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An Economist’s Guide to Economic History

• Matthias Blum 0 ,
• Christopher L. Colvin 1

Queen’s University Belfast, Belfast, UK

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• Introduces the field of economic history to economists
• Calls academics into action to affect change in economics pedagogy and research
• Enables readers to think more critically about the economic ideas that are used today

Part of the book series: Palgrave Studies in Economic History (PEHS)

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Table of contents (50 chapters)

Front matter, introduction, or why we started this project.

Matthias Blum, Christopher L. Colvin

Economics Versus History

• Christopher L. Colvin, Homer Wagenaar

Economics, Economic History and Historical Data

• Vincent J. Geloso
• Economic Theory and Economic History
• Robert P. Gilles

Economic History and the Policymaker

Economic history, the history of economic thought and economic policy.

• Graham Brownlow

Teaching Economics with Economic History

• Matthias Flückiger

Money and Central Banking

• John D. Turner

Globalisation and Trade

• Alan de Bromhead

Immigration and Labour Markets

• Sebastian T. Braun

Financial Institutions and Markets

• Meeghan Rogers

Financial Crises and Bubbles

• William Quinn

Sovereign Debt and State Financing

• Larry D. Neal

Health and Development

• Vellore Arthi

Education and Human Capital

• Sascha O. Becker

Famine and Disease

• Guido Alfani, Cormac Ó Gráda

Women and Children

• Jane Humphries

Without economic history, economics runs the risk of being too abstract or parochial, of failing to notice precedents, trends and cycles, of overlooking the long-run and thus misunderstanding ‘how we got here’. Recent financial and economic crises illustrate spectacularly how the economics profession has not learnt from its past.

This important and unique book addresses this problem by demonstrating the power of historical thinking in economic research. Concise chapters guide economics lecturers and their students through the field of economic history, demonstrating the use of historical thinking in economic research, and advising them on how they can actively engage with economic history in their teaching and learning.

Blum and Colvin bring together important voices in the field to show readers how they can use their existing economics training to explore different facets of economic history. Each chapter introduces a question or topic, historical context or research method and explores how they can be used in economics scholarship and pedagogy. In a century characterised to date by economic uncertainty, bubbles and crashes,  An Economist’s Guide to Economic History  is essential reading.

For further information visit http://www.blumandcolvin.org

• Economic crises
• Economic policy
• Economic institutions and markets
• Global history, the Great Divergence
• Globalisation
• Casual inference
• Time series analysis
• Archival methods
• Economic history for economists
• American Economic History
• The History of Economic Thought and Economic Policy
• Teaching Economics
• Econometric Identification
• Network analysis
• Asian Economic History
• European Economic History
• Latin American Economic History
• African Economic History

“Economists have much to gain from studying economic history seriously. This excellent volume explains why, elaborates what this entails, and demonstrates the potential for synergies between economics and economic history. The result is a compelling manifesto.” (Nicholas Crafts, Professor of Economic History, University of Warwick, UK)

​“The list of contributors to this project is truly impressive, as is the breadth of the topics covered. The result is a terrific teaching resource that will give students a good sense of the many ways in which economic history can help economics come alive.” (Kevin H. O’Rourke, Chichele Professor of Economic History, University of Oxford, UK)

Book Title : An Economist’s Guide to Economic History

Editors : Matthias Blum, Christopher L. Colvin

Series Title : Palgrave Studies in Economic History

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-96568-0

Publisher : Palgrave Macmillan Cham

eBook Packages : Economics and Finance , Economics and Finance (R0)

Copyright Information : Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2018

Softcover ISBN : 978-3-319-96567-3 Published: 18 December 2018

eBook ISBN : 978-3-319-96568-0 Published: 08 December 2018

Series ISSN : 2662-6497

Series E-ISSN : 2662-6500

Edition Number : 1

Number of Pages : XXVII, 479

Number of Illustrations : 18 b/w illustrations

Topics : Popular Science in Economics , Learning & Instruction , Economic History , History of Economic Thought/Methodology , Political Economy/Economic Systems , Economic Theory/Quantitative Economics/Mathematical Methods

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About the journal

The European Review of Economic History is a major outlet for research in economic history. Articles cover the whole range of economic history -- papers on European, non-European, comparative and world economic history are all welcome …

Content from European Review of Economic History

Virtual issue in honor of professor nicholas crafts (1949 – 2023).

Join us in honoring Professor Nicholas Crafts, who passed away on 6 October 2023. Nick was arguably the most prominent British economic historian of his generation, and was a stalwart contributor to EREH  since its inception. We commemorate his career and dedication to economic history by collecting all of his papers published in our journal throughout the years.

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Economic History

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Yale Economic Growth Center

Program in Economic History

The Program in Economic History exists within the Economic Growth Center to foster research in the field of economic history.

Economic history is the study of the long-term development of economies. The field uses empirical evidence, the tools of economics and econometrics, and appreciation of institutional context to understand how economies functioned in different times and places, and how present-day economic problems reflect earlier development.

The Program in Economic History exists within the Economic Growth Center to foster research in the field of economic history. The links at the top of this page will take you to information on weekly events, mini-conferences, and other program activities. 

The Director of the Program is Gerald Jaynes ([email protected]).

Yale does not offer graduate programs in economic history  per se . Students who participate in the activities of the Program in Economic History are working toward a PhD in economics, history, or another discipline. They fulfill the degree requirements for their respective department; there are no separate requirements for economic history. (For information on the economics PhD program, see  http://economics.yale.edu/graduate/requirements ; for the history PhD program,  http://history.yale.edu/academics/graduate-programs ; for other programs, consult the relevant departmental website, or the website for Yale Graduate school,  http://gsas.yale.edu ).

Admission to graduate programs at Yale is handled by the graduate school; interested prospective students should check the graduate school website for forms, deadlines, and other information.

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• American Economic History: a Dictionary and Chronology. Role of economics in U.S. history since 1776. Includes figures, events, policies, and organizations.

