is research article a genre

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Genre and the Research Paper

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Research: What it is.

A research paper is the culmination and final product of an involved process of research, critical thinking, source evaluation, organization, and composition. It is, perhaps, helpful to think of the research paper as a living thing, which grows and changes as the student explores, interprets, and evaluates sources related to a specific topic. Primary and secondary sources are the heart of a research paper, and provide its nourishment; without the support of and interaction with these sources, the research paper would morph into a different genre of writing (e.g., an encyclopedic article). The research paper serves not only to further the field in which it is written, but also to provide the student with an exceptional opportunity to increase her knowledge in that field. It is also possible to identify a research paper by what it is not.

Research: What it is not.

A research paper is not simply an informed summary of a topic by means of primary and secondary sources. It is neither a book report nor an opinion piece nor an expository essay consisting solely of one's interpretation of a text nor an overview of a particular topic. Instead, it is a genre that requires one to spend time investigating and evaluating sources with the intent to offer interpretations of the texts, and not unconscious regurgitations of those sources. The goal of a research paper is not to inform the reader what others have to say about a topic, but to draw on what others have to say about a topic and engage the sources in order to thoughtfully offer a unique perspective on the issue at hand. This is accomplished through two major types of research papers.

Two major types of research papers.

Argumentative research paper:

The argumentative research paper consists of an introduction in which the writer clearly introduces the topic and informs his audience exactly which stance he intends to take; this stance is often identified as the thesis statement . An important goal of the argumentative research paper is persuasion, which means the topic chosen should be debatable or controversial. For example, it would be difficult for a student to successfully argue in favor of the following stance.

Perhaps 25 years ago this topic would have been debatable; however, today, it is assumed that smoking cigarettes is, indeed, harmful to one's health. A better thesis would be the following.

In this sentence, the writer is not challenging the current accepted stance that both firsthand and secondhand cigarette smoke is dangerous; rather, she is positing that the social acceptance of the latter over the former is indicative of a cultural double-standard of sorts. The student would support this thesis throughout her paper by means of both primary and secondary sources, with the intent to persuade her audience that her particular interpretation of the situation is viable.

Analytical research paper:

The analytical research paper often begins with the student asking a question (a.k.a. a research question) on which he has taken no stance. Such a paper is often an exercise in exploration and evaluation. For example, perhaps one is interested in the Old English poem Beowulf . He has read the poem intently and desires to offer a fresh reading of the poem to the academic community. His question may be as follows.

His research may lead him to the following conclusion.

Though his topic may be debatable and controversial, it is not the student's intent to persuade the audience that his ideas are right while those of others are wrong. Instead, his goal is to offer a critical interpretation of primary and secondary sources throughout the paper--sources that should, ultimately, buttress his particular analysis of the topic. The following is an example of what his thesis statement may look like once he has completed his research.

This statement does not negate the traditional readings of Beowulf ; instead, it offers a fresh and detailed reading of the poem that will be supported by the student's research.

It is typically not until the student has begun the writing process that his thesis statement begins to take solid form. In fact, the thesis statement in an analytical paper is often more fluid than the thesis in an argumentative paper. Such is one of the benefits of approaching the topic without a predetermined stance.

What is a Genre?

Like the word research , the word genre also has many definitions. At its most basic level,  genre  is the French word for “type.” In the world of English for Academic Purposes, it refers to a communicative event that is widely recognized. In terms of research, some common genres include research articles, grant proposals, conference papers, posters, abstracts, and even job-related documents such as cover letters, research statements, etc. In this book, we are focused on the research article genre.

As genres have particular characteristics, one way of learning how to write better within a given genre is to explore the characteristics of it, which is one of our primary goals in this book. Before we explore the research article, however, it’s important to know about genre systems, which are interrelated text types that often work together to achieve a communicative goal.

Genre chains

The concept of genre chains was first discussed in Swales (2004) [1] , where he defined a “chain” as a genre that is an antecedent of another genre. When studying English for Academic Purposes, it is common to approach the learning academic writing, for example, by exploring genre chains because it helps us understand certain types of genre, like research writing, as it is systematized and chronologically organized in an order of sequences.

Genre ecologies

Genres are also sometimes conceptualized in terms of their ecologies, or interrelated and interacting genres Erickson (2000) [2] . In terms of the research article genre, it is helpful to envision the research write-up as only one piece of the communication that occurs between scholars. For example, lab reports, conference presentations and published conference proceedings, white papers, systematic reviews, and more are all part of ecologies that comprise a research communication genre.

• Swales, J. M. (2004). Research genres: Explorations and applications. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ↵
• Erickson, T. (2000). Making sense of computer-mediated communication (CMC): Conversations as genres, CMC systems as genre ecologies. In  33rd Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences , ed. R. H. Sprague, Jr. Maui: IEEE Computer Society Press. ↵

Preparing to Publish Copyright © 2023 by Sarah Huffman; Elena Cotos; and Kimberly Becker is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

12.3 Glance at Genre: Introducing Research as Evidence

Learning outcomes.

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

• Identify key terms and characteristics of evidence-based research writing.
• Participate effectively in a continuing scholarly conversation by synthesizing research and discussing it with others.
• Identify and analyze genre conventions as shaped by purpose, culture, and expectation.

Good writing satisfies audience expectations in genre, style, and content. Similarly, careful research, conducted according to the scope and method of each discipline, is a precondition of good research writing. In the humanities, research usually focuses on texts, individual ideas, speculations, insights, and imaginative connections. On the other hand, research in the social and physical sciences tends to focus on data and ideas that can be verified through observation, measurement, and testing. However, regardless of differences in disciplines and preferences of varying audiences, certain principles of research, writing, and supporting a position hold true across the curriculum.

The Genre of Research: Joining Scholarly Conversations

Conducting research on topics about which you have limited knowledge can be intimidating. To feel more comfortable with research, you can think of it as participating in a scholarly conversation, with the understanding that all knowledge on a particular subject is connected. Even if you discover only a small amount of information on your topic, the conversations around it may have begun long before you were born and may continue beyond your lifetime. Your involvement with the topic is your way of entering a conversation with other students and scholars at this time, as you discuss and synthesize information. After you leave the conversation, or finish your research, others are likely to pick it up again.

