This allows researchers to gather more information before developing their research questions and hypotheses .
Instrumental case studies : These occur when the individual or group allows researchers to understand more than what is initially obvious to observers.
Intrinsic case studies : This type of case study is when the researcher has a personal interest in the case. Jean Piaget's observations of his own children are good examples of how an intrinsic case study can contribute to the development of a psychological theory.

The three main case study types often used are intrinsic, instrumental, and collective. Intrinsic case studies are useful for learning about unique cases. Instrumental case studies help look at an individual to learn more about a broader issue. A collective case study can be useful for looking at several cases simultaneously.

The type of case study that psychology researchers use depends on the unique characteristics of the situation and the case itself.

There are a number of different sources and methods that researchers can use to gather information about an individual or group. Six major sources that have been identified by researchers are:

Archival records : Census records, survey records, and name lists are examples of archival records.
Direct observation : This strategy involves observing the subject, often in a natural setting . While an individual observer is sometimes used, it is more common to utilize a group of observers.
Documents : Letters, newspaper articles, administrative records, etc., are the types of documents often used as sources.
Interviews : Interviews are one of the most important methods for gathering information in case studies. An interview can involve structured survey questions or more open-ended questions.
Participant observation : When the researcher serves as a participant in events and observes the actions and outcomes, it is called participant observation.
Physical artifacts : Tools, objects, instruments, and other artifacts are often observed during a direct observation of the subject.

If you have been directed to write a case study for a psychology course, be sure to check with your instructor for any specific guidelines you need to follow. If you are writing your case study for a professional publication, check with the publisher for their specific guidelines for submitting a case study.

Here is a general outline of what should be included in a case study.

Section 1: A Case History

This section will have the following structure and content:

Background information : The first section of your paper will present your client's background. Include factors such as age, gender, work, health status, family mental health history, family and social relationships, drug and alcohol history, life difficulties, goals, and coping skills and weaknesses.

Description of the presenting problem : In the next section of your case study, you will describe the problem or symptoms that the client presented with.

Describe any physical, emotional, or sensory symptoms reported by the client. Thoughts, feelings, and perceptions related to the symptoms should also be noted. Any screening or diagnostic assessments that are used should also be described in detail and all scores reported.

Your diagnosis : Provide your diagnosis and give the appropriate Diagnostic and Statistical Manual code. Explain how you reached your diagnosis, how the client's symptoms fit the diagnostic criteria for the disorder(s), or any possible difficulties in reaching a diagnosis.

Section 2: Treatment Plan

This portion of the paper will address the chosen treatment for the condition. This might also include the theoretical basis for the chosen treatment or any other evidence that might exist to support why this approach was chosen.

Cognitive behavioral approach : Explain how a cognitive behavioral therapist would approach treatment. Offer background information on cognitive behavioral therapy and describe the treatment sessions, client response, and outcome of this type of treatment. Make note of any difficulties or successes encountered by your client during treatment.
Humanistic approach : Describe a humanistic approach that could be used to treat your client, such as client-centered therapy . Provide information on the type of treatment you chose, the client's reaction to the treatment, and the end result of this approach. Explain why the treatment was successful or unsuccessful.
Psychoanalytic approach : Describe how a psychoanalytic therapist would view the client's problem. Provide some background on the psychoanalytic approach and cite relevant references. Explain how psychoanalytic therapy would be used to treat the client, how the client would respond to therapy, and the effectiveness of this treatment approach.
Pharmacological approach : If treatment primarily involves the use of medications, explain which medications were used and why. Provide background on the effectiveness of these medications and how monotherapy may compare with an approach that combines medications with therapy or other treatments.

This section of a case study should also include information about the treatment goals, process, and outcomes.

When you are writing a case study, you should also include a section where you discuss the case study itself, including the strengths and limitiations of the study. You should note how the findings of your case study might support previous research.

In your discussion section, you should also describe some of the implications of your case study. What ideas or findings might require further exploration? How might researchers go about exploring some of these questions in additional studies?

Need More Tips?

Here are a few additional pointers to keep in mind when formatting your case study:

Never refer to the subject of your case study as "the client." Instead, use their name or a pseudonym.
Read examples of case studies to gain an idea about the style and format.
Remember to use APA format when citing references .

Crowe S, Cresswell K, Robertson A, Huby G, Avery A, Sheikh A. The case study approach . BMC Med Res Methodol . 2011;11:100.

Crowe S, Cresswell K, Robertson A, Huby G, Avery A, Sheikh A. The case study approach . BMC Med Res Methodol . 2011 Jun 27;11:100. doi:10.1186/1471-2288-11-100

Gagnon, Yves-Chantal. The Case Study as Research Method: A Practical Handbook . Canada, Chicago Review Press Incorporated DBA Independent Pub Group, 2010.

Yin, Robert K. Case Study Research and Applications: Design and Methods . United States, SAGE Publications, 2017.

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

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Class 12 Psychology Case...

Class 12 Psychology Case Study Questions

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Are you having trouble preparing for the CBSE Class 12 Psychology Case Study Questions? Are you looking for a wide range of Class 12 Psychology Case Study Questions? Then you’ve landed in the right place. Students can explore Class 12 Psychology Case Study Questions to assist them in answering a range of questions concerning the case study.

Other ed-tech sites may provide limited study material for Class 12 Psychology students, but myCBSEguide has a variety of questions that cover all aspects of Class 12 Psychology including case study questions. Class 12 Psychology questions are designed to help students understand and retain the material covered. In addition, myCBSEguide also offers practice tests and sample papers to help students prepare for Class 12 Psychology exams.

All About Class 12 Psychology Case Study

What is a case study.

A case study is a scenario in a specific professional environment that students must analyze and answer based on specific questions provided about the circumstance. In many cases, the scenario or case study includes a variety of concerns or problems that must be addressed in a professional setting.

Case Study Questions in Class 12 Psychology

Class 12 Psychology Case-Based Questions are a new feature to the exam. Class 12 Psychology Case Study Questions are easy to comprehend and will help you get good grades. You may also get free access to the most recent NCERT textbooks for Class 12 Psychology and all other subjects on myCBSEguide, which had been designed in accordance with the most recent Class 12 CBSE/NCERT Psychology curriculum and examination pattern.

Sample Case Study Questions in Class 12 Psychology

Below are some examples of Class 12 Psychology Case Study Questions. These Class 12 Psychology Case Study Questions will be extremely beneficial in preparing for the upcoming Class 12 Psychology exams. Class 12 Psychology Case Study Questions are created by qualified teachers using the most recent CBSE/NCERT syllabus and books for the current academic year. If you revise your Class 12 Psychology exams and class tests on a regular basis, you will be able to achieve higher marks.

Class 12 Psychology Case Study Question 1

Read the case given below and answer the questions by choosing the most appropriate option: This is a story of three students Ruby, Radhika and Shankar who were enrolled in an Undergraduate Psychology Program in a University. Ruby was the admission officer’s dream. She was selected for the program as she had perfect entrance test scores, outstanding grades and excellent letters of recommendation. But when it was time for Ruby to start coming up with ideas of her own, she disappointed her professors. On the other hand, Radhika did not meet the admission officer’s expectations. She had good grades but low entrance exam scores. However, her letters of recommendation described her as a creative young woman. She could design and implement research work with minimal guidance at college. Shankar ranked somewhere in between the two students. He was satisfactory on almost every traditional measure of success. But rather than falling somewhere in the middle of his class at college, Shankar proved to be an outstanding student. His strength lay in the ability to not only adapt well to the demands of his new environment but also to modify the environment to suit his needs.

Identify the theory of intelligence which best explains the intelligence of all the three students in the story:

One Factor Theory
Theory of Primary Mental Abilities
Hierarchical Model of Intelligence
Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

Identify the type of intelligence Ruby possesses.

Componential
Experiential

Which of the following statement is NOT TRUE about Radhika’s intelligence?

People high on this quickly find out which information is crucial in a given situation.
It is also called experiential intelligence.
It involves modifying the environment to suit the needs.
It reflects in creative performances.

Two statements are given in the question below as Assertion (A) and Reasoning (R). Read the statements and choose the appropriate option. Assertion (A): Shankar is not high in contextual intelligence. Reason (R): Shankar was good at adapting well to the demands of his new environment and modifying the environment to suit his needs. Options:

Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.
Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A.
A is true, but R is false.
A is false, but R is true.

Out of the three students mentioned in the story, who are/is more likely to be a successful entrepreneur?

Radhika and Shankar
Ruby and Radhika

Identify the three components of intelligence that Ruby is high on

Knowledge acquisition, Meta, creativity
Knowledge acquisition, Meta, performance
Knowledge acquisition, Meta, planning
Planning, performance, adaptability

Class 12 Psychology Case Study Question 2

Refer to the picture given below and answer the questions by choosing the most appropriate option:

Which type of personality assessment is being depicted in the above picture?

Projective Technique
Psychometric Tests
Behavioural Analysis
Self-report Measures

Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of this test?

