research topics related to water

167 Water Essay Topics & Research Questions about Water

Looking for a research title about water shortage, conservation, pollution, or treatment? Whatever your area of interest is, you will definitely find a good writing idea in this list of titles for water essays! Topics we’ve collected here are fresh, unique, and current. Go ahead and read them below!

🏆 Best Essay Topics on Water

💡 simple water essay titles, 👍 good water research topics & essay examples, 📌 easy water essay topics, 🎓 most interesting water topics for project, ❓ research questions about water.

• Water Pollution Causes, Effects and Solutions
• Effects of Water Pollution on Human Health
• The Water Cycle and the Impact of Human Activity on It
• Don’t Ship Air and Don’t Ship Water Strategies
• Water Accessibility and Quality
• Water Quality and Contamination Experiment Report
• Activation Energy for Viscous Flow of Water, Acetone, Toluene, and o-Xylene
• Water and Soil Management Maintaining soil water balance has a long history and is practiced in many countries, arguing that human activities are threatening the quality of water and soil.
• The Importance of Water for Body Water is important for all the structural elements of our body and their efficient functioning. A person is not able to feel healthy if he does not consume water.
• Water and Its Properties Water is the most abundant liquid on the universe comprising over 70% of earth’s composition. It exists in three forms namely liquid, solid, and gaseous states.
• Water Scarcity as Effect of Climate Change Climate change is the cause of variability in the water cycle, which also reduces the predictability of water availability, demand, and quality, aggravating water scarcity.
• Impact of Food Waste and Water Use on Earth The paper explores how food waste and water use affect the food system and how agriculture affects the environment.
• Fiji Water Quality: Biology Lab Experiment Since Fiji water is among the popular brands in the US, it is essential to evaluate whether it is clean, that is, safe for human consumption.
• The Environmental Impact of Bottled Water This paper examines the real situational effects on production of the bottled water to environmental degradation.
• FIJI Water Company’s Success The business owners of FIJI Water embarked on a very active marketing campaign aimed at the promotion of the water, as well as the establishment and maintenance of FIJI Water’s brand.
• Water Quality Improvement for Global Health This proposal determines the necessity of water quality from the perspective of global health. The funding will be provided by the government and non-governmental organizations.
• New Evian Water Product and Customers Analysis As the new Evian water product is a more ecological option, customers concerned about the environment could also represent the client base of the product.
• Multidisciplinary Approach to Water Pollution This paper shows how the multidisciplinary approach addresses water pollution as a public health issue. It is important to understand what the model entails.
• Water Recycling: Why Is It Important? Different countries face varying challenges in as far as provision of clean water to its population is concerned depending with its economic development level and geographic location.
• Bottled Water Impacts on Environment As the use of bottled water continue to rise steadily around the world, many critics have focused on its impacts on the environment, economy and other social implications related to the use.
• Bottled Water Impact on Environment This paper seeks to amplify the need for regulation of the used water bottles. It is quite obvious that water bottles are the highest in a number of all bottles thrown away after use.
• Cooling Water System Overview Water towers can reduce temperatures more than any other devices using air only to reject heat hence are more cost-effective.
• Substances Influence on Water The objective of the experiment will be to find if the freezing rate of water changes when different substances are added.
• Food and Water Security Management The purpose of this article is to evaluate the current methodologies for addressing food and water security issues and propose sustainable solutions based on scholarly evidence.
• Water Management in Sustainable Engineering The current essay demonstrates the significance of sustainable engineering on the example of wastewater treatment and consequent water reuse.
• Land Usage and Water Quality in Saudi Arabia The effect of land use in Saudi Arabian water quality has intensified the region’s water crisis, causing economic, ecological, and social challenges.
• Fiji Water Case Study Analysis Brandon Miller aims to establish a business that is the distribution of Fiji water for Monroe and Wayne market areas.
• Basic Functions of Minerals and Water in the Body This paper discusses the functions and sources of minerals, the function of water in the body, and the general effect of dehydration on the body.
• Water: An Often Overlooked Essential Element in Our Environment The freshwater required for growing food and livestock is also in great demand by the large numbers of inhabitants in the world’s cities and towns.
• Water Intake and Output: Mechanisms of Regulation For healthy function, the human body requires water balance as one of the key mechanisms, where the average daily water intake and output are relatively equal.
• Garbage Pollution’s Impact on Air, Water and Land Garbage pollutes the planet, and to stop this adverse effect, the authorities’ involvement is needed. One solution lies in the plane of economics and politics.
• Food and Water Security as Globalization Issues Globalization has several implications for the business environment, among which are the expanded access to resources, and the interdependence of international companies.
• The Problem of Water Scarcity The paper states that although the problem of scarcity of water is severe, it is crucial to take measures to solve it since they can improve the situation.