What you find through research helps you provide solid evidence that empowers you to add productively to the conversation. Thinking of research in this way means understanding the connections among your topic, your course materials, and larger historical, social, political, and economic contexts and themes. Understanding such connectedness begins with choosing your topic and continues through all phases of your research.

Key Terms in Research Writing

These are key terms and characteristics of evidence-based research writing:

• Citation . When reporting research, writers use citations to acknowledge and give credit for all borrowed materials. Citation also strengthens the credibility, or ethos, of the researcher. Citations always have two parts. Internal citations are short references that lead readers to more detailed information about how to find the sources. External citations are the entries listed, with publishing information, on the Works Cited or References page of the paper. Formatting of both internal and external citations is disciplinary specific. See the Handbook for specific information about MLA Documentation and Format and APA Documentation and Format .
• claim . Claims are the points you make in your report. They are based on and supported by research and evidence.
• Counterclaims . When it comes to research, the counterclaim is the writer’s thoughtful consideration and addressing of the other side’s objections to claims made or even to the topic itself. Counterclaims may need to be supported by further research and evidence.
• Evidence . Within the genre of research, evidence is either findings from original research or, more often, borrowed information that helps you develop your thesis and support your organizational structure and line of reasoning.
• Field research . Field research is basically primary research you conduct through observation or experimentation. Depending on your research question, you may need to seek answers by visiting museums or businesses, attending concerts, conducting interviews, observing classrooms or professionals at work, performing experiments, or following leads. Field research is covered extensively in Research Process: How to Create Sources .
• Research question . Your research question dictates your general line or lines of inquiry that ultimately guide your research. In developing your research question(s), you are narrowing the scope of your topic. Your research question(s) will come from the purpose of your research, the audience of your research product, and the genre for reporting your research.
• Thesis . The thesis is the claim, position, or hypothesis by which you attempt to answer your formulated research question(s).
• Reasoning . Similar to an argumentative essay, the line of reasoning in a research essay, report, or presentation is the organizational arrangement of the supports and evidence that back up your thesis.
• Topic . The topic is the general subject or content area of your research. Strong topics are usually those that involve some controversy or debate. Topics that are not debatable or have no nuanced perspectives do not make for strong research questions or lines of inquiry.

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2.4: What is a Genre?

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Like the word research , the word genre also has many definitions. At its most basic level, genre is the French word for “type.” In the world of English for Academic Purposes, it refers to a communicative event that is widely recognized. In terms of research, some common genres include research articles, grant proposals, conference papers, posters, abstracts, and even job-related documents such as cover letters, research statements, etc. In this book, we are focused on the research article genre.

As genres have particular characteristics, one way of learning how to write better within a given genre is to explore the characteristics of it, which is one of our primary goals in this book. Before we explore the research article, however, it’s important to know about genre systems, which are interrelated text types that often work together to achieve a communicative goal.

Genre chains

The concept of genre chains was first discussed in Swales (2004) [1] , where he defined a “chain” as a genre that is an antecedent of another genre. When studying English for Academic Purposes, it is common to approach the learning academic writing, for example, by exploring genre chains because it helps us understand certain types of genre, like research writing, as it is systematized and chronologically organized in an order of sequences.

Genre ecologies

Genres are also sometimes conceptualized in terms of their ecologies, or interrelated and interacting genres Erickson (2000) [2] . In terms of the research article genre, it is helpful to envision the research write-up as only one piece of the communication that occurs between scholars. For example, lab reports, conference presentations and published conference proceedings, white papers, systematic reviews, and more are all part of ecologies that comprise a research communication genre.

• Swales, J. M. (2004). Research genres: Explorations and applications. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ↵
• Erickson, T. (2000). Making sense of computer-mediated communication (CMC): Conversations as genres, CMC systems as genre ecologies. In 33rd Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences , ed. R. H. Sprague, Jr. Maui: IEEE Computer Society Press. ↵

Communicate Expertise

The genre of research articles

This post is devoted to the genre of research articles. (If you need a brief introduction to what I mean by genre, read Pros have contextualized knowledge .) The ultimate proving ground for researchers outside the humanities, where books and essays may still be king, is publication of articles in peer-reviewed journals or conference collections. I’m teaching a course on scholarly communication to doctoral students this semester. And we are spending the bulk of our time on writing research articles. So I thought I’d share what I’ve learned about this genre.

You may find it odd that I would tackle this genre on Pros Write. But I intend no April Fools’ Day  joke. Let me briefly explain why research articles can count as “professional” writing. As I’ve said many times, I’m not a fan of academic writing because it normally involves asking students to write for teachers, with no real NEED to communicate a message. So it’s really the lack of authentic rhetorical context I object to — not the fact that the writing is done in school.  (I do teach writing myself after all.) That means I am interested in authentic writing.   Nearly all academics in higher ed have to demonstrate their ability to write about research to be recognized as a pro in their specific discipline and in higher ed, more generally. Thus, research articles are arguably the most important genre researchers must master.

So what do we know about the genre of research articles (RAs from now on)? RA content and its arrangement are often described by the acronym, IMRAD , or less frequently, IMRD .

• Introduction
• Results and

In some disciplines, and in some journals, it’s common to use headings in an article that are identical to those terms which gave rise to the acronym. But there is quite a lot of variation. Let’s see how this pattern applies to the sample RA available at the end of this post.

The table lists the headings in the sample RA and how they correspond to those in IMRAD. Click on the links in the table to see my guidance for each section of an RA.

There are four apparent discrepancies.