• Cambridge Economic History of the United States; Volume 1: The Colonial Era.
• Cambridge Economic History of the United States; Volume 2: The Long Nineteenth Century.
• Cambridge Economic History of the United States; Volume 3: The Twentieth-Century.
• The Gale Encyclopedia of U.S. Economic History. Era overviews, event/ movement profiles, biographies, business and industry profiles, geographic profiles and more, on business & economic history of the U.S. with an emphasis on the 19th and 20th centuries.
• Government and the Economy: an Encyclopedia. Evolution of the U.S. government's role in the economy. Includes summaries of important Supreme Court cases that have impacted America's economic infrastructure.
• Wall Street: a History. Coverage from the early years (1790-1840) through The Great Recession (2008/2009).
• The Oxford Handbook of American Economic History. Key events, themes, and legacies of America's economic history from colonial America to present day. Topics include agriculture, banking & monetary policy, demography, health & disease, immigration, innovation & patents, the labor force, manufacturing, and urbanization. Includes discussions on the current situation of American economic history and future direction.

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Economic History Research Paper Topics

Navigating through the realm of economic history research paper topics might seem like a daunting task. Economic history merges economics and history, studying the changes in economies over time and the economic phenomena of the past. By scrutinizing historical events through an economic lens, we can decipher the intricacies of economies that have evolved, declined, or transformed across various eras and societies. The key to crafting a profound and impactful research paper in this field is to choose a topic that resonates with your intellectual curiosity, aligns with your academic objectives, and contributes to the broader understanding of economic history. Whether you are interested in the economic implications of major wars, the influence of trade policies, or the economic transformations throughout different civilizations, there are numerous pathways to explore. Let’s embark on this journey together to uncover a wealth of research possibilities in economic history.

100 Economic History Research Paper Topics

Economic history is a fascinating field that explores the relationship between economies and societies throughout different periods of time. Researching economic history allows us to gain valuable insights into the factors that shaped economies, influenced policies, and impacted the lives of individuals and communities. In this section, we present a comprehensive list of economic history research paper topics, organized into 10 categories, with 10 topics in each. These topics cover a wide range of time periods, regions, and themes, offering students a diverse selection to choose from for their research papers. Whether you are interested in studying economic transformations, trade networks, industrial revolutions, or economic ideologies, this list provides a starting point for exploring the captivating world of economic history.

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Economic Transformations

• The impact of the Agricultural Revolution on European economies
• The role of colonialism in shaping economic structures in Latin America
• The Industrial Revolution and its effects on urbanization and labor markets
• The Great Depression: Causes, consequences, and government responses
• Economic reforms and market transitions in post-Soviet Eastern Europe
• The rise of globalization and its influence on national economies
• Economic consequences of World War II and post-war reconstruction efforts
• The digital revolution and its impact on modern economies
• The economic transformation of China: From planned economy to market-oriented reforms
• The Green Revolution and its implications for agricultural productivity and food security

Trade Networks and Global Exchange

• The Silk Road: Trade routes, cultural exchange, and economic impact
• Mercantilism and the establishment of colonial trade systems
• The Atlantic slave trade and its economic repercussions
• The Spice Trade and its role in shaping European economies
• The Silk Route and the transmission of ideas, technologies, and goods
• The Triangular Trade: Slavery, sugar, and the emergence of capitalist economies
• The impact of the Columbian Exchange on global economic systems
• The East India Company: Trade, colonization, and economic dominance
• The Transatlantic Slave Trade and its legacy on African economies
• The impact of the Opium Trade on China’s economy and society

Economic Ideologies and Systems

• Capitalism vs. socialism: A comparative analysis of economic systems
• The role of economic nationalism in shaping domestic policies
• The Keynesian revolution: Economic theories and government intervention
• The impact of neoliberalism on income inequality and economic growth
• The command economy in the Soviet Union: Successes and failures
• Economic theories of Adam Smith and their influence on modern economics
• The economic consequences of colonialism and imperialism
• Feudalism and its economic structures in medieval Europe
• The welfare state: Social policies and economic stability
• Economic planning and development strategies in emerging economies

Financial Systems and Crises

• The Great Financial Crisis of 2008: Causes, consequences, and policy responses
• The role of central banks in managing monetary policy and financial stability
• The emergence and evolution of stock markets: Historical perspectives
• The impact of the gold standard on international trade and monetary systems
• The Tulip Mania: Lessons from the first recorded speculative bubble
• The history of banking: From ancient civilizations to modern institutions
• Financial innovations and their impact on economic growth
• The Bretton Woods system: Its establishment, operation, and collapse
• The Asian Financial Crisis: Causes, contagion, and policy lessons
• The history of credit and debt: From ancient civilizations to consumer societies

Labor and Working Conditions

• The rise of factory labor and the labor movement in the Industrial Revolution
• Slavery and the economic exploitation of labor in the Americas
• Child labor: Historical perspectives, reforms, and contemporary issues
• The impact of the labor movement on workers’ rights and living conditions
• Women in the workforce: Struggles, advancements, and gender disparities
• Immigration and labor markets: Historical experiences and economic effects
• The history of unions and their role in shaping labor policies
• The gig economy: Historical parallels and contemporary challenges
• The impact of technological advancements on employment patterns
• Worker safety and regulations: From industrial accidents to workplace protections

Economic Policies and Government Interventions

• The New Deal: Economic recovery and the role of government intervention
• Protectionism vs. free trade: Historical debates and economic consequences
• Economic sanctions: Historical cases and their effectiveness
• The role of fiscal policy in managing economic cycles
• The impact of war on economic policies and resource allocation
• Price controls and rationing during times of scarcity and crisis
• Economic nationalism and its impact on trade relations
• The history of taxation: From ancient civilizations to modern systems
• Economic deregulation and its effects on market dynamics
• The history of antitrust policies and their role in promoting competition

