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The Discursive Construction of History. Brief Considerations

Texte intégral, discourse studies and the re/writing of history.

1 In recent years, much research in Discourse Studies and Critical Discourse Studies has started to analyse the many dimensions of national and transnational “identity politics” and to investigate how the discursive construction of such identities draws on collective and individual memories, on hegemonic and common sense narratives, and on myths which are proposed as constitutive for national identification (see below:“Discourses of/about the past(s). Overview of research”). Indeed, one might claim that the entire field of “language and politics” in post-war Europe (particularly since the 1960’s and 1980’s) was triggered by the desire to understand the influence of persuasive rhetoric in and on totalitarian regimes and related major catastrophes in the 20 th  century, thus trying to come to terms with the traumatic pasts in Europe and beyond (Wodak, De Cillia, 2006, 2007). In this way, it is very timely to consider the range of research, theories, and methodologies employed to investigate this domain in a special issue dedicated to “thirty years of Mots. Les langages du politique ”.

2 It is obvious however, that many answers to overarching questions are still missing, such as how should one deal with “traumatic” pasts that are prevalent in every society ? How should one deal with perpetrators and victims ? Should one focus on a common future and “forget the past” ? Can a “clean break” be achieved ? What are the functions and risks of such a “clean break” ? And if silence occurs, what are the consequences, for perpetrators, victims, and society as a whole ? In particular, one question remains are there any global traits with respect to dealing with individual and collective memories ? In the following, I summarise some of the most important research related to these questions from the perspective of (Critical) Discourse Studies.

Discourses of/about the past(s). Overview of research

• 1  De Cillia, Wodak, 2009a ; Forchtner, 2010 ; Stockholm-Banke, 2009 ; Ensink, 2009 ; Reisigl, 2008 ; (...)

2  Achugar, 2008 ; Anthonissen, Blommaert, 2006 ; Verdoolaege, 2008.

3  Blommaert, 2005 ; Carrard, 2010 ; Ensink, Sauer, 2003 ; Heer et al. , 2008 ; Wodak, 2006a, 2006b.

4  Blommaert, 2003 ; Czy ż ewski, 2009 ; Kovàcs, Wodak, 2003 ; Pollak, Wodak, 2008.

5  Wodak et al. , 2009 ; Suleiman, 2010 ; Blackledge, 2004.

6  Pollak, 2002 ; Ribeiro, 2010 ; Zimmerman, 2009.

3 Recent research focuses on a range of salient oral, written, and visual genres, such as commemorative speeches at various salient national or transnational days in the Netherlands, Denmark, the US and the UK, Austria and Germany 1 , the discourses of truth and reconciliation tribunals in South Africa, Chile, and Argentina 2 , accounts and experiences of victims (and perpetrators) in the Congo, Austria, France, Poland, and Germany 3 , the argumentation inherent in election posters insinuating and functionalising past events as well as related xenophobic and anti-Semitic stereotypes (in Austria and the UK) (Distelberger, 2009; Richardson, Wodak, 2009a, 2009b), television debates and documentaries discussing competing narratives of national pasts, in Poland, Hungary, Germany, Austria, the Soviet Union, the UK, and France 4 , the effect of commemorative exhibitions (Uhl, 2008), the discursive construction of national identities in Austria, Palestine or the UK 5 , debates in the (Austrian, Israeli or Portuguese) press about the juxtaposition of victims and perpetrators 6 or about issues of restitution (De Cillia, Wodak, 2009b), and representations of victims and perpetrators in school books in Austria and Japan (Barnard, 2003; Loitfellner, 2008).

7  Benke, Wodak, 2003 ; Wodak et al. , 1990 ; Engel, Wodak, 2009.

4 Of course, some studies also investigate counter-discourses by politicians and political parties who continuously endorse revisionist views of the past and attempt to justify or indeed deny past war crimes 7 . Specific linguistic-rhetorical patterns are also under investigation in this context, such as conceptual metaphors and their blending or the implicatures and presuppositions as employed, for example, in Hitler’s Mein Kampf (Chilton, 2007; Musolff, 2009), and the coded languages of racism, xenophobia, and anti-Semitism as well as the related indirect pragmatic devices used to discriminate against certain marginalised social groups or to promote a “politics of denial” (Van Dijk, 1993; Wodak, 2007).

An integrative interdisciplinary framework

Comparing and/or equating .

5 This brief overview is, of course, not a finite list; however, the range of countries and investigated topics becomes apparent, linked to the emergence of historical and political science literature best summarised in Judt (2007). Judt’s seminal book Post-War presents a comprehensive and detailed account of different aspects of the world’s responses to (the aftermath of) World War II. He succeeds, in illustrating how specific and indeed diverse the responses in various parts of the world and countries were and are to salient traumatic experiences of the past.