• Glacéau Company: Vitamin Water Ethics The business practice of this paper is the production and sale of vitamin water by Glacéau in which the company states that the water being sold has been “enriched” with vitamins.
• Water in the Atmosphere The relative humidity of air can be changed by changing either the temperature of the thermodynamic system in question or the pressure in the system under consideration.
• Studying the Venturi Effect Through Water Flow Calculation The Venturi effect is of particular importance in fluid dynamics, characterizing the pressure drop of a fluid as it flows through narrow spaces.
• Effects of Climate Variability on Water Resources, Food Security, and Human Health Evaluating the effects of climate variability on water, food, and health will help identify the areas for improvement and offer solutions to current environmental challenges.
• How Access to Clean Water Influences the Problem of Poverty Since people in some developing countries have insufficient water supply even now, they suffer from starvation, lack of hygiene, and water-associated diseases.
• The Problem of Environmental Water Pollution This paper discusses a public health concern by explaining the causes of water pollution, how it affects human communities, and the possible strategies.
• Bottled Water: Environmental and Cultural Impact The consumption of bottled water has an impact on society. Appropriate strategies must be implemented to ensure that the hazards associated with bottled water are reduced.
• “Bling H2O” Bottled Water in the Australian Market Bling H2O water is the world’s most expensive bottled water. The brand’s creator targeted to sell it to the celebrities who highly esteem their bottled water.
• “Erin Brockovich” Film and 2014 Flint Water Crisis This paper analyzes the movie “Erin Brockovich” and compares it with the current situation in Flint, which started in April 2014.
• All About Water: Problems and Solutions In addition to explaining water benefits, the paper has also shown that many people globally struggle with water shortages or exposure to contaminated water.
• The Issue of Food and Water Security The global issue for the analysis is food and water security. This is a topical problem nowadays, especially in light of climate change and population growth.
• Environment: There’s Something in the Water Environmental racism hurts the natural image of landscapes and negatively affects the atmosphere and reduces the quality and duration of life for minorities.
• Solutions for Food and Water Security Issue With many nations encountering food and water security problems, the consequences of such events have become global, giving rise to multiple outcomes this insecurity.
• Combating Arsenic Contamination in Water The well known fact is that water is the most valuable natural resource that exists and without which survival of life is impossible.
• Pressurized Water Reactors: An Analysis The paper describes the operations of a Pressurised Water Reactors (PWR) plant in-depth, discusses the functions of PWR plants, their advantages and disadvantages.
• First Nations Communities Water Resources Drinking water is by no means an infinite resource, but there are places in the world where women and children spend hours each day just to collect it.
• Changes in the Global Water Cycle Changes in the climate brought about by global warming have a much bigger likelihood of impacting negatively on the global hydrological cycle.
• Water Treatments and Maximum Plant Height The first research question was how different water treatments affect maximum plant height. The experiment involved 12 plants – 6 plants for each type of water.
• Relocation of Solar Power System to Easy Life Water Ventures The paper states that having an effective power source will help the organization operate smoothly and sustainably and increase its reputation.
• Biogeochemical Cycles: Carbon, Nitrogen, and Water The most common biogeochemical cycles are carbon, nitrogen, and water cycles. The purpose of this paper was to summarize these three cycles.
• Resolutions to Fight Water Scarcity The World Health Organization outlines water scarcity as a global crisis affecting more than 2.8 billion people.
• Lake Mattoon: Recreational Site and Water Reservoir Lake Mattoon remains one of Coles county’s best recreation sites and major water reservoirs; it is a big, man-made lake with lush green shores and big fish populations.
• Water Pollution Effects on Human Health The paper describes the effects of water pollution on human health from the perspective of existing findings on this topic and the assessment of information.
• Is Bottled Water Dangerous for People and the Environment? The purpose of this paper is to discuss alternative perspectives on bottled water and whether it is dangerous for people and the planet.
• Baxter Water Treatment Plants and Public Health The Baxter Water Treatment Plant is the largest water treatment facility in Philadelphia, supplying about 60 percent of the city’s drinking water.
• Water Buffalo Days: Growing Up in Vietnam by Nhuong The book Water Buffalo Days: Growing Up in Vietnam by Nhuong tells the story of a young boy in a central village in Vietnam. The story presents unique characteristics of Vietnam society and culture.
• Water Scarcity Due to Climate Change This paper focuses on the adverse impact that water scarcity has brought today with the view that water is the most valuable element in running critical processes.
• The Problem of Environmental Pollution: Fresh Water One of the more important concerns that are fast becoming a major threat is pollution and no form of pollution seemed to be bigger than that of freshwater pollution.
• Study of Local Water Resources Quality This laboratory report aims to summarize the results obtained during the study oxygen consumption, BOD, and detecting dissolved suspended solids in Hong Kong water.
