case study meaning in architecture

Architecture Student Chronicles

How to conduct a Case Study?

When students begin studying  Architecture at a University, the first thing that they are supposed to become excellent at, is doing a documentation or a case study . It could be a case study of a small village, town, a villa, a bus-stop, or a high-rise commercial or residential building. A case study is an in-depth investigation of a single individual, group, incident, or community. Other ways include experiments, surveys , or analysis of archival information

What is the purpose of conducting a Case Study?

As the term Case Study suggests, it is the study of a particular case that is similar to your topic of design project. Doing a case study will help you understand the various aspects that you have to consider while designing.

Literature Case study

Before you start with your live case studies, first of all do a complete literature case study. Literature case study consists of reading everything you can find on the subject. You can refer books in a library, use Google to look up research papers, check out Standard Code books and statutory laws or from technical journals.

A literature case study would give you a vague idea about your topic. There will be various questions arising in your mind after you are done with your literature case study. To find the answers to those questions, you will have to go for minimum two live case studies….

Always possibly go for more than two different case studies, because a comparative case study of two or more different cases is very important and helpful.

• While you are doing your first case study, say a Villa, go for a smaller Villa first so that you can figure out the basic minimum requirements.
• In your second case study, go for an extremely lavish Villa so that you are aware of the maximum requirements you could give.

(Being able to provide maximum or minimum requirements in your design is very important)

If there are some requirements that you haven’t come across while doing your case studies but you went through it while you were doing a literature case study, then try implementing those requirements  in your design.

Eleven most important things to analyze in any Case Study

• Environment and micro-climate Analyzing the surrounding environment and the micro-climate of that place will help understand the reason of the orientation of the structure, the kind of roof chosen and the materials used in its construction.
• User behavior and requirements Studying the functioning of a particular place, say a Hospital, is very important; without which you will not be able to figure out the requirements and the area that should be allotted for each of the requirements.Talking to people working at that place (Hospital), will help you figure out if the requirements that are provided are adequate and he area that is allotted is sufficient for its efficient working.
• Utility and space enhancement Study of Utilitarian facilities of a particular case is also important. Various measures taken to enhance a particular space should be analyzed.
• Form and Function Analyzing the reason behind the form of that particular building…and how it merges with the surrounding environment. Form and Function go hand in hand. The form of the building should be able to convey the function of the building. A lot of Architects say “Form follows Function”.As an example, an institutional building should not end up looking like a museum or a disco.Some other Architects might disagree with that philosophy. They’d say that the function of a structure keeps changing but changing the form of the building everytime its function changes is not possible. They say, Adopt a “Universal Design Scheme”.
• Horizontal and vertical circulation Horizontal circulation consists of elements such as the corridors and lobbies. Vertical circulation includes elevators, staircases, ramps etc. The efficiency of the placement of these services should be analyzed.
• Site Planning and Landscape detailing Refer to the Article on the blog “ A Guide to Site Planning “, which deals with different aspects considered in site planning in greater detail.
• Structural details such as Column and Beam Design, Steel  and Composite structures Understanding and analyzing the structural details is also important. For example, large span structures such as Auditoriums use trusses or heavy I-section steel beams and sometimes shell-roofing that involve construction of Ring beams whereas in small span structures, RCC construction is used.
• Building Services such as Fire Alarm system, HVAC, Water supply systems The working of Fire Alarm system, HVAC and Water supply systems should be examined and their space requirements are to be analyzed.
• Design detailing considering the Barrier-free environment Implementation of the Barrier-free architecture for comfortable access to disabled people. Most public buildings have mandatory accessibility systems for the disabled. Check out Guidelines to the Disability Standards for Access to Premises 200X. (Australian law)
• Socio-economic profile of user group It might also be important to find out the socio-economic profile of the people using the services so as to determine their requirements and available resources.
• Parking details and standards Measure the allotted parking area on site, say for ten cars, then calculate the average area for each car and compare it with the areas specified in TSS (Time Savers Standards).

Conducting a case study is hard work. Sometimes, it is so small, it could be done in days, but on other occasions, it takes weeks to document and compile all the data. It involves going on-site, meeting and taking to people, lots of traveling, plenty of photography, and some fun. It is the most important of assignments you might get as an architectural students.

This is where you learn from reality, actual stuff, as opposed to only theoretical knowledge. When I was learning law I took every chance I could get to learn from people actually doing the work I was aiming for, yes I did “donate” many hours to Winters & Yonker, P.A. , but in the end is was worth every minute. Looking at places first hand  and documenting information would give you many insights and ideas and let you peek into the minds of professional architects and designers who have used years of experience and improvisation to design and create incredible structures.

Case studies of some of the famous Structures mentioned below:

 SPA – Delhi

VNIT – Nagpur

Thiagaraj Convention Center

TKM College of Engineering (Chennai)

42 thoughts on “How to conduct a Case Study?”

We want to design an oldage home how u can help

You live in Delhi and I am in Hyderabad, so I might not be of much help, unless you want my father (Architect Javed – http://www.architectjaved.com/ ) to design it for you.

If you want more info on Old age homes, see http://www.architecture-student.com/design-guide/guide-to-designing-old-age-homes/

The hardest part is looking for related literature especially when your research topic is new. It may be that difficult but it is surely unique when done and published.

I’m an attorney and when studying law we spent the bulk of the time reading what is called caselaw which is existing decisions that forms our law. We are to find cases that support our clients’ fact scenario so that the decision is our clients’ favour.

The parallel with architecture is uncanny as architects use existing structures and environments to form the basis for a new project. As the saying goes, “no need to reinvent the wheel” but it’s good to evolve from existing structures. Likewise, the law evolves.

Case Study is itself a very necessary work to be done before appearing to anything to be done. It’s just a sample report before appearing for any cases to get it solved properly.

A good blog to read on and to be shared amongst all…..

For me, Case Study is really important on anything you are planning in order to have a well planned and a successful outcome. Doing a Case Study on anything gives you an idea for the pro’s and con’s of that. I’m glad there’s such an article like this!

Case studies are a great way to plan lots of things, not just architectural projects. It’s almost like doing the work without actually doing the work, so you can identify sticking points, potential problems and lots more.

thank you that really helped….!! im a first year b.arch student….

Hello Nanda, We are glad our site has been of help to you. Do keep visiting. We wish you all the best for your future!

will do 🙂 thanku 🙂

it’s really helpful!! thx a lot!

i am beginning my thesis in B. arch. n so m requiring a hypothetical site of about 3 acres here in india with the climate warm and humid. topic is performing arts centre in kerala. how do i find and fix a hypothetical site?

Hello Resbi, The best way to find an appropriate site for your project could be done by using Google Earth.

i would like to know the steps and what case studies to do about for a multispeciality hospital

As im in 2nd year of b.arch

I have not much studed about much detailed

Like casestudy,site analysis’

It will help me

Thanks u again

U can see our 1st year architecture 1st month exibition video on youtube

hi !!!I’m a 1st year b.arch and v hav 2 do a case study on an architect’s firm . cud u tell me wat all i shud include in my case study???v hav to do a case study on a bungalow also…

Hello Joan,

The following links will be of help to you.

Guide for conducting a casestudy for a villa

Also check out: Cafeteria Design

i am a first year b.arch student..i have got a case study to do..can u please guide me by teling how many sheets should i present..please guide me..as soon as posible..ur site helpd me to knw how to do case study but i also want to know how many sheets should it include..please guide me..

tanx for this good work.pls do continue.

Number of sheets doesn’t matter until you pin down your inferences correctly …… for a first year student i guess a max of 1 or 2 A1 sheets or a ppt of less than 20 slides should be enough in terms of quantity …. make sure you put the point across 🙂 🙂

This was really helpful. Thank you very much. Just about to go for a case study on 2 schools.

What r all things I should see for bedroom attached bathroom casestudy.

Thank you for some other wonderful article. The place else could anyone get that type of information in such an ideal manner of writing? I’ve a presentation next week, and I am on the search for such information.

this really helped alot Thankyou

love your articles ,wld love to b part of this, was just surfing the net and found this…….good work to u guys

Hey, this really helped I’m goin for a case study on resorts tmrw Would appreciate any pointers to observe there thanq ????

hello,i am second year b.arch student,i have to do case study on luxury primary school . cud you please tell me what all should i include in my case study ???and also case study for the kids school…………

For a project like that, you should visit a minimum of two schools. One would be a high profile school and the other one could be a private low budget school or a government school. After you casestudies you will be able to draw comparisons between the two and that should help you come up with your list of requirements. let me know if you have any other questions.

I am doing by 3rd year b arch n this time our project is based on housing for artist Wht all shld I keep in mind while designing for artist n der family member who are non artist

Hello Monisha, I recommend you to read this article: http://www.architecture-student.com/case-studies/design-of-an-artist%E2%80%99s-house-guide-for-conducting-a-casestudy-of-a-villa/

Nice bolg. Thank you. I am barch student. I would like to know how to do comparison study of any two building. Now I have done with case study of a gallery (ngma Bangalore). I have done sub case study as well as literature study. But I want to know how exactly should I do comparitive study. More than write up comparison, How well can I present it

I am doing thesis on Orphan children and oldage home combining both generations together so as to create marvelous socially conceptual design. Help me with bestest case study from which I can learn alot to create spaces for both.

I am final year in srm rampuram school od architecture and doing thesis on township. So could anyone help with sum reference for case study and literature study as soon as possible

Hello Revathy,

When you say township… what kind of township. Give us some description of your thesis project so that we could give suggestions as to how you could proceed.

thanks a lot it is great information has answered some of my questions

hello.i have taken up the topic EMBASSY(any country) Design for my final year thesis. i was wondering if you could help me out with the plans for casestudies,since i hear it will be quite a problem with all the security.

It is not an excellent topic for design. You should have chosen something that would let you explore your ideas. Embassy building would look like a commercial block…nothing interesting… this is not something people havent seen. I do not think you will get permission for a livecasestudy of any embassy. No one would let you in. So if you still have time, i would suggest you choose a more design oriented topic.

hey i am doing thesis on low cost building materials and technology.i wanna do commercial project on this topic. can you suggest me project name or case study on this topic.

I have taken service apartment complex for tourist as my final year thesis. Help me to find the best case study for thesis.

Hello. Im studying b.arch 4th year. Im supposed to do a thesis case study, on Automobile industry i.e a car manufacturing plant. Can you please help me regarding this, as what all i should include and what steps i need to follow to complete my case study. Please reply me asap. Thank you.

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Architecture

What is case study in architecture?

A case study in architecture is an in-depth analysis of a real-world structure or project. Typically, a case study will examine the design, construction, and ultimate success or failure of a particular project. By understanding the successes and failures of past projects, architects can learn how to design and build more successful structures in the future.

A case study in architecture is an in-depth examination of a particular architectural project. It typically includes an analysis of the project’s design, construction, and any post-occupancy evaluations that have been conducted.

What defines a case study?

A case study is an intensive study of a single individual, group, community, or some other unit. The researcher examines the unit in depth and strives to generalize over several units.

There are many factors to consider when enhancing a particular space. The form of the building and how it merges with the surrounding environment are two important factors. The form of the building should be able to convey the function of the building.

What are some examples of case studies

Case studies are a valuable tool for psychologists to gain insight into rare or unusual conditions. Two famous examples of case studies are John Martin Marlow’s case study on Phineas Gage (the man who had a railway spike through his head) and Sigmund Freud’s case studies, Little Hans and The Rat Man. Case studies offer a unique perspective on human behavior and can be very helpful in understanding complex psychological phenomena.

Archdaily is an extremely useful website for anyone interested in architecture. It provides a wealth of information from news articles, case studies, interviews, and research. It is one of the most visited websites by architecture students and professors, and is an excellent resource for anyone looking to learn more about architecture.

What is a case study in design?

A case study is an appropriate research design when you want to gain concrete, contextual, in-depth knowledge about a specific real-world subject. It allows you to explore the key characteristics, meanings, and implications of the case. Case studies are often a good choice in a thesis or dissertation.

An intrinsic case study is undertaken to learn about a unique phenomenon. This type of case study is usually conducted in a natural setting, such as a person’s home or workplace. The researcher observes the subject’s behavior and interactions with others, and may also interview the subject and others who know him or her well.

Instrumental case studies are undertaken to help solve a specific problem. For example, a company might commission a study to help it decide whether to enter a new market. The researcher would collect data on the potential market, including information on the size of the market, the competition, and the economic conditions.

Collective case studies are undertaken to study a group of people, usually in a natural setting. The researcher observes the subjects’ behavior and interactions with each other and with their environment. This type of case study is often used in anthropology and sociology.

What are the 4 most important parts of case study?

1. Ditch the norm: You’ve seen that tired, old case study template a million times. A more useful approach is to spell out how much not solving their problem could eventually cost.

2. Prove your value: Create a more effective format that highlights your company’s unique capabilities.

3. Show the cost of inaction: Clearly outlining the potential financial consequences of not addressing a problem can be a powerful motivator.

4. Make it personal: Share stories and real-world examples that illustrate the positive impact your solution can have.

A case study is a detailed description and analysis of a particular event or situation.

The purpose of a case study is to provide an in-depth understanding of a particular event or situation.

The key issue(s) and finding(s) of a case study are its most important elements.

The theory used in a case study helps to interpret the data and make recommendations.

How do you show a design in a case study

Designers, if you want people to read your design case studies, you need to make them scannable, easy to read, and interesting. Here are four tips to help you do just that:

1. Start with the problem.

2. Clearly state the solution.

3. Demonstrate your approach.

4. Be self-aware.

How does a case study look like?

A business case study is a story that describes a real-world business situation where a company faced a problem and was able to use a product, service, or software to solve it. These case studies typically follow a typical story structure, which means they have a beginning, middle, and end.

Business case studies are often created by the marketing team and given to the sales team in order to help them close deals with potential customers. They are also used to show how a company’s product or service has helped other businesses achieve their goals.

Case studies are a special type of research that involves in-depth analysis of a single unit (such as a person, group, or organization). Case studies are usually conducted over a long period of time, which allows researchers to gather a wealth of detailed information. There are several different types of case studies, including:

Descriptive case studies: These focus on providing a detailed description of the unit under study.

Explanatory case studies: These aim to explain why the unit under study behaves the way it does.

Exploratory case reports: These provide preliminary data on a new or unusual phenomenon.

Intrinsic case studies: These focus on understanding the internal workings of the unit under study.

Instrumental case studies: These focus on how the unit under study can be used to achieve some specific goal.

Collective case studies: These focus on groups of units (such as organizations or communities) rather than on individual units.

What is the difference between case study and literature study in architecture

A case study is a detailed examination of a particular instance of something, in this case a particular building or area. A literature review is a survey of existing literature on a particular topic, in this case building codes.