Economic History of Specific Regions

• The economic history of the United States: From colonial times to the present
• The economic development of East Asia: Lessons from Japan, South Korea, and China
• Economic history of Africa: Challenges, opportunities, and development strategies
• The economic transformation of post-Soviet Eastern Europe
• The economic history of Latin America: Colonial legacies and contemporary issues
• The economic rise of the Middle East: Oil, wealth, and diversification
• The economic history of India: From ancient civilizations to modern challenges
• The economic development of Western Europe: From feudalism to the European Union
• Economic history of Australia: From colonization to a developed economy
• The economic dynamics of Southeast Asia: Trade, colonization, and regional integration

Economic History and Technology

• The impact of the steam engine on industrialization and economic growth
• The role of transportation innovations in shaping economic systems
• The history of telecommunications: From the telegraph to the internet
• The economic effects of the printing press on knowledge dissemination
• The digital revolution and its impact on industries and labor markets
• The history of energy transitions: From wood to fossil fuels and renewables
• Technological innovations and their influence on productivity and economic development
• The impact of the internet on globalization and global supply chains
• The history of agricultural advancements and their effects on food production
• The role of automation and artificial intelligence in shaping future economies

Economic History and Environment

• The economic consequences of natural disasters and environmental degradation
• The history of resource extraction and its impact on economies and ecosystems
• Environmental regulations and their effects on economic activities
• The economic history of renewable energy: From early adoption to mainstream integration
• The economics of climate change and the transition to a low-carbon economy
• The history of sustainable development and its influence on economic policies
• The economic impact of deforestation and land degradation
• The role of water resources in shaping economic activities and societal development
• The economics of biodiversity conservation and ecosystem services
• Environmental justice and its intersections with economic inequalities

Economic History and Social Change

• The economic consequences of revolutions and political upheavals
• The impact of demographic changes on economic development
• The history of income inequality: Causes, consequences, and policy responses
• The economics of education: Historical perspectives and contemporary challenges
• The economic effects of population migration and urbanization
• The role of social movements in shaping economic policies and practices
• The history of consumerism: From early markets to modern consumer societies
• Economic impacts of cultural shifts and changing societal norms
• The economic consequences of pandemics and public health crises
• The role of entrepreneurship in driving economic innovation and social change

This comprehensive list of economic history research paper topics showcases the diversity and richness of this field of study. From exploring economic transformations and trade networks to analyzing economic ideologies and social change, students have a wide range of options to delve into the fascinating world of economic history. These topics offer opportunities to examine historical events, theories, policies, and their lasting impacts on societies and economies. Whether you are interested in macroeconomic trends, labor history, technological advancements, or environmental factors, this list provides a solid foundation for selecting a research paper topic that aligns with your interests and academic goals. Remember to choose a topic that sparks your curiosity and allows for in-depth exploration.

Economic History: Exploring the Range of Research Paper Topics

Economic history is a fascinating field of study that delves into the intricate relationship between economies, societies, and historical contexts. It allows us to understand how economic systems have evolved, how they have shaped the course of nations, and how they have influenced the lives of individuals throughout history. By examining the economic forces, policies, and transformations that have shaped the past, we gain valuable insights into the present and can make informed predictions about the future. In this section, we explore the vast range of economic history research paper topics, highlighting key themes, periods, and regions that offer rich opportunities for investigation and analysis.

• Economic Transformations : One captivating area of economic history is the study of economic transformations. This includes examining the factors that led to significant shifts in economies, such as the Agricultural Revolution, the Industrial Revolution, or the rise of globalization. Economic history research paper topics in this category may explore the causes and consequences of these transformations, the impact on social structures and labor markets, or the long-term effects on economic development and inequality.
• Trade Networks and Global Exchange : Trade networks and global exchange have played a crucial role in shaping economic history. Topics in this category could focus on significant trade routes throughout history, such as the Silk Road or the Atlantic slave trade, and their impact on economic systems, cultural exchange, and geopolitical dynamics. Researchers may also explore the economic consequences of colonization, the role of mercantilism, or the effects of international trade agreements on national economies.
• Economic Ideologies and Systems : The study of economic ideologies and systems allows researchers to examine the different approaches societies have taken in organizing their economies. Economic history research paper topics in this category may explore the historical development of economic systems such as capitalism, socialism, or feudalism and their impact on wealth distribution, market dynamics, and government intervention. Comparisons between different economic ideologies or case studies of specific countries or time periods can provide valuable insights into the successes, failures, and complexities of various economic systems.
• Financial Systems and Crises : The history of financial systems and crises offers a wealth of research opportunities. Topics in this area may include the examination of historical financial crises, such as the Great Depression or the 2008 financial crisis, their causes, and the policy responses that followed. Researchers may also explore the emergence and evolution of financial institutions, the impact of monetary policies on economic stability, or the role of financial innovations in driving economic growth and instability.
• Labor and Working Conditions : The history of labor and working conditions is an important aspect of economic history. Topics in this category may focus on the evolution of labor markets, the impact of industrialization on working conditions, or the role of labor movements in advocating for workers’ rights and improved standards of living. Other research areas could explore the economic consequences of slavery, child labor, gender disparities in the workforce, or the effects of technological advancements on employment patterns.
• Economic Policies and Government Interventions : Government interventions and economic policies have shaped economies throughout history. Economic history research paper topics in this category may examine the role of fiscal and monetary policies in managing economic cycles, the impact of protectionist or free trade policies on national economies, or the consequences of economic nationalism on international relations. Additionally, researchers may analyze the historical development of welfare systems, taxation policies, or the influence of economic ideologies on government interventions.
• Economic History of Specific Regions : The economic history of specific regions provides an opportunity to explore the unique factors that have influenced their economic development. Topics in this category may focus on the economic history of particular countries, continents, or regions, such as the United States, Europe, Asia, Africa, or Latin America. Researchers may delve into the colonial legacies, post-colonial challenges, economic transformations, or regional integration efforts that have shaped the economic landscapes of these regions.
• Economic History and Technology : Technological advancements have played a significant role in shaping economic history. Research topics in this category may examine the impact of specific technological innovations, such as the steam engine, the printing press, or the internet, on economic systems, productivity, and labor markets. Additionally, researchers may explore the relationship between energy transitions and economic development, the role of transportation advancements in facilitating trade and economic growth, or the implications of automation and artificial intelligence on future economies.
• Economic History and Environment : The interaction between economic activities and the environment is a crucial area of research within economic history. Topics in this category may explore the economic consequences of natural disasters, environmental regulations, resource extraction, or the economics of renewable energy. Researchers may also examine the historical impact of population growth, deforestation, or climate change on economic systems, resource allocation, and sustainable development.
• Economic History and Social Change : Economic history is intertwined with social change, and studying this intersection provides valuable insights into the dynamics between economies and societies. Economic history research paper topics in this category may examine the economic consequences of revolutions, demographic changes, income inequality, or the role of social movements in influencing economic policies. Additionally, researchers may explore the economic effects of cultural shifts, changing societal norms, pandemics, or the role of entrepreneurship in driving innovation and social progress.

