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What Is a Case Study? | Definition, Examples & Methods

What Is a Case Study? | Definition, Examples & Methods

Published on May 8, 2019 by Shona McCombes . Revised on November 20, 2023.

A case study is a detailed study of a specific subject, such as a person, group, place, event, organization, or phenomenon. Case studies are commonly used in social, educational, clinical, and business research.

A case study research design usually involves qualitative methods , but quantitative methods are sometimes also used. Case studies are good for describing , comparing, evaluating and understanding different aspects of a research problem .

When to do a case study, step 1: select a case, step 2: build a theoretical framework, step 3: collect your data, step 4: describe and analyze the case, other interesting articles.

A case study is an appropriate research design when you want to gain concrete, contextual, in-depth knowledge about a specific real-world subject. It allows you to explore the key characteristics, meanings, and implications of the case.

Case studies are often a good choice in a thesis or dissertation . They keep your project focused and manageable when you don’t have the time or resources to do large-scale research.

You might use just one complex case study where you explore a single subject in depth, or conduct multiple case studies to compare and illuminate different aspects of your research problem.

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Once you have developed your problem statement and research questions , you should be ready to choose the specific case that you want to focus on. A good case study should have the potential to:

Provide new or unexpected insights into the subject
Challenge or complicate existing assumptions and theories
Propose practical courses of action to resolve a problem
Open up new directions for future research

TipIf your research is more practical in nature and aims to simultaneously investigate an issue as you solve it, consider conducting action research instead.

Unlike quantitative or experimental research , a strong case study does not require a random or representative sample. In fact, case studies often deliberately focus on unusual, neglected, or outlying cases which may shed new light on the research problem.

Example of an outlying case studyIn the 1960s the town of Roseto, Pennsylvania was discovered to have extremely low rates of heart disease compared to the US average. It became an important case study for understanding previously neglected causes of heart disease.

However, you can also choose a more common or representative case to exemplify a particular category, experience or phenomenon.

Example of a representative case studyIn the 1920s, two sociologists used Muncie, Indiana as a case study of a typical American city that supposedly exemplified the changing culture of the US at the time.

While case studies focus more on concrete details than general theories, they should usually have some connection with theory in the field. This way the case study is not just an isolated description, but is integrated into existing knowledge about the topic. It might aim to:

Exemplify a theory by showing how it explains the case under investigation
Expand on a theory by uncovering new concepts and ideas that need to be incorporated
Challenge a theory by exploring an outlier case that doesn’t fit with established assumptions

To ensure that your analysis of the case has a solid academic grounding, you should conduct a literature review of sources related to the topic and develop a theoretical framework . This means identifying key concepts and theories to guide your analysis and interpretation.

There are many different research methods you can use to collect data on your subject. Case studies tend to focus on qualitative data using methods such as interviews , observations , and analysis of primary and secondary sources (e.g., newspaper articles, photographs, official records). Sometimes a case study will also collect quantitative data.

Example of a mixed methods case studyFor a case study of a wind farm development in a rural area, you could collect quantitative data on employment rates and business revenue, collect qualitative data on local people’s perceptions and experiences, and analyze local and national media coverage of the development.

The aim is to gain as thorough an understanding as possible of the case and its context.

In writing up the case study, you need to bring together all the relevant aspects to give as complete a picture as possible of the subject.

How you report your findings depends on the type of research you are doing. Some case studies are structured like a standard scientific paper or thesis , with separate sections or chapters for the methods , results and discussion .

Others are written in a more narrative style, aiming to explore the case from various angles and analyze its meanings and implications (for example, by using textual analysis or discourse analysis ).

In all cases, though, make sure to give contextual details about the case, connect it back to the literature and theory, and discuss how it fits into wider patterns or debates.

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

Normal distribution
Degrees of freedom
Null hypothesis
Discourse analysis
Control groups
Mixed methods research
Non-probability sampling
Quantitative research
Ecological validity

Research bias

Rosenthal effect
Implicit bias
Cognitive bias
Selection bias
Negativity bias
Status quo bias

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How to write a case study — examples, templates, and tools

It’s a marketer’s job to communicate the effectiveness of a product or service to potential and current customers to convince them to buy and keep business moving. One of the best methods for doing this is to share success stories that are relatable to prospects and customers based on their pain points, experiences, and overall needs.

That’s where case studies come in. Case studies are an essential part of a content marketing plan. These in-depth stories of customer experiences are some of the most effective at demonstrating the value of a product or service. Yet many marketers don’t use them, whether because of their regimented formats or the process of customer involvement and approval.

A case study is a powerful tool for showcasing your hard work and the success your customer achieved. But writing a great case study can be difficult if you’ve never done it before or if it’s been a while. This guide will show you how to write an effective case study and provide real-world examples and templates that will keep readers engaged and support your business.

In this article, you’ll learn:

What is a case study?

How to write a case study, case study templates, case study examples, case study tools.

A case study is the detailed story of a customer’s experience with a product or service that demonstrates their success and often includes measurable outcomes. Case studies are used in a range of fields and for various reasons, from business to academic research. They’re especially impactful in marketing as brands work to convince and convert consumers with relatable, real-world stories of actual customer experiences.

The best case studies tell the story of a customer’s success, including the steps they took, the results they achieved, and the support they received from a brand along the way. To write a great case study, you need to:

Celebrate the customer and make them — not a product or service — the star of the story.
Craft the story with specific audiences or target segments in mind so that the story of one customer will be viewed as relatable and actionable for another customer.
Write copy that is easy to read and engaging so that readers will gain the insights and messages intended.
Follow a standardized format that includes all of the essentials a potential customer would find interesting and useful.
Support all of the claims for success made in the story with data in the forms of hard numbers and customer statements.

Case studies are a type of review but more in depth, aiming to show — rather than just tell — the positive experiences that customers have with a brand. Notably, 89% of consumers read reviews before deciding to buy, and 79% view case study content as part of their purchasing process. When it comes to B2B sales, 52% of buyers rank case studies as an important part of their evaluation process.

Telling a brand story through the experience of a tried-and-true customer matters. The story is relatable to potential new customers as they imagine themselves in the shoes of the company or individual featured in the case study. Showcasing previous customers can help new ones see themselves engaging with your brand in the ways that are most meaningful to them.

Besides sharing the perspective of another customer, case studies stand out from other content marketing forms because they are based on evidence. Whether pulling from client testimonials or data-driven results, case studies tend to have more impact on new business because the story contains information that is both objective (data) and subjective (customer experience) — and the brand doesn’t sound too self-promotional.

89% of consumers read reviews before buying, 79% view case studies, and 52% of B2B buyers prioritize case studies in the evaluation process.

Case studies are unique in that there’s a fairly standardized format for telling a customer’s story. But that doesn’t mean there isn’t room for creativity. It’s all about making sure that teams are clear on the goals for the case study — along with strategies for supporting content and channels — and understanding how the story fits within the framework of the company’s overall marketing goals.

Here are the basic steps to writing a good case study.

1. Identify your goal

Start by defining exactly who your case study will be designed to help. Case studies are about specific instances where a company works with a customer to achieve a goal. Identify which customers are likely to have these goals, as well as other needs the story should cover to appeal to them.

The answer is often found in one of the buyer personas that have been constructed as part of your larger marketing strategy. This can include anything from new leads generated by the marketing team to long-term customers that are being pressed for cross-sell opportunities. In all of these cases, demonstrating value through a relatable customer success story can be part of the solution to conversion.

2. Choose your client or subject

Who you highlight matters. Case studies tie brands together that might otherwise not cross paths. A writer will want to ensure that the highlighted customer aligns with their own company’s brand identity and offerings. Look for a customer with positive name recognition who has had great success with a product or service and is willing to be an advocate.

The client should also match up with the identified target audience. Whichever company or individual is selected should be a reflection of other potential customers who can see themselves in similar circumstances, having the same problems and possible solutions.

Some of the most compelling case studies feature customers who:

Switch from one product or service to another while naming competitors that missed the mark.
Experience measurable results that are relatable to others in a specific industry.
Represent well-known brands and recognizable names that are likely to compel action.
Advocate for a product or service as a champion and are well-versed in its advantages.

Whoever or whatever customer is selected, marketers must ensure they have the permission of the company involved before getting started. Some brands have strict review and approval procedures for any official marketing or promotional materials that include their name. Acquiring those approvals in advance will prevent any miscommunication or wasted effort if there is an issue with their legal or compliance teams.

3. Conduct research and compile data

Substantiating the claims made in a case study — either by the marketing team or customers themselves — adds validity to the story. To do this, include data and feedback from the client that defines what success looks like. This can be anything from demonstrating return on investment (ROI) to a specific metric the customer was striving to improve. Case studies should prove how an outcome was achieved and show tangible results that indicate to the customer that your solution is the right one.

This step could also include customer interviews. Make sure that the people being interviewed are key stakeholders in the purchase decision or deployment and use of the product or service that is being highlighted. Content writers should work off a set list of questions prepared in advance. It can be helpful to share these with the interviewees beforehand so they have time to consider and craft their responses. One of the best interview tactics to keep in mind is to ask questions where yes and no are not natural answers. This way, your subject will provide more open-ended responses that produce more meaningful content.

4. Choose the right format

There are a number of different ways to format a case study. Depending on what you hope to achieve, one style will be better than another. However, there are some common elements to include, such as:

An engaging headline
A subject and customer introduction
The unique challenge or challenges the customer faced
The solution the customer used to solve the problem
The results achieved
Data and statistics to back up claims of success
A strong call to action (CTA) to engage with the vendor

It’s also important to note that while case studies are traditionally written as stories, they don’t have to be in a written format. Some companies choose to get more creative with their case studies and produce multimedia content, depending on their audience and objectives. Case study formats can include traditional print stories, interactive web or social content, data-heavy infographics, professionally shot videos, podcasts, and more.

5. Write your case study

We’ll go into more detail later about how exactly to write a case study, including templates and examples. Generally speaking, though, there are a few things to keep in mind when writing your case study.

Be clear and concise. Readers want to get to the point of the story quickly and easily, and they’ll be looking to see themselves reflected in the story right from the start.
Provide a big picture. Always make sure to explain who the client is, their goals, and how they achieved success in a short introduction to engage the reader.
Construct a clear narrative. Stick to the story from the perspective of the customer and what they needed to solve instead of just listing product features or benefits.
Leverage graphics. Incorporating infographics, charts, and sidebars can be a more engaging and eye-catching way to share key statistics and data in readable ways.
Offer the right amount of detail. Most case studies are one or two pages with clear sections that a reader can skim to find the information most important to them.
Include data to support claims. Show real results — both facts and figures and customer quotes — to demonstrate credibility and prove the solution works.

6. Promote your story

Marketers have a number of options for distribution of a freshly minted case study. Many brands choose to publish case studies on their website and post them on social media. This can help support SEO and organic content strategies while also boosting company credibility and trust as visitors see that other businesses have used the product or service.

Marketers are always looking for quality content they can use for lead generation. Consider offering a case study as gated content behind a form on a landing page or as an offer in an email message. One great way to do this is to summarize the content and tease the full story available for download after the user takes an action.

Sales teams can also leverage case studies, so be sure they are aware that the assets exist once they’re published. Especially when it comes to larger B2B sales, companies often ask for examples of similar customer challenges that have been solved.

Now that you’ve learned a bit about case studies and what they should include, you may be wondering how to start creating great customer story content. Here are a couple of templates you can use to structure your case study.

Template 1 — Challenge-solution-result format

Start with an engaging title. This should be fewer than 70 characters long for SEO best practices. One of the best ways to approach the title is to include the customer’s name and a hint at the challenge they overcame in the end.
Create an introduction. Lead with an explanation as to who the customer is, the need they had, and the opportunity they found with a specific product or solution. Writers can also suggest the success the customer experienced with the solution they chose.
Present the challenge. This should be several paragraphs long and explain the problem the customer faced and the issues they were trying to solve. Details should tie into the company’s products and services naturally. This section needs to be the most relatable to the reader so they can picture themselves in a similar situation.
Share the solution. Explain which product or service offered was the ideal fit for the customer and why. Feel free to delve into their experience setting up, purchasing, and onboarding the solution.
Explain the results. Demonstrate the impact of the solution they chose by backing up their positive experience with data. Fill in with customer quotes and tangible, measurable results that show the effect of their choice.
Ask for action. Include a CTA at the end of the case study that invites readers to reach out for more information, try a demo, or learn more — to nurture them further in the marketing pipeline. What you ask of the reader should tie directly into the goals that were established for the case study in the first place.

Template 2 — Data-driven format

Start with an engaging title. Be sure to include a statistic or data point in the first 70 characters. Again, it’s best to include the customer’s name as part of the title.
Create an overview. Share the customer’s background and a short version of the challenge they faced. Present the reason a particular product or service was chosen, and feel free to include quotes from the customer about their selection process.
Present data point 1. Isolate the first metric that the customer used to define success and explain how the product or solution helped to achieve this goal. Provide data points and quotes to substantiate the claim that success was achieved.
Present data point 2. Isolate the second metric that the customer used to define success and explain what the product or solution did to achieve this goal. Provide data points and quotes to substantiate the claim that success was achieved.
Present data point 3. Isolate the final metric that the customer used to define success and explain what the product or solution did to achieve this goal. Provide data points and quotes to substantiate the claim that success was achieved.
Summarize the results. Reiterate the fact that the customer was able to achieve success thanks to a specific product or service. Include quotes and statements that reflect customer satisfaction and suggest they plan to continue using the solution.
Ask for action. Include a CTA at the end of the case study that asks readers to reach out for more information, try a demo, or learn more — to further nurture them in the marketing pipeline. Again, remember that this is where marketers can look to convert their content into action with the customer.

While templates are helpful, seeing a case study in action can also be a great way to learn. Here are some examples of how Adobe customers have experienced success.

Juniper Networks

One example is the Adobe and Juniper Networks case study , which puts the reader in the customer’s shoes. The beginning of the story quickly orients the reader so that they know exactly who the article is about and what they were trying to achieve. Solutions are outlined in a way that shows Adobe Experience Manager is the best choice and a natural fit for the customer. Along the way, quotes from the client are incorporated to help add validity to the statements. The results in the case study are conveyed with clear evidence of scale and volume using tangible data.

The story of Lenovo’s journey with Adobe is one that spans years of planning, implementation, and rollout. The Lenovo case study does a great job of consolidating all of this into a relatable journey that other enterprise organizations can see themselves taking, despite the project size. This case study also features descriptive headers and compelling visual elements that engage the reader and strengthen the content.

Tata Consulting

When it comes to using data to show customer results, this case study does an excellent job of conveying details and numbers in an easy-to-digest manner. Bullet points at the start break up the content while also helping the reader understand exactly what the case study will be about. Tata Consulting used Adobe to deliver elevated, engaging content experiences for a large telecommunications client of its own — an objective that’s relatable for a lot of companies.

Case studies are a vital tool for any marketing team as they enable you to demonstrate the value of your company’s products and services to others. They help marketers do their job and add credibility to a brand trying to promote its solutions by using the experiences and stories of real customers.

When you’re ready to get started with a case study:

Think about a few goals you’d like to accomplish with your content.
Make a list of successful clients that would be strong candidates for a case study.
Reach out to the client to get their approval and conduct an interview.
Gather the data to present an engaging and effective customer story.

Adobe can help

There are several Adobe products that can help you craft compelling case studies. Adobe Experience Platform helps you collect data and deliver great customer experiences across every channel. Once you’ve created your case studies, Experience Platform will help you deliver the right information to the right customer at the right time for maximum impact.

To learn more, watch the Adobe Experience Platform story .

Keep in mind that the best case studies are backed by data. That’s where Adobe Real-Time Customer Data Platform and Adobe Analytics come into play. With Real-Time CDP, you can gather the data you need to build a great case study and target specific customers to deliver the content to the right audience at the perfect moment.

Watch the Real-Time CDP overview video to learn more.

Finally, Adobe Analytics turns real-time data into real-time insights. It helps your business collect and synthesize data from multiple platforms to make more informed decisions and create the best case study possible.

Request a demo to learn more about Adobe Analytics.

https://business.adobe.com/blog/perspectives/b2b-ecommerce-10-case-studies-inspire-you

https://business.adobe.com/blog/basics/business-case

https://business.adobe.com/blog/basics/what-is-real-time-analytics

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Events and videos

What is case study research?

Last updated

8 February 2023

Reviewed by

Cathy Heath

Suppose a company receives a spike in the number of customer complaints, or medical experts discover an outbreak of illness affecting children but are not quite sure of the reason. In both cases, carrying out a case study could be the best way to get answers.

Organization

Case studies can be carried out across different disciplines, including education, medicine, sociology, and business.

Most case studies employ qualitative methods, but quantitative methods can also be used. Researchers can then describe, compare, evaluate, and identify patterns or cause-and-effect relationships between the various variables under study. They can then use this knowledge to decide what action to take.

Another thing to note is that case studies are generally singular in their focus. This means they narrow focus to a particular area, making them highly subjective. You cannot always generalize the results of a case study and apply them to a larger population. However, they are valuable tools to illustrate a principle or develop a thesis.

Analyze case study research

Dovetail streamlines case study research to help you uncover and share actionable insights

What are the different types of case study designs?

Researchers can choose from a variety of case study designs. The design they choose is dependent on what questions they need to answer, the context of the research environment, how much data they already have, and what resources are available.

Here are the common types of case study design:

Explanatory

An explanatory case study is an initial explanation of the how or why that is behind something. This design is commonly used when studying a real-life phenomenon or event. Once the organization understands the reasons behind a phenomenon, it can then make changes to enhance or eliminate the variables causing it.

Here is an example: How is co-teaching implemented in elementary schools? The title for a case study of this subject could be “Case Study of the Implementation of Co-Teaching in Elementary Schools.”

Descriptive

An illustrative or descriptive case study helps researchers shed light on an unfamiliar object or subject after a period of time. The case study provides an in-depth review of the issue at hand and adds real-world examples in the area the researcher wants the audience to understand.

The researcher makes no inferences or causal statements about the object or subject under review. This type of design is often used to understand cultural shifts.

Here is an example: How did people cope with the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami? This case study could be titled "A Case Study of the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami and its Effect on the Indonesian Population."

Exploratory

Exploratory research is also called a pilot case study. It is usually the first step within a larger research project, often relying on questionnaires and surveys . Researchers use exploratory research to help narrow down their focus, define parameters, draft a specific research question , and/or identify variables in a larger study. This research design usually covers a wider area than others, and focuses on the ‘what’ and ‘who’ of a topic.

Here is an example: How do nutrition and socialization in early childhood affect learning in children? The title of the exploratory study may be “Case Study of the Effects of Nutrition and Socialization on Learning in Early Childhood.”

An intrinsic case study is specifically designed to look at a unique and special phenomenon. At the start of the study, the researcher defines the phenomenon and the uniqueness that differentiates it from others.

In this case, researchers do not attempt to generalize, compare, or challenge the existing assumptions. Instead, they explore the unique variables to enhance understanding. Here is an example: “Case Study of Volcanic Lightning.”

This design can also be identified as a cumulative case study. It uses information from past studies or observations of groups of people in certain settings as the foundation of the new study. Given that it takes multiple areas into account, it allows for greater generalization than a single case study.

The researchers also get an in-depth look at a particular subject from different viewpoints. Here is an example: “Case Study of how PTSD affected Vietnam and Gulf War Veterans Differently Due to Advances in Military Technology.”

Critical instance

A critical case study incorporates both explanatory and intrinsic study designs. It does not have predetermined purposes beyond an investigation of the said subject. It can be used for a deeper explanation of the cause-and-effect relationship. It can also be used to question a common assumption or myth.

The findings can then be used further to generalize whether they would also apply in a different environment. Here is an example: “What Effect Does Prolonged Use of Social Media Have on the Mind of American Youth?”

Instrumental

Instrumental research attempts to achieve goals beyond understanding the object at hand. Researchers explore a larger subject through different, separate studies and use the findings to understand its relationship to another subject. This type of design also provides insight into an issue or helps refine a theory.

For example, you may want to determine if violent behavior in children predisposes them to crime later in life. The focus is on the relationship between children and violent behavior, and why certain children do become violent. Here is an example: “Violence Breeds Violence: Childhood Exposure and Participation in Adult Crime.”

Evaluation case study design is employed to research the effects of a program, policy, or intervention, and assess its effectiveness and impact on future decision-making.

For example, you might want to see whether children learn times tables quicker through an educational game on their iPad versus a more teacher-led intervention. Here is an example: “An Investigation of the Impact of an iPad Multiplication Game for Primary School Children.”

When do you use case studies?

Case studies are ideal when you want to gain a contextual, concrete, or in-depth understanding of a particular subject. It helps you understand the characteristics, implications, and meanings of the subject.

They are also an excellent choice for those writing a thesis or dissertation, as they help keep the project focused on a particular area when resources or time may be too limited to cover a wider one. You may have to conduct several case studies to explore different aspects of the subject in question and understand the problem.

What are the steps to follow when conducting a case study?

1. Select a case

Once you identify the problem at hand and come up with questions, identify the case you will focus on. The study can provide insights into the subject at hand, challenge existing assumptions, propose a course of action, and/or open up new areas for further research.

2. Create a theoretical framework

While you will be focusing on a specific detail, the case study design you choose should be linked to existing knowledge on the topic. This prevents it from becoming an isolated description and allows for enhancing the existing information.

It may expand the current theory by bringing up new ideas or concepts, challenge established assumptions, or exemplify a theory by exploring how it answers the problem at hand. A theoretical framework starts with a literature review of the sources relevant to the topic in focus. This helps in identifying key concepts to guide analysis and interpretation.

3. Collect the data

Case studies are frequently supplemented with qualitative data such as observations, interviews, and a review of both primary and secondary sources such as official records, news articles, and photographs. There may also be quantitative data —this data assists in understanding the case thoroughly.

4. Analyze your case

The results of the research depend on the research design. Most case studies are structured with chapters or topic headings for easy explanation and presentation. Others may be written as narratives to allow researchers to explore various angles of the topic and analyze its meanings and implications.

In all areas, always give a detailed contextual understanding of the case and connect it to the existing theory and literature before discussing how it fits into your problem area.

What are some case study examples?

What are the best approaches for introducing our product into the Kenyan market?

How does the change in marketing strategy aid in increasing the sales volumes of product Y?

How can teachers enhance student participation in classrooms?

How does poverty affect literacy levels in children?

Case study topics

Case study of product marketing strategies in the Kenyan market

Case study of the effects of a marketing strategy change on product Y sales volumes

Case study of X school teachers that encourage active student participation in the classroom

Case study of the effects of poverty on literacy levels in children

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Latest articles

What Is a Case Study?

Weighing the pros and cons of this method of research

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Cara Lustik is a fact-checker and copywriter.

Verywell / Colleen Tighe

Pros and Cons

What Types of Case Studies Are Out There?

Where do you find data for a case study, how do i write a psychology case study.

A case study is an in-depth study of one person, group, or event. In a case study, nearly every aspect of the subject's life and history is analyzed to seek patterns and causes of behavior. Case studies can be used in many different fields, including psychology, medicine, education, anthropology, political science, and social work.

The point of a case study is to learn as much as possible about an individual or group so that the information can be generalized to many others. Unfortunately, case studies tend to be highly subjective, and it is sometimes difficult to generalize results to a larger population.

While case studies focus on a single individual or group, they follow a format similar to other types of psychology writing. If you are writing a case study, we got you—here are some rules of APA format to reference.

At a Glance

A case study, or an in-depth study of a person, group, or event, can be a useful research tool when used wisely. In many cases, case studies are best used in situations where it would be difficult or impossible for you to conduct an experiment. They are helpful for looking at unique situations and allow researchers to gather a lot of˜ information about a specific individual or group of people. However, it's important to be cautious of any bias we draw from them as they are highly subjective.

What Are the Benefits and Limitations of Case Studies?

A case study can have its strengths and weaknesses. Researchers must consider these pros and cons before deciding if this type of study is appropriate for their needs.

One of the greatest advantages of a case study is that it allows researchers to investigate things that are often difficult or impossible to replicate in a lab. Some other benefits of a case study:

Allows researchers to capture information on the 'how,' 'what,' and 'why,' of something that's implemented
Gives researchers the chance to collect information on why one strategy might be chosen over another
Permits researchers to develop hypotheses that can be explored in experimental research

On the other hand, a case study can have some drawbacks:

It cannot necessarily be generalized to the larger population
Cannot demonstrate cause and effect
It may not be scientifically rigorous
It can lead to bias

Researchers may choose to perform a case study if they want to explore a unique or recently discovered phenomenon. Through their insights, researchers develop additional ideas and study questions that might be explored in future studies.

It's important to remember that the insights from case studies cannot be used to determine cause-and-effect relationships between variables. However, case studies may be used to develop hypotheses that can then be addressed in experimental research.

Case Study Examples

There have been a number of notable case studies in the history of psychology. Much of Freud's work and theories were developed through individual case studies. Some great examples of case studies in psychology include:

Anna O : Anna O. was a pseudonym of a woman named Bertha Pappenheim, a patient of a physician named Josef Breuer. While she was never a patient of Freud's, Freud and Breuer discussed her case extensively. The woman was experiencing symptoms of a condition that was then known as hysteria and found that talking about her problems helped relieve her symptoms. Her case played an important part in the development of talk therapy as an approach to mental health treatment.
Phineas Gage : Phineas Gage was a railroad employee who experienced a terrible accident in which an explosion sent a metal rod through his skull, damaging important portions of his brain. Gage recovered from his accident but was left with serious changes in both personality and behavior.
Genie : Genie was a young girl subjected to horrific abuse and isolation. The case study of Genie allowed researchers to study whether language learning was possible, even after missing critical periods for language development. Her case also served as an example of how scientific research may interfere with treatment and lead to further abuse of vulnerable individuals.