• The sample RA doesn’t include the actual heading “Introduction.” But there is a section after the abstract that functions like an introduction (establishing the topic and justifying the research).
• The sample RA includes two headings that aren’t easily matched against the IMRAD descriptors. Researchers in the social sciences would call these two sections the Literature Review. It’s so commonplace I’ve added it in parentheses within the IMRAD column of the table. In the “hard” sciences, the literature is reviewed within the Introduction because there is generally less previous research to consider. But more extensive literature reviews are the norm in other fields. (I can explain this but won’t subject you to it right now.)
• The sample RA combines the Results and Discussion sections in IMRAD. This is commonplace in social science research that does not generate quantitative data for analysis with statistics — sometimes called qualitative research. But the functions of both sections are achieved by describing data and discussing its relevance for answering questions in an integrated way.
• The sample RA includes a Conclusion section, which is not named in IMRAD. While most RAs include a Conclusion, the length of that section varies widely. It tends to be very short — a single paragraph — in much “hard” science, which is why I suspect it is omitted from IMRAD.

Despite the wide range of disciplines producing research journals, most of their articles follow the IM(LR)RAD pattern. That’s because they accept, at least in part, the scientific method. The same rhetorical functions must be achieved by the RA even if researchers can be more or less inventive with the wording of their section headings.

Because the rhetorical function of each section of the RA is different, the textual elements most commonly used within those sections also differ. Building from information in  John Swale’s  Create-A-Research-Space (CARS) model, ), I provide the table below.

There’s much more to say about the genre of research articles. But this post is already pretty long. I’ll do a series of posts on each of the sections of the RA in the future. For now, you’ve learned about the overall structure of RA sections and their rhetorical functions. That’s enough for today!

Related Research

Swales & Feak (1994). Academic Writing for Graduate Students. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.

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Table of Contents

Ai, ethics & human agency, collaboration, information literacy, writing process.

• © 2023 by Joseph M. Moxley - University of South Florida

Genre may reference  a type of writing, art, or musical composition; socially-agreed upon expectations about how writers and speakers should respond to particular rhetorical situations; the cultural values; the epistemological assumptions about what constitutes a knowledge claim or authoritative research method; the discourse conventions of a particular discourse community . This article reviews research and theory on 6 different definitions of genre, explains how to engage in genre analysis, and explores when during the writing process authors should consider genre conventions. Develop your genre knowledge so you can discern which genres are appropriate to use—and when you need to remix genres to ensure your communications are both clear and persuasive.

Genre Definition

G enre may refer to

• by the  aim  of discourse
• by discourse conventions
• by  discourse communities
• by a type of technology
• a social construct
• the situated actions of writers and readers
• the situated practices and epistemological assumptions of discourse communities
• a form of  literacy .

Related Concepts: Deductive Order, Deductive Reasoning, Deductive Writing ; Interpretation ; Literacy ; Mode of Discourse ; Organizational Schema; Rhetorical Analysis ; Rhetorical Reasoning ; Voice ; Tone ; Persona

Genre Knowledge – What You Need to Know about Genre

Genre plays a foundational role in meaning-making activities, including interpretation , reading , writing, and speaking.

In order to communicate with clarity , writers and speakers need to understand the expectations of their audiences regarding the appropriate content, style, design, citation style, and medium. Genres facilitate communication between writers and readers, authors and audiences, and writers/speakers and readers/listeners. Genre and genre knowledge increase the likelihood of clarity in communications .

Writers use their knowledge of genre to jumpstart composing: a genre presumes a formula for how to organize a document, how to develop and present a research question , how to substantiate claims–and more. For writers, genres are an efficient way to respond to recurring situations . Rather than reinvent the wheel every time, writers save time by considering how others have responded in the same or a similar situation . Genres are like big Lego chunks that can be re-used to start a new Lego creation that is similar to past Lego creations you’ve created.

In turn, readers use genres to more quickly scan information . Because they know the formula, because they share with the author as members of a discourse community a common language, common topoi , archive , canonical texts , and expectations about what to say and how to say it in, they can skip through a document and grab the highlights.

Six Definitions of Genre

1. genre refers to a naming and categorization scheme for sorting types of writing.

“… [L]et me define “genres” as types of writing produced every day in our culture, types of writing that make possible certain kinds of learning and social interaction.” (Cooper 1999, p. 25)

G enre  refers to types of writing, art, and musical compositions. For instance

• alphabetical texts may be categorized as Expository Writing, Descriptive Writing, Persuasive Writing, or Narrative Writing .
• movies may be categorized as Action & Adventure, Children & Family Movies, Comedies, Documentaries, Dramas.
• music may be categorized as Artist, Album, Country, New Age, Jazz, and so on.

There are many different ways to define and sort genres. For instance, genres may defined based on their content, organization, and style. Or, genres may be defined and categorized based on

• Examples: Drama, Fable, Fairy Tale, etc.
• Move 1 Establish a territory
• Move 2 Establish a niche
• Move 3 Occupy the niche (Swales and Feak 2004)
• A research article written for a scientific audience most likely uses some for of an “IMRAC structure”–i.e., an introduction, methods, results, and conclusion
• An article in the sciences and social sciences would use APA  style for citations
• by the type of technology used by the sender and the receiver of the information.

2. Genre is a Social Construct

“Genres are conventions, and that means they are social – socially defined and socially learned.” (Bomer 1995:112) “… [A] genre is a socially standard strategy, embodied in a typical form of discourse, that has evolved for responding to a recurring type of rhetorical situation.” (Coe and Freedman 1998, p. 137)

Genre is more than a way to sort types of texts by discourse aim or some other classification scheme: Genres are social, cultural, rhetorical constructs. For example,

• writers draw on their expectations about what they believe their readers will know about a genre–how it’s structured ( what it’s formula is! ) and when it’s socially useful.
• readers draw on their past experiences as readers and as members of particular discourse communities. They hold expectations about the appropriate use of particular textual patterns in specific situations.

Or, consider this example: in the social situation of seeking a job, an applicant knows from  the archive , the culture,  the conversations about job seeking , that they are expected to create a  letter of application  and a  résumé . More than that, they know the  point of view  they are to take as well as the  tone –and more.

Writers and readers develop textual expectations tacitly — by reading and speaking with others — and formally: by studying genres in school. Students are inculcated in textual practices of particular disciplines (e.g., engineering or biology) as part of their academic and professional training.