6 In this vein, Pelinka (2009, p. 49) argues that

[I]n dealing with war crimes and crimes against humanity, three different, sometimes conflicting patterns have been developed since 1945. The three patterns can be distinguished according to their different guarding principles Justice Perpetrators must be brought to court and convicted. Truth All major aspects of the crimes must become known to the public. Peace At the end of any process, social reconciliation must become possible.

7 He continues that “in the short run, neglecting justice and truth in favour of peace and reconciliation may have a positive impact on stabilizing democracy in a peaceful way; but in the long run, such a neglect has its price especially regarding social peace” ( ibid .).

8 More specifically, Pelinka claims that, on the one hand, “without comparing the quality and the quantity of evidence, any debate about conflicting narratives loses any kind of academic liability and responsibility” (p. 50), thus comparison should take place, always in a context-dependent way. On the other hand, however, comparisons should not lead to any equation of traumatic events. Thus, Pelinka emphasises that

Fascism is not fascism is not fascism. Too easily the term fascism is used to blur significant differences between different regimes. Spain under Franco is not Italy under Mussolini is not Austria under Dollfuß is not Portugal under Salazar is not Hungary under Horthy – and they all are not Germany under Hitler. All these different types of fascism or semi-fascism have a lot in common – non-democratic rule, oppression of political opponents, ending the rule of law. But the intensity of suppression as well as the existence of a monopolistic mass party make a lot of difference – not to speak of the Holocaust which is the decisive quality of nazism and not of fascism in general. ( Ibid ., p. 53)

9 Careful deconstruction of many current debates about the past in different parts of the world illustrates indeed that certain terms become ubiquitous – such as “Holocaust” or “fascism”. Following Pelinka’s argument (which I endorse), it is obvious that terms lose their distinctiveness when used to label similar but very different events and experiences in different national contexts. Such terms then tend to be employed like “empty signifiers” and their context-dependent meanings become blurred. Hence, research about past events necessarily has to consider the socio-political and historical contexts of each experience and avoid undifferentiated generalisations.

Four models of coping with traumatic pasts

10 Assmann (2009, p. 31 ff.) distinguishes between four ways in which societies deal with traumatic pasts. She refers to them as dialogic forgetting ; remembering in order to prevent forgetting ; remembering in order to forget ; and dialogic remembering . The first – dialogic forgetting – is defined as a model for peace agreed upon by two parties that had engaged in violence in order to keep an explosive past at bay. This kind of forgetting is not to be set equal with the suppression of memories by one side of the conflict; rather, this serves, as Assmann argues, to achieve closure and allow societies to “move on”. One of the examples mentioned in this thought-provoking essay are the many traumatic incidents in Spain under Franco until Spanish Prime-minister Zapatero’s “memory law” 2007, which for the first time encouraged Spanish people to remember.

11 “Remembering in order to prevent forgetting” is typical for asymmetric instances of violence. The paradigmatic case in hand is the genocide against Jews and Roma during the Nazi regime (the “Holocaust”). As Assmann claims

[R]emembering was the only adequate response to such collectively destructive and devastating experiences. It was rediscovered not only as a therapeutic remedy for the survivors but also as a spiritual and ethical obligation for the millions of dead victims. Thus slowly but inevitably, the pact of forgetting was transformed into a “pact of remembering”. The aim of such a pact is to transform the asymmetric experience of violence into symmetric forms of remembering. (  Ibid ., p. 35)

12 The aim of the third model is also forgetting, but the way to achieve this aim leads through remembering. Remembering in this case (for example, in South Africa or in Chile) is introduced as a therapeutic tool to cleanse and to reconcile. Many linguistic studies have investigated the effect of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission in South Africa (Anthonissen, Blommaert, 2006; Verdoolaege, 2008). Although, of course, only some perpetrators were brought to justice and not all voices of victims were heard, this procedure enabled South African society to avoid a civil war. Finally, Assmann mentions a utopian model, the model of “dialogic remembering” “Two countries engage in a dialogic memory if they face a shared history of mutual violence by mutually acknowledging their own guilt and empathy with the suffering they have inflicted on others” ( ibid ., 40). Assmann mentions some first attempts at dialogic remembering. For example, she lists the Warsaw uprising, a seminal event commemorated in Poland, which was unknown to Germans because it is fully eclipsed – for the German public – by the Warsaw ghetto uprising. Simultaneously, Germans have reclaimed the firebombing of Dresden for their national memory, but they have neglected the Leningrade Blockade (1941-1944) by the German Wehrmacht , through which 700 000 Russians were starved to death; and so forth. Recently, such neglected events are increasingly finding their way into history school books and public debates.