It reveals the unconscious mind.
It can be conducted only on an individual basis.
Its interpretation is objective.
The stimuli are unstructured.

Identify the name of the test from the options given below.

Thematic Appreciation Test
Thematic Apperception Test
Theatre Apperception Test
Theatre Appreciation Test

Which of the following statements are NOT true of this test? i. In the first phase, called performance proper, the subjects are shown the cards and are asked to tell what they see in each of them. ii. The second phase is called inquiry. iii. Each picture card depicts one or more people in a variety of situations. iv. The subject is asked to tell a story describing the situation presented in the picture. Choose the correct option:

Which of the following is NOT a drawback of this test?

It requires sophisticated skills and specialised training
It has problems associated with reliability of scoring
It has problems associated with validity of interpretations
It is an indirect measure of assessment.

Identify the stimuli that are used in such kinds of tests as given in the above picture.

Picture cards

NOTE- The following questions are for the Visually Impaired Candidates in lieu of questions 55 to 60. Answer the questions by choosing the most appropriate option.

Nafisa feels that she is liked by her peers in class. This reflects that she ________.

is high on self-efficacy
is high on social self-esteem
possesses a high IQ
is an introvert

Discrepancy between the real self and ideal self often results in ________.

self-actualisation
self-regulation
unhappiness and dissatisfaction
intrapsychic conflicts

If an individual is fat, soft and round along with a temperament that is relaxed and sociable, then he/she is said to have the characteristics of an:

Gurmeet was given a personality test to assess how he expresses aggression in the face of a frustrating situation. Identify the test most suitable for this.

Rosenzweig Picture Frustration test
Eysenck Personality questionnaire
16 Personality Factors Test

According to Karen Horney the origin of maladjustment can be traced to ________.

the inferiority feelings of childhood.
basic anxiety resulting from disturbed interpersonal relations.
overindulgence of the child at early stages of development.
failure to deal with intrapsychic conflicts.

An individual’s sole concern with the satisfaction of ________ needs would reduce him/her to the level of animals.

belongingness

Class 12 Psychology Case Study Question 3

Read the case given below and answer the questions

Mental health professionals have attempted to understand psychological disorders using different approaches through the ages. Today, we have sophisticated facilities and hospitals dedicated to the treatment of the mentally ill. While studying the history of psychological disorders it is interesting to note that some practices from ancient times are still in use. Take the case of Lakshmi and her daughter, Maya. Maya exhibits abnormal behaviours and Lakshmi believes that this is because of evil spirits that have possessed her. She has been taking her daughter to a self-proclaimed healer, who uses counter-magic and prayer to cure her. Stigma and lack of awareness prevents Lakshmi from using the modern facilities and hospitals that provide quality mental health care. On the other hand, when young Rita reported seeing people and hearing voices, mental health professionals at a modern facility were able to understand her hallucinations using a convergence of three approaches. Psychologists use official manuals like the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders – 5th Edition (DSM-5) and International Classification of Diseases (ICD-10) to indicate presence or absence of disorders. Today there is increased compassion for people who suffer from disorders and a lot of emphasis is placed on providing community care.

Identify the method used by the healer to cure Maya’s illness. How does this theory from ancient times explain Maya’s treatment?
Which approach do you think would best explain Rita’s treatment? How do you think DSM – 5 and ICD -10 help mental health professionals in indicating the presence or absence of disorders?

Class 12 Psychology syllabus at a glance

Class 12 Psychology students must have a better comprehension of Class 12 Psychology New curriculum in order to have a positive impression of the exam pattern and marking scheme. By studying the CBSE Class 12 Syllabus, students will learn the unit names, chapters within each unit, and sub-topics. Let’s have a look at the Class 12 Psychology Syllabus, which contains the topics that will be covered in the CBSE test framework.

CBSE Class – 12 Psychology (Code No. 037) Syllabus

Course Structure

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4 thoughts on “Class 12 Psychology Case Study Questions”

where are the answers? atleast give answers with the questions so we can know our mistakes

No answers ?.

teri behen ko naman

Dude what about the answers?

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A case study is a research method that extensively explores a particular subject, situation, or individual through in-depth analysis, often to gain insights into real-world phenomena or complex issues. It involves the comprehensive examination of multiple data sources, such as interviews, observations, documents, and artifacts, to provide a rich and holistic understanding of the subject under investigation.

Case studies are conducted to:

Investigate a specific problem, event, or phenomenon
Explore unique or atypical situations
Examine the complexities and intricacies of a subject in its natural context
Develop theories, propositions, or hypotheses for further research
Gain practical insights for decision-making or problem-solving

A typical case study consists of the following components:

Introduction: Provides a brief background and context for the study, including the purpose and research questions.
Case Description: Describes the subject of the case study, including its relevant characteristics, settings, and participants.
Data Collection: Details the methods used to gather data, such as interviews, observations, surveys, or document analysis.
Data Analysis: Explains the techniques employed to analyze the collected data and derive meaningful insights.
Findings: Presents the key discoveries and outcomes of the case study in a logical and organized manner.
Discussion: Interprets the findings, relates them to existing theories or frameworks, discusses their implications, and addresses any limitations.
Conclusion: Summarizes the main findings, highlights the significance of the research, and suggests potential avenues for future investigations.

Case studies offer several benefits, including:

Providing a deep understanding of complex and context-dependent phenomena
Generating detailed and rich qualitative data
Allowing researchers to explore multiple perspectives and factors influencing the subject
Offering practical insights for professionals and practitioners
Allowing for the examination of rare or unique occurrences that cannot be replicated in experimental settings

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CBSE Class 12 Psychology Exam 2023 : Important Case Study Based Questions with Solutions

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The exam is planned for 05th April 2023, that is, tomorrow. The exam will be for 3 hours scheduled between 10.30 AM to 01.30 PM.

As you know the tail segment of the paper comprises case study-based questions that require deep thinking and an eye for details. To help you with that, we have added important case study-based questions for your practice. Keep up with this post for the questions.

Case 1:

Read the following case study and answer the questions that follow:

Q1. Based on the symptoms being exhibited, identify the disorder. Explain the other symptoms that can be seen in this disorder.

Q2. Define delusion and inappropriate affect. Support it with the symptoms given in the above case study.

Read the case and answer the questions that follow.

Q1 . Identify the approach on which the Binet-Simon Intelligence Scale is based. Discuss its features.

Read the following case study and answer the questions that follow :

All the Indian settlers were contemptuously and without distinction dubbed “coolies” and forbidden to walk on footpaths or be out at night without permits.

Q1. What is the difference between prejudice and discrimination ? On the

basis of the incidents in the above case study, identify a situation for each

which are examples of prejudice and discrimination.

Q2. What do you think could have been a source of these prejudices ? Explain

any two sources.

Read the given case carefully and answer the questions that follow:

Over time, Harish had to drink more to feel the effects of the alcohol. He got grouchy or shaky and had other symptoms when he was not able to drink or when he tried to quit.

(i)It has been found that certain family systems are likely to produce abnormal functioning in individual members.

In the light of the above statement, the factors underlying Harish's condition can be related to model.

(A) Humanistic

(B) Behavioural

(D) Psychodynamic

(ii) Over time, Harish needed to drink more before he could feel the effects of the alcohol. This means that he built a alcohol. towards the

(A) Withdrawal

(B) Tolerance

(D) All of the above

(iii)He got grouchy or shaky and had other symptoms when he was not able to drink or when he tried to quit. This refers to

(A) Low willpower symptoms.

(B) Addiction symptoms

(D) Tolerance symptoms

(iv) Which of the following is not true about substance related and addictive disorders?

(A) Alcoholism unites millions of families through social interactions and get-togethers.

(B) Intoxicated drivers are responsible for many road accidents.

(D) Excessive drinking can seriously damage physical health.

Read the given case carefully and answer the questions that follow:

(i)Monty's symptoms are likely to be those of

(A) ADHD and anxiety disorder

(B) Bipolar disorder and generalised anxiety disorder

(D) Schizophrenia

(ii) During his sessions, Monty tried to clear many myths. Which one of the following is a myth?

(A) Normality is the same as conformity to social norms.

(B) Adaptive behaviour is not simply maintenance and survival but also includes growth and fulfilment.

(D) Genetic and biochemical factors are involved in causing mental disorders.

(iii) With an understanding of Monty's condition, which of the following is a likely symptom he may also be experiencing?

(A) Frequent washing of hands

(B) Assuming alternate personalities

(D) Prolonged, vague, unexplained and intense fears that are not attached to any particular object

(iv) Teenage is a tough phase as teenagers face various emotional and psychological issues. The disorder manifested in the early stage of development is classified as,

(A) Feeding and eating disorder

(B) Trauma and stressor related disorder

(D) Somatic symptom disorder

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Research Methods In Psychology

Saul Mcleod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul Mcleod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

Learn about our Editorial Process

Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

Research methods in psychology are systematic procedures used to observe, describe, predict, and explain behavior and mental processes. They include experiments, surveys, case studies, and naturalistic observations, ensuring data collection is objective and reliable to understand and explain psychological phenomena.

