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after Greek Gaîa , a primordial earth goddess in Greek myth, literally, "earth" — more at geo-

1972, in the meaning defined above

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“Gaia.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary , Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Gaia. Accessed 25 Apr. 2024.

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• BOOKS AND ARTS
• 25 June 2019

James Lovelock at 100: the Gaia saga continues

• Tim Radford 0

Tim Radford was science editor of The Guardian until 2005. As a science journalist, he met and got to know James Lovelock. His latest book is The Consolations of Physics .

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James Lovelock proposes that Earth will be saved by artificial intelligence. Credit: Tim Cuff/Alamy

Novacene: The Coming Age of Hyperintelligence James Lovelock Allen Lane (2019)

James Lovelock will always be associated with one big idea: Gaia. The Oxford English Dictionary defines this as “the global ecosystem, understood to function in the manner of a vast self-regulating organism, in the context of which all living things collectively define and maintain the conditions conducive for life on earth”. It cites the independent scientist as the first to use the term (ancient Greek for Earth) in this way, in 1972.

On 26 July, Lovelock will be 100; his long career has sparkled with ideas. His first solo letter to Nature — on a new formula for the wax pencils used to mark Petri dishes — was published in 1945. But, unusually for a scientist, books are his medium of choice. He has written or co-authored around a dozen; the latest, Novacene , is published this month.

As that book’s preface notes, Lovelock’s nomination to the Royal Society in 1974 listed his work on “respiratory infections, air sterilisation, blood-clotting, the freezing of living cells, artificial insemination, gas chromatography and so on”. The “and so on” briefly referred to climate science, and to the possibility of extraterrestrial life. The story of Gaia began with a question posed by NASA scientists while Lovelock was a consultant at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, California. That is, how could you tell if a planet such as Mars harboured life?

Final warning from a sceptical prophet

With microbiologist Lynn Margulis, Lovelock published a series of papers on the subject. In 1974, they developed a view of Earth’s atmosphere as “a component part of the biosphere rather than as a mere environment for life” ( J. E. Lovelock and L. Margulis Tellus 26 , 2–10; 1974 ). Earth’s atmosphere contains oxygen and methane — reactive gases, constantly renewed. That disequilibrium radiates an infrared signal, which Lovelock later described as an “unceasing song of life” that is “audible to anyone with a receiver, even from outside the Solar System”. Thus, the answer to NASA’s question was already written in the static Martian atmosphere, composed almost entirely of non-reactive carbon dioxide.

That was the beginning of a sustained and developing argument, in the face of sometimes dismissive criticism, that recast Earth as, in effect, a superorganism. Lovelock’s Gaia theory states that, for much of the past 3.8 billion years, a holistic feedback system has played out in the biosphere, with life forms regulating temperature and proportions of gases in the atmosphere to life’s advantage. Earth system science is now firmly established as a valuable intellectual framework for understanding the only planet known to harbour life, and increasingly vulnerable to the unthinking actions of one species. Colleagues and co-authors acknowledge that the argument continues, but endorse the importance of Lovelock and Margulis.

Entwined evolution

“The insight that the oceans and the atmosphere are thoroughly entwined with the living biosphere, and must be understood as a coupled system, has been completely vindicated,” says marine and atmospheric scientist Andrew Watson of the University of Exeter, UK. Lee Kump goes further. “Lovelock also showed us that Darwin had it only half right,” says Kump, a geoscientist at Pennsylvania State University in University Park. “Life evolves in response to environmental change, but the environment also evolves in response to biological change.” Despite severing formal links with universities decades ago, Lovelock has been showered with honorary degrees and awards from bodies as varied as NASA and the Geological Society of London.

The procession of engaging books began in 1979 with Gaia: A New Look at Life on Earth . Each volume made its case more forcefully than the last, exploring what was known first as the Gaia hypothesis, then simply as Gaia, and the hazards facing either the biosphere or humanity. The books include his endearing autobiography Homage to Gaia (2000), increasingly urgent warnings of climate devastation in The Revenge of Gaia (2006) and The Vanishing Face of Gaia (2009), and the less apocalyptic A Rough Ride to the Future (2014).