There are a lot of great architecture websites out there that can be a great resource for anyone in the field. Here is a list of 10 that every architect should have bookmarked:

Archdaily – https://www.archdaily.com/

Architectural Digest – https://www.architecturaldigest.com/

Architizer – https://www.architizer.com/

Archinect – https://www.archinect.com/

Archello – https://www.archello.com/

Architects Journal – https://www.architectsjournal.co.uk/

Designboom – https://www.designboom.com/

What is the most famous case study house?

The Eames and Stahl houses are two of the most famous Case Study Houses. They were designed by the famous husband and wife team of Charles and Ray Eames, and are considered to be two of the most influential examples of mid-century modern architecture. These houses are regularly open to visitors, and there are tours available that provide an in-depth look at the design and construction of these houses.

A case study is a qualitative research approach where multiple methods of data collection are used for a detailed examination of a single ‘case’. A case study allows researchers to gain in-depth understanding of a phenomenon, process or event. It is an intensive study of a single unit, which can be a person, a group, an organisation or a community. Data is collected from a variety of sources and triangulated to provide a comprehensive view of the case. Case studies are typically used to generate new theory or to test existing theory.

What is the difference between portfolio and case study

A portfolio is a collection of your work that is used to showcase your skills and experience. Your portfolio can include your home page, case studies, about page, contact page, etc. A case study is a separate page within your portfolio that is dedicated to a specific project. Case studies are a great way to showcase your skills and experience in a particular area.

Case-study research is a methodology that allows researchers to investigate complex real-world problems. This type of research is often used when traditional methods are not well suited to the problem at hand. Some of the advantages of case study research include the ability to see a relationship between phenomena, context, and people; the flexibility to collect data through various means; the ability to capture the context and lived reality of participants; and the flexibility to be used at various points in a research project, including pilot research.

Final Words

A case study in architecture is a detailed analysis of a specific architectural project. It typically includes an examination of the project’s history, itsdesign and construction, and its impact on the surrounding environment.

In short, a case study in architecture is an in-depth analysis of a specific architectural project. It usually involves exploring the project in detail, from its inception to its completion. often, case studies are conducted to learn lessons from past projects in order to improve future ones.

Jeffery Parker

Jeffery Parker is passionate about architecture and construction. He is a dedicated professional who believes that good design should be both functional and aesthetically pleasing. He has worked on a variety of projects, from residential homes to large commercial buildings. Jeffery has a deep understanding of the building process and the importance of using quality materials.

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How to Present Architectural Case Studies like a Pro

Design is arbitrary. Design is subjective , and there is just no way of getting around the fact, and architecture in many ways is the art of convincing people that one’s design was the right move and one of the ways you can convince people is through case studies. There is no way to avoid that reality, and case studies are one of the methods to persuade others that your design choices are sound. In many respects, architecture is the art of persuasion. Architectural case studies act as a shield that, when properly presented, can be a very effective way for one to defend your design viewpoints , especially if anyone chooses a project that has already been successful and was completed by a well-known architect. This can help one establish a strong foundation for design strategies because it can be much more difficult to critique something that has already been shown to be effective.

Architectural case studies should be presented in an educational, interesting way, and can build a strong case for your project. While performing a case study, one could learn many different things. Still, when giving a presentation, one must highlight the elements one will use in their design, diagram the visuals, and remember that visual continuity is important.

“Every great design begins with an even better story.”

Which case study to choose?

The first step is to determine the type of structure to be developed. Consider whether your project is within the categories of a residential project , a public building, a private mixed-use project, etc. By doing so, you may focus your search and locate projects with similar outlines. This does not imply that a structure that is unconnected at all will not be useful. A building’s components may be more significant than its function.

For instance, Correa stayed away from high-rise housing options, emphasizing low-rise ones that, when combined with amenities and common areas, highlighted the human scale and fostered a feeling of community. This is how case studies help us to view the projects with a certain inspiration to be used in our projects.

The next important point is to confirm that the case study and your project have parallel elements. This may be the atmosphere or climate , anything analogous that you can connect to. You can always decide to include some in your project if there aren’t any. Remember that they are there to help you and frequently have more expertise about various structures. Better still, if your brief mentions any interesting buildings, you may always start there.

What points are to be kept in mind?

• Attractive elements-

One feature of the building may appeal more than any other aspect. To make a building into something much more fascinating , for instance, the usage of a specific sort of beam or steel structure, or even the materials that were utilized for the design, might be crucial. Focus on the space’s fantastic structural features if their intended use is irrelevant, and you can still make use of them.

• Balancing form and function-

Extreme aesthetic aspects in some structures may be more challenging to plan and implement. Utilizing your own smaller test models, ascertain how these shapes were developed and then apply them to your system. The purpose of a architectural case studies is to improve any project. Without using the research , it is pointless to do it.

• Area requirements-

Study the building’s utilization in further detail, including how each room is used. Depending on a project or brief and what precisely one wants to learn from the case study, it can be as detailed as one likes. Try making a physical visit if it’s feasible, and write as many notes as possible on the experience. Consider the interior areas and their functions thoroughly.

• Technicalities-

Concentrate on the case study’s technical components if necessary. The HVAC or other concealed systems may be of interest if the concerned project is geared toward domestic areas.

Last but not least, be sure to provide several important case study photographs . Instead of choosing basic front elevations, examine closer and pay attention to details.

What are the best ways to present?

After conducting a tonne of research and compiling this information, one must figure out how to incorporate it into a portfolio.

• Site analysis-

The most effective way to communicate your results is via a site analysis . This type of page might be a straightforward construction diagram with comments outlining the noteworthy elements you discovered and why they are significant.

• Images and graphics –

No matter how big your page size is, don’t overstuff it. Choose four to five main photos that may be expanded on later. When printing them, make sure the quality is good. It should be required to use text.

Always look for quality over quantity.

• Models and Iterations-

Put these in if you decide to conduct any experiments using physical or digital models . It demonstrates engagement with the undertaking and effort in making decisions on any building. These might be of great use when creating subsequent sketches.

•       SWOT Analysis-

Analyzing the strength, weaknesses, and opportunities, threats of the concerned project can be of great help. An opportunities and limitations diagram can be created for architectural case studies and site analyses. Although it’s not necessary, one may undoubtedly construct one if it’s essential.

• Crisp and clear data –

The best way is to use pictures or diagrams to accompany all the data you have acquired, including any historical details. Try to limit the amount of text on the page to what is necessary to convey the main ideas.

In addition to this, bear in mind that using the right color schemes, grids, tags, and human figures, as well as their surroundings, adds valuable information and serves as the cherry on top.

References-

• https://toscaleblog.co.uk/analysing-architecture-case-studies-for-beginners/
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n0c_BzpLUYM&t=19s&ab_channel=ArchiHacks

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How to Effectively Present Project Background in Your Architectural Case Study

When creating an architectural case study, providing a comprehensive project background is crucial to setting the stage for your analysis. It allows readers to understand the context in which the project was developed and appreciate its complexities. In this blog post, we will explore the key elements to include when presenting the project background and share some tips for crafting a well-structured and engaging narrative.

Location and Context

Start by describing the project's location, emphasizing any unique geographical, environmental, or cultural aspects that may have influenced the design process. Provide information on the surrounding area, such as its urban or rural character, notable landmarks, or any specific site conditions that may have informed design decisions.

Project Size and Type

Next, outline the project's size in terms of its square footage, number of floors, or any other relevant metrics. Clearly identify the project type, such as residential, commercial, institutional, or mixed-use, as this will help readers understand the project's purpose and target users.

Client Information

Discuss the client, their background, and their objectives for the project. If the project was commissioned by a public entity or a private organization, provide some context about their mission, goals, and any specific requirements that may have shaped the project's development.

Project History and Timeline

Present an overview of the project's history, from its inception to completion, highlighting key milestones and decisions along the way. This timeline can help readers grasp the project's evolution and understand how various stages and phases contributed to the final design.

Project Objectives

Detail the project's primary objectives, such as sustainability goals, functional requirements, or aesthetic aspirations. By clearly outlining these objectives, you can demonstrate the rationale behind the design approach and illustrate how the project aims to fulfill these goals.

Constraints and Challenges

Describe any constraints or challenges that may have influenced the design and construction process, such as budget limitations, site restrictions, or regulatory requirements. Discuss how these factors were addressed and incorporated into the design, highlighting any innovative solutions or compromises that were made to overcome these challenges.

Presenting a comprehensive project background is essential for crafting a compelling architectural case study. By providing a detailed description of the project's location, size, type, client, history, objectives, and constraints, you will enable readers to fully understand the context in which the project was developed and appreciate the complexities and nuances of your analysis. Invest time and effort in crafting a well-structured project background, and you'll lay a solid foundation for a successful case study.

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A case study is a research strategy that uses "an empirical inquiry that investigates a phenomenon or setting" in its real life context. (Adapted from Groat, Architectural Research Methods , 346).

Check out these books from the library for further guidance on case studies:

• Flyvbjerg, Bent. "Five Misunderstandings About Case Study Research." Qualitative Inquiry, 12, no. 2 (April 2006): 219-245.

• Last Updated: Oct 5, 2023 8:40 AM
• URL: https://guides.lib.utexas.edu/architecture

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Architecture, Interiors, Styles, Spaces, Stories

How Architecture Case Study Can Benefit Students

As an architecture student, how often do you take delight in doing architectural case studies? Does it excite you or make you frazzled? Irrespective of how you feel, a case study in architecture proves to be a privilege to the students in this discipline. You get to study a project of a similar genre, ascertain the design principles of the designer, and understand its scope before conceiving the design. You can also visualize the design more closely and manage the intrinsic affairs independently.

Table of Contents

What Is A Case Study In Architecture?

An architecture case study is the in-depth analysis, exploration, and understanding of an existing building. While students consider a case study in architecture as the starting point of any project, it can also serve as a reference to proceed with the intricacies of a project. For example, the following image shows the case study of “The National Gallery Of Modern Art”.

There is no definite format for representing a case study. For instance, the following images show the case study of “The Church of the Light” by Tadao Ando in various styles.

It is fun as an individual can travel a lot and meet different types of people. At the same time, how an architecture case study benefits us relies on how we perceive and deal with it. 

Philosophy of a Case Study In Architecture 

To make it easy to understand, we have summarized the philosophy below:

Literature 

You may not always be aware of the scope or objective of an upcoming project. The entire planning process might seem strenuous, and all your questions may remain unanswered. In such cases, an architecture case study can come to the rescue. It exposes an individual to the intricate details of a live project and answers all your questions practically. It helps in broadening your academic boundary, making your literature strong, and analyzing the following:

• Architectural Style

The regional or communal context and its predominance in the design.

• Micro-climate and Environment 

The surrounding nature and various important climatic factors like sun path, wind direction, or rainfall can affect the building in a particular site.

• Requirements Based On User Behaviors

The areas will suffice the purpose and efficiency by keeping gender, age group, well-being, and other factors in mind. For instance, a hospital is different from a commercial shopping center.

An architecture case study allows you to study the design philosophy that an architect used. Then you can analyze what worked and what did not, identify the pros and cons, and grasp what you need. It also helps you determine the following details:

• Planning and Analysis of Site

The site dimensions, site-to-building ratio, orientation, geology, hydrography, vegetation, etc.

• Function and Form

Which philosophy to adopt between “function follows form” and “form follows function”? Why does a building stand that way or why does it stick out from the immediate surroundings?

• Construction Materials and Technologies 

The available materials and commonly-used technologies in that region.

• Structural Details 

The columns, beams, and trusses are used in a building.

• Connectivity/Linkage 

How to link various activities inside the built space?

• Vertical and Horizontal Circulation

The placement of elevators, ramps, and staircases, or the area assigned for building lobbies and corridors.

• Access Locations

The entry and exit points of the building and the site.

• Services and Utility Systems

Determine why services like water supply systems, electrical layouts, HVAC, or fire alarms are necessary for a building.

• Barrier-free Consideration 

The design accessibility to children, people who have a disability, aged people, and pregnant women.

Imagination 

At times, you may mimic the case study you are studying instead of getting inspired by it. It happens because your thought process gets trapped in the shackles of your architecture case study. It may seem difficult to think outside the box. So, coax yourself to start afresh and let your imaginations do the rest.

Generalization 

You cannot adopt every element of it as a blueprint for your design. An architecture case study will make you realize that. Every design is distinctly unique and meant to fit in with ever-changing parameters like climate, region, and user requirements. Putting every single design problem in the same mold would lead you nowhere.

Therefore, treat every design problem differently.

Diversity 

It is necessary to have at least a couple of options to study from instead of sticking to one particular architecture case study. It forbids you to imitate an existing design and lets your creativity flow. 

So, initiate your case study with a small-scale project to outline the basics and consider another large-scale project to modify the required parameters you did not include before.

Architecture is a dynamic course where learning delves deeper and much beyond the scope of the textbooks. It is an undertaking to design the future by continuing the legacy of human civilization while minimizing past mistakes. All these reasons make the precedence of architecture case study an inevitable necessity.

Remember: we intend to research, understand the concepts that the architect has applied, and learn how that project worked. Meanwhile, we should also be able to point out the flaws and perfect them while introducing them in our projects.

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CASE STUDY AS A TOOL FOR ARCHITECTURAL RESEARCH

Research has been part of human activity as man remains an inquisitive animal. So many methods are employed in the field of research which case study is one of them. Case studies are widely used in most professions, including medicine, law, engineering, business, planning and architecture. The use of case study as a method of inquiry is becoming increasingly common in the study and practice of architecture. The primary body of knowledge in architecture is built up through written and visual documentation of projects. It is imperative for architects to think about case study research within a performance-based framework that links design decision to measurable outcome. Therefore, this paper shall reveal information on how to conduct a facility-based case study that will yield useful information for architectural study and practice. The objective of this paper is to argue for a standardized approach for case studies, present a framework and methodology providing guidance on how to conduct case studies. A desired end goal of case study research is to develop a framework of facility database that could be used to inform the development of design guidelines and provide necessary information for study and best practice.

Related Papers

In Flux: Design education in a changing world (Proceedings of the 5th International DEFSA Conference, 3-5 October 2007, Cape Town, South Africa, ISBN 978-0-620-39561-8), cd-rom.

Mike Christenson

This paper describes the results of an academic assignment given to a group of undergraduate architectural design students, in which each student was required to conduct research and compose case-study reports on selected works of architecture to support individual identification of each of these works as “good”, “bad”, or “ugly”. Each student was free to select whichever works of architecture they wished as subjects for their research, and to illustrate these works by whatever means they found appropriate. Each student selected several buildings as examples, and each student composed a multi-page illustrated and written report summarizing their research and concluding with specific attributions for each selected work.

Bob Giddings

This Research Roadmap aims to establish the principal issues in Architectural Design and Management. It is an advance for architectural research to be organised in this way; and addresses six themes: Conceptual Framework State of the Art Future Scenario Development Strategy Research Contribution Research Agenda It sets out the scope for research and innovation, and suggests how this may receive more prominence on the international stage.