Hypotheses are statements about the prediction of the results, that can be verified or disproved by some investigation.

There are four types of hypotheses :

Null Hypotheses (H0 ) – these predict that no difference will be found in the results between the conditions. Typically these are written ‘There will be no difference…’
Alternative Hypotheses (Ha or H1) – these predict that there will be a significant difference in the results between the two conditions. This is also known as the experimental hypothesis.
One-tailed (directional) hypotheses – these state the specific direction the researcher expects the results to move in, e.g. higher, lower, more, less. In a correlation study, the predicted direction of the correlation can be either positive or negative.
Two-tailed (non-directional) hypotheses – these state that a difference will be found between the conditions of the independent variable but does not state the direction of a difference or relationship. Typically these are always written ‘There will be a difference ….’

All research has an alternative hypothesis (either a one-tailed or two-tailed) and a corresponding null hypothesis.

Once the research is conducted and results are found, psychologists must accept one hypothesis and reject the other.

So, if a difference is found, the Psychologist would accept the alternative hypothesis and reject the null. The opposite applies if no difference is found.

Sampling techniques

Sampling is the process of selecting a representative group from the population under study.

A sample is the participants you select from a target population (the group you are interested in) to make generalizations about.

Representative means the extent to which a sample mirrors a researcher’s target population and reflects its characteristics.

Generalisability means the extent to which their findings can be applied to the larger population of which their sample was a part.

Volunteer sample : where participants pick themselves through newspaper adverts, noticeboards or online.
Opportunity sampling : also known as convenience sampling , uses people who are available at the time the study is carried out and willing to take part. It is based on convenience.
Random sampling : when every person in the target population has an equal chance of being selected. An example of random sampling would be picking names out of a hat.
Systematic sampling : when a system is used to select participants. Picking every Nth person from all possible participants. N = the number of people in the research population / the number of people needed for the sample.
Stratified sampling : when you identify the subgroups and select participants in proportion to their occurrences.
Snowball sampling : when researchers find a few participants, and then ask them to find participants themselves and so on.
Quota sampling : when researchers will be told to ensure the sample fits certain quotas, for example they might be told to find 90 participants, with 30 of them being unemployed.

Experiments always have an independent and dependent variable .

The independent variable is the one the experimenter manipulates (the thing that changes between the conditions the participants are placed into). It is assumed to have a direct effect on the dependent variable.
The dependent variable is the thing being measured, or the results of the experiment.

Operationalization of variables means making them measurable/quantifiable. We must use operationalization to ensure that variables are in a form that can be easily tested.

For instance, we can’t really measure ‘happiness’, but we can measure how many times a person smiles within a two-hour period.

By operationalizing variables, we make it easy for someone else to replicate our research. Remember, this is important because we can check if our findings are reliable.

Extraneous variables are all variables which are not independent variable but could affect the results of the experiment.

It can be a natural characteristic of the participant, such as intelligence levels, gender, or age for example, or it could be a situational feature of the environment such as lighting or noise.

Demand characteristics are a type of extraneous variable that occurs if the participants work out the aims of the research study, they may begin to behave in a certain way.

For example, in Milgram’s research , critics argued that participants worked out that the shocks were not real and they administered them as they thought this was what was required of them.

Extraneous variables must be controlled so that they do not affect (confound) the results.

Randomly allocating participants to their conditions or using a matched pairs experimental design can help to reduce participant variables.

Situational variables are controlled by using standardized procedures, ensuring every participant in a given condition is treated in the same way

Experimental Design

Experimental design refers to how participants are allocated to each condition of the independent variable, such as a control or experimental group.

Independent design ( between-groups design ): each participant is selected for only one group. With the independent design, the most common way of deciding which participants go into which group is by means of randomization.
Matched participants design : each participant is selected for only one group, but the participants in the two groups are matched for some relevant factor or factors (e.g. ability; sex; age).
Repeated measures design ( within groups) : each participant appears in both groups, so that there are exactly the same participants in each group.
The main problem with the repeated measures design is that there may well be order effects. Their experiences during the experiment may change the participants in various ways.
They may perform better when they appear in the second group because they have gained useful information about the experiment or about the task. On the other hand, they may perform less well on the second occasion because of tiredness or boredom.
Counterbalancing is the best way of preventing order effects from disrupting the findings of an experiment, and involves ensuring that each condition is equally likely to be used first and second by the participants.

If we wish to compare two groups with respect to a given independent variable, it is essential to make sure that the two groups do not differ in any other important way.

Experimental Methods

All experimental methods involve an iv (independent variable) and dv (dependent variable)..

Field experiments are conducted in the everyday (natural) environment of the participants. The experimenter still manipulates the IV, but in a real-life setting. It may be possible to control extraneous variables, though such control is more difficult than in a lab experiment.
Natural experiments are when a naturally occurring IV is investigated that isn’t deliberately manipulated, it exists anyway. Participants are not randomly allocated, and the natural event may only occur rarely.

Case studies are in-depth investigations of a person, group, event, or community. It uses information from a range of sources, such as from the person concerned and also from their family and friends.

Many techniques may be used such as interviews, psychological tests, observations and experiments. Case studies are generally longitudinal: in other words, they follow the individual or group over an extended period of time.

Case studies are widely used in psychology and among the best-known ones carried out were by Sigmund Freud . He conducted very detailed investigations into the private lives of his patients in an attempt to both understand and help them overcome their illnesses.

Case studies provide rich qualitative data and have high levels of ecological validity. However, it is difficult to generalize from individual cases as each one has unique characteristics.

Correlational Studies

Correlation means association; it is a measure of the extent to which two variables are related. One of the variables can be regarded as the predictor variable with the other one as the outcome variable.

Correlational studies typically involve obtaining two different measures from a group of participants, and then assessing the degree of association between the measures.

The predictor variable can be seen as occurring before the outcome variable in some sense. It is called the predictor variable, because it forms the basis for predicting the value of the outcome variable.

Relationships between variables can be displayed on a graph or as a numerical score called a correlation coefficient.

types of correlation. Scatter plot. Positive negative and no correlation

If an increase in one variable tends to be associated with an increase in the other, then this is known as a positive correlation .
If an increase in one variable tends to be associated with a decrease in the other, then this is known as a negative correlation .
A zero correlation occurs when there is no relationship between variables.

After looking at the scattergraph, if we want to be sure that a significant relationship does exist between the two variables, a statistical test of correlation can be conducted, such as Spearman’s rho.

The test will give us a score, called a correlation coefficient . This is a value between 0 and 1, and the closer to 1 the score is, the stronger the relationship between the variables. This value can be both positive e.g. 0.63, or negative -0.63.

Types of correlation. Strong, weak, and perfect positive correlation, strong, weak, and perfect negative correlation, no correlation. Graphs or charts ...

A correlation between variables, however, does not automatically mean that the change in one variable is the cause of the change in the values of the other variable. A correlation only shows if there is a relationship between variables.

Correlation does not always prove causation, as a third variable may be involved.

Interview Methods

Interviews are commonly divided into two types: structured and unstructured.

A fixed, predetermined set of questions is put to every participant in the same order and in the same way.

Responses are recorded on a questionnaire, and the researcher presets the order and wording of questions, and sometimes the range of alternative answers.

The interviewer stays within their role and maintains social distance from the interviewee.

There are no set questions, and the participant can raise whatever topics he/she feels are relevant and ask them in their own way. Questions are posed about participants’ answers to the subject

Unstructured interviews are most useful in qualitative research to analyze attitudes and values.

Though they rarely provide a valid basis for generalization, their main advantage is that they enable the researcher to probe social actors’ subjective point of view.

Questionnaire Method

Questionnaires can be thought of as a kind of written interview. They can be carried out face to face, by telephone, or post.

The choice of questions is important because of the need to avoid bias or ambiguity in the questions, ‘leading’ the respondent or causing offense.

Open questions are designed to encourage a full, meaningful answer using the subject’s own knowledge and feelings. They provide insights into feelings, opinions, and understanding. Example: “How do you feel about that situation?”
Closed questions can be answered with a simple “yes” or “no” or specific information, limiting the depth of response. They are useful for gathering specific facts or confirming details. Example: “Do you feel anxious in crowds?”

Its other practical advantages are that it is cheaper than face-to-face interviews and can be used to contact many respondents scattered over a wide area relatively quickly.

Observations

There are different types of observation methods :

Covert observation is where the researcher doesn’t tell the participants they are being observed until after the study is complete. There could be ethical problems or deception and consent with this particular observation method.
Overt observation is where a researcher tells the participants they are being observed and what they are being observed for.
Controlled : behavior is observed under controlled laboratory conditions (e.g., Bandura’s Bobo doll study).
Natural : Here, spontaneous behavior is recorded in a natural setting.
Participant : Here, the observer has direct contact with the group of people they are observing. The researcher becomes a member of the group they are researching.
Non-participant (aka “fly on the wall): The researcher does not have direct contact with the people being observed. The observation of participants’ behavior is from a distance

Pilot Study

A pilot study is a small scale preliminary study conducted in order to evaluate the feasibility of the key s teps in a future, full-scale project.