Such cases demonstrate how case research can be used to study things that researchers could not replicate in experimental settings. In Genie's case, her horrific abuse denied her the opportunity to learn a language at critical points in her development.

This is clearly not something researchers could ethically replicate, but conducting a case study on Genie allowed researchers to study phenomena that are otherwise impossible to reproduce.

There are a few different types of case studies that psychologists and other researchers might use:

Collective case studies : These involve studying a group of individuals. Researchers might study a group of people in a certain setting or look at an entire community. For example, psychologists might explore how access to resources in a community has affected the collective mental well-being of those who live there.
Descriptive case studies : These involve starting with a descriptive theory. The subjects are then observed, and the information gathered is compared to the pre-existing theory.
Explanatory case studies : These are often used to do causal investigations. In other words, researchers are interested in looking at factors that may have caused certain things to occur.
Exploratory case studies : These are sometimes used as a prelude to further, more in-depth research. This allows researchers to gather more information before developing their research questions and hypotheses .
Instrumental case studies : These occur when the individual or group allows researchers to understand more than what is initially obvious to observers.
Intrinsic case studies : This type of case study is when the researcher has a personal interest in the case. Jean Piaget's observations of his own children are good examples of how an intrinsic case study can contribute to the development of a psychological theory.

The three main case study types often used are intrinsic, instrumental, and collective. Intrinsic case studies are useful for learning about unique cases. Instrumental case studies help look at an individual to learn more about a broader issue. A collective case study can be useful for looking at several cases simultaneously.

The type of case study that psychology researchers use depends on the unique characteristics of the situation and the case itself.

There are a number of different sources and methods that researchers can use to gather information about an individual or group. Six major sources that have been identified by researchers are:

Archival records : Census records, survey records, and name lists are examples of archival records.
Direct observation : This strategy involves observing the subject, often in a natural setting . While an individual observer is sometimes used, it is more common to utilize a group of observers.
Documents : Letters, newspaper articles, administrative records, etc., are the types of documents often used as sources.
Interviews : Interviews are one of the most important methods for gathering information in case studies. An interview can involve structured survey questions or more open-ended questions.
Participant observation : When the researcher serves as a participant in events and observes the actions and outcomes, it is called participant observation.
Physical artifacts : Tools, objects, instruments, and other artifacts are often observed during a direct observation of the subject.

If you have been directed to write a case study for a psychology course, be sure to check with your instructor for any specific guidelines you need to follow. If you are writing your case study for a professional publication, check with the publisher for their specific guidelines for submitting a case study.

Here is a general outline of what should be included in a case study.

Section 1: A Case History

This section will have the following structure and content:

Background information : The first section of your paper will present your client's background. Include factors such as age, gender, work, health status, family mental health history, family and social relationships, drug and alcohol history, life difficulties, goals, and coping skills and weaknesses.

Description of the presenting problem : In the next section of your case study, you will describe the problem or symptoms that the client presented with.

Describe any physical, emotional, or sensory symptoms reported by the client. Thoughts, feelings, and perceptions related to the symptoms should also be noted. Any screening or diagnostic assessments that are used should also be described in detail and all scores reported.

Your diagnosis : Provide your diagnosis and give the appropriate Diagnostic and Statistical Manual code. Explain how you reached your diagnosis, how the client's symptoms fit the diagnostic criteria for the disorder(s), or any possible difficulties in reaching a diagnosis.

Section 2: Treatment Plan

This portion of the paper will address the chosen treatment for the condition. This might also include the theoretical basis for the chosen treatment or any other evidence that might exist to support why this approach was chosen.

Cognitive behavioral approach : Explain how a cognitive behavioral therapist would approach treatment. Offer background information on cognitive behavioral therapy and describe the treatment sessions, client response, and outcome of this type of treatment. Make note of any difficulties or successes encountered by your client during treatment.
Humanistic approach : Describe a humanistic approach that could be used to treat your client, such as client-centered therapy . Provide information on the type of treatment you chose, the client's reaction to the treatment, and the end result of this approach. Explain why the treatment was successful or unsuccessful.
Psychoanalytic approach : Describe how a psychoanalytic therapist would view the client's problem. Provide some background on the psychoanalytic approach and cite relevant references. Explain how psychoanalytic therapy would be used to treat the client, how the client would respond to therapy, and the effectiveness of this treatment approach.
Pharmacological approach : If treatment primarily involves the use of medications, explain which medications were used and why. Provide background on the effectiveness of these medications and how monotherapy may compare with an approach that combines medications with therapy or other treatments.

This section of a case study should also include information about the treatment goals, process, and outcomes.

When you are writing a case study, you should also include a section where you discuss the case study itself, including the strengths and limitiations of the study. You should note how the findings of your case study might support previous research.

In your discussion section, you should also describe some of the implications of your case study. What ideas or findings might require further exploration? How might researchers go about exploring some of these questions in additional studies?

Need More Tips?

Here are a few additional pointers to keep in mind when formatting your case study:

Never refer to the subject of your case study as "the client." Instead, use their name or a pseudonym.
Read examples of case studies to gain an idea about the style and format.
Remember to use APA format when citing references .

Crowe S, Cresswell K, Robertson A, Huby G, Avery A, Sheikh A. The case study approach . BMC Med Res Methodol . 2011;11:100.

Crowe S, Cresswell K, Robertson A, Huby G, Avery A, Sheikh A. The case study approach . BMC Med Res Methodol . 2011 Jun 27;11:100. doi:10.1186/1471-2288-11-100

Gagnon, Yves-Chantal. The Case Study as Research Method: A Practical Handbook . Canada, Chicago Review Press Incorporated DBA Independent Pub Group, 2010.

Yin, Robert K. Case Study Research and Applications: Design and Methods . United States, SAGE Publications, 2017.

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

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Case Study | Definition, Examples & Methods

Case Study | Definition, Examples & Methods

Published on 5 May 2022 by Shona McCombes . Revised on 30 January 2023.

A case study is a detailed study of a specific subject, such as a person, group, place, event, organisation, or phenomenon. Case studies are commonly used in social, educational, clinical, and business research.

A case study research design usually involves qualitative methods , but quantitative methods are sometimes also used. Case studies are good for describing , comparing, evaluating, and understanding different aspects of a research problem .

When to do a case study, step 1: select a case, step 2: build a theoretical framework, step 3: collect your data, step 4: describe and analyse the case.

Case studies are often a good choice in a thesis or dissertation . They keep your project focused and manageable when you don’t have the time or resources to do large-scale research.

You might use just one complex case study where you explore a single subject in depth, or conduct multiple case studies to compare and illuminate different aspects of your research problem.

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Once you have developed your problem statement and research questions , you should be ready to choose the specific case that you want to focus on. A good case study should have the potential to:

Provide new or unexpected insights into the subject
Challenge or complicate existing assumptions and theories
Propose practical courses of action to resolve a problem
Open up new directions for future research

Unlike quantitative or experimental research, a strong case study does not require a random or representative sample. In fact, case studies often deliberately focus on unusual, neglected, or outlying cases which may shed new light on the research problem.

If you find yourself aiming to simultaneously investigate and solve an issue, consider conducting action research . As its name suggests, action research conducts research and takes action at the same time, and is highly iterative and flexible.

However, you can also choose a more common or representative case to exemplify a particular category, experience, or phenomenon.

Exemplify a theory by showing how it explains the case under investigation
Expand on a theory by uncovering new concepts and ideas that need to be incorporated
Challenge a theory by exploring an outlier case that doesn’t fit with established assumptions

There are many different research methods you can use to collect data on your subject. Case studies tend to focus on qualitative data using methods such as interviews, observations, and analysis of primary and secondary sources (e.g., newspaper articles, photographs, official records). Sometimes a case study will also collect quantitative data .

The aim is to gain as thorough an understanding as possible of the case and its context.

In writing up the case study, you need to bring together all the relevant aspects to give as complete a picture as possible of the subject.

How you report your findings depends on the type of research you are doing. Some case studies are structured like a standard scientific paper or thesis, with separate sections or chapters for the methods , results , and discussion .

Others are written in a more narrative style, aiming to explore the case from various angles and analyse its meanings and implications (for example, by using textual analysis or discourse analysis ).

In all cases, though, make sure to give contextual details about the case, connect it back to the literature and theory, and discuss how it fits into wider patterns or debates.

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Acknowledgments

A case study research paper examines a person, place, event, condition, phenomenon, or other type of subject of analysis in order to extrapolate key themes and results that help predict future trends, illuminate previously hidden issues that can be applied to practice, and/or provide a means for understanding an important research problem with greater clarity. A case study research paper usually examines a single subject of analysis, but case study papers can also be designed as a comparative investigation that shows relationships between two or more subjects. The methods used to study a case can rest within a quantitative, qualitative, or mixed-method investigative paradigm.

Case Studies. Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Mills, Albert J. , Gabrielle Durepos, and Eiden Wiebe, editors. Encyclopedia of Case Study Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010 ; “What is a Case Study?” In Swanborn, Peter G. Case Study Research: What, Why and How? London: SAGE, 2010.

How to Approach Writing a Case Study Research Paper

General information about how to choose a topic to investigate can be found under the " Choosing a Research Problem " tab in the Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper writing guide. Review this page because it may help you identify a subject of analysis that can be investigated using a case study design.

However, identifying a case to investigate involves more than choosing the research problem . A case study encompasses a problem contextualized around the application of in-depth analysis, interpretation, and discussion, often resulting in specific recommendations for action or for improving existing conditions. As Seawright and Gerring note, practical considerations such as time and access to information can influence case selection, but these issues should not be the sole factors used in describing the methodological justification for identifying a particular case to study. Given this, selecting a case includes considering the following:

The case represents an unusual or atypical example of a research problem that requires more in-depth analysis? Cases often represent a topic that rests on the fringes of prior investigations because the case may provide new ways of understanding the research problem. For example, if the research problem is to identify strategies to improve policies that support girl's access to secondary education in predominantly Muslim nations, you could consider using Azerbaijan as a case study rather than selecting a more obvious nation in the Middle East. Doing so may reveal important new insights into recommending how governments in other predominantly Muslim nations can formulate policies that support improved access to education for girls.
The case provides important insight or illuminate a previously hidden problem? In-depth analysis of a case can be based on the hypothesis that the case study will reveal trends or issues that have not been exposed in prior research or will reveal new and important implications for practice. For example, anecdotal evidence may suggest drug use among homeless veterans is related to their patterns of travel throughout the day. Assuming prior studies have not looked at individual travel choices as a way to study access to illicit drug use, a case study that observes a homeless veteran could reveal how issues of personal mobility choices facilitate regular access to illicit drugs. Note that it is important to conduct a thorough literature review to ensure that your assumption about the need to reveal new insights or previously hidden problems is valid and evidence-based.
The case challenges and offers a counter-point to prevailing assumptions? Over time, research on any given topic can fall into a trap of developing assumptions based on outdated studies that are still applied to new or changing conditions or the idea that something should simply be accepted as "common sense," even though the issue has not been thoroughly tested in current practice. A case study analysis may offer an opportunity to gather evidence that challenges prevailing assumptions about a research problem and provide a new set of recommendations applied to practice that have not been tested previously. For example, perhaps there has been a long practice among scholars to apply a particular theory in explaining the relationship between two subjects of analysis. Your case could challenge this assumption by applying an innovative theoretical framework [perhaps borrowed from another discipline] to explore whether this approach offers new ways of understanding the research problem. Taking a contrarian stance is one of the most important ways that new knowledge and understanding develops from existing literature.
The case provides an opportunity to pursue action leading to the resolution of a problem? Another way to think about choosing a case to study is to consider how the results from investigating a particular case may result in findings that reveal ways in which to resolve an existing or emerging problem. For example, studying the case of an unforeseen incident, such as a fatal accident at a railroad crossing, can reveal hidden issues that could be applied to preventative measures that contribute to reducing the chance of accidents in the future. In this example, a case study investigating the accident could lead to a better understanding of where to strategically locate additional signals at other railroad crossings so as to better warn drivers of an approaching train, particularly when visibility is hindered by heavy rain, fog, or at night.
The case offers a new direction in future research? A case study can be used as a tool for an exploratory investigation that highlights the need for further research about the problem. A case can be used when there are few studies that help predict an outcome or that establish a clear understanding about how best to proceed in addressing a problem. For example, after conducting a thorough literature review [very important!], you discover that little research exists showing the ways in which women contribute to promoting water conservation in rural communities of east central Africa. A case study of how women contribute to saving water in a rural village of Uganda can lay the foundation for understanding the need for more thorough research that documents how women in their roles as cooks and family caregivers think about water as a valuable resource within their community. This example of a case study could also point to the need for scholars to build new theoretical frameworks around the topic [e.g., applying feminist theories of work and family to the issue of water conservation].

Eisenhardt, Kathleen M. “Building Theories from Case Study Research.” Academy of Management Review 14 (October 1989): 532-550; Emmel, Nick. Sampling and Choosing Cases in Qualitative Research: A Realist Approach . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2013; Gerring, John. “What Is a Case Study and What Is It Good for?” American Political Science Review 98 (May 2004): 341-354; Mills, Albert J. , Gabrielle Durepos, and Eiden Wiebe, editors. Encyclopedia of Case Study Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010; Seawright, Jason and John Gerring. "Case Selection Techniques in Case Study Research." Political Research Quarterly 61 (June 2008): 294-308.

Structure and Writing Style

The purpose of a paper in the social sciences designed around a case study is to thoroughly investigate a subject of analysis in order to reveal a new understanding about the research problem and, in so doing, contributing new knowledge to what is already known from previous studies. In applied social sciences disciplines [e.g., education, social work, public administration, etc.], case studies may also be used to reveal best practices, highlight key programs, or investigate interesting aspects of professional work.

In general, the structure of a case study research paper is not all that different from a standard college-level research paper. However, there are subtle differences you should be aware of. Here are the key elements to organizing and writing a case study research paper.

I. Introduction

As with any research paper, your introduction should serve as a roadmap for your readers to ascertain the scope and purpose of your study . The introduction to a case study research paper, however, should not only describe the research problem and its significance, but you should also succinctly describe why the case is being used and how it relates to addressing the problem. The two elements should be linked. With this in mind, a good introduction answers these four questions:

What is being studied? Describe the research problem and describe the subject of analysis [the case] you have chosen to address the problem. Explain how they are linked and what elements of the case will help to expand knowledge and understanding about the problem.
Why is this topic important to investigate? Describe the significance of the research problem and state why a case study design and the subject of analysis that the paper is designed around is appropriate in addressing the problem.
What did we know about this topic before I did this study? Provide background that helps lead the reader into the more in-depth literature review to follow. If applicable, summarize prior case study research applied to the research problem and why it fails to adequately address the problem. Describe why your case will be useful. If no prior case studies have been used to address the research problem, explain why you have selected this subject of analysis.
How will this study advance new knowledge or new ways of understanding? Explain why your case study will be suitable in helping to expand knowledge and understanding about the research problem.

Each of these questions should be addressed in no more than a few paragraphs. Exceptions to this can be when you are addressing a complex research problem or subject of analysis that requires more in-depth background information.

II. Literature Review

The literature review for a case study research paper is generally structured the same as it is for any college-level research paper. The difference, however, is that the literature review is focused on providing background information and enabling historical interpretation of the subject of analysis in relation to the research problem the case is intended to address . This includes synthesizing studies that help to:

Place relevant works in the context of their contribution to understanding the case study being investigated . This would involve summarizing studies that have used a similar subject of analysis to investigate the research problem. If there is literature using the same or a very similar case to study, you need to explain why duplicating past research is important [e.g., conditions have changed; prior studies were conducted long ago, etc.].
Describe the relationship each work has to the others under consideration that informs the reader why this case is applicable . Your literature review should include a description of any works that support using the case to investigate the research problem and the underlying research questions.
Identify new ways to interpret prior research using the case study . If applicable, review any research that has examined the research problem using a different research design. Explain how your use of a case study design may reveal new knowledge or a new perspective or that can redirect research in an important new direction.
Resolve conflicts amongst seemingly contradictory previous studies . This refers to synthesizing any literature that points to unresolved issues of concern about the research problem and describing how the subject of analysis that forms the case study can help resolve these existing contradictions.
Point the way in fulfilling a need for additional research . Your review should examine any literature that lays a foundation for understanding why your case study design and the subject of analysis around which you have designed your study may reveal a new way of approaching the research problem or offer a perspective that points to the need for additional research.
Expose any gaps that exist in the literature that the case study could help to fill . Summarize any literature that not only shows how your subject of analysis contributes to understanding the research problem, but how your case contributes to a new way of understanding the problem that prior research has failed to do.
Locate your own research within the context of existing literature [very important!] . Collectively, your literature review should always place your case study within the larger domain of prior research about the problem. The overarching purpose of reviewing pertinent literature in a case study paper is to demonstrate that you have thoroughly identified and synthesized prior studies in relation to explaining the relevance of the case in addressing the research problem.

III. Method

In this section, you explain why you selected a particular case [i.e., subject of analysis] and the strategy you used to identify and ultimately decide that your case was appropriate in addressing the research problem. The way you describe the methods used varies depending on the type of subject of analysis that constitutes your case study.

If your subject of analysis is an incident or event . In the social and behavioral sciences, the event or incident that represents the case to be studied is usually bounded by time and place, with a clear beginning and end and with an identifiable location or position relative to its surroundings. The subject of analysis can be a rare or critical event or it can focus on a typical or regular event. The purpose of studying a rare event is to illuminate new ways of thinking about the broader research problem or to test a hypothesis. Critical incident case studies must describe the method by which you identified the event and explain the process by which you determined the validity of this case to inform broader perspectives about the research problem or to reveal new findings. However, the event does not have to be a rare or uniquely significant to support new thinking about the research problem or to challenge an existing hypothesis. For example, Walo, Bull, and Breen conducted a case study to identify and evaluate the direct and indirect economic benefits and costs of a local sports event in the City of Lismore, New South Wales, Australia. The purpose of their study was to provide new insights from measuring the impact of a typical local sports event that prior studies could not measure well because they focused on large "mega-events." Whether the event is rare or not, the methods section should include an explanation of the following characteristics of the event: a) when did it take place; b) what were the underlying circumstances leading to the event; and, c) what were the consequences of the event in relation to the research problem.

If your subject of analysis is a person. Explain why you selected this particular individual to be studied and describe what experiences they have had that provide an opportunity to advance new understandings about the research problem. Mention any background about this person which might help the reader understand the significance of their experiences that make them worthy of study. This includes describing the relationships this person has had with other people, institutions, and/or events that support using them as the subject for a case study research paper. It is particularly important to differentiate the person as the subject of analysis from others and to succinctly explain how the person relates to examining the research problem [e.g., why is one politician in a particular local election used to show an increase in voter turnout from any other candidate running in the election]. Note that these issues apply to a specific group of people used as a case study unit of analysis [e.g., a classroom of students].

If your subject of analysis is a place. In general, a case study that investigates a place suggests a subject of analysis that is unique or special in some way and that this uniqueness can be used to build new understanding or knowledge about the research problem. A case study of a place must not only describe its various attributes relevant to the research problem [e.g., physical, social, historical, cultural, economic, political], but you must state the method by which you determined that this place will illuminate new understandings about the research problem. It is also important to articulate why a particular place as the case for study is being used if similar places also exist [i.e., if you are studying patterns of homeless encampments of veterans in open spaces, explain why you are studying Echo Park in Los Angeles rather than Griffith Park?]. If applicable, describe what type of human activity involving this place makes it a good choice to study [e.g., prior research suggests Echo Park has more homeless veterans].

If your subject of analysis is a phenomenon. A phenomenon refers to a fact, occurrence, or circumstance that can be studied or observed but with the cause or explanation to be in question. In this sense, a phenomenon that forms your subject of analysis can encompass anything that can be observed or presumed to exist but is not fully understood. In the social and behavioral sciences, the case usually focuses on human interaction within a complex physical, social, economic, cultural, or political system. For example, the phenomenon could be the observation that many vehicles used by ISIS fighters are small trucks with English language advertisements on them. The research problem could be that ISIS fighters are difficult to combat because they are highly mobile. The research questions could be how and by what means are these vehicles used by ISIS being supplied to the militants and how might supply lines to these vehicles be cut off? How might knowing the suppliers of these trucks reveal larger networks of collaborators and financial support? A case study of a phenomenon most often encompasses an in-depth analysis of a cause and effect that is grounded in an interactive relationship between people and their environment in some way.

NOTE: The choice of the case or set of cases to study cannot appear random. Evidence that supports the method by which you identified and chose your subject of analysis should clearly support investigation of the research problem and linked to key findings from your literature review. Be sure to cite any studies that helped you determine that the case you chose was appropriate for examining the problem.

IV. Discussion

The main elements of your discussion section are generally the same as any research paper, but centered around interpreting and drawing conclusions about the key findings from your analysis of the case study. Note that a general social sciences research paper may contain a separate section to report findings. However, in a paper designed around a case study, it is common to combine a description of the results with the discussion about their implications. The objectives of your discussion section should include the following:

Reiterate the Research Problem/State the Major Findings Briefly reiterate the research problem you are investigating and explain why the subject of analysis around which you designed the case study were used. You should then describe the findings revealed from your study of the case using direct, declarative, and succinct proclamation of the study results. Highlight any findings that were unexpected or especially profound.

Explain the Meaning of the Findings and Why They are Important Systematically explain the meaning of your case study findings and why you believe they are important. Begin this part of the section by repeating what you consider to be your most important or surprising finding first, then systematically review each finding. Be sure to thoroughly extrapolate what your analysis of the case can tell the reader about situations or conditions beyond the actual case that was studied while, at the same time, being careful not to misconstrue or conflate a finding that undermines the external validity of your conclusions.

Relate the Findings to Similar Studies No study in the social sciences is so novel or possesses such a restricted focus that it has absolutely no relation to previously published research. The discussion section should relate your case study results to those found in other studies, particularly if questions raised from prior studies served as the motivation for choosing your subject of analysis. This is important because comparing and contrasting the findings of other studies helps support the overall importance of your results and it highlights how and in what ways your case study design and the subject of analysis differs from prior research about the topic.

Consider Alternative Explanations of the Findings Remember that the purpose of social science research is to discover and not to prove. When writing the discussion section, you should carefully consider all possible explanations revealed by the case study results, rather than just those that fit your hypothesis or prior assumptions and biases. Be alert to what the in-depth analysis of the case may reveal about the research problem, including offering a contrarian perspective to what scholars have stated in prior research if that is how the findings can be interpreted from your case.

Acknowledge the Study's Limitations You can state the study's limitations in the conclusion section of your paper but describing the limitations of your subject of analysis in the discussion section provides an opportunity to identify the limitations and explain why they are not significant. This part of the discussion section should also note any unanswered questions or issues your case study could not address. More detailed information about how to document any limitations to your research can be found here .

Suggest Areas for Further Research Although your case study may offer important insights about the research problem, there are likely additional questions related to the problem that remain unanswered or findings that unexpectedly revealed themselves as a result of your in-depth analysis of the case. Be sure that the recommendations for further research are linked to the research problem and that you explain why your recommendations are valid in other contexts and based on the original assumptions of your study.

V. Conclusion

As with any research paper, you should summarize your conclusion in clear, simple language; emphasize how the findings from your case study differs from or supports prior research and why. Do not simply reiterate the discussion section. Provide a synthesis of key findings presented in the paper to show how these converge to address the research problem. If you haven't already done so in the discussion section, be sure to document the limitations of your case study and any need for further research.

The function of your paper's conclusion is to: 1) reiterate the main argument supported by the findings from your case study; 2) state clearly the context, background, and necessity of pursuing the research problem using a case study design in relation to an issue, controversy, or a gap found from reviewing the literature; and, 3) provide a place to persuasively and succinctly restate the significance of your research problem, given that the reader has now been presented with in-depth information about the topic.

Consider the following points to help ensure your conclusion is appropriate:

If the argument or purpose of your paper is complex, you may need to summarize these points for your reader.
If prior to your conclusion, you have not yet explained the significance of your findings or if you are proceeding inductively, use the conclusion of your paper to describe your main points and explain their significance.
Move from a detailed to a general level of consideration of the case study's findings that returns the topic to the context provided by the introduction or within a new context that emerges from your case study findings.

Note that, depending on the discipline you are writing in or the preferences of your professor, the concluding paragraph may contain your final reflections on the evidence presented as it applies to practice or on the essay's central research problem. However, the nature of being introspective about the subject of analysis you have investigated will depend on whether you are explicitly asked to express your observations in this way.

Problems to Avoid

Overgeneralization One of the goals of a case study is to lay a foundation for understanding broader trends and issues applied to similar circumstances. However, be careful when drawing conclusions from your case study. They must be evidence-based and grounded in the results of the study; otherwise, it is merely speculation. Looking at a prior example, it would be incorrect to state that a factor in improving girls access to education in Azerbaijan and the policy implications this may have for improving access in other Muslim nations is due to girls access to social media if there is no documentary evidence from your case study to indicate this. There may be anecdotal evidence that retention rates were better for girls who were engaged with social media, but this observation would only point to the need for further research and would not be a definitive finding if this was not a part of your original research agenda.