3. Genres Reflect the Situated Actions of Writers and Readers

“a rhetorically sound definition of genre must be centered not on the substance or the form of discourse but on the action it is used to accomplish” (Miller 1984, p. 151)

Carolyn Miller (1984) extends this social view of genre in her article Genre as Social Action by operationalizing genre from a rhetorical perspective. Miller asserts genres are the embodiment of situated actions. In her rhetorical model of genre, Miller theorizes

• writers enter a rhetorical situation guided by aims (e.g., to persuade users to support a proposal ). The writer assesses the rhetorical situation (e.g., considers audience , purpose , voice , style ) to more fully understand the situation and the motives of stakeholders.
• For instance, a researcher could dip into a research study seeking empirical support for a claim . A graphic designer could open a magazine looking for layout ideas.

4. Genres Embody the Situated Practices and Values of Discourse Communities

“Genre not only allows the scholar to report her research, but its conventions and constraints also give structure to the actual investigations she is reporting” (Joliffe 1996, p. 283).

The textual practices of discourse communities reflect the epistemological assumptions of practitioners regarding what constitutes an appropriate rhetorical stance , research method , or knowledge claim . For instance, a scientist doesn’t insert their subjective opinions into the methods section of a lab report because they understand their audience expect them to follow empirical methods and an academic writing prose style

Academic documents, business documents, legal briefs, medical records—these sorts of texts are grounded in the situated practices of members of particular discourse communities . Practitioners — e.g., scientists in a research lab, accountants in an accountancy firm, or engineers in an engineering firm— share assumptions, conventions, and values about how documents should be researched, written, and shared. Discourse communities develop unique ways of communicating with one another. Their daily work, their situated practices, reflect their assumptions about what constitutes knowledge , appropriate research methods, or authoritative sources . Genres reflect the values of communities . They provide a roadmap to rhetors for how to engage with community members in expected ways. (For more on this, see Research ).

5. Genre Knowledge Constitutes a Form of Literacy

Genres  are created in the forge of recurring  rhetorical situations . Particular  exigencies  call for particular  genres . Applying for a job? Well, then, a résumé and cover letter are called for. Trying to report on an experiment in organic chemistry? Well, then a lab report is due. Thus, being able to recognize which  genre  is called for by  a particular exigency, a particular call to write , is  a form of literacy : If you’re unfamiliar with a genre and your reader’s expectations for that genre, then you may as well be from mars.

Genre Analysis – How to Engage in Genre Analysis

When we enter a rhetorical situation , guided by a sense of purpose like an explorer clutching a compass, we invariably compare the present situation to past situations. We reflect on whether we have read the work of other writers who have also addressed the same or somewhat equivalent rhetorical situation , the topic, we’re facing. If you have a proposal due, for instance, it helps to look at some samples of past proposals–particularly if you can access proposals funded by the organization from whom you are seeking support. 

For genre theorists, these are acts of typification –a moment where we typify a situation: “What recurs is not a material situation (a real, objective, factual event) but our construal of a type” (Miller 157).

In other words, genres are conceptual tools, ways we relate situated actions to recurring rhetorical situations. When first entering a situation, we assess whether this is a recurring rhetorical situation and whether past responses will work equally well for this new situation—or if we’ll need to tweak our response, our text, a bit. For instance, if applying for a job, you might look at previous drafts of job application letters

Genres are like prefabricated Lego pieces that we can use to jumpstart a new Lego masterpiece.

We abbreviate the experiences of our lives by creating idealized versions–i.e., metatexts that capture the gist of those experiences. Or, we access the archive , or our memory of the archive, and seek exemplars — canonical texts , the works of others who addressed similar exigencies , similar rhetorical situations.

To make this less abstract, let’s consider what might go through the mind of a writer who wants to write a New Year’s party invitation. If the writer were an American, they might reflect on the ritual ball drop in Times Square in New York City. They might recall past texts associated with New Year’s celebrations (party invitations, menus, greeting cards, party hats, songs, and resolutions) as well as rituals (fireworks, champagne, or a New Year’s kiss). They might even conduct an internet search for New Year’s Eve party invitations or download a party template from Google Docs or Microsoft Word. Over time, that writer’s sense of the ideal New Year’s party invitation becomes typified —a condensation of the texts and rituals and stories.

Because we tend to have unique experiences and because we have different personalities, motives, and aims , our sense of an ideal New Year’s Eve invitation might be somewhat different from those of our friends and family—or even the broader society. Rather than assuming it’s a good time to go out and party and dance, you may think it’s a good time to stay home and meditate. After all, as writers, we experience events, texts and rituals subjectively and uniquely. Thus, we don’t all have the same ideas about what should happen at a New Year’s party or even what the best party invite should look like. Still, when we sit down to write a party invitation for New Year’s Eve, this is a reoccurring situation for us, and we cannot help but be influenced by all of the past invitations we’ve received, what our friends and loved ones have recommended, and what we see online for party invite templates (if we engage in strategic searching).

Sample Genre Analysis

Below are some sample questions and perspectives you may consider when engaging in Genre Analysis.

1. When During Composing Should I Engage in Genre Analysis?

Early in the writing process — during prewriting — you are wise to identify the genre your audience expects you to follow. Then, engage in strategic searching to identify exemplars and canonical texts that typify the genre.

Next, you might begin your first draft by outlining the sections of discourse associated with the genre you’re writing in. For example, if you are writing an Aristotelian argument for a school paper, you might jumpstart your first draft by listing the rhetorical moves associated with Aristotelian argument as your subject headings:

• Introduce the Topic
• Introduce Claims
• Appeal to Ethos & Persona to Establish an Appropriate Tone
• Appeal to Emotions
• Appeal to Logic
• Present Counterarguments
• Search for a Compromise and Call for a Higher Interest
• Speculate About Implications in Conclusions

That said, it’s important to note that some people prefer not to think about genre at all during drafting. Research in writing studies has found that there is no single, ideal writing process . Instead, our personalities, rhetorical stance , openness to information , rhetorical situation (e.g., contextual factors such as time available and access to information )–and more — influence how we compose.

You may not want to think much about genre when

• You’re the type of writer who needs to write your way to meaning. For you, writing is rewriting
• Your audience may have specific expectations in mind that you haven’t addressed. You may be unfamiliar with how other writers have addressed that situation in the past. You may lack access to the information you need to research how others typically respond to the rhetorical situation you are facing

In summary, thinking about genre and reading the works of other writers addressing similar rhetorical situations will probably help you jumpstart a writing project. However, at the end of the day, only you can decide how to work with genres of discourse.