A pilot study is an initial run-through of the procedures to be used in an investigation; it involves selecting a few people and trying out the study on them. It is possible to save time, and in some cases, money, by identifying any flaws in the procedures designed by the researcher.

A pilot study can help the researcher spot any ambiguities (i.e. unusual things) or confusion in the information given to participants or problems with the task devised.

Sometimes the task is too hard, and the researcher may get a floor effect, because none of the participants can score at all or can complete the task – all performances are low.

The opposite effect is a ceiling effect, when the task is so easy that all achieve virtually full marks or top performances and are “hitting the ceiling”.

Research Design

In cross-sectional research , a researcher compares multiple segments of the population at the same time

Sometimes, we want to see how people change over time, as in studies of human development and lifespan. Longitudinal research is a research design in which data-gathering is administered repeatedly over an extended period of time.

In cohort studies , the participants must share a common factor or characteristic such as age, demographic, or occupation. A cohort study is a type of longitudinal study in which researchers monitor and observe a chosen population over an extended period.

Triangulation means using more than one research method to improve the study’s validity.

Reliability

Reliability is a measure of consistency, if a particular measurement is repeated and the same result is obtained then it is described as being reliable.

Test-retest reliability : assessing the same person on two different occasions which shows the extent to which the test produces the same answers.
Inter-observer reliability : the extent to which there is an agreement between two or more observers.

Meta-Analysis

A meta-analysis is a systematic review that involves identifying an aim and then searching for research studies that have addressed similar aims/hypotheses.

This is done by looking through various databases, and then decisions are made about what studies are to be included/excluded.

Strengths: Increases the conclusions’ validity as they’re based on a wider range.

Weaknesses: Research designs in studies can vary, so they are not truly comparable.

Peer Review

A researcher submits an article to a journal. The choice of the journal may be determined by the journal’s audience or prestige.

The journal selects two or more appropriate experts (psychologists working in a similar field) to peer review the article without payment. The peer reviewers assess: the methods and designs used, originality of the findings, the validity of the original research findings and its content, structure and language.

Feedback from the reviewer determines whether the article is accepted. The article may be: Accepted as it is, accepted with revisions, sent back to the author to revise and re-submit or rejected without the possibility of submission.

The editor makes the final decision whether to accept or reject the research report based on the reviewers comments/ recommendations.

Peer review is important because it prevent faulty data from entering the public domain, it provides a way of checking the validity of findings and the quality of the methodology and is used to assess the research rating of university departments.

Peer reviews may be an ideal, whereas in practice there are lots of problems. For example, it slows publication down and may prevent unusual, new work being published. Some reviewers might use it as an opportunity to prevent competing researchers from publishing work.

Some people doubt whether peer review can really prevent the publication of fraudulent research.

The advent of the internet means that a lot of research and academic comment is being published without official peer reviews than before, though systems are evolving on the internet where everyone really has a chance to offer their opinions and police the quality of research.

Types of Data

Quantitative data is numerical data e.g. reaction time or number of mistakes. It represents how much or how long, how many there are of something. A tally of behavioral categories and closed questions in a questionnaire collect quantitative data.
Qualitative data is virtually any type of information that can be observed and recorded that is not numerical in nature and can be in the form of written or verbal communication. Open questions in questionnaires and accounts from observational studies collect qualitative data.
Primary data is first-hand data collected for the purpose of the investigation.
Secondary data is information that has been collected by someone other than the person who is conducting the research e.g. taken from journals, books or articles.

Validity means how well a piece of research actually measures what it sets out to, or how well it reflects the reality it claims to represent.

Validity is whether the observed effect is genuine and represents what is actually out there in the world.

Concurrent validity is the extent to which a psychological measure relates to an existing similar measure and obtains close results. For example, a new intelligence test compared to an established test.
Face validity : does the test measure what it’s supposed to measure ‘on the face of it’. This is done by ‘eyeballing’ the measuring or by passing it to an expert to check.
Ecological validit y is the extent to which findings from a research study can be generalized to other settings / real life.
Temporal validity is the extent to which findings from a research study can be generalized to other historical times.

Features of Science

Paradigm – A set of shared assumptions and agreed methods within a scientific discipline.
Paradigm shift – The result of the scientific revolution: a significant change in the dominant unifying theory within a scientific discipline.
Objectivity – When all sources of personal bias are minimised so not to distort or influence the research process.
Empirical method – Scientific approaches that are based on the gathering of evidence through direct observation and experience.
Replicability – The extent to which scientific procedures and findings can be repeated by other researchers.
Falsifiability – The principle that a theory cannot be considered scientific unless it admits the possibility of being proved untrue.

Statistical Testing

A significant result is one where there is a low probability that chance factors were responsible for any observed difference, correlation, or association in the variables tested.

If our test is significant, we can reject our null hypothesis and accept our alternative hypothesis.

If our test is not significant, we can accept our null hypothesis and reject our alternative hypothesis. A null hypothesis is a statement of no effect.

In Psychology, we use p < 0.05 (as it strikes a balance between making a type I and II error) but p < 0.01 is used in tests that could cause harm like introducing a new drug.

A type I error is when the null hypothesis is rejected when it should have been accepted (happens when a lenient significance level is used, an error of optimism).

A type II error is when the null hypothesis is accepted when it should have been rejected (happens when a stringent significance level is used, an error of pessimism).

Ethical Issues

Informed consent is when participants are able to make an informed judgment about whether to take part. It causes them to guess the aims of the study and change their behavior.
To deal with it, we can gain presumptive consent or ask them to formally indicate their agreement to participate but it may invalidate the purpose of the study and it is not guaranteed that the participants would understand.
Deception should only be used when it is approved by an ethics committee, as it involves deliberately misleading or withholding information. Participants should be fully debriefed after the study but debriefing can’t turn the clock back.
All participants should be informed at the beginning that they have the right to withdraw if they ever feel distressed or uncomfortable.
It causes bias as the ones that stayed are obedient and some may not withdraw as they may have been given incentives or feel like they’re spoiling the study. Researchers can offer the right to withdraw data after participation.
Participants should all have protection from harm . The researcher should avoid risks greater than those experienced in everyday life and they should stop the study if any harm is suspected. However, the harm may not be apparent at the time of the study.
Confidentiality concerns the communication of personal information. The researchers should not record any names but use numbers or false names though it may not be possible as it is sometimes possible to work out who the researchers were.

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Methodology

What Is a Case Study? | Definition, Examples & Methods

What Is a Case Study? | Definition, Examples & Methods

Published on May 8, 2019 by Shona McCombes . Revised on November 20, 2023.

A case study is a detailed study of a specific subject, such as a person, group, place, event, organization, or phenomenon. Case studies are commonly used in social, educational, clinical, and business research.

A case study research design usually involves qualitative methods , but quantitative methods are sometimes also used. Case studies are good for describing , comparing, evaluating and understanding different aspects of a research problem .

When to do a case study, step 1: select a case, step 2: build a theoretical framework, step 3: collect your data, step 4: describe and analyze the case, other interesting articles.

A case study is an appropriate research design when you want to gain concrete, contextual, in-depth knowledge about a specific real-world subject. It allows you to explore the key characteristics, meanings, and implications of the case.

Case studies are often a good choice in a thesis or dissertation . They keep your project focused and manageable when you don’t have the time or resources to do large-scale research.

You might use just one complex case study where you explore a single subject in depth, or conduct multiple case studies to compare and illuminate different aspects of your research problem.

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Once you have developed your problem statement and research questions , you should be ready to choose the specific case that you want to focus on. A good case study should have the potential to:

Provide new or unexpected insights into the subject
Challenge or complicate existing assumptions and theories
Propose practical courses of action to resolve a problem
Open up new directions for future research

TipIf your research is more practical in nature and aims to simultaneously investigate an issue as you solve it, consider conducting action research instead.

Unlike quantitative or experimental research , a strong case study does not require a random or representative sample. In fact, case studies often deliberately focus on unusual, neglected, or outlying cases which may shed new light on the research problem.

Example of an outlying case studyIn the 1960s the town of Roseto, Pennsylvania was discovered to have extremely low rates of heart disease compared to the US average. It became an important case study for understanding previously neglected causes of heart disease.

However, you can also choose a more common or representative case to exemplify a particular category, experience or phenomenon.

Example of a representative case studyIn the 1920s, two sociologists used Muncie, Indiana as a case study of a typical American city that supposedly exemplified the changing culture of the US at the time.

While case studies focus more on concrete details than general theories, they should usually have some connection with theory in the field. This way the case study is not just an isolated description, but is integrated into existing knowledge about the topic. It might aim to:

Exemplify a theory by showing how it explains the case under investigation
Expand on a theory by uncovering new concepts and ideas that need to be incorporated
Challenge a theory by exploring an outlier case that doesn’t fit with established assumptions

To ensure that your analysis of the case has a solid academic grounding, you should conduct a literature review of sources related to the topic and develop a theoretical framework . This means identifying key concepts and theories to guide your analysis and interpretation.