Failure to Document Limitations No case is going to reveal all that needs to be understood about a research problem. Therefore, just as you have to clearly state the limitations of a general research study , you must describe the specific limitations inherent in the subject of analysis. For example, the case of studying how women conceptualize the need for water conservation in a village in Uganda could have limited application in other cultural contexts or in areas where fresh water from rivers or lakes is plentiful and, therefore, conservation is understood more in terms of managing access rather than preserving access to a scarce resource.

Failure to Extrapolate All Possible Implications Just as you don't want to over-generalize from your case study findings, you also have to be thorough in the consideration of all possible outcomes or recommendations derived from your findings. If you do not, your reader may question the validity of your analysis, particularly if you failed to document an obvious outcome from your case study research. For example, in the case of studying the accident at the railroad crossing to evaluate where and what types of warning signals should be located, you failed to take into consideration speed limit signage as well as warning signals. When designing your case study, be sure you have thoroughly addressed all aspects of the problem and do not leave gaps in your analysis that leave the reader questioning the results.

Case Studies. Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Gerring, John. Case Study Research: Principles and Practices . New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007; Merriam, Sharan B. Qualitative Research and Case Study Applications in Education . Rev. ed. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 1998; Miller, Lisa L. “The Use of Case Studies in Law and Social Science Research.” Annual Review of Law and Social Science 14 (2018): TBD; Mills, Albert J., Gabrielle Durepos, and Eiden Wiebe, editors. Encyclopedia of Case Study Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010; Putney, LeAnn Grogan. "Case Study." In Encyclopedia of Research Design , Neil J. Salkind, editor. (Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010), pp. 116-120; Simons, Helen. Case Study Research in Practice . London: SAGE Publications, 2009; Kratochwill, Thomas R. and Joel R. Levin, editors. Single-Case Research Design and Analysis: New Development for Psychology and Education . Hilldsale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1992; Swanborn, Peter G. Case Study Research: What, Why and How? London : SAGE, 2010; Yin, Robert K. Case Study Research: Design and Methods . 6th edition. Los Angeles, CA, SAGE Publications, 2014; Walo, Maree, Adrian Bull, and Helen Breen. “Achieving Economic Benefits at Local Events: A Case Study of a Local Sports Event.” Festival Management and Event Tourism 4 (1996): 95-106.

Writing Tip

At Least Five Misconceptions about Case Study Research

Social science case studies are often perceived as limited in their ability to create new knowledge because they are not randomly selected and findings cannot be generalized to larger populations. Flyvbjerg examines five misunderstandings about case study research and systematically "corrects" each one. To quote, these are:

Misunderstanding 1 : General, theoretical [context-independent] knowledge is more valuable than concrete, practical [context-dependent] knowledge. Misunderstanding 2 : One cannot generalize on the basis of an individual case; therefore, the case study cannot contribute to scientific development. Misunderstanding 3 : The case study is most useful for generating hypotheses; that is, in the first stage of a total research process, whereas other methods are more suitable for hypotheses testing and theory building. Misunderstanding 4 : The case study contains a bias toward verification, that is, a tendency to confirm the researcher’s preconceived notions. Misunderstanding 5 : It is often difficult to summarize and develop general propositions and theories on the basis of specific case studies [p. 221].

While writing your paper, think introspectively about how you addressed these misconceptions because to do so can help you strengthen the validity and reliability of your research by clarifying issues of case selection, the testing and challenging of existing assumptions, the interpretation of key findings, and the summation of case outcomes. Think of a case study research paper as a complete, in-depth narrative about the specific properties and key characteristics of your subject of analysis applied to the research problem.

Flyvbjerg, Bent. “Five Misunderstandings About Case-Study Research.” Qualitative Inquiry 12 (April 2006): 219-245.

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What the Case Study Method Really Teaches

Nitin Nohria

Seven meta-skills that stick even if the cases fade from memory.

It’s been 100 years since Harvard Business School began using the case study method. Beyond teaching specific subject matter, the case study method excels in instilling meta-skills in students. This article explains the importance of seven such skills: preparation, discernment, bias recognition, judgement, collaboration, curiosity, and self-confidence.

During my decade as dean of Harvard Business School, I spent hundreds of hours talking with our alumni. To enliven these conversations, I relied on a favorite question: “What was the most important thing you learned from your time in our MBA program?”

Nitin Nohria is the George F. Baker Jr. Professor at Harvard Business School and the former dean of HBS.

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Writing a Case Study

What is a case study?

A Map of the world with hands holding a pen.

A Case study is:

An in-depth research design that primarily uses a qualitative methodology but sometimes includes quantitative methodology.
Used to examine an identifiable problem confirmed through research.
Used to investigate an individual, group of people, organization, or event.
Used to mostly answer "how" and "why" questions.

What are the different types of case studies?

Note: These are the primary case studies. As you continue to research and learn

about case studies you will begin to find a robust list of different types.

Who are your case study participants?

What is triangulation ?

Validity and credibility are an essential part of the case study. Therefore, the researcher should include triangulation to ensure trustworthiness while accurately reflecting what the researcher seeks to investigate.

How to write a Case Study?

When developing a case study, there are different ways you could present the information, but remember to include the five parts for your case study.

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Home » Case Study – Methods, Examples and Guide

Case Study – Methods, Examples and Guide

Table of Contents

A case study is a research method that involves an in-depth examination and analysis of a particular phenomenon or case, such as an individual, organization, community, event, or situation.

It is a qualitative research approach that aims to provide a detailed and comprehensive understanding of the case being studied. Case studies typically involve multiple sources of data, including interviews, observations, documents, and artifacts, which are analyzed using various techniques, such as content analysis, thematic analysis, and grounded theory. The findings of a case study are often used to develop theories, inform policy or practice, or generate new research questions.

Types of Case Study

Types and Methods of Case Study are as follows:

Single-Case Study

A single-case study is an in-depth analysis of a single case. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to understand a specific phenomenon in detail.

For Example , A researcher might conduct a single-case study on a particular individual to understand their experiences with a particular health condition or a specific organization to explore their management practices. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as content analysis or thematic analysis. The findings of a single-case study are often used to generate new research questions, develop theories, or inform policy or practice.

Multiple-Case Study

A multiple-case study involves the analysis of several cases that are similar in nature. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to identify similarities and differences between the cases.

For Example, a researcher might conduct a multiple-case study on several companies to explore the factors that contribute to their success or failure. The researcher collects data from each case, compares and contrasts the findings, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as comparative analysis or pattern-matching. The findings of a multiple-case study can be used to develop theories, inform policy or practice, or generate new research questions.

Exploratory Case Study

An exploratory case study is used to explore a new or understudied phenomenon. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to generate hypotheses or theories about the phenomenon.

For Example, a researcher might conduct an exploratory case study on a new technology to understand its potential impact on society. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as grounded theory or content analysis. The findings of an exploratory case study can be used to generate new research questions, develop theories, or inform policy or practice.

Descriptive Case Study

A descriptive case study is used to describe a particular phenomenon in detail. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to provide a comprehensive account of the phenomenon.

For Example, a researcher might conduct a descriptive case study on a particular community to understand its social and economic characteristics. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as content analysis or thematic analysis. The findings of a descriptive case study can be used to inform policy or practice or generate new research questions.

Instrumental Case Study

An instrumental case study is used to understand a particular phenomenon that is instrumental in achieving a particular goal. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to understand the role of the phenomenon in achieving the goal.

For Example, a researcher might conduct an instrumental case study on a particular policy to understand its impact on achieving a particular goal, such as reducing poverty. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as content analysis or thematic analysis. The findings of an instrumental case study can be used to inform policy or practice or generate new research questions.

Case Study Data Collection Methods

Here are some common data collection methods for case studies:

Interviews involve asking questions to individuals who have knowledge or experience relevant to the case study. Interviews can be structured (where the same questions are asked to all participants) or unstructured (where the interviewer follows up on the responses with further questions). Interviews can be conducted in person, over the phone, or through video conferencing.

Observations

Observations involve watching and recording the behavior and activities of individuals or groups relevant to the case study. Observations can be participant (where the researcher actively participates in the activities) or non-participant (where the researcher observes from a distance). Observations can be recorded using notes, audio or video recordings, or photographs.

Documents can be used as a source of information for case studies. Documents can include reports, memos, emails, letters, and other written materials related to the case study. Documents can be collected from the case study participants or from public sources.

Surveys involve asking a set of questions to a sample of individuals relevant to the case study. Surveys can be administered in person, over the phone, through mail or email, or online. Surveys can be used to gather information on attitudes, opinions, or behaviors related to the case study.

Artifacts are physical objects relevant to the case study. Artifacts can include tools, equipment, products, or other objects that provide insights into the case study phenomenon.

How to conduct Case Study Research

Conducting a case study research involves several steps that need to be followed to ensure the quality and rigor of the study. Here are the steps to conduct case study research:

Define the research questions: The first step in conducting a case study research is to define the research questions. The research questions should be specific, measurable, and relevant to the case study phenomenon under investigation.
Select the case: The next step is to select the case or cases to be studied. The case should be relevant to the research questions and should provide rich and diverse data that can be used to answer the research questions.
Collect data: Data can be collected using various methods, such as interviews, observations, documents, surveys, and artifacts. The data collection method should be selected based on the research questions and the nature of the case study phenomenon.
Analyze the data: The data collected from the case study should be analyzed using various techniques, such as content analysis, thematic analysis, or grounded theory. The analysis should be guided by the research questions and should aim to provide insights and conclusions relevant to the research questions.
Draw conclusions: The conclusions drawn from the case study should be based on the data analysis and should be relevant to the research questions. The conclusions should be supported by evidence and should be clearly stated.
Validate the findings: The findings of the case study should be validated by reviewing the data and the analysis with participants or other experts in the field. This helps to ensure the validity and reliability of the findings.
Write the report: The final step is to write the report of the case study research. The report should provide a clear description of the case study phenomenon, the research questions, the data collection methods, the data analysis, the findings, and the conclusions. The report should be written in a clear and concise manner and should follow the guidelines for academic writing.

Examples of Case Study

Here are some examples of case study research:

The Hawthorne Studies : Conducted between 1924 and 1932, the Hawthorne Studies were a series of case studies conducted by Elton Mayo and his colleagues to examine the impact of work environment on employee productivity. The studies were conducted at the Hawthorne Works plant of the Western Electric Company in Chicago and included interviews, observations, and experiments.
The Stanford Prison Experiment: Conducted in 1971, the Stanford Prison Experiment was a case study conducted by Philip Zimbardo to examine the psychological effects of power and authority. The study involved simulating a prison environment and assigning participants to the role of guards or prisoners. The study was controversial due to the ethical issues it raised.
The Challenger Disaster: The Challenger Disaster was a case study conducted to examine the causes of the Space Shuttle Challenger explosion in 1986. The study included interviews, observations, and analysis of data to identify the technical, organizational, and cultural factors that contributed to the disaster.
The Enron Scandal: The Enron Scandal was a case study conducted to examine the causes of the Enron Corporation’s bankruptcy in 2001. The study included interviews, analysis of financial data, and review of documents to identify the accounting practices, corporate culture, and ethical issues that led to the company’s downfall.
The Fukushima Nuclear Disaster : The Fukushima Nuclear Disaster was a case study conducted to examine the causes of the nuclear accident that occurred at the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant in Japan in 2011. The study included interviews, analysis of data, and review of documents to identify the technical, organizational, and cultural factors that contributed to the disaster.

Application of Case Study

Case studies have a wide range of applications across various fields and industries. Here are some examples:

Business and Management

Case studies are widely used in business and management to examine real-life situations and develop problem-solving skills. Case studies can help students and professionals to develop a deep understanding of business concepts, theories, and best practices.

Case studies are used in healthcare to examine patient care, treatment options, and outcomes. Case studies can help healthcare professionals to develop critical thinking skills, diagnose complex medical conditions, and develop effective treatment plans.

Case studies are used in education to examine teaching and learning practices. Case studies can help educators to develop effective teaching strategies, evaluate student progress, and identify areas for improvement.

Social Sciences

Case studies are widely used in social sciences to examine human behavior, social phenomena, and cultural practices. Case studies can help researchers to develop theories, test hypotheses, and gain insights into complex social issues.

Law and Ethics

Case studies are used in law and ethics to examine legal and ethical dilemmas. Case studies can help lawyers, policymakers, and ethical professionals to develop critical thinking skills, analyze complex cases, and make informed decisions.

Purpose of Case Study

The purpose of a case study is to provide a detailed analysis of a specific phenomenon, issue, or problem in its real-life context. A case study is a qualitative research method that involves the in-depth exploration and analysis of a particular case, which can be an individual, group, organization, event, or community.

The primary purpose of a case study is to generate a comprehensive and nuanced understanding of the case, including its history, context, and dynamics. Case studies can help researchers to identify and examine the underlying factors, processes, and mechanisms that contribute to the case and its outcomes. This can help to develop a more accurate and detailed understanding of the case, which can inform future research, practice, or policy.

Case studies can also serve other purposes, including:

Illustrating a theory or concept: Case studies can be used to illustrate and explain theoretical concepts and frameworks, providing concrete examples of how they can be applied in real-life situations.
Developing hypotheses: Case studies can help to generate hypotheses about the causal relationships between different factors and outcomes, which can be tested through further research.
Providing insight into complex issues: Case studies can provide insights into complex and multifaceted issues, which may be difficult to understand through other research methods.
Informing practice or policy: Case studies can be used to inform practice or policy by identifying best practices, lessons learned, or areas for improvement.

Advantages of Case Study Research

There are several advantages of case study research, including:

In-depth exploration: Case study research allows for a detailed exploration and analysis of a specific phenomenon, issue, or problem in its real-life context. This can provide a comprehensive understanding of the case and its dynamics, which may not be possible through other research methods.
Rich data: Case study research can generate rich and detailed data, including qualitative data such as interviews, observations, and documents. This can provide a nuanced understanding of the case and its complexity.
Holistic perspective: Case study research allows for a holistic perspective of the case, taking into account the various factors, processes, and mechanisms that contribute to the case and its outcomes. This can help to develop a more accurate and comprehensive understanding of the case.
Theory development: Case study research can help to develop and refine theories and concepts by providing empirical evidence and concrete examples of how they can be applied in real-life situations.
Practical application: Case study research can inform practice or policy by identifying best practices, lessons learned, or areas for improvement.
Contextualization: Case study research takes into account the specific context in which the case is situated, which can help to understand how the case is influenced by the social, cultural, and historical factors of its environment.

Limitations of Case Study Research

There are several limitations of case study research, including:

Limited generalizability : Case studies are typically focused on a single case or a small number of cases, which limits the generalizability of the findings. The unique characteristics of the case may not be applicable to other contexts or populations, which may limit the external validity of the research.
Biased sampling: Case studies may rely on purposive or convenience sampling, which can introduce bias into the sample selection process. This may limit the representativeness of the sample and the generalizability of the findings.
Subjectivity: Case studies rely on the interpretation of the researcher, which can introduce subjectivity into the analysis. The researcher’s own biases, assumptions, and perspectives may influence the findings, which may limit the objectivity of the research.
Limited control: Case studies are typically conducted in naturalistic settings, which limits the control that the researcher has over the environment and the variables being studied. This may limit the ability to establish causal relationships between variables.
Time-consuming: Case studies can be time-consuming to conduct, as they typically involve a detailed exploration and analysis of a specific case. This may limit the feasibility of conducting multiple case studies or conducting case studies in a timely manner.
Resource-intensive: Case studies may require significant resources, including time, funding, and expertise. This may limit the ability of researchers to conduct case studies in resource-constrained settings.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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15+ Professional Case Study Examples [Design Tips + Templates]

By Alice Corner , Jan 12, 2023

Have you ever bought something — within the last 10 years or so — without reading its reviews or without a recommendation or prior experience of using it?

If the answer is no — or at least, rarely — you get my point.

Positive reviews matter for selling to regular customers, and for B2B or SaaS businesses, detailed case studies are important too.

Wondering how to craft a compelling case study ? No worries—I’ve got you covered with 15 marketing case study templates , helpful tips, and examples to ensure your case study converts effectively.

Click to jump ahead:

What is a Case Study?

Business Case Study Examples

Simple case study examples.

Marketing Case Study Examples

Sales Case Study Examples

Case Study FAQs

What is a case study?

A case study is an in-depth, detailed analysis of a specific real-world situation. For example, a case study can be about an individual, group, event, organization, or phenomenon. The purpose of a case study is to understand its complexities and gain insights into a particular instance or situation.

In the context of a business, however, case studies take customer success stories and explore how they use your product to help them achieve their business goals.

As well as being valuable marketing tools , case studies are a good way to evaluate your product as it allows you to objectively examine how others are using it.

It’s also a good way to interview your customers about why they work with you.

Related: What is a Case Study? [+6 Types of Case Studies]

Marketing Case Study Template

A marketing case study showcases how your product or services helped potential clients achieve their business goals. You can also create case studies of internal, successful marketing projects. A marketing case study typically includes:

Company background and history
The challenge
How you helped
Specific actions taken
Visuals or Data
Client testimonials

Here’s an example of a marketing case study template:

Whether you’re a B2B or B2C company, business case studies can be a powerful resource to help with your sales, marketing, and even internal departmental awareness.

Business and business management case studies should encompass strategic insights alongside anecdotal and qualitative findings, like in the business case study examples below.

Conduct a B2B case study by researching the company holistically

When it comes to writing a case study, make sure you approach the company holistically and analyze everything from their social media to their sales.

Think about every avenue your product or service has been of use to your case study company, and ask them about the impact this has had on their wider company goals.

Venngage orange marketing case study example

In business case study examples like the one above, we can see that the company has been thought about holistically simply by the use of icons.

By combining social media icons with icons that show in-person communication we know that this is a well-researched and thorough case study.

This case study report example could also be used within an annual or end-of-year report.

Highlight the key takeaway from your marketing case study

To create a compelling case study, identify the key takeaways from your research. Use catchy language to sum up this information in a sentence, and present this sentence at the top of your page.

This is “at a glance” information and it allows people to gain a top-level understanding of the content immediately.

Purple SAAS Business Case Study Template

You can use a large, bold, contrasting font to help this information stand out from the page and provide interest.

Learn how to choose fonts effectively with our Venngage guide and once you’ve done that.

Upload your fonts and brand colors to Venngage using the My Brand Kit tool and see them automatically applied to your designs.

The heading is the ideal place to put the most impactful information, as this is the first thing that people will read.

In this example, the stat of “Increase[d] lead quality by 90%” is used as the header. It makes customers want to read more to find out how exactly lead quality was increased by such a massive amount.

Purple SAAS Business Case Study Template Header

If you’re conducting an in-person interview, you could highlight a direct quote or insight provided by your interview subject.

Pick out a catchy sentence or phrase, or the key piece of information your interview subject provided and use that as a way to draw a potential customer in.

Use charts to visualize data in your business case studies

Charts are an excellent way to visualize data and to bring statistics and information to life. Charts make information easier to understand and to illustrate trends or patterns.

Making charts is even easier with Venngage.

In this consulting case study example, we can see that a chart has been used to demonstrate the difference in lead value within the Lead Elves case study.

Adding a chart here helps break up the information and add visual value to the case study.

Using charts in your case study can also be useful if you’re creating a project management case study.

You could use a Gantt chart or a project timeline to show how you have managed the project successfully.

event marketing project management gantt chart example

Use direct quotes to build trust in your marketing case study

To add an extra layer of authenticity you can include a direct quote from your customer within your case study.

According to research from Nielsen , 92% of people will trust a recommendation from a peer and 70% trust recommendations even if they’re from somebody they don’t know.

So if you have a customer or client who can’t stop singing your praises, make sure you get a direct quote from them and include it in your case study.

You can either lift part of the conversation or interview, or you can specifically request a quote. Make sure to ask for permission before using the quote.

Contrast Lead Generation Business Case Study Template

This design uses a bright contrasting speech bubble to show that it includes a direct quote, and helps the quote stand out from the rest of the text.

This will help draw the customer’s attention directly to the quote, in turn influencing them to use your product or service.

Less is often more, and this is especially true when it comes to creating designs. Whilst you want to create a professional-looking, well-written and design case study – there’s no need to overcomplicate things.

These simple case study examples show that smart clean designs and informative content can be an effective way to showcase your successes.

Use colors and fonts to create a professional-looking case study

Business case studies shouldn’t be boring. In fact, they should be beautifully and professionally designed.

This means the normal rules of design apply. Use fonts, colors, and icons to create an interesting and visually appealing case study.

In this case study example, we can see how multiple fonts have been used to help differentiate between the headers and content, as well as complementary colors and eye-catching icons.

Blue Simple Business Case Study Template

Marketing case study examples

Marketing case studies are incredibly useful for showing your marketing successes. Every successful marketing campaign relies on influencing a consumer’s behavior, and a great case study can be a great way to spotlight your biggest wins.

In the marketing case study examples below, a variety of designs and techniques to create impactful and effective case studies.

Show off impressive results with a bold marketing case study

Case studies are meant to show off your successes, so make sure you feature your positive results prominently. Using bold and bright colors as well as contrasting shapes, large bold fonts, and simple icons is a great way to highlight your wins.

In well-written case study examples like the one below, the big wins are highlighted on the second page with a bright orange color and are highlighted in circles.

Making the important data stand out is especially important when attracting a prospective customer with marketing case studies.

Light simplebusiness case study template

Use a simple but clear layout in your case study

Using a simple layout in your case study can be incredibly effective, like in the example of a case study below.

Keeping a clean white background, and using slim lines to help separate the sections is an easy way to format your case study.

Making the information clear helps draw attention to the important results, and it helps improve the accessibility of the design .

Business case study examples like this would sit nicely within a larger report, with a consistent layout throughout.

Modern lead Generaton Business Case Study Template

Use visuals and icons to create an engaging and branded business case study

Nobody wants to read pages and pages of text — and that’s why Venngage wants to help you communicate your ideas visually.

Using icons, graphics, photos, or patterns helps create a much more engaging design.

With this Blue Cap case study icons, colors, and impactful pattern designs have been used to create an engaging design that catches your eye.

Social Media Business Case Study template

Use a monochromatic color palette to create a professional and clean case study

Let your research shine by using a monochromatic and minimalistic color palette.

By sticking to one color, and leaving lots of blank space you can ensure your design doesn’t distract a potential customer from your case study content.

In this case study on Polygon Media, the design is simple and professional, and the layout allows the prospective customer to follow the flow of information.

The gradient effect on the left-hand column helps break up the white background and adds an interesting visual effect.

Gray Lead Generation Business Case Study Template

Did you know you can generate an accessible color palette with Venngage? Try our free accessible color palette generator today and create a case study that delivers and looks pleasant to the eye:

Venngage's accessible color palette generator

Add long term goals in your case study

When creating a case study it’s a great idea to look at both the short term and the long term goals of the company to gain the best understanding possible of the insights they provide.

Short-term goals will be what the company or person hopes to achieve in the next few months, and long-term goals are what the company hopes to achieve in the next few years.

Check out this modern pattern design example of a case study below:

Lead generation business case study template

In this case study example, the short and long-term goals are clearly distinguished by light blue boxes and placed side by side so that they are easy to compare.

Lead generation case study example short term goals

Use a strong introductory paragraph to outline the overall strategy and goals before outlining the specific short-term and long-term goals to help with clarity.

This strategy can also be handy when creating a consulting case study.

Use data to make concrete points about your sales and successes

When conducting any sort of research stats, facts, and figures are like gold dust (aka, really valuable).

Being able to quantify your findings is important to help understand the information fully. Saying sales increased 10% is much more effective than saying sales increased.

While sales dashboards generally tend it make it all about the numbers and charts, in sales case study examples, like this one, the key data and findings can be presented with icons. This contributes to the potential customer’s better understanding of the report.

They can clearly comprehend the information and it shows that the case study has been well researched.

Vibrant Content Marketing Case Study Template

Use emotive, persuasive, or action based language in your marketing case study

Create a compelling case study by using emotive, persuasive and action-based language when customizing your case study template.

In this well-written case study example, we can see that phrases such as “Results that Speak Volumes” and “Drive Sales” have been used.

Using persuasive language like you would in a blog post. It helps inspire potential customers to take action now.

Bold Content Marketing Case Study Template

Keep your potential customers in mind when creating a customer case study for marketing

82% of marketers use case studies in their marketing because it’s such an effective tool to help quickly gain customers’ trust and to showcase the potential of your product.

Why are case studies such an important tool in content marketing?

By writing a case study you’re telling potential customers that they can trust you because you’re showing them that other people do.

Not only that, but if you have a SaaS product, business case studies are a great way to show how other people are effectively using your product in their company.

In this case study, Network is demonstrating how their product has been used by Vortex Co. with great success; instantly showing other potential customers that their tool works and is worth using.

Teal Social Media Business Case Study Template

Related: 10+ Case Study Infographic Templates That Convert

Case studies are particularly effective as a sales technique.

A sales case study is like an extended customer testimonial, not only sharing opinions of your product – but showcasing the results you helped your customer achieve.

Make impactful statistics pop in your sales case study

Writing a case study doesn’t mean using text as the only medium for sharing results.

You should use icons to highlight areas of your research that are particularly interesting or relevant, like in this example of a case study:

Coral content marketing case study template.jpg

Icons are a great way to help summarize information quickly and can act as visual cues to help draw the customer’s attention to certain areas of the page.

In some of the business case study examples above, icons are used to represent the impressive areas of growth and are presented in a way that grabs your attention.

Use high contrast shapes and colors to draw attention to key information in your sales case study

Help the key information stand out within your case study by using high contrast shapes and colors.

Use a complementary or contrasting color, or use a shape such as a rectangle or a circle for maximum impact.

This design has used dark blue rectangles to help separate the information and make it easier to read.