Discourse and social change

13 In accordance with the two above mentioned theoretical frameworks by Pelinka and Assmann, it is necessary, I believe, to integrate these with concepts from discourse analysis. In this context, the notions of intertextuality , recontextualisation and entextualisation present themselves for further theorizing (Wodak, Fairclough, 2010; Blommaert, 2003).

14 An important assumption common to various approaches to CDS is that processes of social change are in part processes of change in discourse , and that change in discourse may, subject to certain conditions, have constructive effects on processes of social change more generally. The challenge is to develop theories of social change which coherently integrate discourse and relations between discourses and other elements or moments of the social process, and methodologies for focusing specifically on these relations, and the particular place and impact of discourse, in inter-disciplinary research on social change (Fairclough, 1992; Krzy ż anowski, Wodak, 2009). Since events and texts are linked to, affected by and have effects on other events and texts in different places and at different times, the major challenge implies developing ways to address broadly spatial and temporal relationships between events and texts (i.e. intertextuality ; Kristeva, 1986).

15 Struggles for hegemony of various competing narratives of the past which can be reconstructed in a longitudinal way require very subtle context-dependent analyses. In this way, the theorization of contexts becomes crucial to any dialectic analysis (see below “Levels of context”). Thus, we assume that social and historical change occurs on several levels at different times and with different speed (or sometimes not at all); thus non-simultaneity needs, to be accounted for in differentiated, context-dependent ways. These intricate and complex processes also suggest the necessity of the concept of glocalization of understanding how more global processes are being implemented, recontextualized and thus changed on local/regional/national levels (Krzy ż anowski, Wodak, 2009; “ model of circular non-simultaneous transformation ”).

• 8  In a similar vein, Blommaert (2003, p. 177) employs the term entextualisation which guides the “pr (...)

16 Recontextualization as one of the salient linguistic processes governing historical change is concretely manifested in the intertextuality and interdiscursivity of texts (Wodak, Fairclough, 2010). The intertextuality of a text is a matter of how elements of other texts (words, phrases, arguments, topics, or larger elements) are incorporated within it; the interdiscursivity of a text is the particular combination of different discourses and different genres that characterizes the text, and how the deployment of particular discourses and genres links the text to other intertextually related texts. Recontextualization is often textually realized in the mixing of “new” recontextualized elements and “old” elements, such as particular words, expressions, arguments, topoi , rhetorical devices and so forth, and discourses and genres. The tensions, contradictions and antinomies which recontextualization gives rise to can be textually identified and analysed by focusing upon such textual mixing or hybridity 8 .

Levels of context

17 The concept of context is an inherent part of discourse analysis. In the course of investigating complex social problems, it is necessary to draw on multiple theoretical approaches to analyse given contexts and relate these to texts. To make this possible in a meaningful way, decisions must be made about the theoretical foundations and interdisciplinarity of discourse analysis. This is why I have proposed the Four-Level Model of context elsewhere which I summarise briefly below.

18 This triangulatory approach is based on a concept of context which takes into account four levels

19 – the co-text of each utterance or clause;

20 – the con-text in the macro-text; the genre analysis;

21 – the socio-political context of the speech event.

22 The intertextual and interdiscursive relationships of the respective speech event to other relevant events.

23 When analysing narratives about past events, a systematic investigation of context-dependent layers of debate proves valuable as illustrated, for example, in deconstructing instances of the politics of denial (Heer et al. , 2008).

Perspectives

24 Although this paper – due to restrictions on space – can only cover part of the most important research on “coping with traumatic pasts” from a discourse-analytic perspective, it is obvious that all dimensions and levels of language and communication can be functionalized to achieve “re/writing of history”. This paper aims primarily at raising awareness of the “power of the written and spoken word”, in all public and private contexts in our lives. Careful and critical reading/listening and viewing is required in order to understand the implied meanings, which are frequently controversial and conflicting.

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1  De Cillia, Wodak, 2009a ; Forchtner, 2010 ; Stockholm-Banke, 2009 ; Ensink, 2009 ; Reisigl, 2008 ; Charteris-Black, 2007 ; Slavickova, 2010 ; Wodak et al. , 1994.