There are many different research methods you can use to collect data on your subject. Case studies tend to focus on qualitative data using methods such as interviews , observations , and analysis of primary and secondary sources (e.g., newspaper articles, photographs, official records). Sometimes a case study will also collect quantitative data.

Example of a mixed methods case studyFor a case study of a wind farm development in a rural area, you could collect quantitative data on employment rates and business revenue, collect qualitative data on local people’s perceptions and experiences, and analyze local and national media coverage of the development.

The aim is to gain as thorough an understanding as possible of the case and its context.

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In writing up the case study, you need to bring together all the relevant aspects to give as complete a picture as possible of the subject.

How you report your findings depends on the type of research you are doing. Some case studies are structured like a standard scientific paper or thesis , with separate sections or chapters for the methods , results and discussion .

Others are written in a more narrative style, aiming to explore the case from various angles and analyze its meanings and implications (for example, by using textual analysis or discourse analysis ).

In all cases, though, make sure to give contextual details about the case, connect it back to the literature and theory, and discuss how it fits into wider patterns or debates.

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

Normal distribution
Degrees of freedom
Null hypothesis
Discourse analysis
Control groups
Mixed methods research
Non-probability sampling
Quantitative research
Ecological validity

Research bias

Rosenthal effect
Implicit bias
Cognitive bias
Selection bias
Negativity bias
Status quo bias

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CBSE Class 12 Psychology Syllabus and Mark Distribution

Author : Akash Kumar Singh

Updated On : February 12, 2024

Summary: CBSE Class 12 Psychology syllabus explores deep into the human psyche, exploring emotions, behaviours, and therapies. Understand the wonders of the mind through academic understanding and hands-on learning.

During their senior secondary school education, students can choose from various disciplines offered by the Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE) . Psychology is one such fascinating subject. This discipline explores deeply into human experiences, behaviours, and cognitive processes, all within a sociocultural and historical context.

This article talks about various topics covered under the c|lass 12 psychology CBSE syllabus.

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Understanding the CBSE Class 12 Psychology Syllabus

The CBSE Class 12 Psychology syllabus has been developed with the goal of increasing students' awareness of fundamental principles, ideas, and methodological intrinsic in this discipline. The CBSE class 12 psychology syllabus is intended to create an internal understanding of how diverse circumstances influence human behaviour as well as to transmit theoretical knowledge. CBSE prepares students to understand the intricacies of human behaviour by providing a contextual perspective on psychological knowledge and practises.

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CBSE Class 12 Psychology Syllabus Course Structure

The syllabus of psychology CBSE Class 12 is divided into various unit which are as follows:

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CBSE Class 12 Psychology Syllabus Course Content

Students can check the CBSE syllabus for class 12 psychology below:

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CBSE Class 12 Psychology Distribution of Marks

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Best Books CBSE Class 12 Psychology Exam Preparation

The NCERT textbooks are essential to developing the fundamental concepts needed to prepare for the CBSE Class 12 Psychology exam . There are also specialized guidelines that are helpful for practical exams. Supplementary guides can be helpful for in-depth understanding even though the NCERTs are the major resource.

Check: CBSE Class 12 English Preparation Tips

The updated Class 12 Psychology syllabus CBSE provides students with a comprehensive guide to the huge landscape of human behaviour, emotions, and cognition. Students will gain an in-depth understanding of human experiences in varied circumstances as they progress through each lesson.

Students can read the detailed CBSE psychology class 12 syllabus and download the PDF version directly from the CBSE website. This course will surely extend students' views and promote a more in-depth understanding of the human psyche.

Also check: CBSE Class 12 Psychology Important Questions

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February 12, 2024

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Maharashtra Board Class 12 Psychology Solutions Chapter 1 Psychology: A Scientific Discipline

Balbharti Maharashtra State Board Class 12 Psychology Solutions Chapter 1 Psychology: A Scientific Discipline Textbook Exercise Questions and Answers.

Maharashtra State Board Class 12 Psychology Solutions Chapter 1 Psychology: A Scientific Discipline

1. Choose the correct option and complete the following statements.

Question 1. Till 1879, psychology was a branch of ………. (a) physics (b) philosophy (c) physiology Answer: (b) philosophy

Question 2. Psychology is a science. (a) natural (b) social (c) biological Answer: (b) social

Question 3. …………………. is considered as founder of Psychoanalysis. (a) Wilhelm Wundt (b) Carl Rogers (c) Sigmund Freud Answer: (c) Sigmund Freud

2. Match the pair

3. State whether the following statements are true or false.

Question 1. Psychology is a study of mental processes. Answer: True

Question 2. Case study method is quite often used by clinical psychologists. Answer: True

Question 3. An experimenter is a person on whom the experiment is conducted. Answer: False

4. Answer the following in one sentence each.

Question 1. In which year was the first psychology laboratory established? Answer: The first psychology laboratory was established in 1879 by Wilhelm Wundt, at the University of Leipzig in Germany.

Question 2. Who is considered as the ‘Father of American Psychology’? Answer: William James, founder of Functionalism school of thought of psychology is considered ‘Father of American Psychology’.

Question 3. What is meant by an experimenter? Answer: The person who conducts the experiment is called the experimenter.

5. Define / Explain the concepts in 25 – 30 words each.

Question 1. Replicability Answer: Replicability is one of the key features of science. Scientific knowledge can be replicated under the same circumstances as the original experiment. This ensures reliability of results towards establishing a scientific theory.

Question 2. Correlation coefficient. Answer: Correlation coefficient is the measurement of the correlation between two or more variables. Its value extends between -1.00 to +1.00. The concept was first introduced by Sir Francis Galton. The Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient is the most commonly used type of correlation coefficient.

6. Write short notes on the following in 50 – 60 words each.

Question 1. Observation method Answer: Observation method is a research method that is employed in conditions where experiments may not be possible or even necessary. Observation is used by child psychologists and social psychologists. It may be carried out in a natural setting, for e.g., observing candidates waiting their turn for an interview. It may also be carried out in controlled conditions. The following factors should be kept in mind while carrying out the observation

it should be done systematically.
a comprehensive list of behaviours to be observed must be prepared.
the persons should not be aware of being observed.

The disadvantages of observation are:

it is a time consuming method.
objectivity is difficult to maintain during observation.
it is difficult to establish cause-effect relationships.

Question 2. Survey method Answer: A survey is a research method used to collect data from a pre-determined group of respondents, i.e., a sample. It is used to obtain information about the preferences, opinions, etc., of the ‘sample’ population. It makes use of tools like questionnaire, checklist, interviews, etc. Survey method is employed by social psychologists, industrial psychologists, etc. The researcher must ensure that-

sample of respondents is representative of the population.
questions should not be ambiguous.

The disadvantages of survey method are:

it is a very subjective method,
it lacks reliability.

Question 3. Case study method Answer: Case study method is a qualitative research method employed by clinical psychologists. It provides intensive, descriptive information about an individual from multiple sources such as family, peers, school, academic and health records, etc. This helps to assess the person’s level of psychological and social functioning. Researchers may employ techniques like observation, interview, psychological tests, etc. Psychologist such as Sigmund Freud and Jean Piaget made extensive use of case study method. However, this method is very time consuming and subjective.

Question 4. Importance of rationality Answer: Rationality implies being agreeable to reason. According to Stanovich, “Rationality involves adaptive reasoning, good judgement and good decision making.” According to Dr. Albert Ellis, rationality helps a person to successfully attain goals and be happy. He proposed Rational Emotive Behavioural Therapy (REBT), which is a popular intervention method in counselling psychology. Rationality is important because:

It allows us to make decisions in new or unfamiliar situations by helping us to gather and process relevant information.
It enables the person to exhibit tolerance and flexibility.
A rational person accepts oneself unconditionally and assumes responsibility for their own behaviour.
Rationality helps to understand and respect the views and interests of others.

7. Define / Explain the concepts in 25 – 30 words each.

Question 1. Science Answer: The word science is derived from the Latin word ‘Scientia’ which means ‘knowledge’. Science is the pursuit and application of knowledge and understanding of the natural and social world, following a systematic methodology based on evidence. The key features of science are empirical evidence, objectivity, scientific causality, systematic exploration and replication.

Question 2. Objectivity Answer: Objectivity is one of the key features of science. It refers to the ability to observe and accept facts as they exist setting aside all sources of expectations, values, prejudices, etc. Science objectively studies some particular phenomenon.

8. Answer the following questions in detail.

Maharashtra Board Class 12 Psychology Solutions Chapter 1 Psychology A Scientific Discipline 1

(iii) Zero correlation – A change in one variable leads to no significant change in the other variable, for e.g., height and intelligence.