The field of economic history offers a vast array of research opportunities for students studying history and seeking to explore the complex interplay between economies, societies, and historical contexts. From examining economic transformations and trade networks to analyzing economic ideologies, labor dynamics, and environmental factors, economic history research paper topics are both diverse and intellectually stimulating. By selecting a research paper topic within this field, students have the opportunity to deepen their understanding of historical events, economic systems, and the forces that have shaped the world we live in today.

Choosing Economic History Research Paper Topics

Selecting the right research paper topic is crucial for a successful study in economic history. With the vast array of possibilities within this field, it can sometimes be challenging to narrow down your focus and choose a topic that is both engaging and manageable. In this section, we provide expert advice on how to choose economic history research paper topics that align with your interests, meet academic requirements, and offer valuable insights into the subject matter.

• Identify your Interests : Start by reflecting on your personal interests within economic history. Consider the topics or themes that intrigue you the most. Are you drawn to the economic transformations of specific time periods, the study of financial systems, or the economic impact of technological advancements? Identifying your interests will help you choose a topic that you are passionate about and motivated to explore further.
• Review Course Material : Consult your course materials, textbooks, and lecture notes to identify key themes and topics covered in your economic history course. This will give you a solid foundation and help you build upon the concepts you have already learned. Pay attention to any topics that sparked your curiosity during the course and consider further exploring those areas in your research paper.
• Read Widely : Expand your knowledge by reading widely on economic history. Engage with scholarly articles, books, and reputable online sources that delve into different aspects of economic history. This will expose you to various research topics and enable you to gain a deeper understanding of the subject matter. As you read, take note of any topics that resonate with you or inspire further investigation.
• Consult with Your Professor : Seek guidance from your professor or academic advisor. They can provide valuable insights and suggestions based on their expertise in the field. Share your research interests and discuss potential research paper topics with them. They may offer recommendations, point you towards relevant literature, or help you refine your ideas.
• Consider Historical Significance : Choose a topic that has historical significance and relevance. Look for research opportunities that shed light on important economic events, policies, or transformations that have shaped societies and economies. By selecting a topic with historical significance, you can contribute to the existing body of knowledge and offer new insights into the subject matter.
• Scope and Manageability : Ensure that the chosen topic is manageable within the scope of your research paper. Consider the length and time constraints of the assignment. Narrow down your topic to a specific research question or aspect that you can adequately explore within the given parameters. It is better to focus on a specific aspect and delve deep into the analysis rather than attempting to cover a broad topic superficially.
• Consider Available Resources : Evaluate the availability of primary and secondary sources related to your chosen topic. Access to relevant historical documents, data, and scholarly literature is crucial for conducting a comprehensive and evidence-based research paper. Consider whether the necessary resources are accessible and whether you can obtain the data required to support your arguments.
• Analyze Gaps in Existing Literature : Examine the existing literature in economic history and identify any gaps or areas where further research is needed. Look for topics that have not been extensively explored or where contrasting viewpoints exist. By addressing these gaps, you can make a unique contribution to the field and provide fresh insights into economic history.
• Balance Complexity and Manageability : Strike a balance between choosing a topic that is intellectually stimulating and one that is manageable within the given scope and time constraints. Avoid topics that are too broad or complex to address adequately in the context of a research paper. Instead, focus on specific research questions or aspects that allow for in-depth analysis and critical evaluation.
• Stay Updated : Keep abreast of current events, debates, and emerging trends within the field of economic history. This will help you identify contemporary issues that can be explored through a historical lens. Staying updated will also allow you to incorporate recent research findings and scholarly discussions into your research paper, making it relevant and engaging.

Choosing an economic history research paper topic requires careful consideration of your interests, available resources, and the academic requirements of your course. By identifying your interests, consulting with experts, reading widely, and considering historical significance, you can select a topic that is both engaging and feasible to explore. Remember to strike a balance between complexity and manageability, and always stay updated with the latest developments in the field. With these expert tips in mind, you are well-equipped to embark on your research journey and contribute to the fascinating field of economic history.

How to Write an Economic History Research Paper

Writing an economic history research paper requires careful planning, organization, and critical analysis. In this section, we provide a comprehensive guide on how to effectively structure and write your research paper. By following these steps and incorporating best practices, you can produce a well-researched and compelling paper that contributes to the field of economic history.