8  In a similar vein, Blommaert (2003, p. 177) employs the term entextualisation which guides the “production of historical text”. Thus Blommaert argues, entextualisation means “setting / desetting / resetting events in particular (morally and politically loaded) time frames, and this in turn involves the usual power differences of entextualisation: access to contextual spaces, the importance of ‘the record’, orientation towards authoritative voices, shifts in referential and indexical frames and so on”.

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6 Foucault: Politics, History, and Discourse

• Published: October 2016
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Foucault’s changing formulations of approaches to the history of discourses and forms of power are outlined from Madness and Civilisation to his late lectures on governmentality. Foucault is shown to be a radical who deconstructs agential authorial views of meaning to point up the role of discourses and regimes of power in framing the ways in which social life is experienced. His archaeological and genealogical approaches to history are examined. He provides a challenging reading of politics and the history of political ideas. He broadens the scope of the operations of power and the nature of the political. He challenges conventional readings of liberalism and the Enlightenment by observing how power operates in ways that are not tracked in standard liberal accounts, even if he does not provide a critical justification of either his own perspectivalism or that of his predecessor, Nietzsche.

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ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF DISCOURSE ANALYSIS AS A DISCIPLINE: DISCOURSE ANALYSIS AS A CROSS DISCIPLINARY STUDY

History is simply seen as the study of life in the society in the past, in all its aspect, in relations to present development s and future hopes. According to Collingwood (1945) history must be the attempt to re-think the past. History deals with the analysis and interpretation of human past enabling us to study continuity and changes that are taking over time. Historian’s use all forms of evidence to examine, interpret, revisit and reinterpret the past. This does not capture written documents only but also oral communication and objects such as buildings, artifacts, photographs and paintings. Discourse analysis as a discipline did not fall from the heaven as a discipline or course of study but also had a beginning or a starting point which needs to be explored. This paper seeks to throw more light on Historical interface of Discourse Analysis. Which would capture the Historical Background, Structure and the analysis of Texts, emergence of discourse analysis as a new discipline and conclusion.

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Academic Discourse Socialization

• Living reference work entry
• First Online: 04 April 2017
• Cite this living reference work entry

• Masaki Kobayashi 4 ,
• Sandra Zappa-Hollman 5 &
• Patricia A. Duff 6  

Part of the book series: Encyclopedia of Language and Education ((ELE))

630 Accesses

2 Citations

Research on academic discourse socialization (ADS), a form of language socialization, examines the social, cognitive, and cultural processes, ideologies, and practices involved in higher education in particular. ADS is concerned with the means by which newcomers and those they interact with learn to participate in various kinds of academic discourse in their communities and other social networks.

In this chapter, we discuss recent developments in scholarship on ADS, following on earlier such reviews (e.g., Duff 2010 ; Morita and Kobayashi 2008 ). We describe the challenges faced by some students (and sometimes their mentors) in relation to intertextuality , unfamiliar or evolving academic genres, and social stratification and marginalization, which may be exacerbated by students’ proficiency in the language of education. We review research examining the linguistic and rhetorical demands of academic texts in diverse disciplines, noting the complexities, contingencies, and hybridity of ADS. We also discuss problems with research that assumes a prescriptive, deterministic view of ADS instead of an innovative, transformative, and sometimes contested process. We conclude by identifying areas for future studies in ADS, emphasizing fertile research possibilities associated with technology-mediated socialization (e.g., i-clickers, Skype, Google Docs, and course-related discussion platforms), new forms of assessment (e.g., portfolios), the inclusion of a wider range of oral, written, and multimodal learning activities, and a more diverse range of contexts, both disciplinary and geographical. Finally, we suggest that longitudinal studies of ADS across learners’ academic programs (i.e., within and across courses) over an extended period are needed.

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Anderson, N. J. (2015). Academic reading expectations and challenges. In N. W. Evans, N. J. Anderson, & W. G. Eggington (Eds.), ESL readers and writers in higher education: Understanding challenges, providing support (pp. 95–109). New York: Routledge.

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Department of English, Kanda University of International Studies, 1-4-1 Wakaba, Mihama-ku, 261-0014, Chiba, Chiba Prefecture, Japan

Masaki Kobayashi

Department of Language and Literacy Education, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada

Sandra Zappa-Hollman

University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada

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Stephen May

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Kobayashi, M., Zappa-Hollman, S., Duff, P.A. (2017). Academic Discourse Socialization. In: Duff, P., May, S. (eds) Language Socialization. Encyclopedia of Language and Education. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-02327-4_18-1

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-02327-4_18-1

Received : 18 April 2016

Accepted : 10 March 2017

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Online ISBN : 978-3-319-02327-4

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Written discourse

Essays marked with a * received a distinction.