Question 2. Explain some of the challenges in establishing psychology as a science. Answer: Many criticisms of psychology as a science have been made on practical, philosophical and ethical grounds. The challenges in establishing psychology as a science are: (i) It is in preparadigmatic state – According to American philosopher, Thomas Kuhn, psychology is still in a preparadigmatic state as it has not succeeded in producing a cumulative body of knowledge that has a clear conceptual cove.

(ii) Issues related to objectivity and validity – Methods used in psychology such as introspection, surveys and questionnaires are subjective. Due to this, psychology lacks two criteria of science, i.e., objectivity and validity.

(iii) Issues related to predictability and replicability – In psychology it is difficult to make exact predictions as people respond differently in different situations. Test result are more varied and hence difficult to replicate.

(iv) Objectifying humans – According to some psychologists, subjecting human behaviour to experimentation amounts to objectifying individuals.

Question 3. Explain the key features of science. Answer: The word science is derived from the Latin word ‘Scientia’ which means ‘knowledge’. Science is the pursuit and application of knowledge and understanding of the natural and social world, following a systematic methodology based on evidence. They key features of science are:

Empirical evidence – It refers to acquiring information through direct observation or experiments. Scientific knowledge is based on verifiable evidence.
Objectivity – This refers to the ability to observe and accept facts as they exist, setting aside all sources of expectations, values, prejudices, etc.
Scientific causality – Science aims to establish a cause-effect relationship between the variables under consideration, i.e., the effect of the Independent Variable on the Dependent Variable.
Systematic exploration – Science adopts a sequential procedure for studying various phenomena. It includes scientific steps like formulating a hypothesis, collection of facts, scientific generalisation etc.
Replication – Scientific knowledge can be replicated under the same circumstances as the original experiment. This ensures reliability of results towards establishing a scientific theory.
Predictability – Science involves describing and explaining phenomena as well as to make predictions accordingly.

Question 4. Write detailed information of the experimental method in psychology. Answer: The systematic observation about a certain problem under controlled laboratory conditions is called an experiment. For example, Albert Bandura conducted experiment to investigate if social behaviours i.e., aggression can be acquired by observation and imitation. The steps involved in an experiment are:

identifying the problem
formulation a hypothesis
selecting an experimental design
conducting the experiment and data collection
data analysis
drawing conclusions

The key terms of experimental method with examples are:

Problem: To study the effect of music on the level of blood Pressure.
Hypothesis: The music will help in regulating the level of blood pressure.
Independent variable: Music.
Dependent variable: Level of blood pressure.
Intervening variables: Age, gender, all other sounds other than music, etc.
Experimenter : A person who will be conducting this experiment. (May be you or your psychology teacher.)
Participant : A person on whom this experiment will be conducted. (May be your family member/ friend.)

The two variables in an experiment are:

Independent Variable (I.V.) – It is the variable that the experimenter manipulates or changes systematically to study it’s effect on the D.V. (Cause).
Dependent Variable (D.V.) – the variable that may change due to manipulation of the I.V. (effect).

The features of the method are:

it is the most objective and scientific method of studying behaviour
it helps to establish cause-effect relationship between two or more variables
the findings of an experiment are verifiable

The limitations of the method are:

it may not be possible to control all intervening variables
it has a limited scope, i.e., there may be ethical constraints or risk factors
experimenter’s expectations or participant attitude may influence the conclusions

Question 5. Explain the characteristics of a rational individual. Answer: One of the significant aims of individuals is attainment of happiness. However, in the pursuit of happiness, one should not be driven by irrational influences or compromise on social norms and ethics. Psychology helps to improving life quality by applying the concept of rationality in daily life. According to Stanovich, “Rationality involves adaptive reasoning, good judgement and good decision making.” According to Dr. Albert Ellis, rationality helps a person to successfully attain goals and be happy. He proposed Rational Emotive Behavioural Therapy (REBT), which is a popular intervention method in counselling Psychology.

According to Ellis, rational people possess characteristics such as:

Understanding both self-interest and social interest – Rational people understand what choices help them to grow and take responsibility for their actions. They are also careful not to violate other’s rights.
Self-direction – The person does not demand excessive attention or support from others as he/she assumes the responsibility for his/her own life.
Tolerance – It is the willingness to accept beliefs and behaviour patterns of others that may differ from our own way of thinking.
Flexibility – Rational people tend to be flexible and unbiased in their thoughts and actions.
Self-acceptance and self-responsibility – A rational person accepts him/herself unconditionally as well as responsibility for his/her thoughts, emotions and behaviour.

The concept of rationality can be explained as:

How Rational Am I?

Question 1. Identify the strongest and the weakest characteristics in you from those explained by Dr. Albert Ellis. Answer: Rational people are psychologically healthy and show adaptive reasoning and good decision making. According to Dr. Albert Ellis, some characteristics of rational persons are:

Understanding self-interest and social interest
Self-direction
Flexibility
Self-acceptance and self-responsibility.

The strongest characteristic in me is self-direction. The weakest characteristic in me is flexibility.

Question 2. How will you work on your weakest characteristic? Write two strategies. Answer: Two strategies that I can use to improve the flexibility in my life is:

Adopt an unbiased perspective and non-judgmental thinking
Practicing meditation and mindfulness.

(A) Identify the Independent Variable and Dependent Variable.

To study the effect of colour on moods.
To study the effect of positive feedback on self-confidence.
To study the effect of loud noise on concentration levels.
To study the effect of exposure to classical music on reading skills.
To study the effect of a type of diet on weight loss.
To study the effect of a fertilizer on crop growth.
To study the effect of solving previous years exam papers on scores in the exam.
To study the effect of worker’s participation in decision making on job satisfaction.

(B) Identify the type of correlation.

Gender and Intelligence.
Cold weather and sales of air conditioners.
Low income and standard of living.
Consuming foods with antioxidants and immune system.
Speed and time taken to cover a distance.
Heads/tails,on flipping a coin and result when you flip another time.
Colour of the hair and learning a dance form.
Average temperature in a city and ice cream sales in it.
Chain smoking and lifespan.
Intelligence and language development.
Increasing age after 60 years and physical agility.
Level of water in a fish tank and area of fish habitat.
Large number of trees felled and probability of soil erosion.
More hours spent at work and available leisure time.

Class 12 Psychology Chapter 1 Psychology: A Scientific Discipline Intext Questions and Answers

ACTIVITIES (Textbook Page. No. 1)

Read the following statements. Think and discuss whether the given statements are facts or myths and misconceptions about psychology: (i) Psychology is just common sense and not a real science. (ii) Psychology is simply a pseudoscience. (iii) Psychologists are simply mind readers or the face readers. (iv) Psychology is related only to the study of crazy people who are in need of therapy. (v) Psychologists, psychiatrists and counsellors have the same professional qualifications and their jobs are almost of the same nature. (vi) Anyone with a degree in psychology can provide counselling to a need person. Answer: Answer: All the statements are misconceptions. Statement 1, 2 are misconceptions because Psychology is a social science that fulfils the criteria of a science, e.g., it employs the scientific method.

Statement 3 is a misconception. Psychologists are trained professionals in some field of psychology, e.g., counselling psychology. They employ tools like observation, case study, experiments, etc.

Statement 4 is a misconception. There are numerous branches of psychology such as Social Psychology, Developmental Psychology, Abnormal Psychology, Environmental Psychology, etc.

Statement 5 is a misconception. Psychiatrists are trained medical doctors and focus on medication management. Psychologists employ psychotherapy such as CBT, REBT, etc.

Statement 6 is a misconception. A counsellor is a person who has academic qualifications as well as professional training in counselling techniques.

Activity 2 (Textbook Page. No. 3)

Read the following statements and discuss about the same in the classroom: (i) Psychology is a science because it fulfils many conditions of science. (ii) Psychology is not an exact science like physics or chemistry. (iii) Psychology is a social science that studies human (and animal) behaviour and mental processes. (iv) Psychology uses some objective research methods, it examines cause-and-effect relationships to produce laws governing human behaviour and its findings can be verified. (v) Psychology can be distinguished from pseudoscience and folk wisdom as psychology has evidence against its theories. (vi) The subject matter of psychology is complex as human behaviour is dynamic and the mental processes are abstract. Therefore, the theories of psychology are not as universal, exact and precise as those in physics and chemistry. Answer:

Psychology fulfils conditions of science such as acquiring empirical evidence, objectivity, predictability, scientific causality, etc.
Psychology is a social science which deals with human beings. It is not a physical science.
Psychology is defined as the scientific study of human behaviour and mental processes.
Psychology uses objective methods like controlled laboratory experiments and aims to establish scientific causality and verifiable theories.
Psychology is not based on folk wisdom, pseudo knowledge or myths. It is based on systematic exploration and acquisition of empirical evidence.
Psychology is a social science so its theories cannot be universal or exact as in the physical science. Human behaviour is constantly evolving and unpredictable.