Mirjana Devetakovic

Abstract In this paper the authors discuss challenging interrelations between the contemporary architectural practice and the expanding facility management (FM) sector. After defining FM and determining the part of it that is directly dependent on an architectural expertise, the authors identify possible interests in combining knowledge between the two fields, both dealing with the built environment. The empirical part of the research is a study of the current development of FM concepts and strategies in Serbia, and examination of the position and a possible impact of the local architectural practice. A systematization of local real-estate from the point of FM includes three different groups of objects: the ones with integrated FM strategy in the early design stage; the ones with imported FM strategy from international firms; and the last incomparably largest group of objects that esperately need an appropriate FM concept. The methodology of tracking the FM related knowledge has been applied with the aim to recognize key actors in the FM knowledge exchange on the national level, as well as to understand current position and propose possible activities for the local architectural community. Keywords: Facility management, architectural practice, Serbia Citation: Devetakovic, Mirjana, and Radojevic, Milan. "Facility Management: A Paradigm for Expanding the Scope of Architectural Practice," in ArchNet-IJAR: International Journal of Architectural Research, vol. 1, issue 3 (2007).

European Journal of Engineering and Formal Sciences

Leyda Sarmiento

Renewable Energy

Dean Hawkes

e-Design in …

Danniel Roumian

Peter Andreas Sattrup

As Architectural Research is in the process of re-establishing itself as a research discipline according to university standards, it may appear as if the pool of knowledge generated by more than three millennia of experimental research and its internal systems of evaluation are being grossly devalued and colonized by attitudes to research that are imported or even imposed from the outside. Does architectural research have to rely on imported theory from philosophy, the social or the natural sciences in order to meet societal acceptance of its relevance? What constitutes architectural research as a particular research discipline, what are its main characteristics and how can its paradigms, methodologies, strategies and tactics be described? What should be essential aspects of doctoral curriculae in architecture? Discussing Groat and Wang’s Architectural Research Methods in the light of Reflected Practice, and Organizational Knowledge Creation, a framework is presented that includes e...

Rapit Suvanajata

ARbD (book of Abstracts)

João D E V E R N A Bilstein

Research by design is a broader concept that includes “practice-based research” and “practice-led research” which means that we are talking about two kinds of methodologies of research: one involves research through practice and the other involves research about practice. The difference is methodological, because one is research where the inquiry is leading to new understandings about and within the processes of design conception while the other is research about something that does not yet exist and which uses architectural practice as the research method. In terms of the general concept of architectural research, this conference adopts the definition given in the EAAE Research Charter (2012), which we helped to develop: “Architectural research is original investigation undertaken in order to generate knowledge, insights and understanding based on competences, methods and tools proper to the discipline of architecture. It has its own particular knowledge base, mode, scope, tactics and strategies.” And in turn, research by design is defined as “any kind of inquiry in which (…) the architectural design process forms the pathway through which new insights, knowledge, practices or products come into being. It generates critical inquiry through design work.”

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Understanding Building Typology

• Updated: March 8, 2024

In this article, we will explore the different types of building typologies and their advantages, as well as provide case studies of different building typologies in action. Understanding building typologies can help us make better informed design decisions, starting from the very beginning in the design brief development phases through to construction and the aftercare of the building.

What is building typology?

Building typology is a classification system used to categorize buildings based on their function, form , and construction . It is a way of grouping similar types of buildings together and analyzing their characteristics and features. Building typologies are used in a variety of contexts, including architectural design, urban planning, and building science.

In architectural design, building typologies help architects to understand the characteristics and needs of different types of buildings and make informed design decisions. For example, a residential building typology may have different requirements than a commercial building typology, such as a higher density of units in a residential building compared to an office building.

In urban planning, building typologies are used to analyze the characteristics and distribution of different types of buildings within a city or region. This can help planners to understand the needs and demands of the built environment and make informed decisions about the development and use of land.

In building science, building typologies are used to understand the performance and durability of different types of buildings. For example, a building typology that is designed for a specific climate or environment may have different construction materials and features than a building typology designed for a different climate or environment.

Overall, building typologies are an important tool for understanding and analyzing the characteristics and needs of different types of buildings. They play a vital role in various fields and are essential for informed design, planning, and building performance.

Types of building typologies

There are several ways to classify building typologies, including based on function, form, and construction type.

Classification based on function:

• Residential buildings: Buildings that are used for dwelling purposes, such as houses, apartments, and condominiums.
• Commercial buildings: Buildings that are used for business purposes, such as office buildings, retail stores, and restaurants .
• Industrial buildings: Buildings that are used for manufacturing, production, or storage purposes, such as factories and warehouses.
• Educational buildings: Buildings that are used for educational purposes, such as schools and universities.
• Healthcare buildings: Buildings that are used for healthcare purposes, such as hospitals and clinics.
• Cultural buildings: Buildings that are used for cultural or recreational purposes, such as museums and theaters.

Classification based on form:

• Low-rise buildings: Buildings that are less than three stories tall.
• Mid-rise buildings: Buildings that are between three and six stories tall.
• High-rise buildings: Buildings that are six stories or taller.

Classification based on construction type:

• Timber-framed buildings: Buildings that are constructed using a frame made of wood or other timber materials.
• Steel-framed buildings: Buildings that are constructed using a frame made of steel.
• Concrete-framed buildings: Buildings that are constructed using a frame made of concrete.

Understanding these different types of building typologies is important us as architects and designers as it helps us to analyze and compare different types of buildings and make informed design decisions. It is also useful for building owners and managers, as it helps them to understand the characteristics and needs of their building and plan for maintenance and upgrades.

Examples of building typologies

Here are some examples of building typologies in different functions:

Residential building typology : Row houses Row houses are a type of residential building typology that consists of a row of attached houses sharing a common wall. They are typically two or three stories tall and have a narrow, linear footprint. Row houses are a common typology in urban areas and are often used to maximize land use and density. They offer a range of benefits, including a sense of community, shared outdoor space, and reduced energy consumption.

Commercial building typology : Shopping mall A shopping mall is a type of commercial building typology that consists of a large, enclosed space with a variety of retail stores, restaurants, and other businesses. Shopping malls are typically multi-level buildings with a mix of indoor and outdoor spaces. They are designed to be convenient and appealing to shoppers, with a range of amenities such as parking, restrooms, and customer service areas.

Industrial building typology : Factory A factory is a type of industrial building typology that is used for manufacturing or production purposes. Factories are typically large, single-story buildings with a high ceiling and a large floor area to accommodate heavy machinery and equipment. They are often located in industrial or suburban areas and are designed to be efficient and cost-effective.

The Architecture review has an excellent essay series on typologies here .

Advantages of using building typologies

Improved understanding of building characteristics and needs : Building typologies provide a way to categorize buildings based on their function, form, and construction type. This helps to understand the characteristics and needs of different types of buildings and allows for better analysis and comparison.

For example, understanding the characteristics of a residential building typology can help architects to design buildings that are suitable for dwelling purposes, such as apartments or condominiums.

Easier comparison of different types of buildings : Building typologies provide a common framework for comparing different types of buildings, which makes it easier to understand their similarities and differences. This can be useful for architects, urban planners, and building scientists who need to analyze and compare different types of buildings in order to make informed design decisions.

For example, comparing the characteristics of different types of residential buildings, such as apartments and houses, can help to understand the pros and cons of each typology and how they might be best suited to different contexts and needs.

Improved design decision-making : Building typologies can inform design decisions by providing a range of options and considerations for different types of buildings. For example, an architect designing a residential building might consider the characteristics and needs of different residential building typologies in order to choose the most suitable one for the project.

This can help to ensure that the building is functional, efficient, and meets the needs of the users.

Enhanced building maintenance and management : Building typologies can also help building owners and managers to understand the characteristics and needs of their building, which can aid in the planning and execution of maintenance and upgrades. For example, understanding the construction type of a building can help to identify the materials and systems that need to be maintained, such as the structure, envelope, and mechanical systems.

Additionally, understanding the function of a building can help to identify the specific needs and demands of the users, such as the number and type of rooms, the level of accessibility, and the required amenities.

FAQ’s about building typology

What does typology mean in architecture.

In architecture, typology refers to the classification of buildings based on their function, form, and construction. Typology is used to group similar types of buildings together and analyze their characteristics and features.

It is an important tool for understanding and analyzing the characteristics and needs of different types of buildings and is used in a variety of contexts, including architectural design, urban planning, and building science. By understanding building typologies, architects, urban planners, and building scientists can make informed design decisions and analyze the performance and durability of buildings.

Building owners and managers can also use typology to understand the characteristics and needs of their building and plan for maintenance and upgrades.

What are the 3 types of buildings?

There are many ways to classify buildings, and the specific types of buildings will depend on the context and purpose of the classification. Here are three common ways to classify buildings:

• Based on function: Buildings can be classified based on their primary function, such as residential, commercial, industrial, educational, healthcare, cultural, or recreational.
• Based on form: Buildings can be classified based on their form or shape, such as low-rise, mid-rise, or high-rise.
• Based on construction type: Buildings can be classified based on their construction type, such as timber-framed, steel-framed, concrete-framed, or masonry.

These are just a few examples of the many ways that buildings can be classified. There are many other factors that can be considered when classifying buildings, including location, size, age, style, materials, and more.

Understanding the different types of buildings is important for architects, urban planners, and building scientists as it helps them to analyze and compare different types of buildings and make informed design decisions.

It is also useful for building owners and managers, as it helps them to understand the characteristics and needs of their building and plan for maintenance and upgrades.

What are typologies in design?

Typologies in design refer to the classification of design elements, such as products, objects, or systems, based on their characteristics and features. Typologies are used to group similar types of design elements together and analyze their characteristics and features.

They are an important tool for understanding and analyzing the characteristics and needs of different types of design elements and are used in a variety of contexts, including product design, industrial design, and systems design.

By understanding design typologies, designers can make informed design decisions and analyze the performance and durability of their designs. Typologies can be classified based on a variety of factors, including function, form, materials, and more.

Understanding design typologies can help designers to better understand the characteristics and needs of their designs and ensure their success.

What is the meaning of housing typology?

Housing typology refers to the classification of housing based on their characteristics and features. It is used to group similar types of housing together and analyze their characteristics and features.

Housing typologies are an important tool for understanding and analyzing the characteristics and needs of different types of housing and are used in a variety of contexts, including architectural design, urban planning, and building science.

By understanding housing typologies, architects, urban planners, and building scientists can make informed design decisions and analyze the performance and durability of housing. Housing typologies can be classified based on a variety of factors, including function, form, construction type, and more.

Understanding housing typologies can help architects, urban planners, and building scientists to better understand the characteristics and needs of different types of housing and ensure their success. It can also be useful for building owners and managers to understand the characteristics and needs of their housing and plan for maintenance and upgrades.

In conclusion, building typology is a crucial tool for understanding and analyzing the characteristics and needs of different types of buildings. It is used in various fields, including architectural design, urban planning, and building science, to inform design decisions and analyze the performance and durability of buildings.

Building typologies can be classified based on function, form, and construction type, and understanding these different types is important for architects, urban planners, and building scientists.

Building typologies also have several advantages, including improved understanding of building characteristics and needs, easier comparison of different types of buildings, improved design decision-making, and enhanced building maintenance and management.

Whether you are an architect, urban planner, building scientist, or building owner/manager, understanding building typologies can help you to make informed design and management decisions and ensure the success of your building projects.

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When Light Tells a Building’s Story: What is Architectural Lighting?

• Written by Valeria Montjoy
• Published on October 28, 2022

Lighting plays a crucial role in architecture: to allow users to see, safely inhabit spaces, and carry out their daily activities. But its power has long exceeded these basic functions, primarily driven by technological advances and new design trends that have led to greater innovation and creativity. Contemporary lighting design has the ability to completely transform a room, impacting visual comfort and setting the tone by defining volumes, drawing attention to texture and enhancing colors. It can also determine shape and size perception; for example, in a room that is particularly small, having extra lighting reflect off light-colored walls will help the space appear larger. Similarly, light has been proven to affect mood, concentration and overall well-being . Whereas an adequately illuminated environment is associated to warmth and improved energy levels, poor lighting can lead to health deficiencies, including headaches, eyestrain and even depression.

The significance of architectural lighting

Therefore, lighting (both residential and commercial ) becomes one of the most important elements to consider when designing interiors, which implies that it must be addressed in the early stages and be well-thought-out to achieve the desired effect –according to the type of space, of course. It should encourage productivity in the workspace and a smooth, welcoming effect in a home’s entrance. Whatever the case, architecture and lighting must strengthen one another and work as two co-dependent parts of one integrated experience. As Norman Foster once said, “Architecture is an expression of values,” it tells a story. And architectural lighting plays an important part in conveying that story, often bringing it to life.

Architectural lighting design can be similar to lighting design, but it is not exactly the same. The former’s focus is with architecture, while the latter’s consideration is often ergonomic or functional –any aspect which improves one’s ability to live, work, function, relax or play– to make sure light is optimally used and distributed. Architectural lighting ultimately showcases and accentuates certain design elements to foster, establish or emphasize a building’s aesthetic, history and purpose. It is the intersection of art (architecture), design and technology (lighting). Other fields also come into play, including physics, engineering, and the psychological and physiological effects of light.

Architectural lighting for commercial applications

When it comes to commercial applications, such as offices, stores or educational settings, there are many options available on the market that make choosing the right fixture a complex decision. Today’s commercial LED lighting requires a deep understanding of smart lighting systems and controls. This includes being up to date with innovative products that, thanks to LED lighting technological progress and versatility, grant architects and designers the ability to achieve more creative designs. For example, to highlight architectural features without visually revealing the fixture.

Some of the most common applications of architectural lighting are cove lighting , uplighting , linear recessed , surface and suspension lighting . To explore their qualities and inspire architects and designers, below we present these through a selection of projects that use Alcon Lighting products.

Cove lighting

Mounted to a ceiling or a wall, cove lighting casts a soft glow to highlight certain design features, including crown molding or the wall pictured in this home’s yoga and meditation studio . It is best used as ambient accent lighting and the illumination is often indirect, designed to wash a wall or ceiling while the LED light is tucked away into a built-in cove (with no visible light source). The resulting aesthetic is sleek, modern, and ideal for many commercial applications.

Uplighting is a form of indirect lighting that is often used to showcase structural ceiling features, such as the steel beams of the research and design facility of the Beaver Country Day School . Simply put, it refers to any fixture that directs light up upwards, hence minimizing glare and enhancing the feel and space of a room by highlighting any distinctive ceiling infrastructure. Especially in interior applications, the system reduces ceiling dark spots and shadows, creating atmospheres that are comfortable and appealing to the user.