• * Analyzing and raising students’ awareness of textual patterns in authentic texts : Mohammad Umar Farooq
• Written Text Analysis : Gregory S. Hadley
• *Show an analysis of the whole text in terms of the main underlying text pattern. Identify the signals that indicate this pattern David Evans
• Critical discourse analysis: A letter to expatriate from the Rt. Hon. Sir Norman Fowler MP : Andrew Atkins
• * Teaching English Textual Patterns to Japanese Students : Michiko Kasuya
• * A analysis of a Korean student’s written English text : Yvette Murdoch
• A text analysis of 'Taking Failure by the Throat' : Marian Dawson
• Problems in processing text produced by a student : Alan Macedo
• Applying written discourse analysis in a Japanese EFL class :  Cindy Cunningham
• Referential discourse structures and the creation of text: an analysis of student writing samples : William Penny
• How to get away with things with words: An Examination of Written Texts : Jeremy Scott Boston
• A Text analysis of a newspaper article about Konglish taken from ‘The Korea Heral d' David Doms
• * Increasing comprehension and production of cohesion through conjunction : Thomas Warren-Price
• * An Evaluation of American Headway 3 Mary Umemoto
• Choose an authentic text in English. Analyze the text in terms of problem-solution, general specific or claim-counterclaim patterns.  Briefly discuss the challenges and opportunities that such text patterns present for teachers of English as a foreign language . Andrew Rolnick
• * The Use of Critical Discourse Analysis with Korean Adult Learners , Terry Faulkner   
• Do Students Need Critical Discourse Awareness? H. Douglas Sewell
• * Paraphrasing: An Introductory Unit In Paraphrasing in Academic Discourse   Deborah Novakova
• * The Value of Enhancing Students’ Critical Awareness of Discourse Philip Shigeo Brown
• * Science or Slaughter? Two Opposing Views on Japanese Whaling: a Critical Discourse Analysis Jason Peppard
• The Findings of Written Discourse Analysis and how they are Articulated in Learning English for Academic Purposes   Sandee Thompson
• * Two Views, Two Discourses: A Critical Analysis of how Ideology is Interpreted and Reinforced through Opinion Articles Michael Chang
• On Analysing a Problem-Solution Text Pattern Fernando Oliveira
• How to Raise Awareness of Textual Patterns Using an Authentic Text   Seiko Matsubara
• * The Politicisation of Death, Methods of Embedding Ideology within the News: A Critical Discourse Analysis of Two News Articles Michael Post
• * Genre analysis of the 'simple joke' (with TESL/TEFL applications) , Robert Murphy
• * Encouraging Problem-Solution Patterning and Co-Textual Referencing in L2 Written Discourse , Steven James Kurowski
• * Japanese Revisionists and the 'Comfort Women' Issue: A Comparison of Two Texts , Michael Cooper
• * 'One-on-One With Obama': An Analysis , Andrew Lawson
• * Genre Analysis of a Job Rejection Letter , Garcia Chambers
• Ideological Variations in the Representation of Hugo Chavez as a Democratic Leader in Two Different Cultures: A Critical Discourse Analysis , Parker Rader
• A Chinese Student's Text Analysis , Soti Vogli
• * Pedagogic applications of the Problem-solution pattern , Benet Vincent
• * Differing Opinions: A Critical Discourse Analysis of Two Articles Stefan Thomson
• * Trends in EBP: A Comparison of Market Leader's Writing Tasks to Findings in Written Discourse Joshua Durey
• Sexual Bias in Institutionalised Forms of Discourse Baljinder Gosal
• From Surface to W ider Context: Two Text Types Analysed , Sirkku Carey
• * Trends in EBP: a Comparison of 'Market Leader''s Writing Tasks to Findings in Written Discourse Joshua Drury
• An Analysis of Two Newspaper Articles in the Aftermath of the 2011 Japanese Tsuna mi Bruce Hope
• An Analysis of a Mexican EFL Tex tbook: A Written Discourse Perspective Elsa Fernanda Gonzalez
• * Korean News vs International News: A Critical Analysis of Two News Reports on North Korea Jonas Robertson
• Immigration Articles in Two Newspapers - A Multimodal Discourse  Dominic Castello
• Gender Relations in Institutionalized Discourses Mehboobkhan Ismail
• *  Critical Discourse Analysis: How the Washington Post and Moscow Times Reported the Russian Airstrikes in Syria   Laurie Knox
• * Critical Discourse Analysis of How Two Newspapers Reported the Treatment of Women at a Sumo Event in Japan Christine Pemberton