James Lovelock pictured in 1989. Credit: Terry Smith/The LIFE Images Collection/Getty

Novacene picks up from that note of hope, and showcases another big idea. Gaia might, after all, be saved — by the singularity. This artificial-intelligence takeover, which so alarms many doomsayers, will be our redemption. Lovelock argues that increasingly self-engineering cyborgs with massive intellectual prowess and a telepathically shared consciousness will recognize that they, like organisms, are prey to climate change. They will understand that the planetary thermostat, the control system, is Gaia herself; and, in tandem with her, they will save the sum of remaining living tissue and themselves. The planet will enter the Novacene epoch: Lovelock’s coinage for the successor to the informally named Anthropocene.

Lovelock welcomes this. “Whatever harm we have done to the Earth, we have, just in time, redeemed ourselves by acting simultaneously as parents and midwives to the cyborgs,” he writes. He takes the long view on this rescue, however. Climate change is a real threat to humanity, but Earth will inevitably be overtaken by a ‘big heat’ in a few billion years, as the Sun slowly waxes more fierce.

Although co-authored with journalist Bryan Appleyard, Novacene reads like undiluted Lovelock. From the start of his writing life — no matter how tortuous the narrative or complex the argument — Lovelock has written persuasively. In his debut, Gaia , he sidestepped evolution’s first and biggest obstacle (how to get from organic chemistry to a living, devouring, excreting, replicating organism) in two sentences that seem to me models of clarity and brevity: “Life was thus an almost utterly improbable event with almost infinite opportunities of happening. So it did.”

No place like home

In The Ages of Gaia (1988), a richer and more closely argued restatement, he answered the vexed question of how life contradicts the second law of thermodynamics. Life, he wrote, “has evolved with the Earth as a highly coupled system so as to favour survival. It is like a skilled accountant, never evading the payment of the required tax but also never missing a loophole.” This metaphoric brilliance is no rarity. A few pages on, he reminds us that Gaia is “a quarter as old as time itself. She is so old that her birth was in the region of time where ignorance is an ocean and the territory of knowledge is limited to small islands, whose possession gives a spurious sense of certainty.”

Lovelock’s Gaia theory is only one aspect of his nonconformism. His vigorous support for nuclear power annoys many environmentalists. Brought up as a Quaker, he registered as a conscientious objector in 1940, then changed his mind and prepared for military action in 1944 (the National Institute for Medical Research in London considered him more useful in the lab). Later, he became a consultant for the security services of Britain’s defence ministry. Among his inventions is an electron capture detector sensitive enough to identify vanishingly small traces of pollutants — such as the pesticides that spurred Rachel Carson to write the 1962 book Silent Spring — and chlorofluorocarbons, later implicated in damage to the ozone layer. In Novacene , he writes teasingly that he now sees himself as an engineer who values intuition above reason.

Lovelock to the last, he even has a kind word for the Anthropocene, marked by degradation of natural resources and the devastation of the wild things with which humanity evolved. He gives a “shout of joy, joy at the colossal expansion of our knowledge of the world and the cosmos”, and exults that the digital revolution ultimately “empowers evolution”. Is he right? Some of us might live to find out. In the meantime, if you want a sense of hyperintelligence in bipedal form, Novacene is a good place to start.

Nature 570 , 441-442 (2019)

doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-019-01969-y

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Gaia hypothesis

[ gey - uh hahy-poth- uh -sis , hi-poth‐ ]

• a theory advancing the notion that life on earth is perpetuated by the interaction of organisms with their inorganic environment, a process maintained by the earth’s self-regulation of its own material conditions and requirements.
• the theory that the earth and everything on it constitutes a single self-regulating living entity

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Word history and origins.

Origin of Gaia hypothesis 1

Example Sentences

Echoing James Lovelock’s Gaia hypothesis, which proposes that the Earth is a vast, self-regulating organism, Mutu said in her recent talk that the injustices humans commit against one another are inevitably related to the Earth.

The scientist James Lovelock named his influential theory of global interconnectedness the Gaia hypothesis after her.

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"The Gaia hypothesis says that the temperature, oxidation state, acidity, and certain aspects of the rocks and waters are kept constant, and that this homeostasis is maintained by active feedback processes operated automatically and unconsciously by the biota." - James Lovelock, The Ages of Gaia

Suggested Readings:

• Margulis, L and J. Lovelock. 1976. Is Mars a Spaceship, Too? Natural History , June/July pp. 86-90

In this lesson, we learn:

• What are the weaknesses of the hypothesis? What are its strengths?
• What are some examples of Gaia-like feedbacks?