• Define Your Research Question : Start by defining a clear and focused research question. The research question should be specific, concise, and aligned with your research objectives. It should reflect the main theme or issue you intend to explore in your paper. Consider the historical context, economic factors, and relevant theoretical frameworks that are central to your research question.
• Conduct In-Depth Research : Gather relevant sources and conduct comprehensive research to support your research question and arguments. Consult scholarly books, academic journals, primary sources, and reputable online databases. Take detailed notes and organize your sources to ensure easy reference during the writing process. Evaluate the credibility and relevance of each source to ensure the quality of your research.
• Develop a Strong Thesis Statement : Craft a clear and compelling thesis statement that encapsulates the main argument or hypothesis of your research paper. The thesis statement should be concise, specific, and supported by evidence from your research. It sets the tone for your paper and guides the reader’s understanding of your main objective.
• Outline Your Paper : Create a well-structured outline to organize your thoughts and ideas. An outline provides a roadmap for your research paper, ensuring a logical flow of information and coherence. Divide your paper into sections, including an introduction, literature review, methodology, analysis, findings, and conclusion. Each section should have a clear purpose and contribute to the overall argument of your paper.
• Write a Compelling Introduction : Begin your research paper with an engaging introduction that provides necessary background information, contextualizes the research question, and presents the significance of your study. Capture the reader’s attention and clearly state your thesis statement. Provide an overview of the key arguments and approaches you will use to explore your research question.
• Conduct a Thorough Literature Review : Review the existing literature and scholarly works relevant to your research topic. Identify the key debates, theories, and findings that have shaped the field of economic history. Critically analyze and synthesize the literature to identify gaps, contradictions, or areas that require further investigation. Use the literature review to situate your research within the broader scholarly discourse.
• Choose an Appropriate Methodology : Select an appropriate research methodology to gather and analyze data that supports your research question. Depending on the nature of your research, you may utilize quantitative methods, qualitative approaches, or a combination of both. Clearly explain your chosen methodology, including the data collection methods, sample size, and any ethical considerations.
• Analyze and Interpret Data : If applicable, analyze the collected data using appropriate statistical or qualitative analysis techniques. Interpret the findings within the context of your research question and theoretical framework. Present the results in a clear and concise manner, using tables, charts, or graphs as necessary. Ensure that your analysis aligns with your research objectives and supports your main arguments.
• Provide Critical Analysis : Engage in critical analysis and interpretation of the data, drawing connections between your findings and the existing literature. Evaluate the strengths and limitations of your research, addressing any potential biases or limitations. Consider alternative viewpoints and interpretations, acknowledging the complexities and nuances of the economic history topic you are studying.
• Write a Coherent Conclusion : Summarize your main findings, restate your thesis statement, and provide a concise conclusion that addresses your research question. Highlight the significance of your research and its contribution to the field of economic history. Discuss any implications, recommendations, or areas for further research. Ensure that your conclusion is well-supported by the evidence presented throughout your paper.

Writing an economic history research paper requires careful planning, extensive research, and critical analysis. By defining a clear research question, conducting in-depth research, and organizing your paper with a strong thesis statement and outline, you can effectively present your arguments and findings. Remember to critically analyze the literature, choose an appropriate methodology, and provide a coherent and insightful conclusion. By following these steps and incorporating best practices, you can produce a high-quality research paper that advances our understanding of economic history.

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Race Is Central to Identity for Black Americans and Affects How They Connect With Each Other

Many learn about ancestors, u.s. black history from family, table of contents.

• The importance of being Black for connections with other Black people
• The importance of Blackness for knowing family history and U.S. Black history
• Younger Black people are less likely to speak to relatives about ancestors
• Black Americans differ by party on measures of identity and connection
• The importance of race, ancestry and place to personal identity
• The importance of gender and sexuality to personal identity
• Black Americans and connectedness to other Black people
• Intra-racial connections locally, nationally and globally
• How Black Americans learn about their family history
• Most Black adults say their ancestors were enslaved, but some are not sure
• Most Black adults are at least somewhat informed about U.S. Black history
• For many Black adults, where they live shapes how they think about themselves
• Acknowledgments
• The American Trends Panel survey methodology

Pew Research Center conducted this analysis to understand the rich diversity of Black people in the United States and their views of Black identity. This in-depth, robust survey explores differences among Black Americans in views of identity such as between U.S.-born Black people and Black immigrants; Black people living in different regions of the country; and between Black people of different ethnicities, political party affiliations, ages and income levels. The analysis is the latest in the Center’s series of in-depth surveys of public opinion among Black Americans (read the first, “ Faith Among Black Americans ”).

The online survey of 3,912 Black U.S. adults was conducted Oct. 4-17, 2021. The survey includes 1,025 Black adults on Pew Research Center’s American Trends Panel (ATP) and 2,887 Black adults on Ipsos’ KnowledgePanel. Respondents on both panels are recruited through national, random sampling of residential addresses.

Recruiting panelists by phone or mail ensures that nearly all U.S. Black adults have a chance of selection. This gives us confidence that any sample can represent the whole population (see our Methods 101 explainer on random sampling). Here are the questions used for the survey of Black adults , along with its responses and methodology .

The terms “Black Americans” , “Black people” and “Black adults” are used interchangeably throughout this report to refer to U.S. adults who self-identify as Black, either alone or in combination with other races or Hispanic identity.

Throughout this report, “Black, non-Hispanic” respondents are those who identify as single-race Black and say they have no Hispanic background. “Black Hispanic” respondents are those who identify as Black and say they have Hispanic background. We use the terms “Black Hispanic” and “Hispanic Black” interchangeably. “Multiracial” respondents are those who indicate two or more racial backgrounds (one of which is Black) and say they are not Hispanic.

Respondents were asked a question about how important being Black was to how they think about themselves. In this report, we use the terms “being Black” and “Blackness” interchangeably when referencing responses to this question.

In this report, “immigrant” refers to people who were not U.S. citizens at birth – in other words, those born outside the U.S., Puerto Rico or other U.S. territories to parents who were not U.S. citizens. We use the terms “immigrant” and “foreign-born” interchangeably.

Throughout this report, “Democrat and Democratic leaners” refers to respondents who say in they identify politically with the Democratic Party or are independent but lean toward the Democratic Party. “ Republican and Republican leaners” refers to respondents who identify politically with the Republican Party or are independent but lean toward the Republican Party.