Coupled with icons and strong statistics, this information stands out on the page and is easily digestible and retainable for a potential customer.

Blue Content Marketing Case Study Tempalte

Case Study Examples Summary

Once you have created your case study, it’s best practice to update your examples on a regular basis to include up-to-date statistics, data, and information.

You should update your business case study examples often if you are sharing them on your website .

It’s also important that your case study sits within your brand guidelines – find out how Venngage’s My Brand Kit tool can help you create consistently branded case study templates.

Case studies are important marketing tools – but they shouldn’t be the only tool in your toolbox. Content marketing is also a valuable way to earn consumer trust.

Case Study FAQ

Why should you write a case study.

Case studies are an effective marketing technique to engage potential customers and help build trust.

By producing case studies featuring your current clients or customers, you are showcasing how your tool or product can be used. You’re also showing that other people endorse your product.

In addition to being a good way to gather positive testimonials from existing customers , business case studies are good educational resources and can be shared amongst your company or team, and used as a reference for future projects.

How should you write a case study?

To create a great case study, you should think strategically. The first step, before starting your case study research, is to think about what you aim to learn or what you aim to prove.

You might be aiming to learn how a company makes sales or develops a new product. If this is the case, base your questions around this.

You can learn more about writing a case study from our extensive guide.

Related: How to Present a Case Study like a Pro (With Examples)

Some good questions you could ask would be:

Why do you use our tool or service?
How often do you use our tool or service?
What does the process of using our product look like to you?
If our product didn’t exist, what would you be doing instead?
What is the number one benefit you’ve found from using our tool?

When and How to Use a Case Study for Research

May 17, 2021 (Updated: May 4, 2023)

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What Is Case Study Research?

Types of case studies, when should you use a case study, case study benefits, case study limitations, how to write a case study.

Imagine your company receives a string of negative reviews online. You notice a few common themes among the complaints, but you still aren’t quite sure what went wrong. Or suppose an old blog post suddenly went viral, and you’d like to know why and how to do it again. In both of these situations, a case study could be the best way to find answers.

A case study is a process whereby researchers examine a specific subject in a thorough, detailed way. The subject of a case study could be an individual, a group, a community, a business, an organization, an event, or a phenomenon. Regardless of the type of subject, case studies are in-depth investigations designed to identify patterns and cause-and-effect relationships. Case studies are often used by researchers in the field of psychology , medicine, business, social work, anthropology, education, or political science.

Because they are singular in their focus and often rely on qualitative data, case studies tend to be highly subjective. The results of a single case study cannot always be generalized and applied to the larger population. However, case studies can be valuable tools for developing a thesis or illustrating a principle. They can help researchers understand, describe, compare, and evaluate different aspects of an issue or question.

Image via Flickr by plings

Case studies can be classified according to their purpose or their subject. For instance, a case study can focus on any of the following:

A person: Some case studies focus on one particular person. Often, the subject will be an individual with some rare characteristic or experience.
A group: Group case studies could look at a family, a group of coworkers, or a friend group. It could be people thrown together by circumstance or who share some bond or relationship. A group case study could even focus on an entire community of people.
An organization: An organizational case study could focus on a business, a nonprofit, an institution, or any other formal entity. The study could look at the people in the organization, the processes they use, or an incident at the organization.
A location: An event case study focuses on a specific area. It could be used to study environmental and population changes or to examine how people use the location.
An event: Event case studies can be used to cover anything from a natural disaster to a political scandal. Often, these case studies are conducted retrospectively, as an investigation into a past event.

In addition to different types of subjects, case studies often have different designs or purposes. Here are a few of the most common types of case studies:

Explanatory: An explanatory case study tries to explain the why or how behind something. This type of case study works well when studying an event or phenomenon, like an airplane crash or unexpected power outage.
Descriptive: A descriptive, or illustrative, case study is designed to shed light on an unfamiliar subject. Case studies like this provide in-depth, real-world examples of whatever the researcher wants to help the audience understand. For instance, a descriptive case study could focus on the experience of a mother with postpartum depression or on a young adult who has aged out of the foster care system.
Exploratory: An exploratory case study, or pilot case study, often serves as the first step in a larger research project. Researchers may use a case study to help them narrow their focus, draft a specific research question, and guide the parameters of a formal, large-scale study.
Intrinsic: An intrinsic case study has no goal beyond a deeper understanding of its subject. In this type of study, researchers are not trying to make generalized conclusions, challenge existing assumptions, or make any compare-and-contrast connections. The most interesting thing about the study is the subject itself.
Critical Instance: A critical instance case study is similar to an explanatory or intrinsic study. Like an intrinsic study, it may have no predetermined purpose beyond investigating the subject. Like an explanatory study, it may be used to explain a cause-and-effect relationship. A critical instance case study may also be used to call into question a commonly held assumption or popular theory.
Instrumental: An instrumental case study is the opposite of an intrinsic study because it serves a purpose beyond understanding the immediate subject. In this type of study, researchers explore a larger question through an individual case or cases. For instance, researchers could use a handful of case studies to investigate the relationship between social media use and happiness.
Cumulative: A cumulative, or collective, case study uses information from several past studies as the basis for a new study. Because it takes into account multiple case studies, a cumulative study allows for greater generalization than a single case study. It can also be a more time- and cost-effective option since it makes use of existing research.

Case studies are often used in the exploratory phase of research to gather qualitative data. They can also be used to create, support, or refute a hypothesis and guide future research. For instance, a marketing professional might conduct a case study to discover why a viral ad campaign was so successful . They can then take any lessons they glean from the case study and apply them to future marketing efforts. A psychologist could use a case study to form a theory about the best way to treat a specific disorder. That theory could then be tested later through a large-scale controlled study.

Case studies are a good way to explore a real-world topic in-depth, illustrate a point, discuss the implications or meaning of an event, or compare the experiences of different individuals. A trainer may use a case study to bring to life what would otherwise be an abstract series of recommended action steps or to spark a conversation about how to respond in a specific scenario. Similarly, professors can use case studies to highlight key concepts from a lecture and pose questions to test students’ understanding of the material.

In some situations, case studies are the only way to compile quantitative data in an ethical manner. For instance, many of the recommendations that doctors make regarding what is or is not safe during pregnancy are based on case studies. It wouldn’t be ethical to conduct a controlled study that exposes pregnant women to potentially harmful substances, so doctors rely on the anecdotal evidence provided by case studies to find correlations and draw their conclusions.

Case studies can also be used to gather data that would be otherwise impossible or impractical to obtain. Students often use case studies for their thesis or dissertation when they lack the time or resources to conduct large-scale research. Zoologists might use existing case studies to determine the success rate of reintroducing rehabilitated animals into the wild. A historian could use case studies to explore the strategies used by dictators to gain and maintain power.

Image via Flickr by calebmmartin

Case studies can be used on their own or as a complement to other research methods, depending on the situation. The examples above are just a few instances where case studies can be useful. Case studies also work well for the following:

Providing Insight Through Qualitative Data

Case studies generally provide more qualitative data as opposed to quantitative data , and that makes them an invaluable tool for gathering insight into complex topics. Psychologists, for instance, use case studies to better understand human behavior. Crafting theories on the motives behind human actions would be difficult with quantitative data alone. The information gleaned through case studies may be subjective, but so is much of what makes us human. As individuals, we each have a unique blend of emotions, attitudes, opinions, motivations, and behaviors. Objective quantitative data is rarely the best way to identify and explain these nuances.

By their very nature, case studies allow more more intensive, in-depth study than other research methods. Rather than aiming for a large sample size, case studies follow a single subject. Often case studies are conducted over a longer period of time, and the narrow focus allows researchers to gather more detail than would be possible in a study of thousands of people. The information gleaned may not be representative of the broader population, but it does provide richer insight into the subject than other research methods.

Identifying Avenues for Future Research

Case studies are often used as the first step in a larger research project. The results of a case study cannot necessarily be generalized, but they can help researchers narrow their focus. For instance, researchers in the medical field might conduct a case study on a patient who survived an injury that typically proves fatal.

Over the course of the study, researchers may identify two or three ways in which this patient’s situation differed from others they have seen. Perhaps they identify something unique in the patient’s DNA or lifestyle choices or in the steps doctors took to treat the injury. Letting that information guide them, researchers could use other methods to deepen their understanding of those factors and perhaps develop new treatments or preventative recommendations.

Case studies can also be used in the fields of social work, politics, and anthropology to draw attention to a widespread problem and spur more research. A detailed narrative about one person’s experience will inspire more compassion than an academic paper filled with quantitative data. Stories often have a greater impact than statistics.

Challenging, Testing, or Developing Theories

Case studies can be particularly useful in the process of forming and testing theories. A case study may lead researchers to form a new theory or call into a question an existing one. They are an invaluable tool for identifying exceptions to a rule or disproving conventional wisdom.

For instance, a medical professional may write a case study about a patient who exhibited atypical symptoms to assert that the list of symptoms for a condition should be expanded. A psychologist could use a case study to determine whether the new treatment they devised for depression is effective, or to demonstrate that existing treatment methods are flawed. As the result of a case study, a marketing professional could suggest that consumers values have changed and that marketing best practices should be updated accordingly.

Enabling the Study of Unique Subjects

Some subjects would be impossible, impractical, or unethical to study through other research methods. This is true in the case of extremely rare phenomenon, many aspects of human behavior, and even some medical conditions.

Suppose a medical professional would like to gather more information about multiple-birth pregnancies with four or more fetuses. More information would be helpful because we have less information about them, but the reason we have less information is because they are so rare. Conducting case studies of a few women who are currently pregnant with multiples or have given birth to multiples in the past may be the only practical way to research them.

Case studies can also be used to gain insight into historical events and natural phenomenon — things we are not able to repeat at will. Case studies have also been used to study subjects such as a feral child , child prodigies, rare psychological conditions, crisis response, and more.

Helping People Better Understand Nuanced Concepts

Educators incorporate case studies into their lectures for a reason. Walking students through a detailed case study can make the abstract seem more real and draw out the nuances of a concept. Case studies can facilitate engaging discussions, spark thoughtful questions, and give students a chance to apply what they have learned to real-world situations.

Outside the classroom, case studies can be used to illustrate complex ideas. For instance, a well-constructed case study can highlight the unintended consequences of a new piece of legislation or demonstrate that depression does not always manifest in an obvious way. Case studies can help readers and listeners understand and care about an issue that does not directly affect them.

Despite their benefits, case studies do come with a few limitations. Compared to other research methods, case studies are often at a disadvantage in terms of the following:

Replicability

In most cases, scientists strive to create experiments that can be repeated by others. That way, other scientists can perform their own research and compare their results to those of the initial study. Assuming these other scientists achieve similar results, the replicability of the experiment lends credibility to the findings and theories of the original researchers.

One limitation of case studies is that they are often difficult, if not impossible, to replicate. Although this fact does not diminish the value of case studies, it does demonstrate that case studies are not a good fit for every research problem — at least, not on their own. Additional research would have to be performed to corroborate the results and prove or disprove any generalized theories generated by a case study.

Generalization

Generalization is another area in which case studies cannot match other research methods. A case study can help us challenge existing theories and form new ones, but its results cannot necessarily be generalized. The data we gather from a case study is only valid for that specific subject, and we cannot assume that our conclusions apply to the broader population.

Researchers or readers can attempt to apply the principles from a particular case to similar situations or incorporate the results into a more comprehensive theory. However, a case study by itself can only prove the existence of certain possibilities and exceptions, not a general rule.

Reliability

The reliability of case studies may be called into question for two reasons. The first objection centers on the fallibility of human memory and the question of whether subjects are being honest. Many case studies rely on subjects to self-report biographical details, their state of mind, their thoughts and feelings, or their behaviors.

The second issue is the Hawthorne effect, which refers to the tendency of individuals to modify their behavior when they know they are being observed. This effect makes it nearly impossible for researchers to ensure that the observations and conclusions of their case study are reliable.

Researcher Bias

Researcher bias is another potential issue with case studies. The results of a case study are by nature subjective and qualitative rather than objective and qualitative, and any findings rely heavily on the observations and narrative provided by the researcher. Even the best researchers are still human, and no matter how hard they try to remain objective, they will not be able to keep their findings completely free of bias.

Researchers may have biases they are not even aware of. A researcher may over-identify with the subject and lose the benefit of a dispassionate outside perspective. If the researcher already has an opinion on the subject, they may subconsciously overlook or discount facts that contradict their pre-existing assumptions. Researcher bias can affect what the researcher observes and records, as well as how they interpret and apply their observations.

Case studies can be time-consuming and expensive to conduct. Crafting a thorough case study can be a lengthy project due to the intensive, detailed nature of this type of research. Plus, once the information has been gathered, it must be interpreted. Between the observation and analysis, a case study could take months or even years to complete. Researchers will need to be heavily involved in every step of the process, putting in a lot of time, energy, focus, and effort to ensure that the case study is as informative as possible.

Now that you understand the benefits, limitations, and types of case studies, you can follow these steps to write your own:

Determine your objective. Write out your research problem, question, or goal. If you aren’t sure, ask yourself questions like, “What am I trying to accomplish? What do I need to know? What will success look like?” Be clear and specific. Your answers will help you choose the right type of case study for your needs.
Review the research. Before delving into your case study, take some time to review the research that is already available. The information you gather during this preliminary research can help guide your efforts.
Choose a subject. Decide what or who the subject of your case study will be. For instance, if you are conducting a case study to find out how businesses have been affected by new CDC guidelines, you will need to choose a specific restaurant or retailer. In some cases, you may need to draft a release form for the subject to sign so that you will be able to publish your study.
Gather information. Case studies about a person, organization, or group may rely on questionnaires or interviews to gather information. If you are studying an event, you might use a combination of academic research and witness interviews. In some cases, you will record your own observations as part of the study.
Write a report. Most case studies culminate in a written report, similar to a research paper. Most case studies include five sections : an introduction, a literature review, an explanation of your methods, a discussion of your findings and the implications, followed by a conclusion.
Publish your findings. Once you’ve written your case study, consider the most engaging way to present your findings. A well-written research article is a good place to start, but going a step further will maximize the impact of your research. For instance, you could design an infographic to highlight key findings or commission an animated video to turn your case study into a visual narrative.

Whether research is your primary occupation or only an incidental part of your job, you can benefit from a solid understanding of what case studies are, how they work, and when to use them. Use the information and steps above to design and write a case study that will provide the answers you’re looking for.

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All You Wanted to Know About How to Write a Case Study

What do you study in your college? If you are a psychology, sociology, or anthropology student, we bet you might be familiar with what a case study is. This research method is used to study a certain person, group, or situation. In this guide from our dissertation writing service , you will learn how to write a case study professionally, from researching to citing sources properly. Also, we will explore different types of case studies and show you examples — so that you won’t have any other questions left.

What Is a Case Study?

A case study is a subcategory of research design which investigates problems and offers solutions. Case studies can range from academic research studies to corporate promotional tools trying to sell an idea—their scope is quite vast.

What Is the Difference Between a Research Paper and a Case Study?

While research papers turn the reader’s attention to a certain problem, case studies go even further. Case study guidelines require students to pay attention to details, examining issues closely and in-depth using different research methods. For example, case studies may be used to examine court cases if you study Law, or a patient's health history if you study Medicine. Case studies are also used in Marketing, which are thorough, empirically supported analysis of a good or service's performance. Well-designed case studies can be valuable for prospective customers as they can identify and solve the potential customers pain point.

Case studies involve a lot of storytelling – they usually examine particular cases for a person or a group of people. This method of research is very helpful, as it is very practical and can give a lot of hands-on information. Most commonly, the length of the case study is about 500-900 words, which is much less than the length of an average research paper.

The structure of a case study is very similar to storytelling. It has a protagonist or main character, which in your case is actually a problem you are trying to solve. You can use the system of 3 Acts to make it a compelling story. It should have an introduction, rising action, a climax where transformation occurs, falling action, and a solution.

Here is a rough formula for you to use in your case study:

Problem (Act I): > Solution (Act II) > Result (Act III) > Conclusion.

Types of Case Studies

The purpose of a case study is to provide detailed reports on an event, an institution, a place, future customers, or pretty much anything. There are a few common types of case study, but the type depends on the topic. The following are the most common domains where case studies are needed:

Historical case studies are great to learn from. Historical events have a multitude of source info offering different perspectives. There are always modern parallels where these perspectives can be applied, compared, and thoroughly analyzed.
Problem-oriented case studies are usually used for solving problems. These are often assigned as theoretical situations where you need to immerse yourself in the situation to examine it. Imagine you’re working for a startup and you’ve just noticed a significant flaw in your product’s design. Before taking it to the senior manager, you want to do a comprehensive study on the issue and provide solutions. On a greater scale, problem-oriented case studies are a vital part of relevant socio-economic discussions.
Cumulative case studies collect information and offer comparisons. In business, case studies are often used to tell people about the value of a product.
Critical case studies explore the causes and effects of a certain case.
Illustrative case studies describe certain events, investigating outcomes and lessons learned.

Need a compelling case study? EssayPro has got you covered. Our experts are ready to provide you with detailed, insightful case studies that capture the essence of real-world scenarios. Elevate your academic work with our professional assistance.

Case Study Format

The case study format is typically made up of eight parts:

Executive Summary. Explain what you will examine in the case study. Write an overview of the field you’re researching. Make a thesis statement and sum up the results of your observation in a maximum of 2 sentences.
Background. Provide background information and the most relevant facts. Isolate the issues.
Case Evaluation. Isolate the sections of the study you want to focus on. In it, explain why something is working or is not working.
Proposed Solutions. Offer realistic ways to solve what isn’t working or how to improve its current condition. Explain why these solutions work by offering testable evidence.
Conclusion. Summarize the main points from the case evaluations and proposed solutions. 6. Recommendations. Talk about the strategy that you should choose. Explain why this choice is the most appropriate.
Implementation. Explain how to put the specific strategies into action.
References. Provide all the citations.

How to Write a Case Study

Let's discover how to write a case study.

Setting Up the Research

When writing a case study, remember that research should always come first. Reading many different sources and analyzing other points of view will help you come up with more creative solutions. You can also conduct an actual interview to thoroughly investigate the customer story that you'll need for your case study. Including all of the necessary research, writing a case study may take some time. The research process involves doing the following:

Define your objective. Explain the reason why you’re presenting your subject. Figure out where you will feature your case study; whether it is written, on video, shown as an infographic, streamed as a podcast, etc.
Determine who will be the right candidate for your case study. Get permission, quotes, and other features that will make your case study effective. Get in touch with your candidate to see if they approve of being part of your work. Study that candidate’s situation and note down what caused it.
Identify which various consequences could result from the situation. Follow these guidelines on how to start a case study: surf the net to find some general information you might find useful.
Make a list of credible sources and examine them. Seek out important facts and highlight problems. Always write down your ideas and make sure to brainstorm.
Focus on several key issues – why they exist, and how they impact your research subject. Think of several unique solutions. Draw from class discussions, readings, and personal experience. When writing a case study, focus on the best solution and explore it in depth. After having all your research in place, writing a case study will be easy. You may first want to check the rubric and criteria of your assignment for the correct case study structure.

Read Also: 'CREDIBLE SOURCES: WHAT ARE THEY?'

Although your instructor might be looking at slightly different criteria, every case study rubric essentially has the same standards. Your professor will want you to exhibit 8 different outcomes:

Correctly identify the concepts, theories, and practices in the discipline.
Identify the relevant theories and principles associated with the particular study.
Evaluate legal and ethical principles and apply them to your decision-making.
Recognize the global importance and contribution of your case.
Construct a coherent summary and explanation of the study.
Demonstrate analytical and critical-thinking skills.
Explain the interrelationships between the environment and nature.
Integrate theory and practice of the discipline within the analysis.

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Case Study Outline

Let's look at the structure of an outline based on the issue of the alcoholic addiction of 30 people.

Introduction

Statement of the issue: Alcoholism is a disease rather than a weakness of character.
Presentation of the problem: Alcoholism is affecting more than 14 million people in the USA, which makes it the third most common mental illness there.
Explanation of the terms: In the past, alcoholism was commonly referred to as alcohol dependence or alcohol addiction. Alcoholism is now the more severe stage of this addiction in the disorder spectrum.
Hypotheses: Drinking in excess can lead to the use of other drugs.
Importance of your story: How the information you present can help people with their addictions.
Background of the story: Include an explanation of why you chose this topic.
Presentation of analysis and data: Describe the criteria for choosing 30 candidates, the structure of the interview, and the outcomes.
Strong argument 1: ex. X% of candidates dealing with anxiety and depression...
Strong argument 2: ex. X amount of people started drinking by their mid-teens.
Strong argument 3: ex. X% of respondents’ parents had issues with alcohol.
Concluding statement: I have researched if alcoholism is a disease and found out that…
Recommendations: Ways and actions for preventing alcohol use.

Writing a Case Study Draft

After you’ve done your case study research and written the outline, it’s time to focus on the draft. In a draft, you have to develop and write your case study by using: the data which you collected throughout the research, interviews, and the analysis processes that were undertaken. Follow these rules for the draft:

Your draft should contain at least 4 sections: an introduction; a body where you should include background information, an explanation of why you decided to do this case study, and a presentation of your main findings; a conclusion where you present data; and references.
In the introduction, you should set the pace very clearly. You can even raise a question or quote someone you interviewed in the research phase. It must provide adequate background information on the topic. The background may include analyses of previous studies on your topic. Include the aim of your case here as well. Think of it as a thesis statement. The aim must describe the purpose of your work—presenting the issues that you want to tackle. Include background information, such as photos or videos you used when doing the research.
Describe your unique research process, whether it was through interviews, observations, academic journals, etc. The next point includes providing the results of your research. Tell the audience what you found out. Why is this important, and what could be learned from it? Discuss the real implications of the problem and its significance in the world.
Include quotes and data (such as findings, percentages, and awards). This will add a personal touch and better credibility to the case you present. Explain what results you find during your interviews in regards to the problem and how it developed. Also, write about solutions which have already been proposed by other people who have already written about this case.
At the end of your case study, you should offer possible solutions, but don’t worry about solving them yourself.

Use Data to Illustrate Key Points in Your Case Study

Even though your case study is a story, it should be based on evidence. Use as much data as possible to illustrate your point. Without the right data, your case study may appear weak and the readers may not be able to relate to your issue as much as they should. Let's see the examples from essay writing service :

‍ With data: Alcoholism is affecting more than 14 million people in the USA, which makes it the third most common mental illness there. Without data: A lot of people suffer from alcoholism in the United States.

Try to include as many credible sources as possible. You may have terms or sources that could be hard for other cultures to understand. If this is the case, you should include them in the appendix or Notes for the Instructor or Professor.

Finalizing the Draft: Checklist

After you finish drafting your case study, polish it up by answering these ‘ask yourself’ questions and think about how to end your case study:

Check that you follow the correct case study format, also in regards to text formatting.
Check that your work is consistent with its referencing and citation style.
Micro-editing — check for grammar and spelling issues.
Macro-editing — does ‘the big picture’ come across to the reader? Is there enough raw data, such as real-life examples or personal experiences? Have you made your data collection process completely transparent? Does your analysis provide a clear conclusion, allowing for further research and practice?

Problems to avoid:

Overgeneralization – Do not go into further research that deviates from the main problem.
Failure to Document Limitations – Just as you have to clearly state the limitations of a general research study, you must describe the specific limitations inherent in the subject of analysis.
Failure to Extrapolate All Possible Implications – Just as you don't want to over-generalize from your case study findings, you also have to be thorough in the consideration of all possible outcomes or recommendations derived from your findings.

How to Create a Title Page and Cite a Case Study

Let's see how to create an awesome title page.

Your title page depends on the prescribed citation format. The title page should include:

A title that attracts some attention and describes your study
The title should have the words “case study” in it
The title should range between 5-9 words in length
Your name and contact information
Your finished paper should be only 500 to 1,500 words in length.With this type of assignment, write effectively and avoid fluff

Here is a template for the APA and MLA format title page:

There are some cases when you need to cite someone else's study in your own one – therefore, you need to master how to cite a case study. A case study is like a research paper when it comes to citations. You can cite it like you cite a book, depending on what style you need.

Citation Example in MLA ‍ Hill, Linda, Tarun Khanna, and Emily A. Stecker. HCL Technologies. Boston: Harvard Business Publishing, 2008. Print.

Citation Example in APA ‍ Hill, L., Khanna, T., & Stecker, E. A. (2008). HCL Technologies. Boston: Harvard Business Publishing.

Citation Example in Chicago Hill, Linda, Tarun Khanna, and Emily A. Stecker. HCL Technologies.

Case Study Examples

To give you an idea of a professional case study example, we gathered and linked some below.

Eastman Kodak Case Study

Case Study Example: Audi Trains Mexican Autoworkers in Germany

To conclude, a case study is one of the best methods of getting an overview of what happened to a person, a group, or a situation in practice. It allows you to have an in-depth glance at the real-life problems that businesses, healthcare industry, criminal justice, etc. may face. This insight helps us look at such situations in a different light. This is because we see scenarios that we otherwise would not, without necessarily being there. If you need custom essays , try our research paper writing services .

Get Help Form Qualified Writers

Crafting a case study is not easy. You might want to write one of high quality, but you don’t have the time or expertise. If you’re having trouble with your case study, help with essay request - we'll help. EssayPro writers have read and written countless case studies and are experts in endless disciplines. Request essay writing, editing, or proofreading assistance from our custom case study writing service , and all of your worries will be gone.

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The case study approach

Sarah crowe.