Jump to: [ Introduction ] [ Origin of the Hypothesis ] [ Examples of Regulation ] [ Alternatives to Gaia ] [ Many Gain Hypotheses ] [ Summary ]

1. introduction - gaia and global change, 2. the hypothesis and its originators.

3. Examples of Regulation of the Environment, According to Gaia

Perhaps life regulates the physical and chemical environment of the planet so as to maintain suitable planetary conditions for the good of life itself. If so, then the planet can be thought of as a single, integrated, living entity with self-regulating abilities. This is the radical view that Lovelock and Margulis have espoused. It can be thought of as the "strong Gaian model."

4. Alternatives to the Gaia Hypothesis

• The idea that climate and life influence one another is profoundly important. In some form or another, it has been recognized for a long time. Life and climate "grew up together" and influenced one another over most of earth history. But this is not to say that life somehow manages and self-optimizes its own environment. It is this idea -- the "strong form of Gaia" -- that is most controversial.

5. The Many Gaian Hypotheses

"...it is unlikely that chance alone accounts for the fact that temperature, pH and the presence of compounds of nutrient elements have been, for immense periods, just those optimal for surface life. Rather, ... energy is expended by the biota to actively maintain these optima" (Lovelock and Margulis, 1974).

6. Modeling Gaia

You can model feedbacks using the classic Gaia example of Daisyworld with Stella or using this interactive Java applet .  The latter is especially useful to get a first-order understanding of changing parameters.  The Stella model permit more sophisticated analysis.

• The hypothesis has been defined and argued in numerous ways, and has as many critics as adherents. It is in need of more explicit formulation before it can be examined and tested as a true scientific theory.  
• Two models emerge: The model that life influences planetary processes (i.e., it has a substantial effect on abiotic processes) has become known as the weak Gaia hypothesis .  This model is widely supported. The original Gaia hypothesis, that life controls planetary processes (i.e., life created Earth's system), has become known as the strong Gaia hypothesis .  It is not widely accepted.

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The theory, based on an idea put forward by the British scientist James Ephraim Lovelock (1919– ), that the whole earth, including both its biotic (living) and abiotic (nonliving) components, functions as a single self-regulating system. Named after the Greek earth goddess, it proposes that the responses of living organisms to environmental conditions ultimately bring about changes that make the earth better adapted to support life; the system would rid itself of any species that adversely affects the environment. The theory has found favour with many conservationists.

From:   Gaia hypothesis   in  A Dictionary of Biology »

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How James Lovelock introduced Gaia to an unsuspecting world

Once in a generation, perhaps, you get to read a book that will change the way we see the world. But it might take a whole generation to realise by how much.

My copy of Gaia is a first edition from 1979: hardback price £4.95 (and there were no discounts in those days). To re-read the original text is to be reminded, in all sorts of unexpected ways, how far we have come. Its author has since morphed from J E, an "independent scientist", to James Lovelock , the world-famous author and speaker. The once-tentative Gaia hypothesis has become part of scientific orthodoxy and has been formally enshrined as the Gaia Theory, although in the US it has been dubbed Earth System Science.

A new generation of telescopes will soon be sweeping the nearby stars for evidence of oxygen and methane in the atmospheres of the planets that orbit them: a simple idea proposed by Lovelock 40 years ago during the hunt for life on Mars, and at the time no doubt dismissed as a bit too simple.

The Gaia hypothesis, as it then was, is simply put. Life may be the product of blind chance and opportune circumstance, but once it has established itself on a planet, it takes over. It manages the planet in ways that continue to sustain life in more or less optimum circumstances. That is why it may be a mistake to call Earth the Goldilocks planet: not too hot, not too cold, but just right. In fact, Earth's average temperature may be just right because life, by unconsciously manipulating the planet's oceanic and atmospheric chemistry, sets the thermostat that keeps its Earthly home within a temperature range that is comfortable for life.