• Bottle Water Industry in Current Economic UK Climate The research question is whether bottled water is a necessity or a luxury with regard to the current economic climate in the United Kingdom.
• Protecting the Current and Future Water Supply for Rio de Janiero In the current rate of use, as well as the consensus reached by the governing officials in Rio de Janeiro, there will be enough potable water until 2025.
• Bottled Water Status in the UK With the current economic climate in the UK, the issue of whether bottled water has become a luxury or a necessity.
• Water Sector Privatisation in Saudi Arabia The paper explores the decision by the Ministry of Water and Electricity in Saudi Arabia to form the National Water Company to facilitate the privatization process and oversee the regional operations.
• Water Resources in Australia: Usage and Management Australia is one of the driest continents in the world. Various governmental and non-governmental institutions have teamed up to face the challenges facing people as far as water is concerned.
• Virtual Water Savings and Trade in Agriculture The idea of virtual water was initially created as a method for assessing how water-rare nations could offer food, clothing, and other water-intensive products to their residents.
• Water Management and Ecology Issues The paper studies water management, its various implications and explains why this area is important on examples of environmental issues.
• Water Scarcity Issue and Environment The paper answers the question why to be worried about running out of drinking water even though the earth’s surface is mostly made of water.
• Water Pollution This essay seeks to examine the concept of water pollution, its causes, effects and solutions to water pollution.
• Human Energy Consumption and Water Power Human energy use is significantly low compared to natural energy flow. Waterpower is not significant in energy flow because it is renewable energy.
• Agriculture, Water, and Food Security in Tanzania This paper evaluates the strategies applicable to the development and further maintenance of agriculture, water, and food security in Tanzania.
• Aspects of Global Pollution of Water Global pollution of water resources has devasting effects on the environment that include the destruction of the ocean ecosystem and biodiversity.
• Water Pollution in the Florida State The researchers claimed that plastic pollution was caused by the tourists and citizens who live along the coastline and dumping from the industries.
• High-Quality Water Supply in the United States The American community has become more conscious about their health and general physical condition. Consequently, a high-quality water supply stays a priority in many households.
• Assessment: Dubai Electricity and Water Authority As a key component of Dubai’s economy, DEWA is critical in assisting the Emirate’s growth and transition to a zero-economy economy.
• Hyponatremia: How Much Water Do You Actually Need? Some schools, like Mississippi State, do hydration tests before each practice to ensure their players are adequately hydrated.
• Analyzing the Use of Water in Danticat, Roumain, and Marshall The use of water in the three novels Roumain’s “Masters of the Dew,” Danticat’s “Krik? Krak!” and Paul’s “Praise Song for the Widow” has a symbolic meaning.
• Water Pollution and How to Address It A person must protect nature – in particular water resources. After all, the possibilities of water resources are not unlimited and sooner or later, they may end.
• The Water Shortage Supply in Las Vegas The water shortage supply in Las Vegas is a major problem due to the city’s reliance on Lake Mead and Colorado Rivers, which are drying up due to droughts.
• Water Pollution: Effects and Treatment Pollution of water bodies is a serious hazard to humans and the aquatic ecology, and population growth is hastening climate change.
• Examining Solutions for Mitigating the Food and Water Security Issue Hunger, malnutrition, and decreased resource distribution manifest in communities having issues with food and water security, which decreases the well-being of individuals.
• Impact of Water Pollution: Water Challenges of an Urbanizing World Water is a source of life on Earth, and it is one of the very first needs of living beings. It is a vital resource for the development of the economic and social sectors.
• Evaluation of Articles on Food and Water Security The two resources chosen for this discussion pertain to food and water security solutions. The scholarly source is visually distinct from the popular source due to its structure.
• The Clean Water Network Support Statement Fresh water has become one of the most valuable resources in the world, around which regional or even global wars may occur in the future.
• Global Societal Issue: Food and Water Security According to research, food and water security is a pertinent global problem in the current decade, with access to food and water becoming scarce in certain world regions.
• Climate Change and Accessibility to Safe Water The paper discusses climate change’s effect on water accessibility, providing graphs on water scarcity and freshwater use and resources.
• The High Heat Capacity of Water The heat capacity of water greatly affects the planet’s climate. At high temperatures, water absorbs heat, and when it gets colder, it gives it away.
• Exploring the Agenda for Fresh Water Supply in Remote Regions The fundamental thesis of this entire paper is that scientific and technological advances catalyze the development of technologies to deliver fresh water to remote areas of Texas.
• What Is Water-Related Terrorism and How to Cope With It? Water-related terrorism includes damaging government facilities, and since water resources are vital for human existence, it is profitable for terrorists to attack them.