1 Division of Primary Care, The University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK

Kathrin Cresswell

2 Centre for Population Health Sciences, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK

Ann Robertson

3 School of Health in Social Science, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK

Anthony Avery

Aziz sheikh.

The case study approach allows in-depth, multi-faceted explorations of complex issues in their real-life settings. The value of the case study approach is well recognised in the fields of business, law and policy, but somewhat less so in health services research. Based on our experiences of conducting several health-related case studies, we reflect on the different types of case study design, the specific research questions this approach can help answer, the data sources that tend to be used, and the particular advantages and disadvantages of employing this methodological approach. The paper concludes with key pointers to aid those designing and appraising proposals for conducting case study research, and a checklist to help readers assess the quality of case study reports.

Introduction

The case study approach is particularly useful to employ when there is a need to obtain an in-depth appreciation of an issue, event or phenomenon of interest, in its natural real-life context. Our aim in writing this piece is to provide insights into when to consider employing this approach and an overview of key methodological considerations in relation to the design, planning, analysis, interpretation and reporting of case studies.

The illustrative 'grand round', 'case report' and 'case series' have a long tradition in clinical practice and research. Presenting detailed critiques, typically of one or more patients, aims to provide insights into aspects of the clinical case and, in doing so, illustrate broader lessons that may be learnt. In research, the conceptually-related case study approach can be used, for example, to describe in detail a patient's episode of care, explore professional attitudes to and experiences of a new policy initiative or service development or more generally to 'investigate contemporary phenomena within its real-life context' [ 1 ]. Based on our experiences of conducting a range of case studies, we reflect on when to consider using this approach, discuss the key steps involved and illustrate, with examples, some of the practical challenges of attaining an in-depth understanding of a 'case' as an integrated whole. In keeping with previously published work, we acknowledge the importance of theory to underpin the design, selection, conduct and interpretation of case studies[ 2 ]. In so doing, we make passing reference to the different epistemological approaches used in case study research by key theoreticians and methodologists in this field of enquiry.

This paper is structured around the following main questions: What is a case study? What are case studies used for? How are case studies conducted? What are the potential pitfalls and how can these be avoided? We draw in particular on four of our own recently published examples of case studies (see Tables Tables1, 1 , ,2, 2 , ,3 3 and and4) 4 ) and those of others to illustrate our discussion[ 3 - 7 ].

Example of a case study investigating the reasons for differences in recruitment rates of minority ethnic people in asthma research[ 3 ]

Example of a case study investigating the process of planning and implementing a service in Primary Care Organisations[ 4 ]

Example of a case study investigating the introduction of the electronic health records[ 5 ]

Example of a case study investigating the formal and informal ways students learn about patient safety[ 6 ]

What is a case study?

A case study is a research approach that is used to generate an in-depth, multi-faceted understanding of a complex issue in its real-life context. It is an established research design that is used extensively in a wide variety of disciplines, particularly in the social sciences. A case study can be defined in a variety of ways (Table (Table5), 5 ), the central tenet being the need to explore an event or phenomenon in depth and in its natural context. It is for this reason sometimes referred to as a "naturalistic" design; this is in contrast to an "experimental" design (such as a randomised controlled trial) in which the investigator seeks to exert control over and manipulate the variable(s) of interest.

Definitions of a case study

Stake's work has been particularly influential in defining the case study approach to scientific enquiry. He has helpfully characterised three main types of case study: intrinsic , instrumental and collective [ 8 ]. An intrinsic case study is typically undertaken to learn about a unique phenomenon. The researcher should define the uniqueness of the phenomenon, which distinguishes it from all others. In contrast, the instrumental case study uses a particular case (some of which may be better than others) to gain a broader appreciation of an issue or phenomenon. The collective case study involves studying multiple cases simultaneously or sequentially in an attempt to generate a still broader appreciation of a particular issue.

These are however not necessarily mutually exclusive categories. In the first of our examples (Table (Table1), 1 ), we undertook an intrinsic case study to investigate the issue of recruitment of minority ethnic people into the specific context of asthma research studies, but it developed into a instrumental case study through seeking to understand the issue of recruitment of these marginalised populations more generally, generating a number of the findings that are potentially transferable to other disease contexts[ 3 ]. In contrast, the other three examples (see Tables Tables2, 2 , ,3 3 and and4) 4 ) employed collective case study designs to study the introduction of workforce reconfiguration in primary care, the implementation of electronic health records into hospitals, and to understand the ways in which healthcare students learn about patient safety considerations[ 4 - 6 ]. Although our study focusing on the introduction of General Practitioners with Specialist Interests (Table (Table2) 2 ) was explicitly collective in design (four contrasting primary care organisations were studied), is was also instrumental in that this particular professional group was studied as an exemplar of the more general phenomenon of workforce redesign[ 4 ].

What are case studies used for?

According to Yin, case studies can be used to explain, describe or explore events or phenomena in the everyday contexts in which they occur[ 1 ]. These can, for example, help to understand and explain causal links and pathways resulting from a new policy initiative or service development (see Tables Tables2 2 and and3, 3 , for example)[ 1 ]. In contrast to experimental designs, which seek to test a specific hypothesis through deliberately manipulating the environment (like, for example, in a randomised controlled trial giving a new drug to randomly selected individuals and then comparing outcomes with controls),[ 9 ] the case study approach lends itself well to capturing information on more explanatory ' how ', 'what' and ' why ' questions, such as ' how is the intervention being implemented and received on the ground?'. The case study approach can offer additional insights into what gaps exist in its delivery or why one implementation strategy might be chosen over another. This in turn can help develop or refine theory, as shown in our study of the teaching of patient safety in undergraduate curricula (Table (Table4 4 )[ 6 , 10 ]. Key questions to consider when selecting the most appropriate study design are whether it is desirable or indeed possible to undertake a formal experimental investigation in which individuals and/or organisations are allocated to an intervention or control arm? Or whether the wish is to obtain a more naturalistic understanding of an issue? The former is ideally studied using a controlled experimental design, whereas the latter is more appropriately studied using a case study design.

Case studies may be approached in different ways depending on the epistemological standpoint of the researcher, that is, whether they take a critical (questioning one's own and others' assumptions), interpretivist (trying to understand individual and shared social meanings) or positivist approach (orientating towards the criteria of natural sciences, such as focusing on generalisability considerations) (Table (Table6). 6 ). Whilst such a schema can be conceptually helpful, it may be appropriate to draw on more than one approach in any case study, particularly in the context of conducting health services research. Doolin has, for example, noted that in the context of undertaking interpretative case studies, researchers can usefully draw on a critical, reflective perspective which seeks to take into account the wider social and political environment that has shaped the case[ 11 ].

Example of epistemological approaches that may be used in case study research

How are case studies conducted?

Here, we focus on the main stages of research activity when planning and undertaking a case study; the crucial stages are: defining the case; selecting the case(s); collecting and analysing the data; interpreting data; and reporting the findings.

Defining the case

Carefully formulated research question(s), informed by the existing literature and a prior appreciation of the theoretical issues and setting(s), are all important in appropriately and succinctly defining the case[ 8 , 12 ]. Crucially, each case should have a pre-defined boundary which clarifies the nature and time period covered by the case study (i.e. its scope, beginning and end), the relevant social group, organisation or geographical area of interest to the investigator, the types of evidence to be collected, and the priorities for data collection and analysis (see Table Table7 7 )[ 1 ]. A theory driven approach to defining the case may help generate knowledge that is potentially transferable to a range of clinical contexts and behaviours; using theory is also likely to result in a more informed appreciation of, for example, how and why interventions have succeeded or failed[ 13 ].

Example of a checklist for rating a case study proposal[ 8 ]

For example, in our evaluation of the introduction of electronic health records in English hospitals (Table (Table3), 3 ), we defined our cases as the NHS Trusts that were receiving the new technology[ 5 ]. Our focus was on how the technology was being implemented. However, if the primary research interest had been on the social and organisational dimensions of implementation, we might have defined our case differently as a grouping of healthcare professionals (e.g. doctors and/or nurses). The precise beginning and end of the case may however prove difficult to define. Pursuing this same example, when does the process of implementation and adoption of an electronic health record system really begin or end? Such judgements will inevitably be influenced by a range of factors, including the research question, theory of interest, the scope and richness of the gathered data and the resources available to the research team.

Selecting the case(s)

The decision on how to select the case(s) to study is a very important one that merits some reflection. In an intrinsic case study, the case is selected on its own merits[ 8 ]. The case is selected not because it is representative of other cases, but because of its uniqueness, which is of genuine interest to the researchers. This was, for example, the case in our study of the recruitment of minority ethnic participants into asthma research (Table (Table1) 1 ) as our earlier work had demonstrated the marginalisation of minority ethnic people with asthma, despite evidence of disproportionate asthma morbidity[ 14 , 15 ]. In another example of an intrinsic case study, Hellstrom et al.[ 16 ] studied an elderly married couple living with dementia to explore how dementia had impacted on their understanding of home, their everyday life and their relationships.

For an instrumental case study, selecting a "typical" case can work well[ 8 ]. In contrast to the intrinsic case study, the particular case which is chosen is of less importance than selecting a case that allows the researcher to investigate an issue or phenomenon. For example, in order to gain an understanding of doctors' responses to health policy initiatives, Som undertook an instrumental case study interviewing clinicians who had a range of responsibilities for clinical governance in one NHS acute hospital trust[ 17 ]. Sampling a "deviant" or "atypical" case may however prove even more informative, potentially enabling the researcher to identify causal processes, generate hypotheses and develop theory.

In collective or multiple case studies, a number of cases are carefully selected. This offers the advantage of allowing comparisons to be made across several cases and/or replication. Choosing a "typical" case may enable the findings to be generalised to theory (i.e. analytical generalisation) or to test theory by replicating the findings in a second or even a third case (i.e. replication logic)[ 1 ]. Yin suggests two or three literal replications (i.e. predicting similar results) if the theory is straightforward and five or more if the theory is more subtle. However, critics might argue that selecting 'cases' in this way is insufficiently reflexive and ill-suited to the complexities of contemporary healthcare organisations.

The selected case study site(s) should allow the research team access to the group of individuals, the organisation, the processes or whatever else constitutes the chosen unit of analysis for the study. Access is therefore a central consideration; the researcher needs to come to know the case study site(s) well and to work cooperatively with them. Selected cases need to be not only interesting but also hospitable to the inquiry [ 8 ] if they are to be informative and answer the research question(s). Case study sites may also be pre-selected for the researcher, with decisions being influenced by key stakeholders. For example, our selection of case study sites in the evaluation of the implementation and adoption of electronic health record systems (see Table Table3) 3 ) was heavily influenced by NHS Connecting for Health, the government agency that was responsible for overseeing the National Programme for Information Technology (NPfIT)[ 5 ]. This prominent stakeholder had already selected the NHS sites (through a competitive bidding process) to be early adopters of the electronic health record systems and had negotiated contracts that detailed the deployment timelines.

It is also important to consider in advance the likely burden and risks associated with participation for those who (or the site(s) which) comprise the case study. Of particular importance is the obligation for the researcher to think through the ethical implications of the study (e.g. the risk of inadvertently breaching anonymity or confidentiality) and to ensure that potential participants/participating sites are provided with sufficient information to make an informed choice about joining the study. The outcome of providing this information might be that the emotive burden associated with participation, or the organisational disruption associated with supporting the fieldwork, is considered so high that the individuals or sites decide against participation.

In our example of evaluating implementations of electronic health record systems, given the restricted number of early adopter sites available to us, we sought purposively to select a diverse range of implementation cases among those that were available[ 5 ]. We chose a mixture of teaching, non-teaching and Foundation Trust hospitals, and examples of each of the three electronic health record systems procured centrally by the NPfIT. At one recruited site, it quickly became apparent that access was problematic because of competing demands on that organisation. Recognising the importance of full access and co-operative working for generating rich data, the research team decided not to pursue work at that site and instead to focus on other recruited sites.

Collecting the data

In order to develop a thorough understanding of the case, the case study approach usually involves the collection of multiple sources of evidence, using a range of quantitative (e.g. questionnaires, audits and analysis of routinely collected healthcare data) and more commonly qualitative techniques (e.g. interviews, focus groups and observations). The use of multiple sources of data (data triangulation) has been advocated as a way of increasing the internal validity of a study (i.e. the extent to which the method is appropriate to answer the research question)[ 8 , 18 - 21 ]. An underlying assumption is that data collected in different ways should lead to similar conclusions, and approaching the same issue from different angles can help develop a holistic picture of the phenomenon (Table (Table2 2 )[ 4 ].

Brazier and colleagues used a mixed-methods case study approach to investigate the impact of a cancer care programme[ 22 ]. Here, quantitative measures were collected with questionnaires before, and five months after, the start of the intervention which did not yield any statistically significant results. Qualitative interviews with patients however helped provide an insight into potentially beneficial process-related aspects of the programme, such as greater, perceived patient involvement in care. The authors reported how this case study approach provided a number of contextual factors likely to influence the effectiveness of the intervention and which were not likely to have been obtained from quantitative methods alone.

In collective or multiple case studies, data collection needs to be flexible enough to allow a detailed description of each individual case to be developed (e.g. the nature of different cancer care programmes), before considering the emerging similarities and differences in cross-case comparisons (e.g. to explore why one programme is more effective than another). It is important that data sources from different cases are, where possible, broadly comparable for this purpose even though they may vary in nature and depth.

Analysing, interpreting and reporting case studies

Making sense and offering a coherent interpretation of the typically disparate sources of data (whether qualitative alone or together with quantitative) is far from straightforward. Repeated reviewing and sorting of the voluminous and detail-rich data are integral to the process of analysis. In collective case studies, it is helpful to analyse data relating to the individual component cases first, before making comparisons across cases. Attention needs to be paid to variations within each case and, where relevant, the relationship between different causes, effects and outcomes[ 23 ]. Data will need to be organised and coded to allow the key issues, both derived from the literature and emerging from the dataset, to be easily retrieved at a later stage. An initial coding frame can help capture these issues and can be applied systematically to the whole dataset with the aid of a qualitative data analysis software package.

The Framework approach is a practical approach, comprising of five stages (familiarisation; identifying a thematic framework; indexing; charting; mapping and interpretation) , to managing and analysing large datasets particularly if time is limited, as was the case in our study of recruitment of South Asians into asthma research (Table (Table1 1 )[ 3 , 24 ]. Theoretical frameworks may also play an important role in integrating different sources of data and examining emerging themes. For example, we drew on a socio-technical framework to help explain the connections between different elements - technology; people; and the organisational settings within which they worked - in our study of the introduction of electronic health record systems (Table (Table3 3 )[ 5 ]. Our study of patient safety in undergraduate curricula drew on an evaluation-based approach to design and analysis, which emphasised the importance of the academic, organisational and practice contexts through which students learn (Table (Table4 4 )[ 6 ].

Case study findings can have implications both for theory development and theory testing. They may establish, strengthen or weaken historical explanations of a case and, in certain circumstances, allow theoretical (as opposed to statistical) generalisation beyond the particular cases studied[ 12 ]. These theoretical lenses should not, however, constitute a strait-jacket and the cases should not be "forced to fit" the particular theoretical framework that is being employed.

When reporting findings, it is important to provide the reader with enough contextual information to understand the processes that were followed and how the conclusions were reached. In a collective case study, researchers may choose to present the findings from individual cases separately before amalgamating across cases. Care must be taken to ensure the anonymity of both case sites and individual participants (if agreed in advance) by allocating appropriate codes or withholding descriptors. In the example given in Table Table3, 3 , we decided against providing detailed information on the NHS sites and individual participants in order to avoid the risk of inadvertent disclosure of identities[ 5 , 25 ].

What are the potential pitfalls and how can these be avoided?

The case study approach is, as with all research, not without its limitations. When investigating the formal and informal ways undergraduate students learn about patient safety (Table (Table4), 4 ), for example, we rapidly accumulated a large quantity of data. The volume of data, together with the time restrictions in place, impacted on the depth of analysis that was possible within the available resources. This highlights a more general point of the importance of avoiding the temptation to collect as much data as possible; adequate time also needs to be set aside for data analysis and interpretation of what are often highly complex datasets.

Case study research has sometimes been criticised for lacking scientific rigour and providing little basis for generalisation (i.e. producing findings that may be transferable to other settings)[ 1 ]. There are several ways to address these concerns, including: the use of theoretical sampling (i.e. drawing on a particular conceptual framework); respondent validation (i.e. participants checking emerging findings and the researcher's interpretation, and providing an opinion as to whether they feel these are accurate); and transparency throughout the research process (see Table Table8 8 )[ 8 , 18 - 21 , 23 , 26 ]. Transparency can be achieved by describing in detail the steps involved in case selection, data collection, the reasons for the particular methods chosen, and the researcher's background and level of involvement (i.e. being explicit about how the researcher has influenced data collection and interpretation). Seeking potential, alternative explanations, and being explicit about how interpretations and conclusions were reached, help readers to judge the trustworthiness of the case study report. Stake provides a critique checklist for a case study report (Table (Table9 9 )[ 8 ].

Potential pitfalls and mitigating actions when undertaking case study research

Stake's checklist for assessing the quality of a case study report[ 8 ]

Conclusions

The case study approach allows, amongst other things, critical events, interventions, policy developments and programme-based service reforms to be studied in detail in a real-life context. It should therefore be considered when an experimental design is either inappropriate to answer the research questions posed or impossible to undertake. Considering the frequency with which implementations of innovations are now taking place in healthcare settings and how well the case study approach lends itself to in-depth, complex health service research, we believe this approach should be more widely considered by researchers. Though inherently challenging, the research case study can, if carefully conceptualised and thoughtfully undertaken and reported, yield powerful insights into many important aspects of health and healthcare delivery.

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Authors' contributions

AS conceived this article. SC, KC and AR wrote this paper with GH, AA and AS all commenting on various drafts. SC and AS are guarantors.

Pre-publication history

The pre-publication history for this paper can be accessed here:

http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2288/11/100/prepub

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to the participants and colleagues who contributed to the individual case studies that we have drawn on. This work received no direct funding, but it has been informed by projects funded by Asthma UK, the NHS Service Delivery Organisation, NHS Connecting for Health Evaluation Programme, and Patient Safety Research Portfolio. We would also like to thank the expert reviewers for their insightful and constructive feedback. Our thanks are also due to Dr. Allison Worth who commented on an earlier draft of this manuscript.

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What is the Difference between a Use Case and a Case Study?

March 3, 2022
Using Case Studies

Use Cases and Case Studies are similar types of B2B content that both sales and marketing teams love. However, they possess some key differences, which this article identifies.

What Is a Case Study?

A Case Study describes in detail the transformations and successes of your client that are all thanks to you. It identifies the situation the client was in before partnering with your company and adopting your solution. It showcases the results the client experienced, such as increasing revenue or saving time. In short, Case Studies allow readers to really put themselves in your client’s position and fully understand how meaningful your product or service really is to your customers.

What Is a Use Case?

Creating a Use Case is the perfect solution if you can’t create a Case Study. (For example, perhaps your clients aren’t yet seeing long-term results from your product or service.) This type of content doesn’t showcase a single client’s success. Instead, your offering is the star. This content will explain in detail what your product or service will do for clients in a certain predicament and what kinds of results and benefits they should expect to see.

Click here to read an example of a Use Case we’ve created for one of our clients.

How Are Case Studies and Use Cases Similar?

Marketing and sales teams highly value Use Cases and Case Studies because both documents achieve the same objectives. They are polished pieces of content that salespeople can use to persuade prospects. They feature content that can be used in marketing and advertising campaigns or teased on social media platforms . Furthermore, they both build confidence in your brand. All these factors lead to a boost in your revenue, leads, and customers’ trust.

Whether you need a Use Case or a Case Study, SuccessKit can help. Contact us at [email protected] to learn more about us, our process, and what we can do for you.

Stef Mates, SuccessKit's Creative Director, has been writing, designing, editing, and managing a variety of content types for several different industries for more than 15 years. She started at the company as a freelancer in November 2019 and became an official part of the team in June 2021.

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Ace Rosenstein President, Bravo Business Media

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Ari Haas Founder, Dijy

“The SuccessKit team knows what they’re doing. It’s easy to work with them, the end result is a beautiful product, and all parties involved feel super comfortable.”

Sidney Rogers Marketing Manager, Groove Technology Solutions

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Use Case or Case Study? When to Use Each in Your Content Strategy

Use cases and case studies focus on the real-world application of a product or solution, and both are important tools in the B2B content strategist’s toolkit. But don’t confuse them! They are distinctly different content types, and deploying each of them at the right point in the buyer’s journey is crucial to making sure they resonate with your audience.

But how do you choose between them? And what separates a good use case or case study from a really great one? We’ve got you covered. In this blog post, we’ll explain:

The difference between use cases and case studies
Where they fit into the buyer’s journey
How to make these content assets compelling—and use them to build a connected content journey

What Is a Use Case? Definition and Examples

A use case illustrates how a product or solution solves for a particular pain point, customer type, or scenario. It frames the product in terms of the customer’s goals and careabouts, which is a powerful way to highlight its value even when customers aren’t familiar with your company or what it does.

Because of this, use cases are best used at the awareness stage, early in the buyer’s journey. They’re especially useful for search, since customers at this stage are looking for a way to solve their problem (and searching for keywords and phrases related to that problem).

Here’s an example: An IT manager is looking for solutions to enable her company’s employees to use their own devices for work. She may or may not know exactly what kind of product she’s looking for; either way, she doesn’t have a specific provider in mind. Searching for “bring your own device” brings up a product page where that’s listed as a use case, leading her to learn more about that product.

What Is a Case Study? Definition and Examples

A case study (sometimes called a customer story) is a real-world story about how a customer successfully used a product or solution to achieve a goal. According to the Content Marketing Institute’s 2022 B2B Content Marketing report , 73 percent of the most successful content marketers used case studies in their content strategy.

A case study is typically much more detailed than a use case, and includes information such as background on the customer, pain points, objectives, how they deployed the product or solution, and the results. Unlike a use case, which is a straightforward explanation of how a product addresses a problem, a case study is driven by storytelling.

Because case studies are so detailed, they belong later in the buyer’s journey, typically at the consideration or decision stage. At this point, customers are looking at how other companies have solved the problem they’re having. They’re looking for evidence—quantifiable data; tangible results—and they’re willing to spend more time on an asset that provides it.

Let’s look at an example. A case study about Salesforce customer ENGIE, a group committed to accelerating the transition to a carbon-neutral world, explores how ENGIE used Salesforce products to unify data and build customer relationships—and does so in great detail. In fact, the entire case study clocks in at nearly 1,700 words, plus a video, pull quotes, and statistic highlights.

How to Make a Use Case or Case Study Great

Despite the obvious differences between them, the key to making your use case or case study great is the same: Focus on the customer’s point of view.

For use cases, this means using search data and other customer research to ensure that your content is targeting problems and pain points that your customers actually have, rather than your internal marketing terms or what you think they should be searching for.

For case studies, this means making the customer the hero of the story. Too many marketers focus on the company or product when writing a case study. It’s true that a customer at the consideration stage is more invested in learning about your product, but what they really want to know is how it can make them successful. Instead of focusing on product features, focus on customer results.

The ENGIE case study above is an excellent example. Salesforce and its products aren’t mentioned until paragraph 6, and throughout the narrative, the focus is squarely on the customer and its achievements.

Use Cases vs. Case Studies in the Content Journey

We’ve highlighted some of the differences between a use case and a case study. But they also have commonalities, which you can use to build a connected content journey. One way to do this is to bring the use cases you’ve identified with search data into your case studies. Although your customer’s product knowledge and attitude toward your company evolves throughout the buyer’s journey, their careabouts and pain points remain the same, and this is a great way to call back to content they may have seen earlier in the buying process and create a cohesive experience.

This can also go in the other direction. A common mistake marketers make is to try to position case studies as an awareness asset. We’ve already discussed why case studies should live at the consideration stage, but what if you’ve got a really compelling case study and want to use it for awareness content? The answer: Take a bite-sized chunk, like a quotation or testimonial, and use it in landing pages, social media banners, and other awareness content. A true case study needs lots of background to be effective (and users don’t want to invest that much time at the awareness stage), but a strong testimonial can grab attention all on its own.

And there you have it: all the information you need to create great use cases and case studies—and to place them where they’ll be most effective in the buyer’s journey. In addition to boosting your content marketing efforts, making the most of your use cases and case studies will help you build the connective tissue that leads to a progressive and holistic content experience.

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Tendo’s team of experienced content strategists can provide actionable insights on your content journey and help you create use cases, case studies, and other content assets that stand out from the crowd. Explore our content strategy services or get in touch with our team .

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Product Management

How to create user-focused use cases for ideal success scenarios [with examples].

Robert Hales

ClickUp Contributor

December 30, 2023

Are you steering a project, deciphering intricate business processes, or engineering complex software solutions? If so, you’re well aware that success hinges on clarity and precision. Good news! Use cases may spare you and your clients a great deal of trouble.

Imagine you’re constructing a building. Blueprints guide you, outlining each room’s purpose and layout. This is exactly what a use case is: a blueprint to guide system requirements and resulting project operations. It helps map out processes across user interactions, helping you build a system tailored to user goals and needs. 🏗️

A stitch in time saves nine, and similarly, mastering use cases now can save you countless hours later. In this practical guide, we’ll explain:

The significance of a use case-driven approach in software development
Steps to write a use case for multiple scenarios

Benefits of use cases in business processes

Step 1: come up with the title and description, step 2: identify the actors, step 3: identify the actors’ goal, step 4: capture stakeholders and their interests, step 5: specify pre-conditions or assumptions, step 6: outline basic flow, step 7: determine exceptions or error conditions, step 8: include extensions or variations to how the system functions, step 9: consider alternative flows, create and manage your use cases in clickup docs, try writing use cases with ai, use case #1: online shopping wishlist, use case #2: travel itinerary management.