Linear recessed

Linear recessed lights allow for clean, straight lines of high- CRI LED lighting in continuous runs of any length –and with seamless connections from ceiling to wall. These are commonly found in workspaces, like the Slack Toronto Office , that aim to create a dynamic environment fostering creativity, productivity and alertness. Usually in standard four-foot and eight-foot lengths (or other custom lengths), the architectural lighting system can create any desired linear design, recessed into the ceiling, wall or floor. Essentially, it can accentuate modern interiors or provide balanced general lighting.

Surface and suspended

Surface and suspended lighting is versatile and can adapt to a wide range of applications. This case study , for example, features a West Hollywood fitness studio that used linear LED surface lighting to create the impression of traveling through the galaxy at the speed of light. This way, the linear system becomes an architectural element able to differentiate spaces and create a unique, elevated experience.

To learn more about architectural lighting systems, visit Alcon Lighting’s website or explore our product catalog .

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Biomimicry in Architecture: A Review of Definitions, Case Studies, and Design Methods

Associated data.

Data available within the article.

Biomimicry, as a field of science, is mainly defined as a solution for design problems inspired by natural models, systems, and elements. For the built environment, using nature as a guide can enhance sustainability or even go beyond that and generate a regenerative approach. This is important in the building sector to evolve towards a sustainable and circular economy and reduce CO 2 emissions in terms of energy-use. While several biomimicry-related keywords exist, scholars and practitioners in architecture have given varying interpretations to the term biomimicry depending on the use and goal. There has been increasing interest in biomimicry in architecture (BIA), yet the field has become more fragmented. This study aims to highlight differences and similarities through an extended literature survey and analysis that explores case studies, classification systems, and methodological frameworks related to biomimicry in architecture as a way to contribute to reduce the fragmentation in the field. To provide the necessary context and avoid confusion regarding the many concepts and terms that refer to nature-based design, biomimicry-related keywords and interpretations of the word biomimicry are first clarified. Ultimately, the discussion is an integrative effort at defining the field, and highlights the significance and impact of employing BIA in terms of sustainability and usability, as well as showcasing the opportunities for further research.

1. Introduction

Biomimicry is a promising emerging research field defined as a solution for design problems inspired by natural models, systems, and elements [ 1 ]. The term was coined by Janine M. Benyus in 1997 and is a junction of the Greek words ‘bios’, meaning ‘life’, and ‘mimesis’, meaning imitation [ 2 ]. When referring to design inspired from nature, terms such as biomimetics, bio-inspired, and biologically inspired are also used [ 3 ]. In 3.8 billion years, nature has created technologies equivalent or superior to those invented by humans, but with sustainable and efficient means [ 4 ]. Biomimicry as a field of science is an interdisciplinary approach and has the potential to provide sustainable solutions with the collaboration of biologists, physicists, chemists, engineers, and architects [ 5 ]. Natural systems are known for their circular resource use, intelligence, self-sustaining and energy-saving qualities [ 2 , 6 ]. The idea that guides biomimicry is to take inspiration from nature to help solve human and, or design problems in a more sustainable way [ 5 ]. Architecture has evolved in the last 50 years, reprioritising goals and shifting toward collaboration with other disciplines [ 7 ]. Practitioners and academics have worked to make the move from a linear economy, which depletes natural resources for the benefit of people, to a circular economy. Therefore, using nature as a guide can enhance sustainability or even generate a restorative approach [ 8 ]. Since the term was coined in 1997, biomimicry as a scientific field has emerged over the last few decades, as evidenced by the increase in publications on the topic on Scopus, illustrated in Figure 1 . We surveyed this emerging interest for biomimicry in architecture, referred to as BIA in this paper, illustrated in the graph that comprises journal articles, conference proceedings, and books on the topics: ‘biomimicry’ and ‘biomimicry in architecture’. More detailed bibliometric research comprising keywords related to nature-based design is found in Section 2.2.2 .

Publications (Scopus) on the topic of biomimicry using the keywords ‘biomimicry in architecture’ (black) and ‘biomimicry’ (grey), from 1997 to 2022.

Biomimicry serves as an inspiration with a significant potential for sustainability [ 9 ], and is particularly relevant for architecture and the construction sector, which are large emitters of greenhouse gases, both during the construction and operative phases of buildings. The building sector accounts for around 40% of CO 2 emissions related to energy use [ 10 , 11 ]. Using biological strategies is beneficial for various fields. To achieve sustainable and conscious architecture and minimise the overall environmental impact, buildings can be improved through the passive, efficient, and circular design principles found in nature [ 12 ]. BIA can be used to improve the external envelope by allowing more efficient ventilation, resource savings, improved thermal comfort, and the overall energy efficiency of buildings to make them all together more sustainable [ 10 ].

Architects and designers refer to nature-based design using interpretations of several bio-related keywords, such as biomimicry, biomimetics, bionics, biomorphism, ecomimicry, and organic design [ 13 ]. The field is still new and abstract, but it is already broad ranging. However, the lack of methodological clarity and a clear and consistent definition makes it challenging to find an overview and understand the true meaning and impact of employing BIA [ 14 ], and to further advance this promising field of research and practice. While there is increasing interest in biomimicry, as illustrated by our survey of articles in Figure 1 , the field remains wide-ranging, but is becoming more fragmented. This fragmentation owes to the large number of terminologies found in the literature and the lack of consensus on definitions and its interpretations, practices, and approaches. Therefore, the main objective of this article is to systematically survey the terminologies and definitions, case studies, classification systems, and methodological frameworks related to BIA. The focus is to highlight their differences and similarities and point towards the need for integration as a way to contribute to reducing the fragmentation in the field. Thus, this article provides an overview of what BIA means, what the state of the art is, and how it is practiced and approached. Relevant case studies demonstrating BIA are selected and reviewed in this paper to highlight the difference between theory and reality, showcasing how actual designs align with the concept of biomimicry as found in the literature. In terms of design methods and approaches, various design frameworks for applying BIA have been developed, each aimed towards a specific topic, either within the field of biology or architecture. The terms approaches, frameworks, and methodologies are used in conjunction, all referring to a design method for incorporating BIA.

After this introduction ( Section 1 ), and prior to the discussion and conclusion, this paper is organised into three main sections. We review biomimicry and biomimicry-related terminologies and definitions to avoid confusion or misinterpretation of nature-inspiring concepts in Section 2 , which is organised into the following questions: What are the terminologies related to the field of biomimicry in terms of using nature as a concept generator, or as referred to in this article: ‘biomimicry-related keywords’?; How do they differ? and; What is biomimicry and how is it defined and interpreted among researchers and practitioners? Additionally, the biomimicry-related keywords are quantitatively surveyed through a bibliometric analysis. This expanded introductory section provides the necessary context to facilitate and bring clarity to better understand the case studies and approaches. Section 3 describes architectural case studies employing biomimicry and elaborates on the questions: What is their source of natural inspiration?; How were they designed? and; Does biomimicry always go hand in hand with sustainability? Classifications and design methods or frameworks for applying BIA are reviewed in Section 4 to answer the following questions: What are existing classification systems for BIA?; How do architects design with nature being non-experts in biology? and; What are existing design methods for integrating biological strategies into architecture? Then, Section 5 discusses the results by combining sections two, three, and four to: reflect on and highlight the differences and similarities, provide a general overview of the state of the art related to BIA, achieve a tentative consensus on the concept of BIA, and to accentuate the significance and impact in terms of sustainability and usability. In conclusion, Section 6 provides an overview of all findings and gives suggestions for future research aimed at advancing the field of biomimicry applied to architecture.

2. Definitions

Biomimicry, bionics, biomimetics, biomorphism, organic design, and similar terms all refer to mimicking nature somehow. However, what is the right word to use? What is the meaning of biomimicry? Where does the term come from? In order to have clarity on what biomimicry is, and particularly what it means in architecture, the related terms are discussed. Biomimicry is a term used in various scientific fields, in very different ways, but it should imply certain aspects. For BIA, there is a consensus on what already exists and what the different interpretations are among scholars. This section briefly explains the history of biomimicry and how other related terminologies are defined in the current state of the art. The first subsection focuses on the development of the word biomimicry from the 1950s. This is when the first biomimicry-related keyword appeared in an academic context. The second subsection reviews the existing terminology of both biomimicry and related keywords found in the literature, demonstrating similarities and differences with citations of various sources, an example, and an etymological analysis of each word. To quantify these aspects, a brief bibliometric study is carried out. The final subsection emphasises the significance of BIA. What does it mean and how is it used for architecture?

2.1. Development of the Word Biomimicry throughout History

While some academics argue that the earliest examples of biomimicry in design may be traced back to Roman Antiquity, the Mayan times, or even Greek Mythology, this article will focus on the topic’s evolution since the 1950s, when the first contemporary examples emerged. In 1957, Otto Schmitt, a bioengineer and physicist, first proposed the word biomimetics to define his new device that imitated the electrical action of a nerve [ 15 ]. Simultaneously, Jack Steele defined bionics as the science of natural systems [ 9 ]. It was reinforced in the 1960s under the heavy impact of cybernetics, a scientific field focused on regulatory systems, like the human body [ 5 , 16 ]. At the same time, the word ‘bionik’ was introduced, merging the German words ‘biologie’ and ‘technik’, referring to the transfer of ideas from biology to technology [ 17 , 18 ]. For the next 30 years, the term was decreasingly used. However, it came back strong in the late 1990s with Janine Benyus’ book Biomimicry: Innovation Inspired by Nature [ 2 , 18 ]. Benyus is also one of the co-founders of the Biomimicry Institute [ 19 ], an organisation and platform that unites the different profiles of biomimicry: designers, engineers, and biologists, to help them understand the systems and processes of nature in practice [ 9 , 20 ]. Janine Benyus [ 2 ] offers the most widely known definition of biomimicry in her book specifying the origin of the word, which is from the Greek words ‘bios’ for ‘life’ and ‘mimesis for ‘to mimic’ [ 2 ]. Today, according to Bajaj [ 18 ], biomimicry entails studying and modelling biological structures, functions, and ecosystems that have been modified by evolution and that are subjected to environmental testing [ 15 , 18 ].

2.2. Existing Terminology

2.2.1. keywords in research.

Biomimicry has been used by academics for approximately 70 years with the meaning we know today, under different aliases. The general definition of taking lessons from nature and using them in practical solutions to human problems is consistent throughout the literature [ 15 ]. However, every biomimicry-related keyword has a different focus. It is therefore necessary to shed light on the differences between commonly used keywords relating to biomimicry, presented in Table 1 . These definitions will clarify the actual scope of and meanings within the interdisciplinary field of biomimicry. According to Verma and Punekar [ 21 ], the people involved in researching the topic have different backgrounds (biologists, architects, engineers, designers, scientists, and so on), which can explain the diverse terminologies. This diversity also results in the development of various design methods [ 21 ]. Lastly, the expression ‘nature-based’ was not included in this table because it is not specific to either architecture or technology [ 22 ]. Nature-based includes every term in Table 1 , and its broad scope makes it irrelevant to this analysis. By the same token, ‘bio(-)inspiration’ and ‘bio-inspired’ are not included. To emphasise their differences and similarities, the keywords are translated in terms of how a building would mimic a flower. Lastly, each word is also separated into syllables to determine its etymology, and further accentuate the distinct meanings of each keyword.

Definitions of biomimicry-related keywords in the format of quotes of several authors, all employing nature as a generator for design in the broadest sense of this concept.

Each term is unique, yet all fit under the umbrella of ‘nature-inspired’ design. While the author’s definitions of one term are similar, aside from some minor differences in interpretations, the keywords plainly differ. The etymological analysis and the interpretation of the flower’s translation serve to further highlight the differences. The etymology clearly exposes the distinction between the words containing ‘bio’, ‘eco’, and ‘organic’. While ‘bio’ simply refers to the description and science of life [ 2 ], ‘eco’ is derived from ‘ecology’, which is a scientific field concerned with the relationship of organisms and their environment [ 35 ]. By combining ‘bio’ and ‘eco’ with ‘morphism’ or ‘mimetic’, the focus shifts and the meaning of the word becomes clearer. ‘Morphism’ literally means imitating form, thus biomorphism imitates the form of living things. Architects are frequently inspired by nature through symbolic associations and metaphors, without taking innovation or sustainability into account [ 23 , 24 ]. ‘Mimicry’ or ‘mimetics’ go beyond the form and aim to represent or imitate models on a deeper level for various purposes. Biomimetics solves practical problems using an interdisciplinary approach to transform natural processes into new solutions for human systems. The sustainability impact and innovation are often also considered [ 14 , 15 , 18 , 28 , 40 , 41 ]. Bionics involves the word ‘nics’, derived from technique or technology, which together refer to copying or representing a function of a living creature to efficiently design technological or mechanically-driven systems [ 14 , 15 , 30 , 42 ]. Ecomimicry or ecomimesis imitates nature on a larger scale, specifically for the design and socio-ecological management of communities and built environments. Therefore, the local ecosystem is also assessed [ 18 , 34 , 36 , 43 , 44 ]. Lastly, ‘organic’ differs most from the others because it relates more to characterizing living things [ 38 ]. Organic design involves a threefold inspiration from nature: through symbolic associations, through the use of biological principles allowing for nature-like relationships and harmony, and through the choice of biodegradable or reusable materials [ 21 , 37 ].

In general, these keywords separate into three main categories, which are relevant regarding the meaning of BIA. Bionics intends to enhance mechanical systems through improved nature-inspired technologies. This is mostly found in products, but also in structural or MEP (mechanical, electrical, and plumbing) systems of buildings [ 42 ]. Biomorphism and organic design relate more to shapes and forms, and the latter bridges over to bionics as well. Ecomimicry and ecomimetics relate to the overall wellbeing of all inhabitants. Then, biomimetic(s) refers to the imitation of natural models and is commonly used as the adjective of biomimicry. Architecture that uses biomimicry as a tool is referred to as biomimetic architecture, and can be interpreted as the general term overarching all three categories depending on the end goal of the project. However, the specifics as to whether ‘biomimicry’ is the umbrella term that encompasses all these keywords, including biomimetics either as adjective or separate noun, is beyond the scope of this paper. Lastly, another keyword that is very rarely used, but is interesting for the understanding of BIA, is vernomimicry. We did not include it in Table 1 as it is not a type of biomimicry, but combines biomimicry (in the widest context of the term) and vernacular architecture. A great resemblance exists between both making this approach more accessible and understandable for architects. Hence, it is relevant to this survey. A vernomimetic approach would result in a building inspired by an aspect of a flower and vernacular knowledge solving a similar architectural challenge [ 45 ].