Coe, R., & Freedman, A. (1998). Genre theory: Australian and North American approaches. In M. L. Kennedy (ed), Theorizing composition: A critical sourcebook of theory and scholarship in contemporary composition studies (p p. 136-147). Greenwood Press.

Joliffe, D. A. (1996). Genre. In T. Enos (ed), Encyclopedia of rhetoric and composition: Communication from ancient times to the information age (pp . 279-284). Garland Publishing.

Miller, R. (1984). Genre as social action. Quarterly Journal of Speech, 70 , 151-167.

Swales, J., & C. Feak (2004). Academic writing for graduate students: Essential tasks and skills . University of Michigan Press

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Authorial Stance in Research Articles pp 10–20 Cite as

Approaches to Genre Analysis

• Phuong Dzung Pho 3 , 4  

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The New Rhetoric (NR) approach to genre analysis was initiated by Miller (1984). Genre, according to Miller (1984, p. 163), refers to ‘a conventional category of discourse based in large-scale typification of rhetorical action; as action, it acquires meaning from situation and from the social context in which that situation arose’. This view of genre as social action was adopted by Bazerman (1988) in his study of the changing nature of 100 experimental scientific articles over the period 1665–1800. This study was later extended by Berkenkotter and Huckin (1995) in their study of 350 research articles in physics, biology, and general science over 45 years from 1944 to 1989.

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Challenges of Writing Theses and Dissertations in an EFL Context: Genre and Move Analysis of Abstracts Written by Turkish M.A. and Ph.D. Students

Serdar sükan.

1 Department of Modern Languages, Cyprus International University, Nicosia, Turkey

Behbood Mohammadzadeh

2 ELT Department, Faculty of Education, Cyprus International University, Nicosia, Turkey

Associated Data

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/supplementary material, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author/s.

Writing a thesis or dissertation is a challenging procedure as it is one of the requirements of getting a graduate and postgraduate diploma. Writing an abstract like other parts of a thesis or dissertation has its criterion. For this reason, due to globalism, those abstracts written by non-native English speakers may lack some of the features of the abstract genre and move that must be included. This study examines the moves of M.A. and Ph.D. abstracts written by Turkish students between the 2009 and 2019 academic years on foreign language education at Cyprus International University. The data consisted of 50 abstracts chosen randomly from the ELT department. For the analysis, Hyland’s five-move model has been used. The study results reveal that 40 abstracts did not follow the five moves that Hyland has put forward. Moreover, it can be stated that the absence of some moves in the abstracts may cause restraint for readers to comprehend these studies in terms of communicative purposes.

Introduction

In recent years, there has been an increase in the number of students willing to get a diploma in their postgraduate fields. Thus, it became necessary to conduct research on the written abstracts as they are considered the essential section of the written theses that will give the reader an idea of the value of the whole dissertation. Hence, to draw attention to its importance and highlight the features that must be included in them, abstract analysis becomes more significant at this point. Especially for those writing their M.A. or Ph.D. abstracts, to guide them on what is needed. Any abstract that is going to be written needs systematic and organized work. The absence of these may lead to comprehension problems and may cause less attention. Poorly written abstracts can have unwanted results and may not receive enough credit or be read. To avoid this, what is expected is that a writer should have all the necessary skills to write good abstracts, which should be seen or understood from the moment one looks at the study. Genres and moves should be included and defined so that every reader understands each step clearly without reading the whole research. Genre is a literary term, and genre analysis is a sort of discourse done to check the reliability of communicative purposes. So, it includes an analysis of the style and text. Abstracts as genres have become a key tool for investigators because they offer them a chance to choose the appropriate study for their investigation ( Chen and Su, 2011 ; Yelland, 2011 ; Piqué-Noguera, 2012 ; Paré, 2017 ; Abdollahpour and Gholami, 2019 ; Anderson et al., 2021 ; Yu, 2021 ).

Moreover, genre referring to abstracts means socially known ways of using language. This is because writing practise is done to give the reader a chance to interpret what the reader could be expected based on what they have read in earlier texts ( Hyland, 2007 ). As Kaya and Yağız (2020) state, publishing research articles in English is the main aspect of academic life. Therefore, writing is a challenging job, and surviving in the academic world is demanding. Thus, it needs to be of good quality with all the features. However, if the writer has no awareness of what is required for writing and how to make it more interesting for the readers, the text written can turn into a disappointment. Belcher (2009) states that the abstract is an important part of work because it gives readers an idea of what it contains and whether it is worth reading. To put it simply, an abstract acts as a communication tool revealing the importance of the article and indicating whether reading the article will enrich scholars. Tanko (2017) claims that abstracts are the key tools to declare the outcomes researchers have found in their studies. Moreover, Salager-Meyer (1994) and Hartley (2003) define the abstract as the core of the article and the first part that encounters the readers of the article. For this reason, Hartley and Betts (2009) highlight the importance of abstracts by pointing out the fact that a well-written abstract increases the possibility of being read if it gives enough information about the article.

This study investigates and analyzes the M.A. and Ph.D. students’ theses abstracts written by EFL Turkish students in the ELT department. As we all know, abstracts are a very significant part of articles, and they are the main part of transferring and reporting the writer’s view. The major concern of this issue is probably the poor writing skills of students’. Since the demand for writing abstracts is increasing, it has become more important to focus on the structure of the information, make discourse and do a genre analysis. Therefore, problems that lie beneath this topic will be examined, analyzed, and solved.