What Is a Use Case, and What Purpose Does It Serve?

Use cases are indispensable for understanding user-specific interactions and narratives (or user stories) to create the intended design for a system.

In technical terms, a use case is a detailed description that outlines how a user will interact with an IT solution to achieve a specific goal. It maps out the steps they take , with a clear beginning, middle, and end.

If you’re new to use cases, you’re probably wondering why you should care about it. The truth is that every software development process carries the burden of user-focused project planning. It’s critical to understand the service or system requirements beforehand so that your end product works perfectly and is profitable.

This is where a use case comes in, helping you visualize user interactions from start to finish and pinpoint any hiccups along the way . Think of it as a walkthrough in a strategic game where every move is crucial. Your input, the system’s response, specific processes, and the final outcome are all explicitly stated, leaving no room for ambiguity in decisions.

The idea here is to help project managers, business analysts, and software developers align themselves on what the end user desires in a software application or a system , taking the guesswork out of the picture. The result? Smarter decisions on:

Features to prioritize
Design scope
Bugs to fix

Tip: Need a quick start? Use the ClickUp User Story Mapping Template to initiate use case mapping right away! Its built-in infinite Whiteboard helps you track and prioritize user stories within minutes.

User Story Mapping Whiteboard Template by ClickUp

Use cases offer several benefits in developing and managing software systems and projects . Here are seven key advantages for various business stakeholders:

Clarity into specific interactions : Use cases provide a clear understanding of how users interact with a system, helping define and document functional requirements
Focused communication : Use cases serve as a bridge between business stakeholders , aligning developers, designers, project managers, and clients
Identification of how a system behaves : They help identify and document various ways users interact with the system. This includes both normal and exceptional scenarios, providing a comprehensive view of the system’s expected behavior
Project planning : Use cases help in planning by breaking down the desired functionalities into manageable units addressing specific system goals
Flexibility : They provide a flexible framework that can accommodate modifications (alternative flows) or additions without disrupting the overall system flow
Documentation and training : Use cases serve as valuable workflow documentation for future reference. They provide insights that can be useful for training new development team members
Risk identification : By exploring various success and failure scenarios, use cases assist in identifying potential risks and challenges early in the development process

What to Include in a Project’s Use Case: With Practical Steps

Use cases can include a number of elements depending on the scale and complexity of the system you’re building. Here are some of the most significant options:

Title and description
Actors (users)
Stakeholders
Pre-conditions
Exception to the basic flow
Variations or what-if scenarios
Alternative flows

These points can be better explained when we explore the practical side of things. Refer to the sections below to understand how to include these elements and distill complex use case scenarios into actionable steps .

Any use case study must have an engaging title. Keep it concise, specific, and indicative of the use case’s purpose. For instance, the title Optimizing Online Checkout: A Use Case for E-Commerce Conversion Enhancement immediately conveys the focus and scope.

Next, your case description should set the context concisely, pinpointing the use case actor or user, the system in question, and the ultimate goal. Here’s an example: This use case outlines the steps taken by an online shopper to complete a purchase, highlighting the system’s response at each interaction to ensure a smooth transaction and reduce cart abandonment.

Keep your language sharp, directly addressing the innovative outcomes you seek.

These are not Hollywood stars but rather the key entities— individuals, groups, or even other systems —interacting with the system under scrutiny. Identifying these actors is akin to casting characters in a play; each has a role, a purpose, and a set of actions that contribute to the unfolding narrative. 🎭

Actors within a use case diagram can be categorized as either primary or secondary . A primary actor seeks the system’s assistance by themselves to achieve a specific goal. On the other hand, a secondary actor provides a service to the system as a direct result of the primary use case. The system initiates interaction with the secondary actor for information or completion of a goal.

Let’s say a user applies for a loan online, which makes them the primary actor. In response to the loan application, the system triggers another resource to calculate interest rates—that resource is the secondary actor.

If you’re still in the research phase and need help identifying the primary actor, you may want to document your findings through the ClickUp User Research Plan Template . Its built-in features help software and UX teams map out user behavior and resolve problems within apps, websites, or projects in an orderly manner.

Whether an actor is buying a product, signing up for a newsletter, or using a website, their goal is the driving force behind their interaction with your services . It’s your job to understand these goals so you can design a system that helps them achieve them in the most efficient way possible.

Let’s consider a real-world example: if you’re running a retail website, a customer’s goal might be to purchase a product in minimal steps. This use case would require you to outline the steps customers need to take to complete that purchase, from selecting the item to finalizing the payment.

Use this ClickUp SMART Goal Action Plan Template to list out the goals of all identified actors and monitor how they’re addressed by your team.

It’s super vital to identify all the stakeholders and understand their interests to ensure your use case is effective. A stakeholder could be an end-user, a system administrator, or even external actors or systems interacting with your service. They all have unique needs and expectations. Here’s what you should do:

List all possible stakeholders involved in the use case
For each stakeholder, identify their interests or what they aim to gain from the use case. For instance, a potential Interest for an online shopper would be an Intuitive and efficient user experience
Consider how the use case can be fulfilled without compromising the overall goals
Regularly revisit this list as your project or product develops , ensuring new needs are accounted for

Stakeholder analysis can be a stressful job, especially when there are multiple use cases to monitor. We recommend using quality stakeholder mapping templates to structure the process.

Pre-conditions set the stage for action, ensuring that all necessary conditions are in place before the use case is initiated. Think must-haves for your scenario to work—like having an internet connection for an online transaction or a user account for access to a members-only area. Imagine the scenario from the user’s perspective and identify and list these prerequisites clearly.

Here’s an illustration showing how pre-conditions are used to outline use cases and automate the workflow for a banking website:

This is the minimum viable product (MVP) scenario, the one where everything clicks, and your use case unfolds just as envisioned. No errors, no hiccups, just a straightforward path to a happy user.

Imagine a scenario where a customer purchases a book from an online store. The basic flow would be:

The customer logs in to their account
They search for a book by title, author, or genre
The customer reviews the book and adds it to their cart
They proceed to checkout, confirm shipping details, and select a payment method
They review the order summary and place the order
A confirmation email is sent to the customer

Each step here is supposed to be clear and necessary, guiding the user towards a satisfying transaction. Fall back on the ClickUp User Flow Template to design efficient use case pathways and share them with your team.

These exceptions represent scenarios where the standard process flow doesn’t apply. Think about what could go wrong and how your system should respond. You can:

Consider realistic scenarios : Think about all the ways an operation might deviate or lead to failure scenarios. This could be due to technical issues, user errors, or unexpected circumstances
Document each exception : Clearly describe each exception, including its cause, effect, and how your system should respond
Prioritize exceptions : Rank exceptions based on their likelihood and impact on user experience

Think of these as what-if scenarios that keep your processes agile . Say if a customer abandons their shopping cart, what’s the next step? This perhaps calls for creating an extension that activates a follow-up email sequence or a special discount offer to re-engage them.

Use cases should adapt to real-world complexities, offering innovative solutions that maintain user engagement. It’s about anticipating the unexpected and scripting a response that turns challenges into opportunities.

Consider alternative courses if challenges or process deviations occur. Imagine you’re designing a use case for an online shopping cart system.

Main Success Scenario (MSS):

The user adds items to the cart
The user proceeds to checkout and confirms payment

What if an item is out of stock?

The system notifies the user immediately
The system recommends similar products

What if the payment is declined?

Prompt the user to try a different payment method
Offer to save the cart for later completion

What if network issues occur?

Save the user’s progress automatically
Inform the user and attempt to reconnect

For each what-if , develop an alternative path that guides your system to a successful outcome.

How to Write Effective Use Cases with ClickUp

Now that we have a thorough knowledge of the process of developing use cases, let’s explore how to write one professionally with ClickUp . This all-in-one project management tool comes with abundant user documentation and use case writing features. Let’s break down the process to showcase just how effortless it can be.🌹

To kick off your business use case model in ClickUp, head to ClickUp Docs , the platform’s integrated solution for creating and storing all types of documents—from user manuals and test case definitions to technical requirements.

Starting fresh? Great, create a new doc. You can use one of ClickUp’s free flowcharting templates to create use case diagrams or case study templates to document user research. Everything will be accessible from a centralized location, making it easier to keep track of the best possible outcome scenario or develop alternative paths.

Invite members from product and marketing teams to work on your use case document in real time. You may want to create Folders to store multiple use cases for your project. The best part is that you can connect your Docs with other project tasks to ensure a smooth work experience.

Let’s dive into the fun stuff! In the Doc editor, just type /ai. Boom! The ClickUp AI modal appears, ready for action. Click on Write with AI to get the party started. Type in your use case topic and add relevant technical requirements to generate a professional-grade, well-structured use case presentation within seconds.

Even with the AI-generated use cases, you’re in control. You can:

Insert the content elsewhere : Seamlessly insert the AI-generated content into your Doc. Or, just copy-paste and merge it with manually written use cases
Edit inputs : If the narrative needs a personal touch, edit your prompt or topic to guide the AI in the direction you want
Regenerate : Fancy a different twist? Explore varied responses from the AI with the same prompt
Give AI more direction : Extend the conversation by providing additional prompts or directions and get more contextual responses 🤖

Besides generating text, ClickUp AI can also fix the grammar and tone of your existing documents and even summarize lengthy case studies to save you time.

Examples of Use Cases for Software Development Projects

Let’s dive into some business use case examples to better illustrate what they look like and how they can streamline your projects.

An e-commerce platform aims to introduce a wishlist feature that enhances the online shopping experience for users.

Actors : Online shoppers

Goals : Add items to a wishlist; view wishlist contents

Stakeholders : E-commerce platform, online shoppers, product vendors, marketing team, developers

Pre-conditions : User must be logged in and browsing available products

Basic flow :

User logs into the e-commerce platform
User browses available products
User selects the option to add a product to their wishlist
System adds the selected product to the user’s wishlist
User can view and manage their wishlist at any time
System provides personalized product recommendations based on wishlist items

Extensions/Variations:

Implement a notification system to alert users when wishlist items are on sale
Allow users to share their wishlist with friends or family for gift suggestions

Exceptions/Error conditions:

If a selected product is no longer available, notify the user and provide alternate courses
In case of technical issues, ensure users can still browse and add items to their wishlist without disruptions

Alternative flow :

User selects the option to view their existing wishlist
System displays a list of items in the user’s wishlist
User can remove items from the wishlist or proceed to purchase
System updates the wishlist and provides relevant suggestions for additional items

A travel planning app wants to implement a feature for users to create and manage their travel itineraries.

Actors : Travelers, travel app

Goals : Create and edit travel itineraries; receive recommendations

Stakeholders : Travel app companies, travelers, local businesses, tourism boards, developers

Pre-conditions : User must be logged in and have a trip planned

User logs in
User selects the option to create a new travel itinerary
User inputs trip details, including destinations and dates
System generates an initial itinerary and suggests local attractions
User can modify the itinerary and add custom activities
System provides real-time updates and recommendations based on user preferences

Extensions/Variations :

Integrate a weather forecast feature for each destination
Allow users to share their itineraries with fellow travelers.

Exceptions/Error conditions :

If a selected attraction is closed or unavailable during the planned date, notify the user and suggest alternatives
In case of a connectivity issue, ensure users can still access and modify their itineraries offline
User logs into the travel app
The user chooses an existing route
System displays the current itinerary, including booked accommodations and activities
User can modify the itinerary, add new activities, or remove existing ones
System updates the itinerary and adjusts recommendations accordingly

Closing the Case on Success

Whether you’re looking to fine-tune your business process or enhance customer experience, use case modeling is a great tool for visual problem-solvers. If you need an observable result quickly, rely on the strategic use case development tools within ClickUp to accelerate your project timelines and bring your business objectives to fruition. 🍉

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What is a use case? How to write one, examples, + template

Designing a product takes more than listing features and goals. Before the first smartphone came out, how would you describe the ways users interact with it? Calling it a cellphone you can browse the web on is a good start, but that doesn’t explain the complexity of its systems. To map out the ways users interact with a system, tool, or product, you need a use case.

Use cases are descriptions of the ways users interact with systems to accomplish tasks or reach goals. Mapping these interactions can improve early planning and ensure a smooth development cycle. To help you work them into project planning, we’ll define a use case, explain how to write one, and share examples.

What is a use case

A use case explains how users interact with a product or system. It outlines the flow of user inputs, establishing successful and failed paths to meeting goals. This allows product teams to better understand what a system does, how it performs, and why errors occur. You can write one out or diagram a use case model for visual thinkers.

Use cases vary in complexity depending on your audience or system. But across the board, your use case should identify a few key components. The most important ones include:

Actor: anything exhibiting behavior that interacts with a system, such as a single user, a team, or another piece of software
System: the product or service with defined functionality
Goal: the purpose or objective users reach with a system’s features

Actors, systems, and goals build the foundation for a use case. When you begin tracking system interactions, a few new elements come into play:

Stakeholder(s): someone with a stake or interest in a system’s performance
Primary actor: the actor who initiates a system’s function to reach a goal
Preconditions: underlying factors required for the use case to happen
Triggers: events that begin a use case
Basic flows: use cases where systems work as intended to reach a goal
Alternate flows: different outcomes based on when and how a system veers off course

Types of use cases

Use cases come in two forms: business and system. A system use case is a detailed look at how users interact with each part of a system. It highlights how unique inputs and contexts cause the system to reach different outcomes. This level of detail highlights how a system’s individual functions work in any scenario.

Business use cases paint a more general picture of how a user might interact with your business to reach their goals. Instead of focusing on technical detail, it’s a cause-and-effect description of different inputs. For example, if you run a code debugging platform, your business use case explains how users enter their code and receive error notices.

Some teams like to write a business use case to outline a system’s processes before development. As developers begin their work, a manager will outline more technical system use cases to follow.

Use scenario vs. use case

Use cases show all the ways a system functions when trying to reach goals, but a scenario only depicts one example. In a scenario, the system can succeed or fail at reaching the user’s goals. Put simply, multiple use scenarios build a use case.

Use case vs. user story

Use cases depict how users interact with a system, and user stories describe features from the user’s perspective. As a result, user stories are much shorter than use cases, typically consisting of brief descriptions teams use as a jumping-off point in development. Additionally, use cases can assist multiple teams in an organization, while user stories help product teams build their tool.

Use case vs. test case

While a use case covers how users and system features work to reach goals, test cases verify if a single feature works correctly. Unlike use cases, test cases look at functionality in isolation.

For example, a test case might involve validating login functionality on an email platform, ensuring users can log in on any browser at any time after creating their account.

How to write a use case

Writing a use case sounds complex, but only requires understanding your system and its users. You can write a use case by following these six steps:

1. Describe your system

Start by describing your system, or the product or service you and your team will build. Focus your description on what your system does for users. In a business use case, you can keep this background general and explain what it accomplishes. For a system use case, give an under-the-hood description of how your product functions.

Define your system by asking:

What form does it take: product, service, or software?
What features does it offer?
What goals can you accomplish with it?
How does it meet those goals?
What can you learn about the system from other documents like project charters ?

2. Identify the actors

Actors generally refer to users and customers but can apply to any outside force that engages with your system. Your actor needs well-defined behaviors explaining how and why actors use your system.

Identify actors by asking:

Are they individuals, teams, hardware, or another system?
Will primary and secondary actors share the same behavior?
Will stakeholders take on the role of actors in your use case?

3. Define your actors’ goals

Use cases highlight the outcome actors want from a system. Remember to focus on your actors’ wants over the system’s capabilities to understand why users come to your system. In some cases, customers want to use systems for more than one objective. Listing each of these objectives creates a more robust use case.

4. Create a scenario

In a use case, scenarios are the sequence of actions customers take when using a system and the flow of effects from that interaction. Your basic flows cover scenarios where a system works as intended. A user approaches the system, enters the right inputs, and your system helps them reach their goals.

Start with these successful, basic flows to create a baseline. You can use process mapping techniques to identify potential issues in the next flows.

5. Consider alternate flows

After writing a successful scenario, write alternate flows that lead to different outcomes. Typically, alternate flows involve the misuse of a system that keeps actors from reaching their goals. However, you can also note internal errors that cause a system to break down or unintended ways systems can reach goals.

Alternate flows show how different actors use a system and succeed or fail. They give a more nuanced view of everything your system can do to help you troubleshoot.

6. Repeat steps 2–5 to compile your use case

With enough variation of actors, goals, and scenarios, you can show how your system functions. Compiling these flows together gives you a use case, which can improve development and inform other documents like project status reports .

With simple systems, you can change a few elements to see every potential outcome. However complex systems may have too many elements to see each outcome. In cases like this, you can focus on testing the most common interactions. You can also design systems to prevent untested com

Try Figma’s use case template

Ready to start brainstorming use cases? Try the Figma use case template to break down your systems and find new solutions.

Use case example

Assume you’re a product manager developing a mobile banking app for your company. Your platform needs to streamline user registration and account setup. Here’s a sample use case format based on this app:

Background information:

System: a mobile banking app
Primary actor: customers who want to open an account
Secondary actor: underwriters and automated tools calculating interest rates and maximum principal balances
Goals: save time on account registration and onboarding
Stakeholders: the CEO and product VP of your company
Preconditions: users download the app and meet account requirements
Triggers: the user chooses to create a new account from the app
Basic flow: Users download your app and choose to create a new account. The application collects information about the user’s other accounts and credit scores. From there, it automatically shares the accounts they qualify for and their interest rates. The user finds an account that suits their needs and registers.
Alternate flow 1: Users enter their financial information and the app quickly generates account options. However, each account defaults to the highest interest rate their financial background allows. So, users abandon the app to find a lower rate.
Alternate flow 2: The onboarding process works as intended, but the app faces compliance issues such as Know Your Customer (KYC) requirements. While the app can provide account options, extra compliance steps slow the process.
Alternate flow 3: Because the app only looks at other accounts and credit scores, it can’t offer a full range of account options. For example, it can only offer credit cards and lines of credit. So, customers looking for mortgages have to go elsewhere.

Benefits of use cases

In the planning stage, use cases define your project scope, requirements, and roadmap. Teams can also discuss the best user outcomes and design a path to them. With alternate flows, you can also anticipate risks before they hurt a user’s experience. If that isn’t enough reason to pen one, here are a few other benefits of use cases:

Explains value: Use cases explain a system’s features in plain terms. So, when pitching your plans to stakeholders, a use case makes your system easier to understand.
Predicts costs: A use case outlines the complexity of a system. More complexity may come with additional features or safeguards. By learning how complex your system is, you can estimate development costs.
Improves planning: Without a use case, designers and developers focus on what a system does, not how it does it. However, use cases help teams consider all the ways to implement features and safeguards.
Shares alternative uses: Not all alternative flows in a system lead to failed outcomes. Mapping out different scenarios finds new solutions to old problems or expands your understanding of what a system can accomplish.

Perfect your use cases with FigJam

Use cases go beyond describing what your product can do. They give stakeholders and teams a clear picture of user interactions and successful outcomes. Whether adding a new feature, rapid prototyping , or redesigning a system, your planning should start with writing a use case.

The more insights into actors, interactions, and outcomes, the better—which is why it's important to collaborate on use cases with your team and stakeholders. A shared online whiteboard like FigJam streamlines collaboration between remote teams to help you build out comprehensive use cases. Our gallery of 300+ templates can bring teams together at any stage of development.

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Louise Dewick 3 ,
Rachna Bahl 3 , 4 ,
http://orcid.org/0000-0002-1825-4864 Tim Draycott 3 , 5 ,
Cathy Winter 6 ,
Akbar Ansari 1 ,
http://orcid.org/0000-0003-2524-5357 Alison Powell 1 ,
http://orcid.org/0000-0002-7886-3223 Janet Willars 1 ,
http://orcid.org/0000-0003-4393-0956 Imogen A F Brown 1 ,
http://orcid.org/0000-0003-3792-0575 Annabelle Olsson 1 ,
http://orcid.org/0000-0001-5673-751X Natalie Richards 1 ,
http://orcid.org/0000-0002-6093-8709 Joann Leeding 1 ,
http://orcid.org/0000-0002-6082-3151 Lisa Hinton 1 ,
http://orcid.org/0000-0002-0037-274X Jenni Burt 1 ,
http://orcid.org/0000-0002-2099-006X Giulia Maistrello 7 ,
Charlotte Davies 7 ,
Thiscovery Authorship Group ,
ABC Contributor Group ,
Jan W van der Scheer 1
1 THIS Institute (The Healthcare Improvement Studies Institute) , Department of Public Health and Primary Care, University of Cambridge , Cambridge , UK
2 The Royal College of Midwives , London , UK
3 Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists , London , UK
4 University Hospitals Bristol and Weston NHS Foundation Trust , Bristol , UK
5 North Bristol NHS Trust , Westbury on Trym , UK
6 PROMPT Maternity Foundation , Bristol , UK
7 RAND Europe , Cambridge , UK
Correspondence to Dr Jan W van der Scheer, THIS Institute (The Healthcare Improvement Studies Institute), University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB1 8RN, UK; jan.vanderscheer{at}thisinstitute.cam.ac.uk

Clinical tools for use in practice—such as medicine reconciliation charts, diagnosis support tools and track-and-trigger charts—are endemic in healthcare, but relatively little attention is given to how to optimise their design. User-centred design approaches and co-design principles offer potential for improving usability and acceptability of clinical tools, but limited practical guidance is currently available. We propose a framework (FRamework for co-dESign of Clinical practice tOols or ‘FRESCO’) offering practical guidance based on user-centred methods and co-design principles, organised in five steps: (1) establish a multidisciplinary advisory group; (2) develop initial drafts of the prototype; (3) conduct think-aloud usability evaluations; (4) test in clinical simulations; (5) generate a final prototype informed by workshops. We applied the framework in a case study to support co-design of a prototype track-and-trigger chart for detecting and responding to possible fetal deterioration during labour. This started with establishing an advisory group of 22 members with varied expertise. Two initial draft prototypes were developed—one based on a version produced by national bodies, and the other with similar content but designed using human factors principles. Think-aloud usability evaluations of these prototypes were conducted with 15 professionals, and the findings used to inform co-design of an improved draft prototype. This was tested with 52 maternity professionals from five maternity units through clinical simulations. Analysis of these simulations and six workshops were used to co-design the final prototype to the point of readiness for large-scale testing. By codifying existing methods and principles into a single framework, FRESCO supported mobilisation of the expertise and ingenuity of diverse stakeholders to co-design a prototype track-and-trigger chart in an area of pressing service need. Subject to further evaluation, the framework has potential for application beyond the area of clinical practice in which it was applied.

Healthcare quality improvement
Human factors
Obstetrics and gynecology
Quality improvement methodologies
Trigger tools

This is an open access article distributed in accordance with the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported (CC BY 4.0) license, which permits others to copy, redistribute, remix, transform and build upon this work for any purpose, provided the original work is properly cited, a link to the licence is given, and indication of whether changes were made. See: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ .

https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjqs-2023-016196

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Key messages

Much research and debate focuses on the validity and reliability of clinical tools for practice, but far less attention has been given to how to optimise their design and usability.

We propose a framework (FRamework for co-dESign of Clinical practice tOols or ‘FRESCO’) offering practical guidance for developing prototype clinical tools, drawing on user-centred design methods and co-design principles.

FRESCO successfully supported co-design of a prototype chart for detecting and responding to possible fetal deterioration during labour.

By codifying existing methods and principles into a single framework, FRESCO has potential to facilitate pragmatic, flexible and inclusive co-design of clinical practice tools, but will require further evaluation.

Clinical practice tools—ranging from medicine reconciliation charts through to diagnosis support tools and track-and-trigger charts—are endemic in healthcare. 1–3 While much research and debate focus on the validity and reliability of such tools, 4 far less attention has been given to how to optimise their design. 5–8 Yet, features of design, including usability, 9–11 are among the most important influences on effective implementation. 3 7 12 It is now clear that merely meeting technical specifications is insufficient. 6 Critical to the effective deployment, implementation, and impact of clinical practice tools is early and continued engagement with end-users and broader stakeholders so that their priorities are addressed through design processes. 6 13 Currently, however, thinking about how to optimise design of clinical practice tools either does not happen at all, or is deferred until far too late in the process of tool development, leading to a high level of waste associated with non-adoption or poor implementation. 14 15 Though a range of design methods is available and widely used in other industries, 8 their use in development of clinical practice tools has been strikingly limited. 5 6 12 In this article, we propose that practical, action-oriented guidance could help to address this problem.