2.2.2. Bibliometric Analysis

A bibliometric analysis was performed to provide clarity and to quantitatively portray the biomimicry-related terms. Scopus is recognised as one of the bibliographic databases with the most extensive data sources for a wide range of topics. Therefore, it was chosen to conduct a bibliometric study [ 46 ]. The state-of-the-art review was conducted in February 2023 using keywords and Boolean operators in the documents’ titles, abstracts, and author keywords, limited to publications since 1997 to 2022. All languages were selected to obtain the most representative result in terms of geographical spread. Different types of contributions were identified, such as books, conference proceedings, scientific papers, etc., using the following keywords related to BIA: “Biomimicry”, “Biomimicry AND architecture”, “Biomimetic OR Biomimetics”, “Biomimetic AND architecture”, “Biomorphism OR Biomorphic”, “Bionic OR Bionics”, “Organic AND design”, and “Ecomimicry OR Ecomimesis”. Table 2 depicts the total number of publications pertaining to the keywords and publications from 1997 to 2000, as well as the last four years, to get a sense of the augmentation.

Publications from 1997 to 2022, 1997 to 2000, and 2019 to 2022 from the keywords: “Biomimicry”, “Biomimicry AND architecture”, “Biomimetic OR Biomimetics”, “Biomimetic architecture”, “Biomorphism OR Biomorphic”, “Bionic OR Bionics”, “Organic AND design”, and “Ecomimicry OR Ecomimesis” on Scopus.

There is a significant disparity in the number of publications using the keywords ‘biomimetic(s)’ and ‘biomimicry’. The total number of articles for ‘biomimicry’ is 2187, whereas for ‘biomimetic(s)’, the result is 75,726. This might be explained by the fact that term ‘biomimetic’ was introduced in the 1950s [ 15 ], and thus already broadly used in the academic community before Benyus coined ‘biomimicry’ in 1997. By the same token, the number of publications using the keywords ‘bionic(s)’ are also significantly higher than for ‘biomimicry’, since it was introduced in the 1960s [ 17 , 18 ]. Most apparent is the high number of publications for ‘organic design’, which is a term associated with the Modern Movement in architecture in the early 1900s. The words ‘organic’, ‘organic design’, and ‘organic architecture’ in the construction context were embodied by architect Frank Lloyd Wright during that time. Therefore, this keyword was already widely used in an academic context before the others [ 47 ]. In general, all have intensified in the last decades. Most publications have its origin in scientifically and technologically strong countries. Aside from some European and Asian countries, the United States and China have contributed the most concerning the keywords presented in Table 2 . Moreover, concerning field distribution, most publications originate from engineering and materials science. These are related to the development of architecture, and thus have contributed to the advancement of BIA. However, biomimicry is interdisciplinary and relevant to many fields. Several articles originate from biology and medicine, making it broad, but also fragmented, prone to confusion, and ill-defined. As previously stated, the expertise of each contributor results in varied definitions and interpretations for what inspiration from nature means, specific to each field.

2.2.3. Biomimicry: Common Ground and Differences of Opinion among Scholars

Biomimicry is another keyword found in the literature and differs from those presented above. Through different experiences and approaches, researchers have given distinct meanings to the word. Webster’s dictionary defines biomimicry as “the imitation of natural biological designs or processes in engineering or invention ” [ 48 ]. ISO 18458:2015 [ 30 ], already integrates sustainability within its definition of biomimicry, defined as a “philosophy and interdisciplinary design approaches taking nature as a model (…) to meet the challenges of sustainable development” . A challenge for architects is the absence of a precise and shared definition and methodology among the numerous possibilities for BIA found in the literature [ 9 ]. Therefore, this section focuses on clarifying the meaning of biomimicry concerning architecture.

In several papers, biomimicry is defined as an approach to sustainable development. In the broadest sense of the concept, it emulates or takes creative inspiration from nature’s processes, impact, tactics, ideas, and systems in order to design a durable future [ 10 , 15 , 18 , 23 , 49 ]. The word ‘inspire’ refers to the designer achieving innovative design solutions [ 23 ]. It is an interdisciplinary approach, relatively new, and with a high potential for sustainable developments that involves many profiles, such as engineers, biologists, and architects [ 9 , 10 , 49 ]. Applying nature-generated design to building issues is the groundwork for environmental-friendly developments, and has already been demonstrated to have several advantages, including improving innovation, optimising resource use, and improving health [ 10 ].

However, scholars have different interpretations and ways to define biomimicry, as well as diverse arguments over what type of challenges biomimicry addresses. The overall consensus is that biological strategies are used as inspiration, but variations exist owing to its interdisciplinary nature and origin of development. The point of view and interpretation of a biologist (Benyus [ 2 ]) and of an architect (Badarnah [ 10 ]) differs. Benyus [ 2 ] defines it as an imitation of the design and processes to address human issues, whereas Badarnah [ 10 ] extends this to addressing issues through environmentally friendly developments, particular to architectural challenges. Vincent [ 14 ] diverges from this point and focusses on addressing challenges in society. Some authors further the abstract nature of biomimicry. Gruber [ 4 ] defines it as a study, not an approach, which implies a theoretical science rather than a practical solution. Vincent [ 14 ] mentions the objective of biomimicry, but not the means, whilst Zari and Hecht [ 50 ] mention both: an action, through looking at the living world to build and sustain urban environments that are robust and flexible, and an objective, to enhance the ecosystem health and regeneration. By contrast, Badarnah [ 10 ] establishes biomimicry as an approach, thereby making it more practical. Adding to that, Richter [ 20 ] and Zari [ 51 ] each present clearer definitions by explaining the source of inspiration and the way to use it. While Richter [ 20 ] states that natural principles need to be thoroughly comprehended, Zari [ 51 ] clarifies this by adding that designers can mimic an organism, its behaviour, or features of its ecosystem. The Biomimicry Institute [ 19 ] also quite concisely and clearly defines biomimicry as a practice mimicking strategies to regeneratively solve challenges. Second, the founder of that institute, Benyus [ 2 ], contradicts other sources by stating that biomimicry was new in 1997. Most other authors date the birth of biomimicry as much earlier. Chayaamor-Heil and Hannachi-Belkadi [ 23 ] present biomimicry as the newest, cutting-edge approach, and also diverge on that point by arguing that biomimicry was new in 2017. Again, taking inspiration from nature for addressing practical or aesthetical human needs has always been present and the earliest examples of modern biomimicry date back to the 1950s. Nonetheless, it was Benyus [ 2 ] who formally introduced biomimicry as a field to the academic world. Furthermore, the meaning of the word has evolved over the last years as a result of its use and applications. Third, not every researcher agrees on the type of problem that biomimicry solves. Some argue that biomimicry is more about societal and human challenges, which is only one part of the architectural design process. Gruber [ 4 ] and Badarnah [ 10 ] state that it is only used to solve architectural challenges. The Biomimicry Institute [ 19 ] mentions regeneration applicable to all scientific fields. Zari and Hecht [ 50 ] also mention regeneration and the ecosystem’s health with a focus on urban challenges, which is broader than a solely architectural question.

In general, these definitions can be explained by the scope and limitations of each paper, the expertise and sensitivity of the authors, and the overall diverse ways of interpreting the field. Nonetheless, origins differ, making it challenging to bring biologists and architects together on a common understanding of what biomimicry is and, to a greater extent, should be.

2.3. Biomimicry in Architectural Design

The world’s population reached 8 billion in 2022 [ 52 ]. It is widely recognised that, under the status quo, society’s hyper-consumption is not sustainable in the long term. The development of the use of regenerative resources is a way to reduce human emissions and make sure the world can sustain its population growth, particularly in the construction sector [ 53 ]. The idea behind BIA is that, since nature operates on the principles of reuse and recycling rather than producing waste energy, it is a suitable source from which to draw inspiration [ 18 ]. Additionally, biomimicry in architectural design offers a way to establish reachable growth goals that are grounded in practice. It also outlines how to do so while highlighting real-world instances that might serve as inspiration. The goal to use BIA is to make additional advancements and innovations on already used producing, generating, or capturing technologies in terms of energy and resource efficiency in general to lessen human dependence on the linear consumption of fossil fuels, which still accounts for the majority of the world’s energy use [ 23 ]. According to Bajaj [ 18 ], it has become clear over the last few years that using a nature-inspired approach to innovation and technology in architecture might mitigate some of the harmful impacts of the industrial age. Biomimicry aids in expanding sustainable thinking through principles like interconnectedness and integrating systems [ 18 ]. Due to the multidisciplinary nature of evolutionary processes, the production of design concepts includes three distinct domains: the issue, the natural world, and the solution. A design process involving biomimicry requires seeking for a biological strategy to solve a technical issue [ 10 ]. According to Badarnah [ 10 ], building envelopes that can adapt to their surroundings can increase a building’s resilience, as well as its sustainability, since they use resources more effectively and use less energy [ 10 ]. Indeed, evolution allows biological creatures to adapt by creating multifunctional and self-adaptive solutions through mutation, recombination, and selection. The outcome is a compromise that satisfies a number of needs at once [ 5 ]. As yet, BIA is effective for generating climate-responsive designs through external facades and technical systems, such as natural ventilation [ 12 ].

Thus, extracted from the analysed terminology, biomimicry is an approach that emulates natural systems to find durable solutions. In architecture, it is an interdisciplinary design method that is still quite underexplored, but can expand the designer’s realm of ideas. It is used to tackle architectural challenges to fit human requirements. It aims at increasing the built environment’s capacity for the regeneration of local ecosystems, and makes it more resilient and in some cases, incorporating evolutionary principles through adaptable designs. Nature uses energy-saving processes and closed loops with minimal waste. Biomimicry applied to architecture can satisfy numerous needs at once.

3. Case Studies

In the last few decades, architects have been increasingly interested in the development of architecture that is inspired by nature for ameliorating technological, aesthetic, and environmental aspects of a building. A pioneering example is the Eastgate Development Harare by Mick Pearce, constructed in 1996 [ 54 ]. We describe eleven case studies that have successfully implemented biological analogies. Built case studies of BIA are still scarce [ 55 ], even if more built and conceptual examples can be evidently found. The projects in this section are chosen for their representativeness of the use of BIA in a broad way: mimicking processes and systems or purely visual instances, using pre-existing models, sustainability aspects included or not, adopting low or high technology, enhancing structural aspects, and so on. All presented buildings are large construction projects for commercial purposes, except for one that serves as a place of worship. Table 3 provides an overview of these case studies, including the architect, location, date, biomimetic inspiration, and targeted performance. All buildings are regarded as examples of the overarching terms biomimicry and biomimetics. The last column contains the keyword(s) from Table 1 with which the architectural building can also be associated. The linked keywords were determined based on several articles, references, and the definitions of the keywords from Section 2.2.1 . Additionally, vernomimicry is included in this table to accurately portray the nature of the last example.

Overview of case studies described in this section depicting the Name, Abbreviation, Reference, Architect, Location, Construction Date, Biological Analogy, Targeted Performance, and Keywords of the: Eastgate Development Harare (EDH), Arab World Institute (AWI), Eden Project (EP), Council House 2 (CH2), Lotus Temple (LT), Esplanade Theatre (ET), One Ocean Building (OOB), Gherkin Tower (GT), Sahara Forest Project (SFP), Homeostatic façade (HF), and Cairo Gate Residence (CGR). The biological inspiration of a project can be from Animalia, Plantae, or Other, depicted in the table with 1 , 2 and 3 , respectively.

The objective of the Eastgate Development Harare (EDH) was to be developed at a low cost, with appropriate office comfort levels, without air conditioning, and without jeopardising the aesthetics or general quality of the interior [ 56 ]. EDH consists of two office buildings linked together with a glass roof [ 54 , 57 ]. Each of them is topped by chimneys above internal cavities that suck out the exhaust air from the floors below. Fans take the cool air from the central atrium and inject it into the offices, in turn extracting heated air and sending it to the cavities [ 54 ]. This system is based on the termite mounds’ natural climate-controlling infrastructures [ 58 ]. It allows for night cooling, as well as thermal storage and convective air currents that regulate the temperature, thereby reducing energy costs by 65% [ 54 , 57 , 59 ]. EDH was built using clay bricks, which is the same material used by termites to build their nests [ 60 ].

The Arab World Institute (AWI) is a museum in Paris. Completed in 1987, it was envisioned as a cultural centre that celebrates the alliance between France and the Middle East. For this reason, the North façades is a mirror of the western culture, whilst the South façade celebrates the eastern culture with a modern interpretation of the ‘moucharabiehs’ [ 61 , 62 , 63 ]. High-tech mechanical diaphragms respond to light by simulating iris dilation and contraction [ 64 ]. Each module has 73 diaphragms and is programmed to perform 18 motions every day. As a result, the façade is packed with electrical components such as sensors, computers, and actuators. There are 30,000 photoelectric cells, which are light-sensitive steel diaphragms on 1600 parts that act like a camera lens, and all mechanical equipment is connected to a central computer. These are linked together in a network of metallic components that shift and rotate to create iris-like motions. Sadly, the kinetic operation of the system was stopped after only about six years due to excessive maintenance expenses, regular component replacement, and severe mechanical flaws [ 64 , 65 , 66 ].

The Eden Project (EP) is a 130,000 sqm touristic and educational attraction [ 67 ]. The main part of the park is constituted of large greenhouses, placed on different levels to keep up with the constantly shifting, former mined, landscape. It is a well-known example of BIA. The greenhouses were inspired by Buckminster Fuller’s geodesic dome, soap bubbles and honeycomb structures [ 68 , 69 ]. The idea of soap bubbles came from the ease with which bubbles can settle on any irregular surface with the least resistance [ 70 ]. The geodesic system is lightweight, strong, and does not require any internal support. Each hexagon of the structure is filled with several inflated layers of ETFE, a plastic polymer material lighter than glass [ 60 ]. It provides thermal insulation and furthers the structural stability of the greenhouses [ 57 ]. ETFE is however not a good acoustic insulator, tends to display condensation in-between the layers, and lets a lot of light through, hence overheating the interior of the greenhouses when exposed to high temperatures [ 71 ]. Since it is a greenhouse, the EP needs to ensure specific climatic conditions, tropical temperatures, and high humidity levels, on the interior for the fauna and flora. Each bubble is called a biome, a natural occurring flora community that occupies a major habitat [ 60 ].

The Council House 2 (CH2) houses the municipal offices of the city of Melbourne. It was the first six-star rated green building in Australia [ 72 ]. It was allegedly designed with the goal of providing a comfortable, adaptable, and stimulating working environment for its users. Additionally, the building aimed at being almost carbon-neutral and inspired a new relationship between the city and nature [ 73 ]. A study in 2013 showed that in reality the building’s energy performance is closer to four stars, scoring better than ‘average’ buildings but below its potential [ 74 ]. Nonetheless, CH2 is an example of BIA, that extends beyond sustainability, employing a regenerative effect on its surroundings [ 75 ]. Radwan and Osama [ 9 ] have found the CH2 to be very effective in its translation. The similarity to a tree filtering the air is remarkable and the building is constructed almost entirely with recycled and renewable materials [ 9 ]. Nature is employed more as a source of inspiration than as a real practical model. Indeed, the building was inspired by the notion of synergy, referring to the overlapping of systems, each of which being greater than the sum of its parts. So, for a construction, it comprises the building fabric, humans, engineering systems, energy fluxes, natural and man-made landscapes [ 75 ]. In plants, it comprises of the leaf structure, growth plane, soft body, stem, bark, dermis and epidermis, bronchi, root, and antennae, which CH2 used for inspiration [ 76 ].