This study aims to analyze how M.A. and Ph.D. students at Cyprus International University (CIU) write their thesis abstracts using a genre-based approach and Hyland’s framework for abstract analysis (2000). Specifically, the study aims to classify the patterns of the moves employed in the abstracts of CIU M.A. and Ph.D. theses, identify the obligatory and optional moves in the research abstracts, and determine the linguistic features, specifically the tense of the verb and the voice of the verb. Furthermore, it aims to classify the pattern of the rhetorical moves employed in the theses abstracts and determine the linguistic features used by the researchers regarding the following: (a) tense of the verb and (b) voice of the verb. The following research questions will be answered through the present study:

• (1) What are the genre-specific rhetorical features of the abstract sections of M.A. and Ph.D. theses written between the 2009 and 2019 academic years on foreign language education at Cyprus International University?
• (2) What types of moves are there in the abstract sections of M.A. and Ph.D. theses written between the 2009 and 2019 academic years on foreign language education at Cyprus International University?
• (3) What are the obligatory, conventional, and optional moves identified in the abstract sections of M.A. and Ph.D. theses written between the 2009 and 2019 academic years on foreign language education at Cyprus International University?
• (4) What are the linguistic features of the abstract sections of M.A. and Ph.D. theses written between the 2009 and 2019 academic years on foreign language education at Cyprus International University?

Theoretical Framework

Abstracts are the most important parts of research reports as they determine the value of the whole manuscript. Therefore, as Male (2018 : 24) states, “abstracts categorized as an academically written genre containing the rhetorical structure or moves”. Writing abstracts can be more challenging than writing the whole report for students or academicians since it requires an awareness of steps or organization. Furthermore, it has to be written systematically and in good organization. According to Othman (2011) , effective abstract writing can be ascribed to many factors. One of the aspects written is organization. Abstracts are important for the growth and prosperity of academics in all fields.

Considering the fact that the English language has become an international language used worldwide, it may carry some obstacles within itself for non-native speakers when they are writing their reports. Especially, when they want to convey their thoughts. This could be one of the reasons Hyland (2016) has pointed out why non-native speakers go through difficulties as the linguistic norms of the target language are different from their mother tongue. Similarly, Brown (2000) has stated that not only writing is a complicated activity but also one needs to have the full competencies.

According to Ren and Li (2011) , genre analysis has to be done to be able to write well or to overcome the challenges of academic writing. For this reason, Al-Zubaidi (2012) , recommended that second language learners’ should receive extra help in comprehending the content, building academic language, and incorporating language skills. Furthermore, Zhu (2004) ; Tardy (2005) , and Tas (2008) pointed out that in the process of writing academic manuscripts, appropriate style should be given in a discoursal environment. To overcome the writing difficulties in the native language and to develop effective academic writing skills studying the genre, analysis is the best.

Due to the fact that examiners or readers are very busy doing their work, most of them limit their search, and they want to know from the first glance whether the manuscript is worth reading or not ( Alhuqbani, 2013 ). For this reason, according to Kossasih (2018) , four reasons make abstracts play a vital role in articles. The first reason is, it gives information that can be easily read or seen. The second reason is that it can guide readers or provide them with a clue as to whether they will finish reading the whole content or not. Third, it gives an outline for readers. Fourth, it offers a summary of the most important ideas and thoughts. According to Walter (2008) , abstract means, “a shortened form of a speech, article, book, etc., giving only the most important facts or ideas.” Bhatia (1993) defined it as “a description or factual summary of the much longer report, and is meant to give the reader an exact and concise knowledge of the full article.”

Moreover, Martín-Martín (2005 : 20) claims that abstracts are written: “to provide the summary of the content of the accompanying article”. Consequently, they all suggest that research article writers should use a series of rhetorical strategies or move structures, and accordingly, there are some popular generic structures to mention. One of them is Bhatia (1993) , suggesting four-move generic structures of abstracts: (1) introducing the purpose, (2) describing the method, (3) summarizing the result, and (4) presenting the conclusion. Another one is proposed by Hyland (2004) , which has a five-move generic structure such as introduction, purpose, method, product, and conclusion moves. In parallel with these, Santos (1996) and Swales and Feak (2004) proposed a five-move generic structure that include (1) background, (2) aim, (3) method, (4) results, and (5) conclusion moves.

According to Kossasih (2018) , the abstract can be contemplated as a genre. Eggins maintains that “Genre is a staged, goal-oriented purposeful activity in which speakers or writers engage as members of our culture. Thus, recognizing the genre of a text has an important role in identifying ways in which a particular text is similar to, reminiscent of, other texts circulating in the culture” ( Eggins, 2004 : 45). Hence, if the genre of the text cannot be identified, it can be seen as problematic. According to Niu (2013) , the genre is a literary term, and genre analysis is a type of discourse that is believed to be done to check the consistency of communicative purposes. Therefore, it involves stylistic text analysis. Abstracts as genres have become an indispensable tool for researchers because it provides them with a chance to select the right article for their research ( Piqué-Noguera, 2012 ).

In 1990, Swales identified genre analysis as parts that constitute moves and linguistic features such as tense, reporting verbs, and the lexical frequency that help writers write a certain text. Thus, it focuses on ideas and meaning and has a sequence of moves that involves communicative function in each move. Therefore, according to his description and identification, all research articles should first identify the topic, then give a review of the previously written articles as the next move, and detect what is not present in the research reports written earlier as a second move, and state the outline of the goals of the study that has been carried out by writing a summary of the outcomes and stating the results as the last move ( Upton and Connor, 2001 ). In line with Upton and Connor (2001) , Ding describes the word move as, “A functional unit in a text, being related to the overall task, which is used to identify the textual regularities in certain genres of writing” ( Ding, 2007 , 20). Having read many articles on the topic, it has been noticed that many experts have defined the term “move analysis” differently. Yelland (2011: 12) defines move analysis as a “piece of text that is evident in the unified functional meaning of a sentence or group of sentences”. Swales (2004) defines it as a shaper of the overall communicative purpose and the rhetorical structure of the genre. El-Dakhs (2018) explains each move as steps. Moreover, some models have been put forward by Bhatia (1993) ; Santos (1996) , and Hyland (2000) . In Bhatia’s version, four moves have been explained, namely, introduction, method, results, and discussion, and this model has been named the IMRD model. In Santos (1996) suggested a new model and put forward five moves, namely, situating the research, presenting the research, describing the methodology, summarizing the findings, and discussing the findings. Finally, in 2000, Hyland gave the final version of the model of moves, which can be detected as similar to Santos’s model because Hyland’s version also included five moves and introduction, purpose, method, product, and conclusion made up the model. Figure 1 demonstrates the three different models that have been explained.