To create the upper-, middle- and lower-income tiers, respondents’ 2020 family incomes were adjusted for differences in purchasing power by geographic region and household size. Respondents were then placed into income tiers: “Middle income” is defined as two-thirds to double the median annual income for the entire survey sample. “Lower income” falls below that range, and “upper income” lies above it. For more information about how the income tiers were created, read the methodology .

No matter where they are from, who they are, their economic circumstances or educational backgrounds, significant majorities of Black Americans say being Black is extremely or very important to how they think about themselves, with about three-quarters (76%) overall saying so.   

A significant share of Black Americans also say that when something happens to Black people in their local communities, across the nation or around the globe, it affects what happens in their own lives, highlighting a sense of connectedness. Black Americans say this even as they have diverse experiences and come from an array of backgrounds.

Even so, Black adults who say being Black is important to their sense of self are more likely than other Black adults to feel connected to other groups of Black people. They are also more likely to feel that what happens to Black people inside and outside the United States affects what happens in their own lives. These findings emerge from an extensive new survey of Black U.S. adults conducted by Pew Research Center.

A majority of non-Hispanic Black Americans (78%) say being Black is very or extremely important to how they think about themselves. This racial group is the largest among Black adults , accounting for 87% of the adult population, according to 2019 Census Bureau estimates. But among other Black Americans, roughly six-in-ten multiracial (57%) and Hispanic (58%) Black adults say this.

Black Americans also differ in key ways in their views about the importance of being Black to personal identity. While majorities of all age groups of Black people say being Black shapes how they think about themselves, younger Black Americans are less likely to say this – Black adults ages 50 and older are more likely than Black adults ages 18 to 29 to say that being Black is very or extremely important to how they think of themselves. Specifically, 76% of Black adults ages 30 to 49, 80% of those 50 to 64 and 83% of those 65 and older hold this view, while only 63% of those under 30 do.

Black adults who identify with or lean toward the Democratic Party are more likely than those who identify with or lean toward the Republican Party to say being Black is important to how they see themselves – 86% vs. 58%. And Black women (80%) are more likely than Black men (72%) to say being Black is important to how they see themselves.

Still, some subgroups of Black Americans are about as likely as others to say that being Black is very or extremely important to how they think about themselves. For example, U.S.-born and immigrant Black adults are about as likely to say being Black is important to how they see their identity. However, not all Black Americans feel the same about the importance of being Black to their identity – 14% say it is only somewhat important to how they see themselves while 9% say it has little or no impact on their personal identity, reflecting the diversity of views about identity among Black Americans.

Beyond the personal importance of Blackness – that is, the importance of being Black to personal identity – many Black Americans feel connected to each other. About five-in-ten (52%) say everything or most things that happen to Black people in the United States affect what happens in their own lives, with another 30% saying some things that happen nationally to Black people have a personal impact. And 43% say all or most things that happen to Black people in their local community affect what happens in their own lives, while another 35% say only some things in their lives are affected by these events. About four-in-ten Black adults in the U.S. (41%) say they feel their fates are strongly linked to Black people around the world, with 36% indicating that some things that happen to Black people around the world affect what happens in their own lives.

The survey also asked respondents how much they have in common with different groups of Black Americans. Some 17% of Black adults say they have everything or most things in common with Black people who are immigrants. But this sense of commonality differs sharply by nativity: 14% of U.S.-born Black adults say they have everything or most things in common with Black immigrants, while 43% of Black immigrants say the same. Conversely, only about one-in-four Black immigrants (26%) say they have everything or most things in common with U.S.-born Black people, a share that rises to 56% among U.S.-born Black people themselves.

About one-third of Black Americans (34%) say they have everything or most things in common with Black people who are poor, though smaller shares say the same about Black people who are wealthy (12%). Relatively few Black Americans (14%) say they have everything or most things in common with Black people who identify as lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender or queer (LGBTQ). However, a larger share of Black Americans (25%) say they have at least some things in common with Black people who identify as LGBTQ. All these findings highlight the diversity of the U.S. Black population and how much Black people feel connected to each other.

These are among the key findings from a recent Pew Research Center survey of 3,912 Black Americans conducted online Oct. 4-17, 2021. This report is the latest in a series of Pew Research Center studies focused on describing the rich diversity of Black people in the United States.

The nation’s Black population stood at 47 million in 2020 , making up 14% of the U.S. population – up from 13% in 2000. While the vast majority of Black Americans say their racial background is Black alone (88% in 2020), growing numbers are also multiracial or Hispanic. Most were born in the U.S. and trace their roots back several generations in the country, but a growing share are immigrants (12%) or the U.S.-born children of immigrant parents (9%). Geographically, while 56% of Black Americans live in the nation’s South , the national Black population has also dispersed widely across the country.

It is this diversity – among U.S.-born Black people and Black immigrants; between Black people who live in different regions; and across different ethnicities, party affiliations, ages and income levels – that this report explores. The survey also provides a robust opportunity to examine the importance of race to Black Americans’ sense of self and their connections to other Black people.

The importance of being Black to personal identity is a significant factor in how connected Black Americans feel toward each other. Those who say that being Black is a very or extremely important part of their personal identity are more likely than those for whom Blackness is relatively less important to express a sense of common fate with Black people in their local communities (50% vs. 17%), in the United States overall (62% vs. 21%), and even around the world (48% vs. 18%).

They are also more likely to say that they have everything or most things in common with Black people who are poor (37% vs. 23%) and Black immigrants (19% vs. 9%). Even so, fewer than half of Black Americans, no matter how important Blackness is to their personal identity, say they have everything or most things in common with Black people who are poor, immigrants or LGBTQ.

The new survey also explores Black Americans’ knowledge about their family histories and the history of Black people in the United States, with the importance of Blackness linked to greater knowledge. 