User-centred design is among the most well established of the various approaches that can support better usability of clinical tools, 16 and is already a staple in the development of medical devices. 6 9 10 17 18 Seeking to enhance usability of products and systems through a focus on user needs and perspectives, 16 user-centred methods are distinguished by their systematic and typically iterative approach to optimising design through consideration of contexts of use, usability goals, user characteristics, environment, tasks, and workflow. 16 19–21 By taking into account human capacities and limitations such as effects of stress on cognition, influence of fatigue, overload through multitasking, and limited memory capacity, 9 19 21 user-centred approaches have potential to enable systematic consideration of safety, effectiveness, and efficiency when designing clinical practice tools. 22–24

A user-centred approach to development of clinical practice tools is valuably complemented by co-design principles. 6 18 25 Such principles encourage developers and users—including, for example, healthcare professionals, patients, human factors engineers, and graphic designers—to nurture collective creativity and to work in partnership. 25–27 Application of these principles to development of clinical practice tools could strengthen or expand user-centred approaches, 6 18 in particular by emphasising the need for early and continued engagement of end-users and broader stakeholders throughout the design process, 6 17 18 28 29 and mobilisation of multiple forms of expertise. 6 17 One established methodological framework for co-design describes involvement of users and developers across pre-design , generative, evaluative, and post-design phases ( table 1 ). 28 Some evidence has already demonstrated the usefulness of this approach to developing products and systems for healthcare. 29 30

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The methodological framework for co-design by Sanders and Stappers 28

One example of a pressing need for improving usability and design processes is found in track-and-trigger charts for detecting and responding to patient deterioration. 12 31 32 These widely used charts are based on the principle that there may be periods during which clinical deterioration is detectable by ‘tracking’ a predefined set of clinical parameters over time, with specific thresholds ‘triggering’ action. 33 Track-and-trigger charts are particularly likely to benefit from user-centred design, since they seek to support clinical decision-making and action in often pressurised situations where clarity around responding to a potentially deteriorating situation is essential, and where human capacities and limitations (eg, memory capacity, effects of stress on cognition) are key influences on patient safety. 12 34 Despite their potential value, track-and-trigger charts have been challenged by issues in acceptability, adoption, and use. 35–37 These issues are likely to be linked to suboptimal design, 12 34 including inadequate user involvement prior to implementation. 32 37 38

Despite burgeoning literature on both user-centred design (and variants, including human-centred design) and co-design, 17 18 22–24 26–30 39 practical guidance for combined use of these methods and principles in the development of clinical practice tools remains limited. In this article, we address this gap. We propose a five-step framework with recommended actions for each step, and we describe a case study of its application in developing a prototype track-and-trigger chart.

The FRamework for co-dESign of Clinical practice tOols (FRESCO) we propose seeks to codify existing user-centred design methods and co-design principles into a single framework to guide the development of clinical practice tools to the point of readiness for large-scale testing ( table 2 ). FRESCO recognises that development of tools usually benefits from iterative prototyping. Accordingly, it includes user-centred methods for formal prototype testing, 11 13 19 40 and application of the co-design principle of using prototypes as tools for discovery, understanding, and learning. 28 41 42

The FRamework for co-dESign of Clinical tOols

Using five steps outlined in table 2 , FRESCO aims to facilitate a process of collective creativity through structured co-design activities, 17 18 29 39 with involvement of users, developers, and other stakeholders in roles of design partners, informants, or testers. 18 This process is informed throughout by findings from systematic user-centred evaluations (see steps 2–4 in table 2 ).

The first step is to establish a multidisciplinary advisory group that offers voice to a diversity of experience and expertise throughout the process (see step 1). Following a pre-design phase of co-design (see steps 1 and 2), FRESCO facilitates proceeding through a generative phase (including gathering ideas from users based on concept prototypes produced by developers, see steps 2 and 3) to an evaluative co-design phase (including testing of co-designed prototypes, see steps 4 and 5). The movements from pre-design to generative to evaluative co-design phases align with, and are informed by, key user-centred design techniques such as heuristic evaluation (see step 2), think-aloud usability evaluations (see step 3) and simulations (see step 4). The last step of FRESCO aligns with completing the evaluative phase of co-design (see step 5), working towards a final prototype ready for further testing in real-life settings as part of the post-design phase (see table 1 ).

We used FRESCO in a case study, aiming to co-design a track-and-trigger chart for detection and response to suspected intrapartum fetal deterioration ( Box 1 ).

Case study: Avoiding Brain Injury in Childbirth (ABC) programme

In 2021, the UK’s Department of Health and Social Care commissioned the Avoiding Brain Injury in Childbirth (ABC) programme, a collaboration between the Royal College of Midwives (RCM), Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists (RCOG), and The Healthcare Improvement Studies Institute at the University of Cambridge. Colleagues from these institutions formed the ABC programme team.

A key aim of the ABC Programme was to co-design a standardised approach for detecting and responding to possible fetal deterioration during labour, including a track-and-trigger chart. The need for this work had been identified as critical and urgent because problems in intrapartum monitoring and response remain major and persistent hazards in maternity care, contributing to poor outcomes at birth and clinical negligence claims.

Current approaches to fetal monitoring during labour focus primarily on assessment of fetal heart rate features, which can be done either using intermittent auscultation (for lower-risk labours) or electronic fetal monitoring with cardiotocography (for higher-risk labours). A key innovation of the ABC programme was to combine monitoring of fetal heart rate features with other evidence-based intrapartum risk factors into a track-and-trigger tool, informed by earlier work of a task force of the RCM and RCOG. The intention of the ABC programme was to co-design an improved prototype tool, ready for deployment in a future national programme of testing, implementation, and evaluation.

Below, we explain how each step of the framework guided the Avoiding Brain Injury in Childbirth (ABC) programme’s co-design of a prototype chart for detecting and responding to suspected fetal deterioration during labour ( figure 1 ).

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Step 1: establish a multidisciplinary advisory group

Optimising a tool for detecting and responding to possible fetal deterioration during labour requires access to a range of expertise and experience, including scientific knowledge, clinical expertise, lived experience of labour and using maternity services, graphic design, human factors/ergonomics, and social science. We identified individuals with one or more of these forms of expertise or experience using intentional outreach and inclusive methods of recruitment. 43 We sought to be purposeful in ensuring diversity as well as addressing the potential for power imbalances. 43 44 For example, we included a mix of seniority among the maternity professionals and ensured that service user representation included multiple viewpoints. As detailed in online supplemental file 1 , the group included the following:

Supplemental material

twelve maternity professionals (six midwives and six obstetricians),

five maternity service users (representing a range of maternity experiences and experience of advocating for improvement and inclusion of under-represented voices), and

five other specialists (human factors engineer with expertise in user-centred design, graphic designer, consensus-building specialist, and two specialists in facilitating patient and public involvement [PPI]).

As part of the pre-design phase (including preparation of the group for the co-design process), 28 roles and responsibilities across different stages of work were explicitly allocated to support efficient and effective decision-making. 45 46 This, for example, meant that not all advisory group members needed to be involved in all activities of all steps, as further detailed in figure 1 and across steps 2–5 below.

The group’s specialists in human factors engineering, consensus-building, and PPI facilitated or led exchanges, meetings, workshops, and other co-design activities. 47 48 The PPI facilitators were particularly important in ensuring that everyone’s voices could be heard during meetings, 43 44 as well as facilitating separate activities for maternity service users, in the interests of addressing potential power imbalances. The activities of the advisory group that were part of the generative and evaluative co-design phases 28 are further detailed across steps 2–5 below.

Step 2: develop initial drafts of the prototype

In accordance with the pre-design and generative phase of co-design, 28 41 we set out to understand stakeholders’ experiences of the work system under consideration. 19–21 49 This included developing two alternative prototypes of the track-and-trigger tool to explore which design elements worked best for maternity professionals. 13 49

Prior to the programme, a task force from two national bodies ( Box 1 ) had developed an initial draft prototype (‘Design 1’, see figure 1 and online supplemental file 2 ). It included the evidence-based clinical information required for detection and responding to possible fetal deterioration, but was focused more on clinical content than on design. A human factors engineer evaluated the draft prototype against usability heuristics, 34 50 51 while alert to the contexts of use 20 such as intended or expected users, tasks, physical environment, social and organisational milieu, and technical and environmental constraints. 19–21

A second prototype (‘Design 2’, see figure 1 and online supplemental file 2 ) was then developed with support of the graphic designer, based on the clinical information and heuristic evaluation of Design 1 as well as the factors identified in analysis of the context of use description of the tool (see overview in online supplemental file 3 ). 20 Design 2 applied established user-interface design principles (detailed in online supplemental file 3 ), such as the need to be attentive to limitations of memory and attention while executing a task, 51–53 and the need for consistent use of colour coding and for grouping-related information together. 34 50–54

Though the clinical content of both designs was the same, they used alternative page formats, colours, font types and sizes, ways of recording observations, visuals indicating actions and information structures (see details in online supplemental file 3 ). These alternatives were designed to enable comparison and to prompt discussions with participants about preferences in subsequent think-aloud usability evaluation (see step 3 below). 55

Step 3: conduct think-aloud usability evaluations

As part of the generative co-design phase, 13 28 41 we conducted think-aloud formative usability sessions with 15 maternity professionals of varied backgrounds ( online supplemental file 4 ). 10 11 19 Asking people to work with designs 1 and 2 (see figure 1 ), the sessions were aimed at understanding processes of cognition and identifying usability flaws (and their causes) with a small group of representative end-users. 11 19 46

In advance of the session, participants received print-outs of the two draft prototypes, examples of the drafts with recorded observations, and clinical scenarios. Each session took part during a video call hosted on an online platform 1 , and was facilitated by a moderator (trained interviewer or human factors engineer). Sessions were organised so that designs 1 and 2 were covered in a sequence counterbalanced across participants to mitigate order effects. The moderator started with an exercise to encourage the participant to think aloud in describing their experiences while interacting with the prototype, 10 11 19 with prompts used to elicit experiences of particular design elements. Following this think-aloud exercise, the moderator used a semistructured interview guide (see online supplemental file 4 ) to ask about preferences for elements of one of the designs, elicit further views on design aspects that could be improved and use of the chart in practice. 6 10 29 56

The sessions took about one hour each. They were audio-recorded and transcribed verbatim. Analysis focused on preferences for elements of the two designs and identification of design principles to guide future prototype iterations. 56–58 Participants preferred the detail contained within Design 1, but found Design 2 easier to complete and interpret ( table 3 ). These findings reflected the tension between high data density and information overload. 54 They highlight that a particular consideration in developing clinical practical tools is striking a balance between: (1) including sufficient information to support task completion, and (2) preventing high data density that can increase search times and mental workload, particularly if information is poorly structured. 59 Further qualitative analysis identified five requirements to inform further prototype iterations and future implementation ( table 4 ), such as the need for optimising flow of information. 54

Examples of analysis on the number of participants who preferred specific design elements of Design 1 versus Design 2 (see online supplemental file 1 for details on design elements)

Identified requirements to inform further prototype iterations based on qualitative analysis of the think-aloud exercises and follow-up interviews

The analysis informed a set of co-design activities with advisory group maternity professionals for the next prototype iteration. 13 41 42 46 This included structured email exchange and online meetings facilitated by the human factors engineer or consensus facilitator to reach a professional consensus on which elements of designs 1 and 2 to incorporate in an improved draft prototype (‘Design 3’, see figure 1 ). Design 3 combined these elements—guided by the heuristic evaluation of step 2, the think-aloud evaluation findings of step 3 and clinical expertise—to feature:

selective use of colour to indicate trigger values and trend lines used for recording observations,

showing a ‘start of labour risk assessment’ on the same page as the intrapartum risk factors recorded during labour,

an A3-sized format to improve legibility while accommodating for the content detail preferred by participants, and

implementation of a simplified action diagram for escalation.

Step 4: test the prototype in clinical simulations

The evaluative phase of co-design included clinical simulation, 13 28 41 which is increasingly valued for its ability to support quality improvement in health systems. 60 61 Simulations have a role in both user-centred 7 40 60 61 and co-design approaches. 28 41 One key advantage of clinical simulation is that rare but potentially catastrophic events or conditions can be reproduced. 62 Design 3 (see figure 1 ) was tested in close approximations of real-life settings, since this is critical to safety checks, understanding how a tool might be used in practice and identifying how to improve work systems. 61

We conducted clinical simulations involving 52 maternity professionals from five different National Health Service maternity units ( online supplemental file 5 ). These units were recruited through convenience sampling based on availability. The simulations were designed as quality improvement activities (see Ethics approval below) guided by the ‘TEACH Sim’ framework, 63 focusing on: (1) testing usability of the Design 3 prototype, (2) comparing care with the prototype with usual care with the unit’s existing documentation, and (3) informing the next iteration of the prototype. TEACH Sim helped to specify the simulation’s objectives, audience, scenario script, equipment, actors, and team composition. 63

As simulation is especially well suited for conducting controlled tests exposing one group but not the other to a new prototype, 60 64 we employed the same clinical scenario twice in each round of simulation: first with a team using usual care and the second time with a different team using the Design 3 prototype ( figure 1 ). Facilitated by an experienced midwife from the advisory group, simulations in two units took place in situ, that is, in the participants’ own clinical settings where care is routinely performed. 60 61 Due to clinical pressures, simulations in other units took place in a dedicated simulation laboratory or a clinical teaching setting.

Simulations were audio and video-recorded, with one camera fixed above the desk to capture participants making recordings on intrapartum tools. A trained ethnographer 65 used a fieldnote form to record observations on aspects such as teamwork, professional roles and boundaries, communication, and social atmosphere during the simulation, with a focus on use of the intrapartum tools.

Each simulation was followed by an audio-recorded, verbatim-transcribed debrief 7 66 67 and focus group 6 10 65 session with the participants, facilitated by the ethnographer and an advisory group midwife using a topic guide ( online supplemental file 5 ). The debriefing and focus group discussions with the teams involved in the simulation aided learning, through reflecting on experiences of the scenario, contextual and environment issues, safety concerns, acceptability and usability of the usual care and prototype tools, as well as identifying opportunities for better teamwork, equipment set-ups, escalation systems, and design of tools. 61 67 The focus group discussions also helped generate further ideas to improve the draft prototype. 6 10 65

Following the focus group, participants completed the Ottawa Acceptability of Decision Rules Instrument. 68 This validated survey instrument further complemented assessment of reported usability, 10 and comparison between groups providing usual care and prototype care. 68 69

Analysis 57 70 focused on four areas: (1) recording errors and corrections made on the prototype charts, (2) if triggers during the simulation safety checks consistently led to the required actions for safe care, (3) the role of the intrapartum tools in communication (both within the team and with those in labour and their birth partners), and (4) suggestions for improving the usability of the draft prototype. Data analysis used narrative summaries and observational checklists to code the behaviour of simulation participants based on video recordings or direct observations of the sociotechnical system during the simulations. 70 Quantitative usability analysis assessed use errors and corrections on the charts. 19 58 71

The findings of the simulations ( table 5 ) informed meetings with maternity professionals from the advisory group, facilitated by the human factors engineer and consensus specialist. One key discussion point was the need to support transfer across settings, that is, from low-risk settings where intermittent auscultation is used to higher-risk settings where cardiotocography is used. The group reached a consensus on a single prototype (‘Design 4’, see figure 1 ). Design 4 required users to refer to a second page for actions (compared with the original single-page format—see online supplemental files 2 and 3 ). The group viewed this as an acceptable trade-off given that the single prototype would support transfer across settings.

Examples and key findings of the analysis of the simulations

Step 5: generating a final prototype using co-design workshops

Step 4 identified a need for further input to (i) improve use of the prototype in terms of communication with the person in labour and (ii) finalise the action diagram. To complete the evaluative co-design phase, 28 this was addressed with the advisory group through workshops. These have shown potential for practical and effective ways to finalise a prototype. 13 17 18 39 41 46 To address potential power imbalances, workshops were organised with subgroups ( figure 1 ). Facilitators supported agenda-setting, procedures, and consensus rules, 72 73 and were mindful of power dynamics. 44

The PPI facilitators introduced Design 4 to the five service user representatives and gained feedback on it during three discussion workshops ( figure 1 ), exploring in particular how the prototype might impact communication with those in labour. The maternity professionals and human factors engineer joined the discussions upon invitation by the PPI facilitators or service users. These workshops led to the inclusion of an additional item—‘is the woman concerned?’—in the final prototype, as this was a key proposal made by the representatives.

To address the identified use difficulties with the flow chart actions, an alternative grid format (vs the original flow chart format) was developed. 10 46 The human factors engineer facilitated three workshops with maternity professionals from the advisory group, in which the flow chart and grid formats were used alongside each other with reference to written clinical scenarios ( figure 1 ). 10 They reached a consensus that the grid layout provided better usability—through its better conveyance of the data 34 54 —and should be implemented in the final prototype. The final prototype (see online supplemental file 6 ) was prepared by the human factors engineer and graphic designer, reviewed by the advisory group and considered ready for use in large-scale testing.

Clinical practice tools have not routinely benefited from systematic combination of user-centred design methods and co-design principles applied to their development, 6 17 18 despite the availability of well-established techniques with a good track record in improving design and usability in a range of clinical applications. 11 13 16 29 30 One likely reason for this is the limited practical guidance about how to deploy these approaches in a pragmatic yet systematic manner for development of clinical practice tools. The framework (FRESCO) proposed in this article codifies existing user-centred design methods and co-design principles into practical guidance for enabling mobilisation of multiple forms of expertise for development of clinical practice tools. Our case study illustrates application of the framework in an area of pressing need, leading to a viable track-and-trigger prototype tool ready for large-scale testing. The study also helps to address the call for better reporting of healthcare improvement activities that align with principles of co-design. 18 39 74

FRESCO builds on an established co-design framework ( table 1 ), 28–30 including use of pre-design, generative, and evaluative phases that can inform future post-design implementation phases with the produced prototype. One of its contributions is in sensitising developers of clinical practice tools to systematic consideration of the needs and priorities of users—through application of principles of collective creativity and inclusivity central to co-design into a series of actionable steps 25–27 —while employing a user-centred design approach that supports safety, effectiveness, and efficiency. 22–24 The case study also illustrates that employment of FRESCO is consistent with a design process moving from medium to high structural restrictiveness . 55 The generative phase started with various concept prototypes that encouraged the co-design group to explore alternative ideas, which helped prevent the risk of premature closure around one solution. During the evaluative phase, the best elements of the concept prototypes were then integrated through iterative cycles into a single prototype, using high structural restrictiveness to increase decision-making precision. 55

Findings of the case study suggest that FRESCO supports inclusive ways of co-designing prototype clinical practice tools and enabled improvements based on voices that are often under-represented in development of clinical practice tools. As an example, a novel prompt—‘is the woman concerned?’—was included in the prototype to help ensure optimal communication with those in labour and their birth partners, following input of service user representatives. This helped address the imperative to include patient/family concern in track-and-trigger systems 75 as well as the broader concern to listen better to families and involve them in their own care. 76 The in situ simulations helped to understand how the prompt could be best used in practice. Key to achieving co-design in this way is commitment to inclusion, facilitation that focuses on hearing everyone’s voices and managing power dynamics through, for example, organising separate activities for service users when needed. These findings suggest that FRESCO can contribute to the need for effective ways of co-design with patients, as called for in models for co-creation of healthcare services. 77

Strengths and limitations of the framework

While FRESCO helped develop a prototype track-and-trigger tool, further evaluation will be needed to determine clinical and service user experience, efficiency, implementability, sustainability of change, impact on clinical outcomes, and any unintended consequences. 78 79 Piloting and large-scale, national testing will be important in supporting this. Further examples of use cases outside of this context would help to refine and test the framework, for example to: (1) determine whether clinical practice tools produced using the framework offer advantages over others, (2) establish the resourcing needed for minimal and optimal execution of each step, and (3) assess the extent to which steps may need to be adapted for use in lower-resourced settings. There is also a need to generate learning on how to sustain engagement and involvement of users in the design process.

Although the resource implications of using FRESCO are significant, so too are the costs of developing the technical components of clinical practice tools. 14 Moreover, deploying suboptimally designed tools introduces multiple risks and potential for waste. 3 5 12 71 Ultimately, FRESCO could help to prevent the characteristic dysfunctions associated with exclusively bottom-up or top-down innovation for quality improvement, 80 such as lack of access to specific expertise common in locally led, bottom-up approaches, 15 and risk of perverse incentives associated with top-down approaches. 81 For example, using the framework as a practical guide to developing a prototype clinical practice tool could help prevent suboptimal implementation owing to inadequate or absent exploration of usability or acceptability, 7 38 78 82 83 or waiting until the end of the development cycle when the sunk costs may limit improvement. 7 12 83

Limitations of the case study

The pandemic conditions in which the case study was conducted imposed some limitations, including the need to adapt established in-person think-aloud methods and conduct of observations. These adaptations did highlight the flexibility inherent to our proposed framework. Ongoing pressures caused by the pandemic also required the use of convenience sampling of units for the simulations and use of clinical simulation laboratories instead of in situ settings in some units, so representativeness was difficult to determine.

The proposed framework (FRESCO), combining user-centred design methods and co-design principles, was successfully deployed to develop a prototype clinical practice tool for detecting and responding to possible fetal deterioration during labour. By codifying existing methods and principles into a single actionable framework, FRESCO has potential to facilitate pragmatic, flexible, and inclusive co-design of clinical practice tools using methods that can be standardised, replicated, and potentially scaled when needed, but will require further evaluation. Future work can also help identify the kinds of applications the framework works best for and where its limits lie.

Ethics statements

Patient consent for publication.

Not required.

Ethics approval

This study involves human participants. The usability evaluations received ethics approval from the University of Cambridge Psychology Research Ethics Committee (PRE.2021.067). All participants provided written informed consent and were invited to join the ABC authorship group. The UK’s Health Research Authority decision tool ( http://www.hra-decisiontools.org.uk/research/ ) showed that ethics approval was not required for the simulations, as they were classified as quality improvement activities, in which all of the participants provided written informed consent and were invited to join the ABC authorship group.

Acknowledgments

For recruitment and communications support, we thank the Avoiding Brain Injury in Childbirth (ABC) communications team including members from THIS Institute, RCOG and RCM. We are grateful for the many and varied contributions from colleagues across the ABC programme team and external to the team, including the graphic designers (Dan Gould Design, Soapbox) and video agency (Hobson Curtis).

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Supplementary materials

Supplementary data.

This web only file has been produced by the BMJ Publishing Group from an electronic file supplied by the author(s) and has not been edited for content.

Data supplement 1

Twitter @MaryDixonWoods & @THIS_Institute, @LisaHinton4, @janvdscheer

Collaborators Thiscovery Authorship Group: Ruth Cousens, Jordan Moxey, Luke Steer, Andy Paterson, André Sartori. ABC Contributor Group: Aiesha Lake, Amar M Karia, Anna MA Croot, Bethan Everson, Bothaina Attal, Carlo Personeni, Charity Khoo, Charity LK Khoo, Charlotte Vale, Clare Shakespeare, Cossor Anwar, Daniel Wolstenholme, Daisy V Westaway, Emma Crookes, Evleen Price, Georgina Brehaut, Hannah K Twinney, Hannah Sharpe, Helena Bull, Ilaria Medda, Jayden J Mills, Jennifer Jardine, Julia F Bodle, Julie McKay, Karen Hooper, Katarina Tvarozkova, Katie Cornthwaite, Libby Shaw, Louise Houghton, Lucy M Saunders, M Nwandison, Margaret Blott, Mary Edmondson, Megan Gailey, Nina Johns, Pauline Hewitt, Phil Steer, Sophie Relph, Subhadeep Roy, Susanna Stanford, Theresa Fitzpatrick, Zeba Ismaeljibai, Zenab Barry.

Contributors All authors read and approved the final manuscript. Their specific contributions, following CRediT (Contributor Roles Taxonomy), are as follows: MW contributed to conceptualisation, formal analysis, investigation, methodology, project administration, writing (original draft preparation) and writing (review and editing). MD-W contributed to conceptualisation, funding acquisition, methodology, project administration, supervision, writing (original draft preparation) and writing (review and editing). WR contributed to investigation, methodology, project administration, resources, supervision and writing (review and editing). CW contributed to investigation, project administration, resources and writing (review and editing). CH contributed to investigation, project administration, resources and writing (review and editing). SB contributed to investigation, project administration, resources and writing (review and editing). LD contributed to investigation, project administration, resources and writing (review and editing). RB contributed to conceptualisation, methodology, supervision and writing (review and editing). TD contributed to conceptualisation, funding acquisition, methodology, project administration, supervision and writing (review and editing). CW contributed to methodology, resources and writing (review and editing). AP contributed to formal analysis, project administration, investigation, methodology and writing (review and editing). AA contributed to formal analysis, project administration and writing (review and editing). JW contributed to formal analysis, investigation, methodology and writing (review and editing). IAFB contributed to formal analysis and writing (review and editing). AO contributed to formal analysis and writing (review and editing). NR contributed to formal analysis and writing (review and editing). JL contributed to formal analysis, investigation, methodology, project administration and writing (review and editing). LH contributed to formal analysis, conceptualisation, investigation, methodology, project administration, supervision and writing (review and editing). JB contributed to conceptualisation, formal analysis, funding acquisition, methodology, project administration, supervision, writing (original draft preparation) and writing (review and editing). GM contributed to formal analysis, project administration and writing (review and editing). CD contributed to formal analysis and writing (review and editing). JWvdS contributed to conceptualisation, formal analysis, methodology, project administration, supervision, writing (original draft preparation) and writing (review and editing). The final version of the manuscript was also read and approved by the members of the Thiscovery Authorship Group and the ABC Contributor Group (see the Acknowledgements section). JWvdS is the guarantor of the study.

Funding The Department of Health and Social Care (UK) provided funding for the Avoiding Brain Injury in Childbirth (ABC) programme. The methodological work presented in this paper was supported by THIS Institute, which is funded by the Health Foundation (Grant/Award Number: RHZF/001 - RG88620), an independent charity committed to bringing about better health and health care for people in the UK. Contributions of Mary Dixon-Woods to the work were supported by the National Institute for Health and Care Research (MD-W was an NIHR Senior Investigator [NF-SI-0617-10026] during conduct of the study).

Competing interests None declared.

Provenance and peer review Not commissioned; externally peer reviewed.