Activity 3 (Textbook Page. No. 4)

Visit the website given below and collect information about various schools of thought of psychology: https://www. verywellmind.com/psychology-schools-of-thought-2795247 Answer:

Structuralism – Focused on breaking down mental processes into the basic elements using techniques like introspection.
Functionalism – Focused on the mind’s functions and adaptations.
Gestalt school – Focused on looking at the ‘whole’ rather than individual elements.
Behavioural school – Focused on study of observable behaviour.
Psychoanalytic school – Emphasized the influence of the ‘unconscious’ on behaviour.
Humanistic school – It developed as a response to psychoanalysis and behaviourism. It focused on individual free will, personal growth and concept of self-actualization (achieving one’s full potential).
Cognitive school (Cognitivism) – Focused on the study of mental processes like learning, perception, memory etc.

In recent times, Behavioural school, Cognitive school and Humanistic school remain influential. Most psychologists adopt an eclectic approach drawing upon different perspectives.

Activity 5 (Textbook Page. No. 5)

Find out the Independent Variable and Dependent Variable from the experiment ideas given below: (i) To study the effect of practice on memory. (ii) To study the effect of mental set on problem solving. (iii) To study the effect of noise pollution on the speed of writing. (iv) To study the effect of colour on perception. (v) To study the effect of feedback on decision making. Answer:

Activity 6 (Textbook Page. No. 8)

Discuss about the following topics that can be studied using correlation study method: (i) Bunking lectures and score in exams (ii) Weight and intelligence (iii) Amount of salary and level of job satisfaction (iv) Rehearsal and forgetting (v) Height and aptitude in music (vi) Urbanization and pollution (vii) Speed of vehicles and road accidents Answer: (a) Positive correlation

Urbanization and pollution
Speed of vehicles and road accidents

(b) Negative correlation

Bunking lectures and score in exams
Rehearsal and forgetting

Weight and intelligence
Height and aptitude in music

2.2 Approaches to Research

Learning objectives.

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

Describe the different research methods used by psychologists
Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of case studies, naturalistic observation, surveys, and archival research
Compare longitudinal and cross-sectional approaches to research
Compare and contrast correlation and causation

There are many research methods available to psychologists in their efforts to understand, describe, and explain behavior and the cognitive and biological processes that underlie it. Some methods rely on observational techniques. Other approaches involve interactions between the researcher and the individuals who are being studied—ranging from a series of simple questions to extensive, in-depth interviews—to well-controlled experiments.

Each of these research methods has unique strengths and weaknesses, and each method may only be appropriate for certain types of research questions. For example, studies that rely primarily on observation produce incredible amounts of information, but the ability to apply this information to the larger population is somewhat limited because of small sample sizes. Survey research, on the other hand, allows researchers to easily collect data from relatively large samples. While this allows for results to be generalized to the larger population more easily, the information that can be collected on any given survey is somewhat limited and subject to problems associated with any type of self-reported data. Some researchers conduct archival research by using existing records. While this can be a fairly inexpensive way to collect data that can provide insight into a number of research questions, researchers using this approach have no control on how or what kind of data was collected. All of the methods described thus far are correlational in nature. This means that researchers can speak to important relationships that might exist between two or more variables of interest. However, correlational data cannot be used to make claims about cause-and-effect relationships.

Correlational research can find a relationship between two variables, but the only way a researcher can claim that the relationship between the variables is cause and effect is to perform an experiment. In experimental research, which will be discussed later in this chapter, there is a tremendous amount of control over variables of interest. While this is a powerful approach, experiments are often conducted in artificial settings. This calls into question the validity of experimental findings with regard to how they would apply in real-world settings. In addition, many of the questions that psychologists would like to answer cannot be pursued through experimental research because of ethical concerns.

Clinical or Case Studies

In 2011, the New York Times published a feature story on Krista and Tatiana Hogan, Canadian twin girls. These particular twins are unique because Krista and Tatiana are conjoined twins, connected at the head. There is evidence that the two girls are connected in a part of the brain called the thalamus, which is a major sensory relay center. Most incoming sensory information is sent through the thalamus before reaching higher regions of the cerebral cortex for processing.

Link to Learning

Watch this CBC video about Krista's and Tatiana's lives to learn more.

The implications of this potential connection mean that it might be possible for one twin to experience the sensations of the other twin. For instance, if Krista is watching a particularly funny television program, Tatiana might smile or laugh even if she is not watching the program. This particular possibility has piqued the interest of many neuroscientists who seek to understand how the brain uses sensory information.

These twins represent an enormous resource in the study of the brain, and since their condition is very rare, it is likely that as long as their family agrees, scientists will follow these girls very closely throughout their lives to gain as much information as possible (Dominus, 2011).

Over time, it has become clear that while Krista and Tatiana share some sensory experiences and motor control, they remain two distinct individuals, which provides invaluable insight for researchers interested in the mind and the brain (Egnor, 2017).

In observational research, scientists are conducting a clinical or case study when they focus on one person or just a few individuals. Indeed, some scientists spend their entire careers studying just 10–20 individuals. Why would they do this? Obviously, when they focus their attention on a very small number of people, they can gain a precious amount of insight into those cases. The richness of information that is collected in clinical or case studies is unmatched by any other single research method. This allows the researcher to have a very deep understanding of the individuals and the particular phenomenon being studied.

If clinical or case studies provide so much information, why are they not more frequent among researchers? As it turns out, the major benefit of this particular approach is also a weakness. As mentioned earlier, this approach is often used when studying individuals who are interesting to researchers because they have a rare characteristic. Therefore, the individuals who serve as the focus of case studies are not like most other people. If scientists ultimately want to explain all behavior, focusing attention on such a special group of people can make it difficult to generalize any observations to the larger population as a whole. Generalizing refers to the ability to apply the findings of a particular research project to larger segments of society. Again, case studies provide enormous amounts of information, but since the cases are so specific, the potential to apply what’s learned to the average person may be very limited.

Naturalistic Observation

If you want to understand how behavior occurs, one of the best ways to gain information is to simply observe the behavior in its natural context. However, people might change their behavior in unexpected ways if they know they are being observed. How do researchers obtain accurate information when people tend to hide their natural behavior? As an example, imagine that your professor asks everyone in your class to raise their hand if they always wash their hands after using the restroom. Chances are that almost everyone in the classroom will raise their hand, but do you think hand washing after every trip to the restroom is really that universal?

This is very similar to the phenomenon mentioned earlier in this chapter: many individuals do not feel comfortable answering a question honestly. But if we are committed to finding out the facts about hand washing, we have other options available to us.

Suppose we send a classmate into the restroom to actually watch whether everyone washes their hands after using the restroom. Will our observer blend into the restroom environment by wearing a white lab coat, sitting with a clipboard, and staring at the sinks? We want our researcher to be inconspicuous—perhaps standing at one of the sinks pretending to put in contact lenses while secretly recording the relevant information. This type of observational study is called naturalistic observation : observing behavior in its natural setting. To better understand peer exclusion, Suzanne Fanger collaborated with colleagues at the University of Texas to observe the behavior of preschool children on a playground. How did the observers remain inconspicuous over the duration of the study? They equipped a few of the children with wireless microphones (which the children quickly forgot about) and observed while taking notes from a distance. Also, the children in that particular preschool (a “laboratory preschool”) were accustomed to having observers on the playground (Fanger, Frankel, & Hazen, 2012).

It is critical that the observer be as unobtrusive and as inconspicuous as possible: when people know they are being watched, they are less likely to behave naturally. If you have any doubt about this, ask yourself how your driving behavior might differ in two situations: In the first situation, you are driving down a deserted highway during the middle of the day; in the second situation, you are being followed by a police car down the same deserted highway ( Figure 2.7 ).

It should be pointed out that naturalistic observation is not limited to research involving humans. Indeed, some of the best-known examples of naturalistic observation involve researchers going into the field to observe various kinds of animals in their own environments. As with human studies, the researchers maintain their distance and avoid interfering with the animal subjects so as not to influence their natural behaviors. Scientists have used this technique to study social hierarchies and interactions among animals ranging from ground squirrels to gorillas. The information provided by these studies is invaluable in understanding how those animals organize socially and communicate with one another. The anthropologist Jane Goodall , for example, spent nearly five decades observing the behavior of chimpanzees in Africa ( Figure 2.8 ). As an illustration of the types of concerns that a researcher might encounter in naturalistic observation, some scientists criticized Goodall for giving the chimps names instead of referring to them by numbers—using names was thought to undermine the emotional detachment required for the objectivity of the study (McKie, 2010).

The greatest benefit of naturalistic observation is the validity , or accuracy, of information collected unobtrusively in a natural setting. Having individuals behave as they normally would in a given situation means that we have a higher degree of ecological validity, or realism, than we might achieve with other research approaches. Therefore, our ability to generalize the findings of the research to real-world situations is enhanced. If done correctly, we need not worry about people or animals modifying their behavior simply because they are being observed. Sometimes, people may assume that reality programs give us a glimpse into authentic human behavior. However, the principle of inconspicuous observation is violated as reality stars are followed by camera crews and are interviewed on camera for personal confessionals. Given that environment, we must doubt how natural and realistic their behaviors are.