Nearly six-in-ten Black adults (57%) say their ancestors were enslaved either in the U.S. or another country, with nearly all who say so (52% of the Black adults surveyed) saying it was in the U.S., either in whole or in part. Black adults who say that being Black is a very or extremely important part of how they see themselves (61%) are more likely than those for whom being Black is less important (45%) to say that their ancestors were enslaved. In fact, Black adults for whom Blackness is very or extremely important (31%) are less likely than their counterparts (42%) to say that they are not sure if their ancestors were enslaved at all.

When it comes to learning more about their family histories, Black adults for whom Blackness is very or extremely important (81%) are more likely than those for whom Blackness is less important (59%) to have spoken to their relatives. They are about as likely to have researched their family’s history online (36% and 30%, respectively) and to have used a mail-in DNA service such as AncestryDNA or 23andMe (15% and 16%) to learn more about their ancestry.

The importance of Blackness also figures prominently into how informed Black Americans feel about U.S. Black history. Black adults who say Blackness is a significant part of their personal identity are more likely than those for whom Blackness is less important to say that they feel very or extremely informed about U.S. Black history (57% vs. 29%). Overall, about half of Black Americans say they feel very or extremely informed about the history of Black people in the United States.

Among Black adults who feel at least a little informed about U.S. Black history, the sources of their knowledge also differ by the importance of Blackness to personal identity. Nearly half of Black adults for whom Blackness is very or extremely important (48%) say they learned about Black history from their families and friends, making them more likely to say so than Black adults for whom Blackness is less important (30%). Similarly, those who say being Black is important to their identity are more likely than those who did not say this to have learned about Black history from nearly every source they were asked about, be it media (33% vs. 22%), the internet (30% vs. 18%) or college, if they attended (26% vs. 14%). The only source for which both groups were about equally likely to say they learned about Black history was their K-12 schools (24% and 21%, respectively).

Overall, among Black Americans who feel at least a little informed about U.S. Black history, 43% say they learned about it from their relatives and friends, 30% say they learned about it from the media, 27% from the internet, and 24% from college (if they attended) and 23% from K-12 school.

Black adults under 30 years old differ significantly from older Black adults in their views on the importance of Blackness to their personal identity. However, Black adults also differ by age in how they pursue knowledge of family history, how informed they feel about U.S. Black history, and their sense of connectedness to other Black people.

Black adults under 30 (50%) are less likely than those 65 and older (64%) to say their ancestors were enslaved. In fact, 40% of Black adults under 30 say that they are not sure whether their ancestors were enslaved. Black adults in the youngest age group (59%) are less likely than the oldest (87%) to have spoken to their relatives about family history or to have used a mail-in DNA service to learn about their ancestors (11% vs. 21%). They are only slightly less likely to have conducted research on their families online (26% vs. 39%).

Black adults under 30 have the lowest share who say they feel very or extremely informed about the history of Black people in the United States (40%), compared with 60% of Black adults 65 and older and about half each of Black adults 50 to 64 (53%) and 30 to 49 (51%). In fact, Black adults under 30 are more likely than those 50 and older to say they feel a little or not at all informed about Black history. While Black adults are generally most likely to cite family and friends as their source for learning about Black history, the share under 30 (38%) who also cite the internet as a source of information is higher than the shares ages 50 to 64 (22%) and 65 and older (14%) who say this.

These age differences persist in the sense of connectedness that Black Americans have with other Black people. Black adults under 30 are less likely than those 65 and older to say that everything or most things that happen to Black people in the United States will affect their own lives. This youngest group is also less likely than the oldest to have this sense of common fate with Black people in their local community. One exception to this pattern occurs when Black adults were asked how much they had in common with Black people who identify as LGBTQ. Black adults under 30 (21%) were considerably more likely than those 65 and older (10%) to say they have everything or most things in common with Black people who identify as LGBTQ.

Black Democrats and Republicans differ on how important Blackness is to their personal identities. However, there are also partisan gaps when it comes to their connectedness to other Black people. 1

Black Democrats and those who lean to the Democratic Party are more likely than Black Republicans and Republican leaners to say that everything or most things that happen to Black people in the United States (57% vs. 39%) and their local communities (46% vs. 30%) affect what happens in their own lives. However, Black Republicans (24%) are more likely than Black Democrats (14%) to say that they have everything or most things in common with Black people who are LGBTQ. They are also more likely than Black Democrats to say they have everything or most things in common with Black people who are wealthy (25% vs. 11%).

When it comes to knowledge of family and racial histories, Black Democrats and Republicans do not differ. Democrats (59%) are just as likely as Republicans (54%) to know that their ancestors were enslaved. Nearly 80% of Black adults from both partisan coalitions say they have spoken to their relatives about their family history. Similar shares have also researched their family histories online and used mail-in DNA services.

Black Democrats are also not significantly more likely than Black Republicans to say they feel very or extremely informed about U.S. Black history (53% vs. 45%). And among those who feel at least a little informed about U.S. Black history, Democrats and Republicans are about equally likely to say they learned it from family and friends (45% vs. 38%).

Place is a key part of Black Americans’ personal identities

The majority of Black adults who live in the United States were born there, but an increasing portion of the population is comprised of immigrants. Of those immigrants, nearly 90% were born in the Caribbean or Africa . Regardless of their region of birth, 58% of Black adults say the country they were born in is very or extremely important to how they think about themselves. A smaller share say the same about the places where they grew up (46%).

Black adults also feel strongly about their current communities. About half of Black adults (52%) say that where they currently live is very or extremely important to how they think about themselves. And when it comes to the quality of their neighborhoods, 76% of Black adults rate them as at least good places to live, including 41% who say the quality of their community is very good or excellent.

Still, Black adults say there are concerning issues in the communities they live in. When asked in an open-ended question to list the issue that was most important in their neighborhoods, nearly one-in-five Black adults listed issues related to violence or crime (17%). Smaller shares listed other points of concern such as economic issues like poverty and homelessness (11%), housing (7%), COVID-19 and public health (6%), or infrastructure issues such as the availability of public transportation and the conditions of roads (5%).