The Lotus Temple (LT) is a place of worship. It is constituted of 27 free-standing petals that were constructed out of concrete and white marble coating. The LT is well known for its distinctive flowerlike shape. It was designed to replicate the beauty and symmetry of the lotus flower, which is sacred in many Eastern and Indian faiths [ 77 ]. The lotus flower is half open, symbolising the openness to all cultures, beliefs, and languages [ 78 ].

The cultural centre Esplanade Theatre (ET) is located on an area of four hectares. One of the goals of the project was to represent past and future projects, linking contemporary techniques and local traditions. The two primary buildings took inspiration from sea urchin shells and the Asian durian fruit’s spiky shell. The mimicked durian’s spikes on the roof are for aesthetical reasons, but also serve as protection from the sun composed of aluminium panels lining the sun’s path. Singapore is close to the Equator, so the sun’s path does not significantly change throughout the year. These aluminium plates are organised in a grid pattern based on curves that alter the diamond proportions. Above the grid, a second layer of aluminium panels generates the appearance of bird beaks shifting direction, flattening or rising. The panes are engineered to let in just enough light while keeping the tropical heat out, inspired by both the sea urchin shell and the durian fruit [ 79 , 80 ].

The One Ocean Building (OOB) displays a kinetic adaptive façade system, where lamellae can move and create patterns. This pavilion is a result of BIA inspired by the ocean [ 81 , 82 ]. The main entrance is surrounded by more than a hundred lamellae that mimic the opening and closing mechanism of fish grills. The lamellae are made of glass-fibre-reinforced polymers (GFRP), a material that can be moulded into a variety of dynamic designs. They are used as mobile sun-shading devices that can be programmed to adapt to changing lighting conditions, follow a predetermined dance and react to specific occurrences. Consequently, light can radiate in and out of the structure and provide views in both directions and the structure can stay closed-up. They use the Flectofin TM system, a well-known biomimicry example based on the bird-of-paradise flower. This mechanical system exists thanks to the elastic properties of certain materials, and the flower itself. When adding a force, the flower is under bending and torsion at the same time. When that force is removed, it goes back to its original shape. Flectofin TM has been used in a multitude of projects and is well-established. In the OOB, the asymmetrical bending is facilitated by actuators at the top and bottom [ 82 , 83 ].

The Gherkin Tower (GT), formally known as 30 St Mary Axe, is an example of mimicking the form of a specific organism. However, it goes beyond just literally imitating and looks at the entity of the structure. In biology, material and structure are inseparable [ 84 ]. The concept of the tower has been examined in the theory of ‘Radiolarians’, which is concerned with the way organisms build their structures in reaction to motion, either to enhance the organisms themselves or to reduce the material that hinders them [ 85 ]. The exoskeleton and round form of the Venus flower basket sponge offer it rigidity and distribute stresses from high currents. The properties of the sponge are replicated in the tower into a diagrid steel structure in the building envelope, and vectorial operations that mimic the curved shape. The tower can withstand wind forces by blowing air up through the cutaway floor openings and by making them slide around the building thanks to its cylindrical shape. This allowed for a higher construction using fewer materials [ 85 , 86 ].

The Sahara Forest Project (SFP) in Qatar, Tunisia, and Jordan is a large-scale project aimed at demonstrating how biomimicry can be used to address a variety of challenges with closed-loop models. This includes the passive harvest of fresh water, the transition to a solar economy, the regeneration of land, the sequestration of carbon in soils, the closing of nutrient cycles, and the employment of large groups of people. It intends to employ restorative methods to create vegetation in dry locations and reverse the trend of desertification and diminish the pressure on natural resources [ 1 , 60 , 87 ]. Since the climate does not allow for fresh water for agriculture, architects and engineers used inspiration from the fog-basking ability of the Namib Desert beetle. The Namibian Desert has about 1 cm of rainfall per year, but experiences fog events coming from the Atlantic Ocean during the mornings. This animal evolved to efficiently capture fog with its back that contains alternating hydrophobic areas, whereon droplets congregate, and hydrophilic areas, through which droplets are transported to the beetle’s mouth [ 42 , 60 , 88 ].This biological strategy translated into saltwater-cooled greenhouses, to provide suitable growing conditions and allow year-round agriculture. Fans blow desert air over seawater, allowing for evaporation, which creates humid air streams within the greenhouse and decreases the indoor temperature. The condensation of moist air using seawater-cooled pipes results in a freshwater supply for irrigation. The energy required to run the greenhouse is created in a concentrated solar power plant, where solar energy is converted into steam and utilised to power turbines [ 60 ]. At the pilot plant in Qatar, cucumbers successfully grew using half of the amount of fresh water needed under conventional conditions. SFP complies with many of the criteria of an ecosystem: nutrient-rich agriculture, no lasting pollutants, diversity, energy gains through solar power, and regenerative as an entity [ 1 ].

The Homeostatic Façade (HS) comprises a self-regulating façade system that automatically responds to changing external conditions such as daylight and temperature fluctuations. HS uses the homeostatic principle of muscles, which allows organisms to control internal parameters such as temperature [ 11 , 89 ]. The system is made up of an engineered strip that is placed inside the cavity of a double-skin glass façade. The ribbon is formed of dielectric rubber compounds, which are polymeric materials that can be polarised by passing an electrical current through them, causing them to stretch. These materials are flexible and use minimal energy. The silver layers/electrodes conduct electricity through the material and can reflect light. The charge in the silver layer creates motion using a sensitive actuator when the external circumstances change. The dielectric electroactive polymer is wrapped around a flexible polymer core to form an artificial muscle. Increased charges force the elastomer to expand, causing the core to bend and the elastomer to pull to one side. As a result, the facade closes [ 57 ]. Ultimately, the interior conditions are controlled by balancing heat losses and gains, hence also conserving energy [ 11 , 89 ].

Cairo’s Gate Residence (CGR) uses principles from vernacular architecture, bioclimatic design, and biomimicry. The project combines traditional wind catcher techniques of Egypt, Iran, and the Gulf area, as well as an extensive use of renewable energy systems to save 50% of energy demand, uses the solar cycle, prevailing wind directions, endemic plan species, geothermal energy, and more to make the design as passive as possible. It aims at transforming the city into an ecosystem, and the district into a forest [ 90 ]. ‘Malqaf’ are traditional wind catchers found in Egyptian constructions from 1300 BC. It is a shaft rising high above the building with a unidirectional opening facing the prevailing wind. It catches the wind flowing over the building, and internal air ducts push it down into the spaces of the house. In the larger buildings, like mosques, the ‘maqlaf’ and a higher tower on the other side of the building for hot air escape work in conjunction, just like termite mounds and the EDH. ‘Modern’ buildings from the 1960s to today ignore the vernacular ‘maqlaf’, demanding large cooling and energy-intensive systems [ 91 ]. The CGR adopts the ‘malqaf’ in the format of nine large chimneys, called ‘megatrees’, that guide the airflow in three directions: downward using direct wind entry, upward using a wind-assisted temperature gradient, and upward using a solar-assisted temperature gradient [ 90 , 92 ].

These case studies were chosen for their representativeness and online availability of information. Small-scale projects for domestic purposes integrating biological strategies are less common as biomimicry is still an emerging tool and often implies an initial higher cost, ergo, less cost-effective at smaller scales. Cruz and Hubert [ 57 ] provide additional large construction projects, but also small pavilions employing biomimicry. Nevertheless, the case studies display the difference between theory and reality and showcase how actual designs align with the concept of biomimicry as found in the literature. In theory biomimicry is presented as an effective approach for sustainable or even regenerative solutions, as highlighted in the definitions of Badarnah [ 10 ], the Biomimicry Institute [ 19 ], and Zari and Hecht [ 50 ], but this is not always included in practice. Adopting BIA can be driven for enhancing sustainability or solely for innovation [ 93 ], and if the end goal of the designer is to create an efficient, durable structure, simply mimicking nature is not enough. Henceforth, aside from natural principles, the need for being conscious of every choice is crucial in terms of, for example, materials and their provenance, structural efficiency, and bioclimatic design.

4. Classifications and Design Methods for Biomimicry

Relevant classifications and methodological frameworks for architectural purposes are reviewed in this section to unfold their similarities and differences. The distinction between classifications and design methods can be confusing because several examples are applicable to both. While they can be used to classify buildings employing design principles of biomimicry, they also serve as design frameworks for translating biological features into technological implementations. Therefore, when referring to a ‘design method’ for incorporating biomimicry, this includes approaches, frameworks, and methodologies.

4.1. Classification Systems for Biomimicry in Architecture

The classification systems for bio-inspired architecture are mostly categorised by the mimicked biological features. Benyus [ 2 ] distinguishes three levels of biomimicry: organism, behaviour, and ecosystem. These are used and are applicable to all fields. A design can mimic some parts of an organism, the response of an organism in its context, or a function of an ecosystem [ 2 ]. Zari [ 94 ] added an additional dimension to biomimicry for researching biological analogies tailed towards architectural applications, which are: form, material, construction, process, and function. The same author depicts the differences between each level and aspect with the example of a building mimicking termites [ 94 ]. Table 4 provides an overview and explanation of the different levels a building can mimic a natural feature, including a tentative classification of the case studies discussed in Section 3 . Buildings are inherently complex, and some can have more than one strategy that uses biomimicry, not all on the same level. For example, CGR functions on the level of an ecosystem (it stores water and uses solar power) and also on the behaviour level (careful orientation, form, and use of natural ventilation) [ 60 ]. Overall, the organism level is primarily inspiring for a building’s form, shape, or structure, whereas the behaviour is for studying the interaction of the building with its surroundings. Inspiration for ameliorating the urban metabolism and how local organisms and the built environment interact on a larger scale is usually found at the ecosystem level [ 95 ].

Case studies from Section 3 classified according to the levels of biomimicry. (Left: Natural levels of biomimicry in terms of ecosystem, behaviour, or organism; top: Design aspects mimicking form, material, construction, process, or function. List of acronyms: EDH (Eastgate Development Harare), AWI (Arab World Institute), EP (Eden Project), CH2 (Council House 2), LT (Lotus Temple), ET (Esplanade Theatre), OOB (One Ocean Building), GT (Gherkin Tower), SFP (Sahara Forest Project), HF (Homeostatic façade), and CGR (Cairo Gate Residence). (Adapted from [ 60 , 94 ]).

The table assembles the crossroad between the design aspects and natural levels of biomimicry. The organism-level case studies that are designed based on the form of that organism are the Esplanade Theatre and the Lotus Temple. The ET, the Gherkin Tower, and the Homeostatic façade are also constructed in the same manner as their respective mimicked organism. Indeed, the ET has spike-like elements that protect the inside from the sun, the GT has a round shape and a lattice-like exoskeleton, mimicking the shape of a Venus flower basket [ 60 ], and the HT presents a ribbon that inflates and deflates, mimicking muscles. The Arab World Institute works as an organism through the iris’ dilatation for light control, and the GT as well through the dispersion of stresses in different directions thanks to its shape [ 60 ]. Because of its cylindrical shape, the GT also functions as the flower in a broader context, in the sense that it disperses stresses and reduces wind (or current) forces [ 60 ]. Then, the behaviour-level case studies mimic organisms with its context. The Eastgate Development Harare uses the same material as termite mounds, which is clay, mimicking the organism (material). The One Ocean Building is constructed in the same manner as the bird-of-paradise flower, with specific hinges, and mimics its opening and closing process. The EDH and the Cairo Gate Residence also imitate the natural ventilation process of termite mounds [ 60 ]. Lastly, the ecosystem-level case studies resemble the ecosystem, and the same three buildings also function like termites, or like the flower by controlling indoor parameters. The Eden Project and the Sahara Forest Project are constructed as an ecosystem: mimicking the shape and structural efficiency of the bubbles for the EP and copying how the Namibian beetles collect water for the SFP. The EP, SFP, CGR, and Council House 2 have similar processes to their inspiration. The EP works like an individual bubble (collecting large amounts of sunlight), the SFP uses both salt water and solar power, and CGR and CH2 extensively use renewables and closed-loop resource systems. The SFP also functions like an ecosystem thanks to seawater loops. This classification system is convenient for efficiently discovering eligible and functional biological analogies. However, it lacks multifunctionality and clarity, since it can create confusion because there is no exclusive answer. Biomimicry-inspired buildings can be distributed over several aspects, especially when multiple biological strategies are used. Furthermore, as a designer, it is difficult to correctly classify projects following that system with a limited knowledge of biology. An expansion of the database and the creation of a universal classification system through collaboration with biologists and architects is highly recommended.

A different approach for categorising BIA is by using a catalogue in the format of a checklist comprised of identifying biological strategies, the link to biology, the design process utilised, the outcome, and the level of adaptability. As for the previous classification, a collaboration with a biologist is beneficial for identifying the biological principles. The list, however, is mainly developed for architects through the use of understandable terminology [ 28 , 57 ]. Presenting this as a method for classification, the link to biology and targeted performance, for example, can be combined, as depicted in Table 5 . Aside from ‘animalia’, ‘plantae’, and ‘other’, the original checklist integrates ‘fungi’, ‘bacteria’, and ‘protozoa’ as biological strategies [ 57 ]. Examples can be found in [ 96 ], but these are not integrated into the figure, since no described case studies found its inspiration in these areas. Furthermore, these are primarily used for enhancing materials’ performance, which is not within the scope of this paper.

Case studies from Section 3 classified according to the checklist of biomimicry for architects. (Left: Inspiration from animalia, plantae, or other; top: Targeted architectural performance in terms of thermal comfort, visual comfort, acoustic comfort, air quality, mechanical resistance, or water regulation). List of acronyms: EDH (Eastgate Development Harare), AWI (Arab World Institute), EP (Eden Project), CH2 (Council House 2), LT (Lotus Temple), ET (Esplanade Theatre), OOB (One Ocean Building), GT (Gherkin Tower), SFP (Sahara Forest Project), HF (Homeostatic façade), and CGR (Cairo Gate Residence). (Adapted from [ 57 ]).

These are levels of biomimicry based on resource regulations, which are the most important for climate-responsive designs. The Lotus Temple can thus not be integrated into this classification since the mimicry level is merely for aesthetic purposes. Again, further development of case studies showcasing BIA could enlarge the classification system.