Research article abstracts move models ( El-Dakhs, 2018 ).

According to Can et al. (2016) , moves can be explained or defined as methods that can be used as a guide for the organizing the text to be written. Therefore, all these studies that have been carried out with the aim of evaluating the language of thesis abstracts are to offer different ways and methods of organizing and controlling the language of second language learners’ to prevent discrepancies for communicative purposes. Furthermore, Kanoksilapatham (2007) stated that the move analysis helps the information to be arranged and identifies the type of information that should be included in the text.

This study employs Hyland’s five-move model, examining the moves in thesis abstracts by CIU students. The results of this study can help non-native speakers in writing their abstracts and can contribute to the enrichment of literature in regards to the structure of moves. Moreover, the results are expected to provide deep insight for academicians to improve their writing skills in their future studies.

This study adopts a content analysis method to examine the rhetorical structure of English thesis abstracts. The corpus is the analysis of a total of 50 bachelor theses abstracts at Cyprus International University. The students were selected randomly. The analysis of thesis abstracts involves examining Hyland’s five-move models, which consist of introduction, purpose, method, product, and conclusion.

As shown in Table 1 , Hyland (2000) presents all five moves and their functions. We examined all moves and their functions sequentially in our analysis.

Hyland’s (2000) move model.

To examine abstracts more easily, all 50 abstracts were numbered separately. Hyland’s (2000) model was employed for the analysis. The reason for choosing this model is the fact that it includes five moves, namely, introduction, purpose, methods, product, and conclusion, and his model was used widely in many other research studies. Hyland’s model has been accepted as the most influential in addressing the rhetorical moves in abstracts compared to other suggested models by Santo and Bhatia. In the analysis of move, identification, occurrence, patterns, and the use of tense and voice of moves were also examined. Moreover, the analysis was based on the content or function of the text, and the frequency was used to classify the number of move occurrences in the abstracts. The frequency of occurrence was first recorded and then noted in the tables.

Table 2 lists the frequency of moves found in the abstracts, and as it can be seen from the table, purpose and method have the highest percentages, and conclusion has the lowest percentage. It also shows that only (20%) of these abstracts include complete Hyland’s five moves which are: introduction, purpose, method, product, and conclusion. It has been noticed that most English thesis abstracts (70%) comprised only four rhetorical moves with the absence of a conclusion move. It can be said that all abstracts did not have the conclusion move. The absence of some rhetorical moves in English thesis abstracts may cause communication problems with the readers. Moreover, the readers may have difficulty comprehending the text, and may fail to read it further. This may be a drawback for researchers if their research is not read and recognized in the academic community.

The frequency of moves found in the abstracts.

In Table 3 , the results for tense verb frequency in each move in the abstracts are presented. According to the results obtained, it can be seen that most of the moves in thesis abstracts were written in the present tense. The results showed that the present tense was used more than the past tense in the introduction, purpose, and conclusion in English abstracts. However, the past tense was used more with higher percentages in method and product move. It can also be seen that the future tense was only used in the conclusion move with a low percentage (12%), and it cannot be seen in the other moves.

Verb tense frequency in each move in the abstracts.

In Table 4 , the findings showed that the active voice was preferred in the introduction, purpose, product, and conclusion moves. Nevertheless, the passive voice was used in the method move with a higher percentage compared to the active voice. Furthermore, it is possible to say that a mixture of active and passive voices was used in all moves in the analyzed abstracts.

The voice used in the analyzed abstracts.

In the identification process of move analysis, the belief in rhetorical function was vital for the analysis of RA abstracts to investigate move frequency, move pattern, and the use of tense and voice. To ensure the reliability of this research, coding was used. The Kanoksilapatham’s (2015) criterion for the classification of the frequency of occurrence of each move was employed as the cut-off point.

As shown in Table 1 , all five moves related to Hyland’s (2000) model have been presented. In Table 2 , the frequency of each move differed slightly. The purpose move has been found to have the highest frequency and percentage (96%), followed by the method (92%), product (88%), introduction (74%), and conclusion moves (50%). According to the data obtained, the conclusion move with the least frequency and percentage was an optional move as it was not mentioned in most abstracts. Many researchers preferred not to include this move in their abstracts as this showed they did not give enough importance to it. However, the purpose, method, and product moves were similar in their frequency, but the introduction and conclusion moves seemed to be different, with the least occurring frequency and having the least percentages. The purpose move was the most dominant in all the abstracts that have been examined in this study. The high frequency found in the moves of purpose, method, and product implies that the researchers were aware of the importance of these three moves, whereas the least frequency found in the introduction and conclusion moves demonstrates that some researchers were not aware of the importance of establishing the context of the manuscript and motivating the research or discussion and interpreting or extending the results beyond the scope of the manuscript, drawing inferences, pointing to applications, or suggesting wider implications. The writers had a tendency to begin their abstracts with a purpose move and end the abstracts without drawing references to the field by providing no further suggestions on how to improve their studies in the future. This finding indicates that the writers of this corpus regard the background, method, and significance of the study as more important. Since there is no previously written similar research on this issue, this can be interpreted as the writers’ are lacking rhetorical knowledge on the other two moves (introduction and conclusion), or perhaps they do not attach any importance to mentioning them.

As shown in Table 3 , the most frequent verb tense in all the five moves was the present tense. However, the most frequent pattern can be seen in the purpose move with a percentage of 90%. Only in the method move past tense was more frequent with a percentage of 87%. The most frequent patterns were in introduction move (a) Pr-P, purpose move (b) Pr-P, method move (c) P-Pr, product move (d) P-Pr, and conclusion move (e) P-Pr-F. It can be seen that the present voice was the most frequently preferred structure, and only in the conclusion move, the future tense was preferred only in three abstracts among 50 manuscripts to give further implications on the study. According to Table 3 , in the introduction, purpose and conclusion moves present tense was used more frequently and to categorize this present simple and present continuous, and present perfect tenses were the most frequently seen. In the product move, the use of past tense was seen to be more than the present tense. Finally, in the conclusion move, from the findings, it can be understood that all tenses are used, including past, present, and future, however, the further findings reflect that the present tense was used more, followed by past and future tense. The differences in tenses usage and their frequency were in the method and product moves. There was no future tense used in the other moves, while 12% of the ELT abstracts were written in the future form. For the method move, only 13% of the abstracts were written in the present form, while 87% were written in the past tense. Thus, we can say that the most frequent tense used in most moves was present simple, while the past tense was the second most frequent and the future tense was found to be the least frequent in three abstracts only to present the conclusion move. However, other previous studies by Zhang et al. (2012) and Suntara and Usaha (2013) stated that the most dominant tense was the past tense in the studies they have carried out.