While nearly one-in-five Black Americans (17%) say that individual people like themselves should be responsible for solving these problems, they are most likely to say that local community leaders should address these issues (48%). Smaller shares say the U.S. Congress (12%), the U.S. president (8%) or civil rights organizations (2%) bear responsibility.

• According to the survey, 80% of Black adults say they identify with or lean toward the Democratic Party, 10% say the same of the Republican Party and 10% did not answer the question or indicated that they did not affiliate with either party. Among Black registered voters, the survey finds 85% identify with or lean toward the Democratic Party, 10% identify with or lean toward the Republican Party and 5% did not answer the question or indicated that they did not affiliate with either party. ↩

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Research in Economic History: Volume 26

Table of contents, research in economic history, copyright page, list of contributors, editor's introduction.

Volume 26 of Research in Economic History includes six papers, evenly divided between European and North American topics. Beginning with the European topics, we have two data intensive papers and a survey/synthesis. Stefano Fenoaltea and Carlo Ciccarelli provide new estimates of social overhead investment in the different regions of Italy. This is followed by Markus Lampe's paper reporting data on bilateral trade flows in Europe between 1857 and 1875. The third contribution on a European topic is Bernard Harris's survey of the literature on gender, health, and welfare in England and Wales since industrialization.

Social-overhead construction in Italy's regions, 1861–1913

This article presents estimates of social-overhead construction in Italy's regions. The new-construction series point to a largely common cycle in non-railway work, and largely idiosyncratic bursts of railway building. Maintenance doubles as an index of the underlying stock, which cannot be calculated from the flows alone; one finds limited convergence, and only in railway infrastructure. Industrial and overall growth are increasingly correlated both with the initial stock, and with its increment. Direct measures of welfare improvements are uncertain, but the relative increases in draftees’ mean heights correlate in particular with social-overhead investment.

Bilateral trade flows in Europe, 1857–1875: A new dataset

This study constructs a comprehensive, internationally comparative set of foreign trade data for the period 1857–1875. The dataset is constructed using information at the commodity group-level and contains import and export values for the UK, France, the Zollverein, the Netherlands, Belgium, Austria-Hungary, and the United States, itemised by trade partner. The study tackles three basic problems related to the heterogeneity in national statistics of the period: different definitions of aggregates, inadequate ‘official’ pricing, and the ‘proximity bias’, i.e. the misleading practice of crediting imports to bordering countries from where they physically entered, but where they did not originate. After passing successfully a consistency test, the resulting dataset contains harmonised and country of origin-corrected bilateral trade values for 7 central importers, 10 points in time, and 21 commodity groups, along with ad valorem tariff rates for all commodity groups and countries. They offer new detailed insights into the composition and evolution of trade and tariffs in the third quarter of the 19th century. Furthermore, a basic implementation of the gravity equation shows that as a consequence of the proximity bias estimates using uncorrected data are to be taken with care, especially when assessing border effects and the impact of policy variables.

Gender, health, and welfare in England and Wales since industrialisation

In recent years, a number of historians have examined the reasons for differences in the height and health of men and women in nineteenth-century Britain, often drawing on economic studies which link excess female mortality in the developing world to restrictions in women's employment opportunities. This paper re-examines this literature and summarises the existing literature on sex-specific differences in height, weight and mortality in England and Wales before 1850. It then uses two electronic datasets to examine changes in cause-specific mortality rates between 1851 and 1995. Although there is little evidence to support the view that the systematic neglect of female children was responsible for high rates of female mortality in childhood, there is rather more evidence to show that gender inequalities contributed to excess female mortality in adulthood.

Taxation with (?) representation: The political economy of public finance in antebellum California

Many existing studies point to the political contentiousness of attempts by states in the 19th century to impose property taxes, which after mid-century comprised the main source of state revenues. Yet studies fail to establish a convincing connection between interest group political effectiveness and resulting favorable property tax legislation. This paper takes a closer look at one state that adopted property taxation in the mid-19th century and documents intense inter-occupational conflicts between miners and ranchers over creation and administration of the system of property taxes. These conflicts occurred for various institutional reasons, including differential costs of enforcing tax collection and the short-lived political ascendance of miners during, and in the years following, the Gold Rush. The empirical results strongly suggest short-term capture by miners of the state legislature, followed by loss of capture ability as gold declined in economic importance in the 1860s.

An anatomy of a cartel: The national industrial recovery act of 1933 and the compliance crisis of 1934

This paper explores the nature and causes of the cartel compliance crisis that befell the National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA) one year after its passage in 1933. We employ a simple game-theoretic model of the NIRA's cartel enforcement mechanism to show that the compliance crisis can largely be explained by changes in expectations, rather than a change in enforcement policy. Specifically, firms initially overestimated the probability that defection would be met with sanction by the cartel's enabling body, the National Recovery Administration – including a consumer boycott resulting from loss of the patriotic Blue Eagle emblem – and complied with the industry cartel rules. As these expectations were correctly adjusted downward, cartel compliance was lost. We support this hypothesis empirically with industry-level panel data showing how output and wage rates varied according to consumer confidence in the Blue Eagle. The analysis provides insight about cartel performance more generally.

Governor Eugene Meyer and the great contraction

Eugene Meyer governed the Federal Reserve Board during most of the Great Contraction. Yet his role and import are almost unknown. He was not misguided by incorrect policy indicators or the real bills doctrine; the usual explanations for the failure of monetary policy. Meyer urged the adoption of expansionary policies and created the Reconstruction Finance Corporation to assist banks, especially nonmembers. However, the diffusion of power enabled the district bank Governors to stifle his efforts, although an expansionary policy was finally adopted in 1932. His unquestioning commitment to gold and lack of operational authority are the reasons policy failed.

• Alexander J. Field
• William A. Sundstrom
• Gregory Clark

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