The major downside of naturalistic observation is that they are often difficult to set up and control. In our restroom study, what if you stood in the restroom all day prepared to record people’s hand washing behavior and no one came in? Or, what if you have been closely observing a troop of gorillas for weeks only to find that they migrated to a new place while you were sleeping in your tent? The benefit of realistic data comes at a cost. As a researcher you have no control of when (or if) you have behavior to observe. In addition, this type of observational research often requires significant investments of time, money, and a good dose of luck.

Sometimes studies involve structured observation. In these cases, people are observed while engaging in set, specific tasks. An excellent example of structured observation comes from Strange Situation by Mary Ainsworth (you will read more about this in the chapter on lifespan development). The Strange Situation is a procedure used to evaluate attachment styles that exist between an infant and caregiver. In this scenario, caregivers bring their infants into a room filled with toys. The Strange Situation involves a number of phases, including a stranger coming into the room, the caregiver leaving the room, and the caregiver’s return to the room. The infant’s behavior is closely monitored at each phase, but it is the behavior of the infant upon being reunited with the caregiver that is most telling in terms of characterizing the infant’s attachment style with the caregiver.

Another potential problem in observational research is observer bias . Generally, people who act as observers are closely involved in the research project and may unconsciously skew their observations to fit their research goals or expectations. To protect against this type of bias, researchers should have clear criteria established for the types of behaviors recorded and how those behaviors should be classified. In addition, researchers often compare observations of the same event by multiple observers, in order to test inter-rater reliability : a measure of reliability that assesses the consistency of observations by different observers.

Often, psychologists develop surveys as a means of gathering data. Surveys are lists of questions to be answered by research participants, and can be delivered as paper-and-pencil questionnaires, administered electronically, or conducted verbally ( Figure 2.9 ). Generally, the survey itself can be completed in a short time, and the ease of administering a survey makes it easy to collect data from a large number of people.

Surveys allow researchers to gather data from larger samples than may be afforded by other research methods . A sample is a subset of individuals selected from a population , which is the overall group of individuals that the researchers are interested in. Researchers study the sample and seek to generalize their findings to the population. Generally, researchers will begin this process by calculating various measures of central tendency from the data they have collected. These measures provide an overall summary of what a typical response looks like. There are three measures of central tendency: mode, median, and mean. The mode is the most frequently occurring response, the median lies at the middle of a given data set, and the mean is the arithmetic average of all data points. Means tend to be most useful in conducting additional analyses like those described below; however, means are very sensitive to the effects of outliers, and so one must be aware of those effects when making assessments of what measures of central tendency tell us about a data set in question.

There is both strength and weakness of the survey in comparison to case studies. By using surveys, we can collect information from a larger sample of people. A larger sample is better able to reflect the actual diversity of the population, thus allowing better generalizability. Therefore, if our sample is sufficiently large and diverse, we can assume that the data we collect from the survey can be generalized to the larger population with more certainty than the information collected through a case study. However, given the greater number of people involved, we are not able to collect the same depth of information on each person that would be collected in a case study.

Another potential weakness of surveys is something we touched on earlier in this chapter: People don't always give accurate responses. They may lie, misremember, or answer questions in a way that they think makes them look good. For example, people may report drinking less alcohol than is actually the case.

Any number of research questions can be answered through the use of surveys. One real-world example is the research conducted by Jenkins, Ruppel, Kizer, Yehl, and Griffin (2012) about the backlash against the US Arab-American community following the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001. Jenkins and colleagues wanted to determine to what extent these negative attitudes toward Arab-Americans still existed nearly a decade after the attacks occurred. In one study, 140 research participants filled out a survey with 10 questions, including questions asking directly about the participant’s overt prejudicial attitudes toward people of various ethnicities. The survey also asked indirect questions about how likely the participant would be to interact with a person of a given ethnicity in a variety of settings (such as, “How likely do you think it is that you would introduce yourself to a person of Arab-American descent?”). The results of the research suggested that participants were unwilling to report prejudicial attitudes toward any ethnic group. However, there were significant differences between their pattern of responses to questions about social interaction with Arab-Americans compared to other ethnic groups: they indicated less willingness for social interaction with Arab-Americans compared to the other ethnic groups. This suggested that the participants harbored subtle forms of prejudice against Arab-Americans, despite their assertions that this was not the case (Jenkins et al., 2012).

Archival Research

Some researchers gain access to large amounts of data without interacting with a single research participant. Instead, they use existing records to answer various research questions. This type of research approach is known as archival research . Archival research relies on looking at past records or data sets to look for interesting patterns or relationships.

For example, a researcher might access the academic records of all individuals who enrolled in college within the past ten years and calculate how long it took them to complete their degrees, as well as course loads, grades, and extracurricular involvement. Archival research could provide important information about who is most likely to complete their education, and it could help identify important risk factors for struggling students ( Figure 2.10 ).

In comparing archival research to other research methods, there are several important distinctions. For one, the researcher employing archival research never directly interacts with research participants. Therefore, the investment of time and money to collect data is considerably less with archival research. Additionally, researchers have no control over what information was originally collected. Therefore, research questions have to be tailored so they can be answered within the structure of the existing data sets. There is also no guarantee of consistency between the records from one source to another, which might make comparing and contrasting different data sets problematic.

Longitudinal and Cross-Sectional Research

Sometimes we want to see how people change over time, as in studies of human development and lifespan. When we test the same group of individuals repeatedly over an extended period of time, we are conducting longitudinal research. Longitudinal research is a research design in which data-gathering is administered repeatedly over an extended period of time. For example, we may survey a group of individuals about their dietary habits at age 20, retest them a decade later at age 30, and then again at age 40.

Another approach is cross-sectional research. In cross-sectional research , a researcher compares multiple segments of the population at the same time. Using the dietary habits example above, the researcher might directly compare different groups of people by age. Instead of studying a group of people for 20 years to see how their dietary habits changed from decade to decade, the researcher would study a group of 20-year-old individuals and compare them to a group of 30-year-old individuals and a group of 40-year-old individuals. While cross-sectional research requires a shorter-term investment, it is also limited by differences that exist between the different generations (or cohorts) that have nothing to do with age per se, but rather reflect the social and cultural experiences of different generations of individuals that make them different from one another.

To illustrate this concept, consider the following survey findings. In recent years there has been significant growth in the popular support of same-sex marriage. Many studies on this topic break down survey participants into different age groups. In general, younger people are more supportive of same-sex marriage than are those who are older (Jones, 2013). Does this mean that as we age we become less open to the idea of same-sex marriage, or does this mean that older individuals have different perspectives because of the social climates in which they grew up? Longitudinal research is a powerful approach because the same individuals are involved in the research project over time, which means that the researchers need to be less concerned with differences among cohorts affecting the results of their study.

Often longitudinal studies are employed when researching various diseases in an effort to understand particular risk factors. Such studies often involve tens of thousands of individuals who are followed for several decades. Given the enormous number of people involved in these studies, researchers can feel confident that their findings can be generalized to the larger population. The Cancer Prevention Study-3 (CPS-3) is one of a series of longitudinal studies sponsored by the American Cancer Society aimed at determining predictive risk factors associated with cancer. When participants enter the study, they complete a survey about their lives and family histories, providing information on factors that might cause or prevent the development of cancer. Then every few years the participants receive additional surveys to complete. In the end, hundreds of thousands of participants will be tracked over 20 years to determine which of them develop cancer and which do not.

Clearly, this type of research is important and potentially very informative. For instance, earlier longitudinal studies sponsored by the American Cancer Society provided some of the first scientific demonstrations of the now well-established links between increased rates of cancer and smoking (American Cancer Society, n.d.) ( Figure 2.11 ).

As with any research strategy, longitudinal research is not without limitations. For one, these studies require an incredible time investment by the researcher and research participants. Given that some longitudinal studies take years, if not decades, to complete, the results will not be known for a considerable period of time. In addition to the time demands, these studies also require a substantial financial investment. Many researchers are unable to commit the resources necessary to see a longitudinal project through to the end.

Research participants must also be willing to continue their participation for an extended period of time, and this can be problematic. People move, get married and take new names, get ill, and eventually die. Even without significant life changes, some people may simply choose to discontinue their participation in the project. As a result, the attrition rates, or reduction in the number of research participants due to dropouts, in longitudinal studies are quite high and increase over the course of a project. For this reason, researchers using this approach typically recruit many participants fully expecting that a substantial number will drop out before the end. As the study progresses, they continually check whether the sample still represents the larger population, and make adjustments as necessary.

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Research Methods In Psychology

Experimental Design

Experimental Methods

Correlational Studies

A correlation between variables, however, does not automatically mean that the change in one variable is the cause of the change in the values of the other variable. A correlation only shows if there is a relationship between variables.

Interview Methods

Observations

Pilot Study

Research Design

Reliability

Meta-Analysis

Peer Review

Types of Data

Features of Science

Statistical Testing

Ethical Issues

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2.2 Approaches to Research

Clinical or Case Studies

Link to Learning

Naturalistic Observation

Archival Research

Longitudinal and Cross-Sectional Research

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