When our study is compared with other studies by Tseng (2011) and Alhuqbani (2013) , it has been found that they both included the same similarities and differences in tenses usage. This means that in the introduction, purpose, and conclusion moves, they tended to use the present simple tense, whereas in our study, introduction, purpose, product, and conclusion moves present tense was mostly used, but the method and product moves were different in the tense usage because past tense was used more which is similar to Alhuqbani’s and Tseng’s findings. Tseng found that in method and product moves, past tense usage was more dominant, which is similar to our findings. However, Zhang et al. (2012) suggested that in their findings, present tense was not seen in the method move in the abstracts he examined. This implies that there are variations in the methodology part of the writings of research manuscripts’ abstracts.

In Table 4 , the findings showed that in general, active voice usage was mostly used in all moves. Especially, in the purpose move, the active voice was used by 90% with the highest percentage, while the passive voice was used by 10%. The second most frequent choice was a mixture of active and passive voices that occurred in the method move. This was similar to Zhang et al. (2012) findings, which stated that active voice was more frequent than passive voice. On the contrary, Tu and Wang (2013) revealed that passive voice was the most frequently used in the RA abstracts they have examined. Moreover, Hanidar (2016) also mentioned that writers prefer to use the passive form more when they are presenting the procedure of their research and stating their findings. Nevertheless, in our findings, a combination of the active and passive voices was used, which indicates that most writers tend to develop their abstracts directly rather than using an indirect style. Only in the product move, the passive voice seem to be the least frequent with the lowest percentage (7%).

Although there have been a lot of studies conducted on abstract writing by both native and non-native speakers of English, my research is different from the previous studies due to the fact that only abstracts written by Turkish students were analyzed. The reason for conducting this research only on Turkish students is to identify strengths and weaknesses in the moves of the abstracts, as there is a wealth of literature available on native students. We believe that this study will contribute to the field, improve the current literature on the topic, and provide a significant step by examining the rhetorical structure of Turkish abstracts within the framework of Hyland’s (2000) five-move pattern. The findings of a study conducted by Çandarlı (2012) showed that all abstracts include the introduction move. The reason for this could be the move pattern he followed (IMRC), in which the purpose move had to be stated in the introduction move. In the study carried out by Al-Khasawneh (2017) , it was found that in the examined abstracts by native and non-native speakers of English, three moves (introduction, purpose, and product) were available, which implies that both abstract writers are aware of the importance of the moves in their abstracts. However, the only difference was detected in the abstracts of native writers because they included introduction and conclusion moves more than the non-natives. It is believed that this study can help students and novice writers, especially those from non-English backgrounds to facilitate their successful acculturation into their disciplinary community. Another study conducted by Çakır and Fidan (2015) is believed to raise students’ awareness and help them choose suitable moves to fulfill their aims. Moreover, it is believed that their study will have important implications for the future. The findings of a study done by Kaya and Yağız (2020) are assumed to help authors in this field be familiar with abstract writing conventions. Also, the results are believed to benefit the production of academic writing materials for scholars and academic writing courses. Since it is a comparative study, the results would help non-natives be aware of the conventions of academic writing and guide them throughout the process involved in global research. However, the results of Ashofteh et al. (2020) demonstrate that non-native speakers use more hedges and are more tentative in their abstracts which shows that they leave more space for opposing views in their claims. Furthermore, Saidi and Khazaei’s (2021) study is believed to be used in teaching academic writing to graduate students in English for academic purposes and to help them present their findings globally.

Generally, the authors’ aim in conducting research in this field is that they believe it will be beneficial for beginner writers. The suggestions and recommendations and the findings of the results will guide them to produce better academic reports by following the rules to develop writing skills. In this regard, it would be appropriate to say that this research is expected to provide similar pedagogical implications.

This study has been carried out to investigate the rhetorical structure of English RA abstracts in ELT theses. Five moves have been identified and analyzed. The present tense and active voice were the most chosen and frequently occurring. As a result of this, the past tense, present perfect tense, and passive voice were seldomly used. Moreover, the findings of this study are presented in a descriptive style since all the results are discussed. For this reason, the authors who will be writing manuscripts in the field of English language teaching should consider these findings and develop their abstracts accordingly. The benefit of this study would be to apply what is useful and needed for the implementation of pedagogical practice. Writing abstracts can be helpful for the development of teaching materials and thesis manuscripts, and with the correct guidance, non-native writers or graduate students who are in the process of developing their careers can be helped to solve their writing problems and organize their work in five moves. Moreover, these five moves would help the development of English abstracts for conference presentations or publications. It is believed that once writers gain a full understanding of grammatical and rhetorical features, they will be able to write their abstracts more effectively. Furthermore, the findings regarding the tense and voice usage presented in this study would be a guide to offer the limitations and drawbacks when writing abstracts. Thus, these restrictions should be considered when carrying out move analysis studies in the future. Peacock (2002) claims that move structures should be taught to non-native speakers and novice writers to help them to be able to write the abstract sections of their research correctly. However, this study is limited since it only focuses on one section, which is abstracts. Likely, another limitation of this study could be the small sample size due to its restriction to 50 abstracts, with the result that it can be generalized to all ELT thesis abstracts. Future studies can focus on the large scale of samples, considering all the suggestions and recommendations made in this research.

Data Availability Statement

Author contributions.

SS and BM contributed equally to the manuscript generation, writing process, and approved the submitted version.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s Note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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