Lastly, Ilieva et al. [ 97 ] developed the Biomimicry for Sustainability framework, which assesses the amount of impact of BIA. Case studies employing biomimicry are categorised along two dimensions on the x - and y -axis, respectively. The first dimension ( x -axis) depicts the scope for mimicking nature in relation to sustainability. Four categories are identified being biomimicry for: ‘innovation’, ‘net-zero optimisation’, ‘societal transformation’, and ‘biosynergy’. The sustainability impact of the latter is assumed to be highest, whereas that of innovation is nearly zero. The y -axis represents whether it is a fixed or flexible mimesis, which does not contribute to the sustainability impact. When nature plays an active role in the design process, literally translating and integrating nature, it is referred to as fixed, whereas flexible entails a more passive interpretation [ 97 ]. In this regard, the case studies of Section 3 are tentatively depicted in Table 6 , employing this framework.

Case studies from Section 3 classified according to the ‘Biomimicry for Sustainability’ framework. (Left: flexible or fixed mimesis; top: Biomimicry for innovation, net-zero optimization, societal transformation, or synergy). List of acronyms: EDH (Eastgate Development Harare), AWI (Arab World Institute), EP (Eden Project), CH2 (Council House 2), ET (Esplanade Theatre), OOB (One Ocean Building), GT (Gherkin Tower), SFP (Sahara Forest Project), HF (Homeostatic façade), and CGR (Cairo Gate Residence). (Adapted from [ 97 ]).

The case studies classified as biomimicry for innovation barely contribute to sustainability, but focus more on novelty and economical objectives [ 97 ]. Even though AWI has a high potential for being sustainable through its climate-adaptive façade, it falls into that first category because of the overuse of mechanically driven components. Net-zero optimisation is concerned with, first, the efficiency in terms of materials (the GT qualifies because of its nature-inspired structure reducing the use of materials), and second, the performance in terms of energy use (EDH qualifies due to its integration of a passive ventilation system). Then, the SFP aims to encourage the transition from a linear to a circular economy, thus using biomimicry for societal transformation, and uses many passive strategies. Therefore, the SFP is also an example of biosynergy displaying a regenerative impact on nature and is concerned with all living organisms. The CGR is the only project where nature plays an active role in the impact of sustainability through the extensive use of green areas, thus qualifying as a flexible mimesis. Note that the type of mimesis has no influence on sustainability impact, but is merely a new way of categorisation [ 97 ]. The framework also holds the design process into account. However, due to the lack of indirect information from the designers of the case studies, differences in opinion for categorisation are inevitable.

4.2. Design Methods for Biomimicry

A design process, either in engineering or architecture, usually begins with the question of what the design should be. The evolution and adaptation of nature to fit into its environment have proven to be a viable source of inspiration for innovative applications [ 98 ]. The study of biomimicry is not simply copying external characteristics of organisms. The design approach involves an in-depth investigation for mimicking biological mechanisms on a physiological, morphological, and behaviour level [ 12 ]. According to Benyus [ 2 ], nature has developed nine design principles, referred to as ‘Life’s Principles’: the use of sunlight; only use required energy; form to function; recycle all resources; reward cooperation; focus on diversity; demand local expertise; curb excesses from within; and tap the power of limits [ 2 ]. These can be summarised into two prevailing ideas as a base for BIA. First, every organism has the desire to reproduce and maintain itself, called ‘autopoiesis’ or ‘conativity’. Second is the path of least resistance in order to achieve conative goals [ 99 ]. These nature-based principles serve as an efficient measuring tool. As a designer, shifting the question to what the design needs to do and seeking biological analogies for guidance has the potential to result in genuinely sustainable or even regenerative solutions [ 98 ]. Various design approaches to integrate and translate natural principles for solving or meeting human challenges have been developed over the years, which are elaborated on in this section and illustrated in Figure 2 .

4.2.1. General Design Methods for Biomimicry

The basis of any biomimetic research is the examination of a specific biological phenomenon. In general, two biomimetic ‘Research by Design’ approaches as a design field can be distinguished according to their process sequences, each comprising six steps [ 3 , 12 ]. The difference between the approaches is the starting point for development. When the research starts with a promising biological discovery with a possible technical application, it is called a bottom-up approach (or ‘solution-based approach’ or ‘biology to design’). When a designer starts with a specific technical question where the solution is looked for in biology, a top-down approach is employed (or ‘problem-based approach’ or ‘design to biology’) [ 9 , 100 ]. Additionally, a third approach is defined as the extended top-down and explores various biological analogies for a clear-cut technical problem through an iterative process. This extended top-down approach is driven by the returning question of: ‘What if nature has an even better solution?’, requiring more time and research, but with the potential for creative and out-of-the-box outcomes [ 3 ]. Designers mostly employ the top-down approach [ 60 ]. In both main approaches, the biological feature is abstracted from the organism and translated into a technical implementation. A designer’s traditional design approach differs from a biomimicry-based one in its concept generation. Biomimicry is interdisciplinary, whereas designers usually look for solutions within their field of expertise. Most designers are not educated in biology, therefore all design methods benefit from a collaboration with biologists and existing databases during the discovery phase for creative and sustainable findings [ 99 ]. Mostly, collaborations aid in the development of literally or metaphorically translating biological strategies, depending on the mimicking level. Moreover, the abstraction phase is always the most challenging one for non-experts in biology [ 3 , 12 ]. What to search for?; Where to find it? and; How to identify an interesting biological strategy? are common obstacles that designers face [ 101 ].

Simplified stages of biomimetic approaches described in Section 4.2 . From top towards bottom [adapted from]: Bottom Up [ 3 ], Top Down [ 3 ], Design Spiral [ 19 ], BioGen [ 102 ], Push-Pull [ 103 ], Plant to Architecture [ 104 ], Multi-Biomechanism [ 105 ], and ThBA [ 106 ].

Biomimicry 3.8 is an online platform accessible to everyone that provides education, inspiration, methodologies, and other biomimicry-related information. The Challenge to Biology Design Spiral is an approach developed by the Biomimicry Institute for designers from all scientific fields. Nature employs a reiterative design process, commonly known as evolution, towards the most efficient mechanisms adapted to its environment and the path of least resistance. The Design Spiral guides designers through this process, employing the following steps: define, biologise, discover, abstract, emulate, and evaluate [ 19 ]. In order to facilitate the discovery and abstraction phases, Biomimicry 3.8 offers an online database, called AskNature, which functions as a field guide to the natural world. The database contains over 1600 biological strategies classified through a framework, the ‘Biomimicry Taxonomy’ that links the biological adaptations in relation to functional challenges [ 107 ]. The platform provides a significant aid during the initial phase of the design process. Nonetheless, only a limited number of biological strategies are provided and collaboration with a biology expert is still recommended to broaden the range of possibilities. Kuru et al. [ 105 ] also argue that the limitation of the platform, and respectively, the Design Spiral, is the lack of assigning multifunctional properties of organisms to multifunctional challenges [ 105 ].

4.2.2. Design Methods for Biomimicry in Architecture

Methodological approaches are crucial for architects to effectively integrate inspiration from nature at an early stage, preferably before or during the concept generation. Design methods for BIA are reviewed in this section and are chosen, as they are commonly used in architecture and literature, and their differences cover many design concepts. The BioGen (Biomimetic Design Concept Generation) and the ThBA (Thermo-Bio-Architectural Framework) are approaches that employ an iterative top-down methodology. The Push-Pull method is linear and uses both the top-down and bottom-up approaches. Plants to Architecture uses Push-Pull to create kinetic structures solely inspired by plant movements. Multi-Biomechanism can be both linear or iterative, and uses both main approaches. This section concludes with briefly elaborating on the BioTRIZ methodology and on regenerative design approaches. Undoubtedly, more frameworks exist, but they extend beyond the scope of this research.

The Biomimetic Design Concept Generation or BioGen is a framework developed for standardising dominant biological strategies for related functional challenges. Prior to applying the methodology, a specific technical problem is usually defined. Again, the question of what the design needs to do is raised. The concept generation is achieved by employing tools during the preliminary design stage. First, the exploration model identifies viable biological strategies parallel to the imposed technological challenge. Subsequently, the best-performing natural ecosystems and organisms are isolated, which are referred to as pinnacles. Second is the pinnacle analysis, where an in-depth investigation uncovers the biological function to mimic according to its morphology, physiology, and behaviour. Lastly, the design path matrix is the abstraction phase. A preliminary design is conceived by merging all strategies. If the outcome is not as desired or further improvement is needed, the process is reinitiated [ 102 ]. The methodology has been effectively employed for the creation of a conceptual shading device for envelopes inspired by plant movements tracking sun radiation [ 108 ]. As applicable to the previous approach, the methodology lacks a well-defined process for abstracting the organisms, especially for non-experts [ 109 ]. Furthermore, when using various pinnacles, it is crucial to maintain a clear overview, and avoid conflicts between different strategies.

In a more recent publication, Badarnah [ 10 ] expanded this to facilitate the abstraction phase and address multifunctionality through the principle that ‘form follows environment’. Organisms tend to solve various issues through one strategy, whereas humans mostly focus on solving one single issue with one strategy. The theoretical methodology proposes a framework to enhance the multi-regulation aspects of four environmental factors (heat, light, water, and air) for biomimicry-based, adaptive facades. By linking the environmental factors to specific pinnacles, possibilities for multi-regulation are assessed. A biological strategy, for example, that addresses multifunctionality in the natural world is wrinkles on the skin. The irregular surface of the skin: (1) provides a large surface area to hold moisture; (2) allows evaporation; and (3) creates shade. This pinnacle has an impact and the potential to regulate all four environmental factors. An architectural application for facades is cooling through external cladding [ 10 ]. The methodology seeks to promote the use of environmental factors during the initial stage of the design process, but again, the proposed framework could benefit from a focused database of biological strategies and practical applications [ 105 ].

The Thermo-Bio-Architectural Framework or ThBA was developed by Imani and Vale [ 106 ], and provides a framework for architects that seek a solution for nature-based thermoregulation techniques. ThBA begins with a pre-defined technical issue, being thermal performance. It is developed for bridging the gap between architecture and nature by providing an immediate relevant biological example to mimic the problems raised in terms of building energy use. The framework employs a cross-disciplinary approach linking architectural and natural features. For instance, thermal principles in architecture are made understandable for biologists, and vice versa. The biological analogies are linked through a design-by-analogy design process in a systematic manner. The framework identifies, classifies, and categorises biological strategies. Thermoregulation in buildings can be passive or active, and researchers have discovered a parallel connection with the natural concepts. Parameters for energy-efficient buildings were matched to these strategies, serving as the architectural side of the framework [ 12 , 106 ].

Schleicher et al. [ 103 ] developed the Push-Pull methodological framework, which employs a combination of the bottom-up and top-down approaches for the development of kinetic structures inspired by plant movements. The name is derived from ‘pulling’ a biological aspect for ‘pushing’ technological development. The approach is most suitable for external shading device systems to protect the interior from the sun through spatial adjustments. The first design phase is preferably conducted by biologists to identify biological strategies that respond to external stimuli (or nastic movements) through movement. The exploration and simplification of the mechanism and rearrangement of the motion components can contribute to a large design freedom, instead of directly mimicking the organism on a morphological level. Then, the deformation principle is translated into a bio-inspired compliant mechanism, usually through computational aid. Important to convey is that plant movements are mostly triggered by elastic deformation and flexible members, whereas conventional mechanisms use technical hinges in combination with stiff parts. This should be regarded and mimicked as much as possible to obtain a functional biological product. The last phase is to test and validate developed prototypes [ 103 ]. The proof of concept has been validated for the development of Flectofin TM [ 110 ].

While the frameworks ThBA and Push-Pull focus on a specific functional architectural aspect that needs to be solved by looking at the natural world, the focus can also be on a specific group of organisms. Lopez et al. [ 104 ] developed a design approach for the development of adaptive architectural envelopes by studying plants. A strong analogy exists because both, plants and conventional buildings, lack the possibility for movement to conquer environmental factors. The concept generator collects data and maps plant strategies to guide the transfer from biology to architecture. First the plant’s adaptation is analysed according to the three questions: What?; Why?; and How? These findings are then assessed for technical implementation according to three concepts: application ideas and adaptability, possible innovation with challenges and benefits, and design concept generation with technical implementation and features [ 104 ]. The methodology offers a clear framework and aids in the translation. However, a hurdle is finding viable organisms, so developing a database of plant adaptation strategies would be beneficial for the use of this framework. Furthermore, it seems to lack insights in analysing biological features. Therefore, a combination with the Multi-Biomechanism approach could be helpful, which focuses more on developing a wide spectrum of possibilities for a biological strategy and is described next [ 105 ].

Kuru et al. [ 105 ] developed the Multi-Biomechanism approach, which aims to achieve multifunctionality in adaptive building skins. The framework has four stages. Every approach starts with either identifying the biological principles or the technical issue. In this case, the step is subdivided into identifying the location’s climate and the building performance analysis together with identifying functional requirements. Second is the selection of appropriate biological solutions, which are systematically classified. The third step is crucial for achieving multifunctionality. Through the principle of hierarchy, the organism is studied on all levels, beginning with its ecosystem, and ending with its atom. The organism’s morphological, physiological, or behavioural adaptations in a heterogeneous structure are also identified and examined. The biological analogy is developed by translating the working mechanisms to functioning and applicable materials, geometries, and configurations for the façade system together with actuation methods for climate-adaptability [ 105 ]. For the successful use of this approach, designers require an extended understanding of biological strategies.

BioTRIZ is a well-known problem-solving method used to create a bridge between biology and engineering. The goal is to turn biological vocabulary into a technological solution, its main mechanism is based on revealing conflicting requirements between biology and engineering, and creating a win-win resolution [ 105 , 111 , 112 , 113 , 114 ]. TRIZ is more focused on simple and direct systems. However, buildings are complex, and the tool might not be able to take the multiple interactions among building components into consideration. For that reason, it might not be appropriate for architectural design [ 105 , 115 ].

Biomimicry can serve as a tool for developing regenerative designs. The basis for regeneration is to understand the location and create for the wellbeing of all present life [ 116 ]. Over the last few years, regeneration has gained attention to rethink the green building sector [ 117 ]. By understanding the principles of the local ecosystem, a building could contribute and function within the system toward a neutral environmental outcome instead of diminishing the ecosystem’s health. Zari [ 118 ] established six ‘ecosystem services’, which serve as a framework with key parameters for designing in a built environment with a regenerative approach. When seen as a system, the built environment may offer a habitat for all organisms, contribute to soil fertility, purify environmental resources, regulate the climate, produce renewable energy, and locally collect water [ 118 ]. This is rather linked to ecomimicry. Thus, the combination of an approach integrating BIA and an ecomimetic approach, could genuinely increase regeneration.