Supplemental material This content has been supplied by the author(s). It has not been vetted by BMJ Publishing Group Limited (BMJ) and may not have been peer-reviewed. Any opinions or recommendations discussed are solely those of the author(s) and are not endorsed by BMJ. BMJ disclaims all liability and responsibility arising from any reliance placed on the content. Where the content includes any translated material, BMJ does not warrant the accuracy and reliability of the translations (including but not limited to local regulations, clinical guidelines, terminology, drug names and drug dosages), and is not responsible for any error and/or omissions arising from translation and adaptation or otherwise.

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Editorial Effective use of interdisciplinary approaches in healthcare quality: drawing on operations and visual management Nicola Bateman BMJ Quality & Safety 2024; 33 216-219 Published Online First: 06 Mar 2024. doi: 10.1136/bmjqs-2023-016947

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Use of Abortion Pills Has Risen Significantly Post Roe, Research Shows

By Pam Belluck

Pam Belluck has been reporting about reproductive health for over a decade.

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On the eve of oral arguments in a Supreme Court case that could affect future access to abortion pills, new research shows the fast-growing use of medication abortion nationally and the many ways women have obtained access to the method since Roe v. Wade was overturned in June 2022.

The Details

A person pours pills out of a bottle into a gloved hand.

A study, published on Monday in the medical journal JAMA , found that the number of abortions using pills obtained outside the formal health system soared in the six months after the national right to abortion was overturned. Another report, published last week by the Guttmacher Institute , a research organization that supports abortion rights, found that medication abortions now account for nearly two-thirds of all abortions provided by the country’s formal health system, which includes clinics and telemedicine abortion services.

The JAMA study evaluated data from overseas telemedicine organizations, online vendors and networks of community volunteers that generally obtain pills from outside the United States. Before Roe was overturned, these avenues provided abortion pills to about 1,400 women per month, but in the six months afterward, the average jumped to 5,900 per month, the study reported.

Overall, the study found that while abortions in the formal health care system declined by about 32,000 from July through December 2022, much of that decline was offset by about 26,000 medication abortions from pills provided by sources outside the formal health system.

“We see what we see elsewhere in the world in the U.S. — that when anti-abortion laws go into effect, oftentimes outside of the formal health care setting is where people look, and the locus of care gets shifted,” said Dr. Abigail Aiken, who is an associate professor at the University of Texas at Austin and the lead author of the JAMA study.

The co-authors were a statistics professor at the university; the founder of Aid Access, a Europe-based organization that helped pioneer telemedicine abortion in the United States; and a leader of Plan C, an organization that provides consumers with information about medication abortion. Before publication, the study went through the rigorous peer review process required by a major medical journal.

The telemedicine organizations in the study evaluated prospective patients using written medical questionnaires, issued prescriptions from doctors who were typically in Europe and had pills shipped from pharmacies in India, generally charging about $100. Community networks typically asked for some information about the pregnancy and either delivered or mailed pills with detailed instructions, often for free.

Online vendors, which supplied a small percentage of the pills in the study and charged between $39 and $470, generally did not ask for women’s medical history and shipped the pills with the least detailed instructions. Vendors in the study were vetted by Plan C and found to be providing genuine abortion pills, Dr. Aiken said.

The Guttmacher report, focusing on the formal health care system, included data from clinics and telemedicine abortion services within the United States that provided abortion to patients who lived in or traveled to states with legal abortion between January and December 2023.

It found that pills accounted for 63 percent of those abortions, up from 53 percent in 2020. The total number of abortions in the report was over a million for the first time in more than a decade.

Why This Matters

Overall, the new reports suggest how rapidly the provision of abortion has adjusted amid post-Roe abortion bans in 14 states and tight restrictions in others.

The numbers may be an undercount and do not reflect the most recent shift: shield laws in six states allowing abortion providers to prescribe and mail pills to tens of thousands of women in states with bans without requiring them to travel. Since last summer, for example, Aid Access has stopped shipping medication from overseas and operating outside the formal health system; it is instead mailing pills to states with bans from within the United States with the protection of shield laws.

What’s Next

In the case that will be argued before the Supreme Court on Tuesday, the plaintiffs, who oppose abortion, are suing the Food and Drug Administration, seeking to block or drastically limit the availability of mifepristone, the first pill in the two-drug medication abortion regimen.

The JAMA study suggests that such a ruling could prompt more women to use avenues outside the formal American health care system, such as pills from other countries.

“There’s so many unknowns about what will happen with the decision,” Dr. Aiken said.

She added: “It’s possible that a decision by the Supreme Court in favor of the plaintiffs could have a knock-on effect where more people are looking to access outside the formal health care setting, either because they’re worried that access is going away or they’re having more trouble accessing the medications.”

Pam Belluck is a health and science reporter, covering a range of subjects, including reproductive health, long Covid, brain science, neurological disorders, mental health and genetics. More about Pam Belluck

Next-gen B2B sales: How three game changers grabbed the opportunity

Driven by digitalized operating models, B2B sales have seen sweeping changes over the recent period amid rising customer demand for more seamless and transparent services. 1 “ The multiplier effect: How B2B winners grow ,” McKinsey, April 13, 2023. However, many industrial companies are failing to keep pace with their more commercially focused peers and, as a result, are becoming less competitive in terms of performance and customer services.

The most successful B2B players employ five key tactics to sharpen their sales capabilities: omnichannel sales teams; advanced sales technology and automation; data analytics and hyperpersonalization; tailored strategies on third-party marketplaces; and e-commerce excellence across the full marketing and sales funnel. 2 “ The multiplier effect: How B2B winners grow ,” McKinsey, April 13, 2023.

Companies using all of these tactics are twice as likely to see more than 10 percent market share growth than companies focusing on just one. 3 “ The multiplier effect: How B2B winners grow ,” McKinsey, April 13, 2023. However, implementation is not as simple, requiring a strategic vision, a full commitment, and the right capabilities to drive change throughout the organization. Various leading European industrial companies—part of McKinsey’s Industrial Gamechangers on Go-to-Market disruption in Europe—have achieved success by implementing the first three of these five sales tactics.

Omnichannel sales teams

The clearest rationale for accelerating the transition to omnichannel go-to-market is that industry players demand it. In 2017, only about 20 percent of industrial companies said they preferred digital interactions and purchases. 4 Global B2B Pulse Survey, McKinsey, April 30, 2023. Currently, that proportion is around 67 percent. In 2016, B2B companies had an average of five distinct channels; by 2021, that figure had risen to ten (Exhibit 1).

Excelling in omnichannel means enabling customers to move easily between channels without losing context or needing to repeat information. Companies that achieve these service levels report increased customer satisfaction and loyalty, faster growth rates, lower costs, and easier tracking and analysis of customer data. Across most of these metrics, the contrast with analogue approaches is striking. For example, B2B companies that successfully embed omnichannel show EBIT growth of 13.5 percent, compared to the 1.8 percent achieved by less digitally enabled peers. Next to purely digital channels, inside sales and hybrid sales are the most important channels to deliver an omnichannel experience.

Differentiating inside versus hybrid sales

Best-in-class B2B sellers have achieved up to 20 percent revenue gains by redefining go-to-market through inside and hybrid sales. The inside sales model cannot be defined as customer service, nor is it a call center or a sales support role—rather, it is a customer facing, quota bearing, remote sales function. It relies on qualified account managers and leverages data analytics and digital solutions to optimize sales strategy and outreach through a range of channels (Exhibit 2).

The adoption of inside sales is often an advantageous move, especially in terms of productivity. In fact, inside sales reps can typically cover four times the prospects at 50 percent of the cost of a traditional field rep, allowing the team to serve many customers without sacrificing quality of service. 5 McKinsey analysis. Top performing B2B companies are 50 percent more likely to leverage inside sales.

Up to 80 percent of a company’s accounts—often smaller and medium-sized customers, accounting for about half of revenues—can be covered by inside sales teams. 6 Industry expert interviews; McKinsey analysis. The remaining 20 percent often require in-person interactions, triggering the need for hybrid sales. This pertains to highly attractive leads as well.

Hybrid sales is an innovative model combining inside sales with traditional in-person interactions. Some 85 percent of companies expect hybrid sales will be the most common job role within three years. 7 Global B2B Pulse Survey, McKinsey, December 2022. Hybrid is often optimal for bigger accounts, as it is flexible in utilizing a combination of channels, serving customers where they prefer to buy. It is scalable, thanks to the use of remote and online sales, and it is effective because of the multiplier effect of numerous potential interactions. Of companies that grew more than 10 percent in 2022, 57 percent had adopted a hybrid sales model. 8 Global B2B Pulse, April 2023.

How an industrial automation solution player implemented game-changing inside sales

In 2019, amid soaring digital demand, a global leader in industrial digital and automation solutions saw an opportunity to deliver a cutting-edge approach to sales engagement.

As a starting point, the company took time to clearly define the focus and role of the inside sales team, based on product range, customer needs, and touchpoints. For simple products, where limited customer interaction was required, inside sales was the preferred go-to-market model. For more complex products that still did not require many physical touchpoints, the company paired inside sales teams with technical sales people, and the inside sales group supported fields reps. Where product complexity was high and customers preferred many touch points, the inside sales team adopted an orchestration role, bringing technical functions and field sales together (Exhibit 3).

The company laid the foundations in four key areas. First, it took time to sketch out the model, as well as to set targets and ensure the team was on board. As in any change program, there was some early resistance. The antidote was to hire external talent to help shape the program and highlight the benefits. To foster buy-in, the company also spent time creating visualizations. Once the team was up and running, early signs of success created a snowball effect, fostering enthusiasm among both inside sales teams and field reps.

Second, the company adopted a mantra: inside sales should not—and could not—be cost saving from day one. Instead, a significant part of the budget was allocated to build a tech stack and implement the tools to manage client relationships. One of the company’s leaders said, “As inside sales is all about using tech to obtain better outcomes, this was a vital step.”

The third foundational element was talent. The company realized that inside sales is not easy and is not for everyone—so finding the right people was imperative. As a result, it put in place a career development plan and recognized that many inside sales reps would see the job as a stepping stone in their careers. Demonstrating this understanding provided a great source of motivation for employees.

Finally, finding the right mix of incentives was key. The company chose a system based on compensation and KPI leading and lagging indicators. Individual incentives were a function of whether individuals were more involved with closing deals or supporting others, so a mix of KPIs was employed. The result was a more motivated salesforce and productive cooperation across the organization.

Advanced sales technology and automation

Automation is a key area of advanced sales technology, as it is critical to optimizing non-value adding activities that currently account for about two-thirds of sales teams’ time. More than 30 percent of sales tasks and processes are estimated to be partially automatable, from sales planning through lead management, quotation, order management, and post-sales activities. Indeed, automation leaders not only boost revenues and reduce cost to serve—both by as much as 20 percent—but also foster customer and employee satisfaction. (Exhibit 4). Not surprisingly, nine out of ten industrial companies have embarked on go-to-market automation journeys. Still, only a third say the effort has achieved the anticipated impact. 9 McKinsey analysis.

Leading companies have shown that effective automation focuses on four areas:

Lead management: Advanced analytics helps teams prioritize leads, while AI-powered chatbots contact prospective customers via text or email and schedule follow-up calls at promising times—for example, at the beginning or end of the working day.
Contract drafting: AI tools automate responses to request for proposal (RFP) inquiries, based on a predefined content set.
Invoice generation: Companies use robotic process automation to process and generate invoices, as well as update databases.
Sales commission planning: Machine learning algorithms provide structural support, for example, to optimize sales commission forecasting, leading up to a 50 percent decline in time spent on compensation planning.

How GEA seized the automation opportunity

GEA is one of the world’s most advanced suppliers of processing machinery for food, beverages, and pharmaceuticals. To provide customers with tailored quotes and services, the company launched a dedicated configure, price, quote (CPQ) system. The aim of the system was to enable automated quote creation that would free up frontline sales teams to operate independently from their back office colleagues. This, in turn, would boost customer interaction and take customer care to the next level.

The work began with a bottom-up review of the company’s configuration protocols, ensuring there was sufficient standardization for the new system to operate effectively. GEA also needed to ensure price consistency—especially important during the recent supply chain volatility. For quotations, the right template with the correct conditions and legal terms needed to be created, a change that eventually allowed the company to cut its quotation times by about 50 percent, as well as boost cross-selling activities.

The company combined the tools with a guided selling approach, in which sales teams focused on the customers’ goals. The teams then leveraged the tools to find the most appropriate product and pricing, leading to a quote that could be enhanced with add-ons, such as service agreements or digital offerings. Once the quote was sent and agreed upon, the data automatically would be transferred from customer relationship management to enterprise resource planning to create the order. In this way, duplication was completely eliminated. The company found that the sales teams welcomed the new approach, as it reduced the time to quote (Exhibit 5).

Data analytics and hyperpersonalization

Data are vital enablers of any go-to-market transformation, informing KPIs and decision making across operations and the customer journey. Key application areas include:

lead acquisition, including identification and prioritization
share of wallet development, including upselling and cross-selling, assortment optimization, and microsegmentation
pricing optimization, including market driven and tailored pricing, deal scoring, and contract optimization
churn prediction and prevention
sales effectiveness, so that sales rep time allocations (both in-person and virtual) are optimized, while training time is reduced

How Hilti uses machine data to drive sales

Hilti is a globally leading provider of power tools, services, and software to the construction industry. The company wanted to understand its customers better and forge closer relationships with them. Its Nuron battery platform, which harvests usage data from tools to transform the customer experience and create customer-specific insights, provided the solution.

One in three of Hilti’s frontline staff is in daily contact with the company’s customers, offering advice and support to ensure the best and most efficient use of equipment. The company broke new ground with its intelligent battery charging platform. As tool batteries are recharged, they transfer data to the platform and then to the Hilti cloud, where the data are analyzed to produce actionable insights on usage, pricing, add-ons, consumables, and maintenance. The system will be able to analyze at least 58 million data points every day.

Armed with this type of data, Hilti provides customers with advanced services, offering unique insights so that companies can optimize their tool parks, ensuring that the best tools are available and redundant tools are returned. In the meantime, sales teams use the same information to create deep insights—for example, suggesting that companies rent rather than buy tools, change the composition of tool parks, or upgrade.

To achieve its analytics-based approach, Hilti went on a multiyear journey, moving from unstructured analysis to a fully digitized approach. Still, one of the biggest learnings from its experience was that analytics tools are most effective when backed by human interactions on job sites. The last mile, comprising customer behavior, cannot be second guessed (Exhibit 6).

In the background, the company worked hard to put the right foundations in place. That meant cleaning its data (for example, at the start there were 370 different ways of measuring “run time”) and ensuring that measures were standardized. It developed the ability to understand which use cases were most important to customers, realizing that it was better to focus on a few impactful ones and thus create a convincing offering that was simple to use and effective.

A key element of the rollout was to ensure that employees received sufficient training— which often meant weeks of engagement, rather than just a few hours. The work paid off, with account managers now routinely supported by insights that enrich their interactions with customers. Again, optimization was key, ensuring the information they had at their fingertips was truly useful.

Levers for a successful transformation

The three company examples highlighted here illustrate how embracing omnichannel, sales technology, and data analytics create market leading B2B sales operations. However, the success of any initiative will be contingent on managing change. Our experience in working with leading industrial companies shows that the most successful digital sales and analytics transformations are built on three elements:

Strategy: As a first step, companies develop strategies starting from deep customer insights. With these, they can better understand their customers’ problems and identify what customers truly value. Advanced analytics can support the process, informing insights around factors such as propensity to buy and churn. These can enrich the company’s understanding of how it wants its go-to-market model to evolve.
Tailored solutions: Customers appreciate offerings tailored to their needs. 10 “ The multiplier effect: How B2B winners grow ,” McKinsey, April 13, 2023. This starts with offerings and services, extends to pricing structures and schemes, and ways of serving and servicing. For example, dynamic pricing engines that model willingness to pay (by segment, type of deal, and route to market) may better meet the exact customer demand, while serving a customer completely remotely might better suit their interaction needs, and not contacting them too frequently might prevent churn more than frequent outreaches. Analytics on data gained across all channels serves to uncover these needs and become hyperpersonalized.
Single source of truth: Best-in-class data and analytics capabilities leverage a variety of internal and external data types and sources (transaction data, customer data, product data, and external data) and technical approaches. To ensure a consistent output, companies can establish a central data repository as a “single source of truth.” This can facilitate easy access to multiple users and systems, thereby boosting efficiency and collaboration. A central repository also supports easier backup, as well as data management and maintenance. The chances of data errors are reduced and security is tightened.

Many companies think they need perfect data to get started. However, to make productive progress, a use case based approach is needed. That means selecting the most promising use cases and then scaling data across those cases through speedy testing.

And with talent, leading companies start with small but highly skilled analytics teams, rather than amassing talent too early—this can allow them to create an agile culture of continual improvement and cost efficiency.

As shown by the three companies discussed in this article, most successful B2B players employ various strategies to sharpen their sales capabilities, including omnichannel sales teams; advanced sales technology and automation; and data analytics and hyperpersonalization. A strategic vision, a full commitment, and the right capabilities can help B2B companies deploy these strategies successfully.

Paolo Cencioni is a consultant in McKinsey’s Brussels office, where Jacopo Gibertini is also a consultant; David Sprengel is a partner in the Munich office; and Martina Yanni is an associate partner in the Frankfurt office.

The authors wish to thank Christopher Beisecker, Kate Piwonski, Alexander Schult, Lucas Willcke, and the B2B Pulse team for their contributions to this article.

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The multiplier effect: How B2B winners grow

This year's top 8 use cases for AI, and what tech professionals need to support them

Knowledge-oriented tasks -- such as intelligent search and document digitization -- are topping this year's artificial intelligence (AI) business projects, according to a survey of 1,420 IT professionals conducted by Rackspace Technology and Amazon Web Services in January and February 2024.

The survey also showed that AI spending in 2024 is projected to more than double over 2023, equating to an average of $2.5 million per company. The spending ranged from $500,000 to $5 million among most companies in the survey.

Also: How ChatGPT became my virtual assistant for a data project

AI is at a practical stage. The prominent use cases gaining the most traction include intelligent search, document processing, fraud detection, and customer engagement . More than half of respondents cited these areas as priority activities.

"AI users seek visionary innovation and the ability to make better decisions. However, current AI projects focus more on enhancing existing products, services, and processes than creating breakthroughs," the survey's authors stated. Here are the leading use cases, per the IT professionals surveyed:

Intelligent search - 62%
Document processing (OCR, document classification, extraction, digitization) - 61%
Fraud detection and cybersecurity - 56%
Customer engagement (CRM, chatbots, call centers, customer affinity) - 54%
Sales and marketing analytics - 46%
Content generation - 43%
Image and video recognition and classification - 40%
Predictive maintenance - 34%

The survey also explored the leading types of technology investments and skills intended to support AI initiatives. Most technology purchases are set to focus on boosting machine learning and predictive analytics (57%), supporting the Internet of Things (51%), and super-charging robotic process automation (45%). Almost a third (31%) of purchases seek to instill AI within physical robots, and 27% seek to enable more AR/VR applications.

Organizations need people with the skills to design, build, deploy, secure, and maintain such applications -- and 46% of respondents said they need more of these people. That demand includes software developers with AI expertise (44%), machine learning engineers (42%), data analysts (41%), data engineers (41%), and data governance and security specialists (40%).

Also: 4 generative AI tools your enterprise can leverage to boost productivity

In-demand skills include proficiency in programming languages such as R and Python , which topped the list at 49%, followed closely by the need for data scientists, data governance and security specialists, and data engineers, all at 46%.

The security of AI applications and large language models also presents unique challenges. More than half (58%) of respondents viewed cybersecurity as the top concern and only 51% of professionals said they adhere to formalized data policies for compliance.

"The complexity of AI models and the vast amounts of data they process can create significant security challenges, necessitating advanced security protocols and threat detection," the survey's authors stated.

Also: 6 ways ChatGPT can make your everyday life easier

Assuring AI isn't hallucinating or outputting erroneous information worries 30% of IT managers. "The consequences of inaccurate AI outputs can range from minor inconveniences to serious errors with far-reaching implications, emphasizing the need for rigorous testing and validation processes," the authors stated.

Bottom line: AI is the next stage in computing, requiring adjustments in skills mixes, security profiles, and corporate budget priorities. While many are excited by the prospects for innovation, AI will advance one bread-and-butter application at a time.

Artificial Intelligence

4 ways ai is contributing to bias in the workplace, 5 ways cios can manage the business demand for generative ai, ai is changing cybersecurity and businesses must wake up to the threat.

Scientists try to unravel the case of 1,300 mysteriously preserved human brains

Study documents discoveries of long decayed human remains with remarkably intact brains.

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Oxford University's Alexandra Morton-Hayward spends her days surrounded by brains — literally.

The undertaker-turned-scientist is trying to unravel why some human brains remain remarkably well-preserved after death, sometimes for thousands of years, even when all other soft tissue has long decayed.

And anyone visiting her at work would be well-advised not to go looking for a snack.

"We do have four and a half fridges, so you'd think they might be in with a good chance of a meal," Morton-Hayward told As It Happens host Nil Köksal.

"But no, they are stuffed to the brim with preserved ancient brains."

Morton-Hayward, a postgraduate researcher with the university's earth sciences department, has co-authored a study about the phenomenon. The findings were published this week in the journal Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences.

'Just a brain rattling around in a skull'

In forensics, it's common wisdom that when a body decomposes, the brain is the first to go, Morton-Hayward says.

But sometimes, she says, the opposite is true.

She and her colleagues have documented 4,400 cases around the world, dating back to the 1600s, where preserved human brains have been discovered.

In most cases, there's a reasonable explanation. The brains and other soft tissues were preserved either intentionally through death rituals, or naturally by environmental factors.

But one third — roughly 1,300 — remain a complete mystery.

"They're all of what we describe as the unknown type of preservation. That is, they're the only soft tissue amongst otherwise skeletonized remains," Morton-Hayward said. "So just a brain rattling around in a skull."

Closeup of a rusty looking brain against a white backdrop.

The oldest, she says, dates back 12,000 years. And they come from all over.

"They are found in just the most intriguing sites," she said. "We have your regular cemetery burials, but we also have Korean tombs, we have sunken shipwrecks, folks dressed in otter skins and buried in tree-log coffins. We have burial in clay in Japan, swamps in Florida — just all sorts of different environments."

While the origins are diverse, the brains themselves share a lot of similarities. For one, they tend to be stained bright red, orange or yellow.

"They literally look rusty," Morton-Hayward said.

They're all remarkably well-preserved, she said — just shrunken.

"They fit really neatly in the palm of your hand, kind of like a large walnut, if you will."

Studying death to learn about life

So what keeps these brains intact when other organs are long gone?

"It is very strange, but the fact that they do preserve in the absence of any other soft tissue suggests a mechanism of preservation that's unique to the nervous system," Morton-Hayward said.

"And we need to be thinking about what is unique about the nervous system in its biochemical makeup in life that could be dictating how it behaves in decay after death."

Scientists digitally rebuilt the brain of a 205M year-old dinosaur. Here's what they found
How scientists 'unwrapped' an Egyptian pharaoh's mummy while leaving it perfectly intact

The nervous system, she says, has a "really unusual ratio" of lipids, which are fatty compounds, and proteins, which are complex molecules in the cells.

"Those proteins and those lipids are very specific types that occur more often in the brain than any other organ. And over time, those proteins and lipids can fuse together, particularly in the presence of metal like iron, which naturally accumulate in the brain during the process of aging," she said.

That process, she says, could potentially create molecules that allow the brain tissue to survive long-term.

That mechanism, she says, is similar to what happens in brains with dementia.

"I never thought when I set out to study ancient brains that it could have real world medical applications, but maybe, just maybe, it can help us understand brain aging and life," she said.

"It can help us to shed light on past issues as well — things like paleo-pathology, the study of ancient diseases, the study of health status, of diet. All sorts of different things could be answered by recovering these ancient biomolecules, these proteins and lipids, from these brains."

'Untapped potential'

Howard Williams, an archaeologist at the U.K.'s University of Chester who was not involved in the study, agreed.

"It's showing the untapped potential for further analysis of human brains from archaeological deposits," he told CBC.

It also, he says, raises ethical questions, and could further complicate already tricky discussions about, for example, the repatriation and reburial of remains from different Indigenous peoples.

He also finds himself wondering how many preserved brains have already been either overlooked or discarded at archeological dig sites over the decades.

"I have a horrible feeling that the thousands of brains examined are probably only a fraction of what we could know if people had realized earlier the potential these soft tissue human remains have for us," he said.

Interview with Alexandra Morton-Hayward produced by Leila Ahouman

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What is a case study?

1. Identify your goal

2. Choose your client or subject

3. Conduct research and compile data

4. Choose the right format

5. Write your case study

6. Promote your story

Template 1 — Challenge-solution-result format

Template 2 — Data-driven format

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What is case study research?

Analyze case study research

Explanatory

Descriptive

Exploratory

Critical instance

Instrumental

1. Select a case

2. Create a theoretical framework

3. Collect the data

4. Analyze your case

Case study topics

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Section 1: A Case History

Section 2: Treatment Plan

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Case Study | Definition, Examples & Methods

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Case Study – Methods, Examples and Guide

Types of Case Study

Single-Case Study

Multiple-Case Study

Descriptive Case Study

Instrumental Case Study

Case Study Data Collection Methods

Observations

How to conduct Case Study Research

Examples of Case Study

Application of Case Study

Business and Management

Social Sciences

Law and Ethics

Purpose of Case Study

Advantages of Case Study Research

Limitations of Case Study Research

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

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