At the time of publication, this idea seemed either thrilling or preposterously New Age, and sometimes both. Biologists in particular were annoyed because they see evolutionary forms as having adapted to their environments through natural selection, blindly and without purpose or direction. This remains true, but it is also true that having found an ecological niche, all creatures – elephants, ants, orchids and economists – tend to maintain their environments to their own advantage, and it now looks as though collectively, the whole assortment that we call life has got a good grip on Earth, has dug in, so to speak, and made itself at home.

Lovelock won over first his readers and then his fellow scientists by asking questions that might not have been obvious to any of us at the time. Where did the nitrogen in the atmosphere come from? Why was the proportion of atmospheric oxygen just within the safety zone? Why wasn't the sea far more salty? Why hasn't all that water boiled off into space? From such questions, he patiently built up an argument that began to sound increasingly interesting: that life is an agent in its own survival. At the time, some of us admired the book enormously, and still do, for its provocation, for its daring, for the huge sweep of the ideas that unfold.

Only now, on rereading, have I realised how tentatively Lovelock put his argument. Of course it depended on reasoning, but good evidence had still to be established. The other thing that strikes me is how well written it is. Having invested a few paragraphs in rehearsing the improbability behind the assembly of sentient, self-replicating life from a chemical soup, in turbulent conditions, over immense timescales, Lovelock cheerfully resolves it all on page 14 by concluding, "Life on Earth was thus an almost utterly improbable event with almost infinite opportunities of happening. So it did."

I don't think I've ever seen a neater or more graceful summation.

The green movement gleefully embraced the metaphor of Gaia, but sometimes found Lovelock himself stubbornly unaccommodating: a chemist perfectly comfortable with the judicious release of pesticides, chlorofluorocarbons and atmospheric pollutants; a proselytiser for nuclear energy; a man who when he encountered a bandwagon, instinctively wanted to take its wheels off.

He cheerfully points out that the first great toxic pollution crisis for Gaia was the emergence of free oxygen in the atmosphere. Those microbial life forms that could not adapt thereafter survived only as anaerobic bacteria in swamps and in the intestines of animals.

He makes a case for the planet as a vast chemical apparatus. The natural oxidation of atmospheric methane produces a billion tonnes of carbon monoxide gas each year. Nature bubbles with sulphur dioxide, dimethyl mercury and a host of carcinogens, all part of Gaia's planetary management chemical kit.

On page 113 Lovelock reports, expressionlessly: "It has been predicted that the increase in carbon dioxide will act as a sort of gaseous blanket to keep the Earth warmer." On page 41, he addresses a different bubbling atmospheric anxiety by conceding: "There was of course at the time of the report a strange and disproportionate concern in America about stratospheric ozone. It might in the end prove to be prescient, but then as now it was a speculation based on very tenuous evidence."

It would be another six years before a British scientist identified the alarming hole in the ozone layer, and it was Lovelock himself who devised the instruments sensitive enough to detect levels of CFCs in the atmosphere. So at the time of writing the book he was right: ozone destruction was speculative, and the evidence was tenuous.

Similarly, it would be another nine years before global warming exploded as a political concern. In fact, on page 149, Lovelock is rather more concerned about the fate of the next ice age, suggesting that the presence of "a large quantity of chlorofluorocarbons" might entirely reverse the onset of glaciation, "or at least greatly diminish its severity".

To reread Gaia is to be reminded about how little we knew about our own planet in 1979, and how much of what we now know began to emerge as Lovelock and other scientists addressed some of the questions raised in this remarkable book: the first of a series of books that have developed, propagated and defended a remarkable and enduring idea.

Next month we will start to review, in no particular order, all six books shortlisted for the prestigious Royal Society Prize for Science Books . The winner will be announced on 21 October. The titles before the judges are:

A World Without Ice by Henry Pollack (Avery)

Everyday Practice of Science: Where Intuition and Passion Meet Objectivity and Logic by Frederick Grinnell (Oxford)

God's Philosophers: How the Medieval World Laid the Foundations of Modern Science by James Hannam (Icon)

Life Ascending by Nick Lane (Profile)

We Need to Talk about Kelvin by Marcus Chown (Faber)

Why Does E=mc 2 ? by Brian Cox and Jeff Forshaw (Da Capo Press)

• Science book club
• James Lovelock
• Climate crisis
• Ozone layer

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26 words found

• hypothesis pronunciation hypothesis [ en ] 6 pronunciations

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