The frameworks described give an overview of how biomimicry can be used in practice during the design phase. However, as also concluded from the case studies, this is not sufficient to guarantee a building’s sustainability, and the latter must be designed with other bioclimatic strategies in mind [ 94 ]. For instance, the design goal could be to have a symbolic association with a particular element of nature, like in the Lotus Temple. Goals can be aesthetic, symbolic, technical, structural, based on the energy performance of the building, and so on. The presented design methods are similar to Benyus’ design spiral, which is a general approach and can be used in various fields. The difference among the methods resides in their scope and focus. For example, ThBA aims to tackle a specific problem, the thermal performance and thermo-regulation of buildings in particular. For advancing the field of BIA, a combination of carefully selected frameworks, depending on the end goal, together with a unified classification system and a general expansion of the database of biological strategies, is the most important step. Furthermore, a design method for transdisciplinary research enhancing communication, and ultimately, collaboration is lacking in all approaches [ 119 ].

5. Discussion

The meaning and impact of biomimicry in architecture (BIA) has shown different facets throughout this paper. The analysis of the nature-inspired terminologies that relate to BIA of Section 2 provided an overview and helped clarify the discipline, but also revealed its fragmentation. In terms of how natural imitation is as an approach, each keyword has a different focus. While some focus on symbolic associations, others are more focussed on innovation and others include sustainability as the main focus. However, nature applied to architecture can sometimes have a utopian tendency, describing it as a solution that solves societal and architectural problems, and leads humans to a sustainable future in the construction sector. Is sustainability the main goal of biomimicry and other related terminologies? What is the driving force of designers instigating the development of such sustainable or regenerative projects? Experts have argued that rather than intrinsically being driven for the wellbeing of all creatures, designers are mostly driven by environmental policies, rating systems, and benchmarks [ 120 ]. Cruz et. al. [ 40 ] argued that biomimetics and biomimicry are distinct, in that the latter approach is especially focused on producing sustainable solutions, whilst the former does not need to meet that condition. Biomimetics is defined as a creative method based on the observation of biological processes. It is not required to accomplish long-term goals [ 40 ]. However, biomimicry and biomimetic are interchangeably used in many papers for semantic reasons. In the current language, or in research in general, biomimetic is often used as the adjective of the word biomimicry, and not the word biomimetics. This makes it difficult to distinguish between both terms, even if their meaning can be distinctively interpreted. After the examination of biomimicry in practice in Section 3 , it can be argued that the sustainability-aspect is indeed not always addressed. For instance, Council House 2 used recycled timber for its outer facade and focuses on the all-around sustainability of every aspect of the buildings [ 9 ]. This is something missing in the other case studies. By contrast, the Arab World Institute showcases a clear biological analogy, but also an excessive amount of technology usage which encountered mechanical issues [ 66 ]. This is not only the case for the use of technology. The Lotus Temple, for instance, allegedly used natural forms in its design, but also used an excessive amount of concrete [ 77 ]. Rather than having investigated nature for a more resource-efficient structural system or materials, the designers used nature for its shapes and symbolic associations without contributing to sustainability prospects.

All case studies from Section 3 are associated with the terms biomimicry and biomimetics, as they mimic natural phenomena from either plants or animals (except for the Eden Project, which relates most to the flexibility and strength of soap bubbles). Concerning the keywords identifying the case studies, every example can be associated with a more precise keyword referring to technology, shapes, wellbeing, or the vernacular. The Lotus Temple, which uses the lotus flower as a symbol of openness, and to a lesser extent, the Esplanade Theatre, which echoes the local durian fruit by using spikes as heat regulators, purely imitate the form on an organism level. This is biomorphism, as the building looks like an organism. In this paper it is assumed that biomorphism fits under the more generic term of biomimicry. This is supported by Zari’s classification system [ 94 ], and by Sommese et al. [ 11 ], who classified the Lotus Temple as an example of BIA. However, according to the Biomimicry Institute [ 25 ] and Chayaamor-Heil and Hannachi-Belkadi [ 23 ], biomorphism is very different from biomimicry, since it does not specifically seek to solve problems, but solely imitates nature for aesthetic or symbolic purposes, and biomorphic architecture should thus not be classified as biomimicry [ 23 , 25 ].

Many described case studies employed bionics for technological advancements. This is the case for the Arab World Institute, which looked at the iris of the eye and how it expands or contracts in response to visual stimuli; for the One Ocean Building, which incorporates the bending mechanism of the bird-of-paradise flower; for the Sahara Forest Project, which mimics the Namib Desert beetle’s fog-basking ability; for the Homeostatic Façade, which uses muscle-like processes to control visual and thermal parameters; and lastly, also for the Eden Project and the Gherkin Tower, mimicking an organism with an adapted technology based on specific shapes for structural purposes. The Eastgate Development Harare and the Cairo Gate Residence are linked to organic design, mimicking a certain process, as well as being physically alike. Both buildings imitate the process of the natural ventilation system seen in termite mounds. EDH looks physically similar because of the shared use of clay, whereas, for the CGR, it is because of the resembling interior shapes. Ecomimicry and ecomimesis can be slightly distinguished according to its etymology showcased by the case studies. The Sahara Forest Project and the Eden Project relate to ecomimicry, working like and integrating into the local ecosystem. The Council House 2 is an example of ecomimesis and aims to imitate the local ecosystem through a multitude of biological strategies. The harvesting of fog contributes to the overall green regeneration of the area, and the EP’s interior works like an ecosystem, while the particular shape of soap bubbles helped the building’s adaptation to the uneven ground in situ. Finally, the Cairo Gate Residence uses vernacular inspiration (traditional wind catchers) to cool down the interior, which is based on termite mounds, and thus relates to vernomimicry.

After the overview of the different classification systems and design methods in Section 4 , including a step-by-step exploration to increase accessibility and their ease of use, it becomes clear that the abstraction and translation of each method are difficult to exercise without the collaboration of diverse scientific profiles. It was also showcased that not all frameworks are aimed at meeting human requirements. However, potentially, a combination of various frameworks and methodologies enhances the sustainability aspects. This requires more preliminary work of studying suitable frameworks before starting on the design of a product or project. Section 4 began by presenting three classification systems. The first is based on Benyus’ definition of levels or scales in nature: ecosystem, behaviour, and organism, which is subdivided into design elements by Zari as: form, material, construction, process, or function. Despite the system lacking multifunctionality and refinement, it is especially good at rapidly classifying and providing an overview of projects or elements regarding biological strategies. The second uses checklists, asking where the inspiration was taken from in nature and what the targeted performance in architecture is. It was created for architects without much knowledge in biology. Third, the approach Biomimicry for Sustainability assesses the impact of a biomimetic product or building. There are two dimensions: the scope of mimicking nature in relation to sustainability, and whether it is a fixed (literal) or a flexible (abstract) mimesis. A combination of the three would be the most effective for evaluating a design. This would provide an inclusive overview of the links between natural strategies and the built project, a precise evaluation of the methods used, and their results, and the actual impact on sustainability. All projects could thus be classified based on more than one dimension and the link between these dimensions could be highlighted, for instance, through the influence of using a level of Zari in relation to the assessed sustainability impact. However, its full development does not fit within the scope of this review.

Three general and five design methods integrating nature into architectural design were reviewed in the second part of Section 4 . The top-down approach is linear and starts with a design problem before turning to biology for answers. The bottom-up approach is linear and starts with a biological process before looking at what human problem it could solve. The design spiral is iterative, based on the evolution process of nature. The first reviewed method specific to architecture was the BioGen approach, which is an iterative top-down methodology that standardises biological strategies for technical problems. Then, the Push-Pull method is linear and uses both the top-down and bottom-up approaches by pushing a biological aspect. The Plants to Architecture framework uses Push-Pull to create kinetic structures inspired by plant movements. The Multi-Biomechanism approach can be linear or iterative, and uses both main approaches for multifunctional problems for developing nature-inspired adaptive skins. At last, ThBA is an iterative top-down method for solutions regarding thermoregulation in architecture. Even if all these approaches and classification systems exist, it is difficult to find one that is integrated, shared, and generally agreed upon. Regarding the case studies and the design methods, it is worth noting that nature entails a multidisciplinary approach, as it addresses several issues with one single element. This aspect is only included in one case study, CH2. By contrast, the Multi-Biomechanism and the extended BioGen approaches aim to tackle several architectural issues using a single biological strategy, whereas other frameworks do not mimic this natural characteristic. In order to design multidisciplinary aspects within a project, one must employ the adequate framework, as they do not all have the same output.

Common to all design approaches, translating natural features to functional applications comes with various obstacles. Khoja and Waheeb [ 45 ] proposed an approach combining nature as a generator for design and vernacular architecture to bridge the gap between architecture and biology. In this study, a vernacular house in Cairo (Egypt) is compared to the natural ventilation strategy of a termite mound, showing great similarity and success regarding indoor thermal comfort. This example could have been integrated in the development of the Eastgate Development Harare because, in practice, EDH operates differently from the actual termite mound. While a ‘vernomimetic’ approach still entails challenges, vernacular architecture provides examples that are easier to understand by architects [ 45 ]. The Cairo Gate Residence uses these principles by employing regional knowledge via the ‘maqtab’ and a biomimicry-based approach for meeting the 21st Century’s demands in terms of the environmentally friendly use of energy [ 90 , 91 ].

By taking all the presented aspects of BIA into account, it can be concluded that biomimicry, as an approach, emulates natural systems to find potential durable solutions, depending on the methodology and ultimate design goal. Biomimicry is an interdisciplinary process demanding collaboration with biologists. This aspect is also included in Benyus’ original definition [ 2 ]. In theory, it is straightforward. In practice, or in methodological terms, not so much. Moreover, further applied research, together with the development of a comprehensive and unified approach for architects, could increase the built environment’s capacity, increase regeneration, and make it more resource efficient, resilient, and adaptive. A design approach integrating biological strategies is not sufficient to guarantee a building’s sustainability, and the latter must be designed with other bioclimatic strategies in mind. Nature works based on energy-saving processes and closed loops with minimal waste, and by using multifunctional frameworks and studying biological analogies on several scales. Biomimicry applied to architecture can satisfy numerous needs at once.

6. Conclusions

Although there is a growing interest in biomimicry in architecture or BIA, the field is becoming increasingly fragmented. Therefore, this article reviewed and summarised topics related to BIA through an extended literature survey and analysis. This article, with the examination of nature-inspired terms and their interpretations, offered the fundamental context for this survey and avoided misinterpretation. Related to that, practical applications in the form of case studies, classification systems, and methodological frameworks were described. Thereby, the differences and similarities between topics related to BIA were highlighted to emphasise the necessity for unification as a strategy to eliminate dispersion in the field, which is the main goal of this paper. While many articles have focused on either the history, bibliometric research, case studies, or specifically developed methodological frameworks (for example, for building skins or particular technologies), no article collectively reviewed all related aspects to unravel and understand the true meaning of employing biomimicry for enhancing architecture. The essence of what biomimicry is applied to architecture is evolved by confronting the more practical aspects of biomimicry with the theories behind it. First, a brief history of biomimicry and how associated terminologies came to be as we know them today was provided. Many keywords exist in relation to the general term biomimicry using nature for different purposes. All the biomimicry-related terms relate to nature-inspired design, and there is a certain consensus on what biomimicry is, but they differ in their approach to biological inspiration and the challenges they aim to solve. While sustainability is insisted upon in several biomimicry-related terminologies and within the definitions of biomimicry among scholars, and the case studies highlighted the potential of that said sustainability, some cases focused more on addressing other aspects. Moreover, several keywords dominate the present-day literature, some pointing toward symbolic associations in terms of shapes; others to processes and systems, some are specific to technological use, or in conjunction with vernacular architecture. Biomimicry differs from most words by being an all-round approach, instead of a single process. Most scholars agree on two common elements: taking lessons from nature and using them in practical solutions to human problems. However, interpretations of BIA change depending on the use and the researcher. Biomimicry remains quite an abstract field that requires further research in general. The case studies illustrate the gap between theory and practice. Specifically, it highlighted the difference between using biomimicry for sustainability or in spite of it. All are based on either plants or animals, except for the Eden Project, which relates most to soap bubbles. Council House 2 comes closest to being sustainable, even regenerative, favourably contributing to its environment, and does not solely mimic one process but a multitude of them. The Arab World Institute and the Lotus Temple, on the other hand, demonstrated that a biomimetic design approach does not always lead to a sustainable design. Indeed, the designer must be conscious of their choices throughout the entirety of the project, and, if the goal of a construction is to be sustainable, use biomimicry to that end. The described frameworks showcased technicalities, making clear that the field is still new and can create confusion. Nonetheless, the classifications and methodological frameworks for BIA helped give a rounder meaning to biomimicry, focussing on specific methods, and on how to translate nature into practice. The classification system of Benyus’ ecosystem, behaviour, and organism, which are subdivided into form, material, construction, process, and function by Zari, are also used in the frameworks for classifying biological strategies. Generally, all frameworks entail: identifying biomimetic aspects, translating the principle, and assessing the level of adaptability through prototyping. A last step that should be included is assessing the impact on sustainability, whether it is for products, façade structures, or an entire construction project. All frameworks implied that a lack of knowledge in biology decreases the impact of biomimicry in architecture in terms of creativity, innovation, and sustainability. This study is limited to reviewing a subset of existing definitions, case studies, and frameworks that are relevant to BIA and does not invent an inclusive design method or framework. Further research could include the development of a new classification system that integrates the strengths of those already present in the literature and reviewed here, as well as new methodologies for BIA, tailored to a specific architectural challenge. The development of a unified database of biological analogies and new classification systems and design methods could also help make the field more accessible to designers and researchers. Further studies could also determine the impact of collaboration between biologists, architects, and engineers. From the analysis conducted in this article, biomimicry appears to be the encompassing umbrella term for architecture. However, the field is still rather new and remains quite abstract, requiring more research in general to uncover the specifics, true meaning, and potential of BIA. Therefore, promoting awareness, training programs, education, and further collaboration among scientists can stimulate the use of this practice for sustainable development. In conclusion, the building sector needs to urgently shift to conscious architecture and reduce its contribution to global warming. Nature is a viable source of inspiration for novel applications in architecture, and certainly for creating climate-adaptive and resource-efficient technologies. In practice, however, biomimicry is not widespread and lacks a generalised and shared methodology. Furthermore, biomimicry does not always imply a high level of sustainability, whereas it has the potential to go much further and generate regenerative solutions.

Funding Statement

This article received no external funding, however, is part of a research funded by the Belgian Fund for Scientific Research F.R.S.-FNRS with grant number: 40006597.

Author Contributions

Literature review, research and writing, N.V. and E.R.; supervision, A.Z.K. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Conflicts of interest.

The authors declare no conflict of interest. The funders had no role in the design of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript; or in the decision to publish the results.

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