• Whirlpool in the Sea off the Coast of Scotland Near Ayrshire Due to Waste Water Stunning drone images near Lendalfoot in South Ayrshire captured a glimpse of a mammoth whirlpool off the Scottish west coast.
• Fresh Water Toxins: Serious Threat to Health This paper discusses fresh water toxins as a serious threat to health, analyzes Los Angeles drinking water, access to clean water and sanitation.
• Safe Drinking Water: Current Status and Recommendations The study proposes the usage of agricultural waste as a sustainable biosorbent for toxic metal ions removal from contaminated water.
• Essentials of Water in Supporting Biological Systems Water is essential in supporting the biological system in various ways; the properties of water help in understanding its importance.
• Underground Water Contamination in St. Louis Mo City In St. Louis Mo City of Missouri State, contamination of underground water is most likely and that is why the water supply is a subject to government policies.
• Twitter Campaign: Impact of Water Runoff Water runoff can cause flooding, which means property damage and mold formation in damp basements and more. This paper is a twitter campaign about the impact of water runoff.
• Water Pollution of New York City Rivers The aim of the analysis was to assess the effects of CSOs on water quality and the environment at different sites along the Harlem River.
• Water Cooling Tower Construction Site’s Problems The paper highlights three major problems at the construction site. They are security, scheduling, and safety problems.
• Is Bottled Water Safe for Public Health? Bottled water is just water but is marketed in such a way that makes it appear as healthy because it is positioned as “bottles water is healthy”.
• Recent Water Treatment and Production Developments This study attempts to investigate whether inorganic filters are more suitable for industrial and water treatment processes when compared to organic filters.
• Chemistry: Partitioning Coefficient of the Water The partitioning coefficient of the water solutions with of diuron, decadienal, atrazine, fluoranthene, and desethylatrazine compounds are calculated in accordance with the formula.
• Developing Suspension Carbon Nano-Tubes in Water This paper has discussed nano-tubes and suspension as well as stabilization which make use of Multi-Wall-Carbon-Nanotubes by the function of concentrated SDS.
• A Cartographic History of Water Infrastructure and Urbanism in Rome The freshwater available to the city was a huge cultural and economic boon to Roman citizens. Some of this ancient water infrastructure is operational to this day.
• Integrated Water Strategies From Website Water Recycling The website http://waterrecycling.com/ is a front-end of their company showing various services that the company offers in the field of water recycling.
• The Causes of Water Pollution Water pollution is a significant decrease in water resources’ quality due to the ingress of various chemicals and solid waste. The causes of pollution are related to human activities.
• Water Quality Assessment. Environmental Impact Maintaining good water quality is essential to human health; thus, the recent decades have outstandingly worsened the water across communities worldwide by pollution.
• Political Ecology and Water Wars in Bolivia The given critical assessment will primarily focus on bringing a new perspective to the issue from the standpoint of political ecology.
• Benefits of Water Birth Overview Waterbirth remains to be a controversial approach. The studies examined in this paper provide some evidence for the benefits that waterbirth has.
• The Influence of Water on the Growth of Popcorn Plants The information from the study would aid farmers in identifying appropriate seasons to cultivate popcorn plants based on data of meteorological forecasts.
• Boiling Is a Process That Cools the Water This paper tells that bringing water to a boil while making tea is a progression that cools it since the process lessens the overall temperature.
• Water Conservation Practice in Olympia Olympia city has a comprehensive water conservation program that involves many projects. The city puts much effort into the conservation of water.
• Water Quality and Supply The main problem on the way to the solution of environmental issues is a violation of generally accepted rules.
• The Global Water Crisis: Issues and Solutions The water crisis has now been associated with the reduction in food quantity besides the scarcity of safe drinking water.
• Water Conservation Practice in Houston From the treatment of wastewater to the reduction of the consumption of the same Houston is an epitome of the increasing need to conserve resources, especially water.
• Burning Issue of Water Pollution in Washington The problem of polluted drinking water in Washington should be solved immediately despite various obstacles, such as pressure for money, etc.
• Drinking-Water in Third World Countries The shortage of drinking water in countries of Third World and the public controversy, surrounding the issue, illustrates the validity of this thesis better then anything else.
• Underground Water Overdraft in Southern California In California, the overuse of underground water reserves and the resultant overexploitation (overdraft) led to a serious water resources deficit.
• Water and Soil Pollution: Effects on the Environment Water and soil pollution is the process of contaminating water and soil. In this project, we will investigate the apparent main pollutants of the Spring Mill Lake.
• Bottled Water: Culture and Environmental Impact Bottled water as a particular branch of industrial growth in countries throughout the world represents the source of environmental pollution.
• Alternative Energy Sources: A Collaborative Approach in Water Management With the increasingly high prices of gasoline in particular and fossil fuels in general there is a need to find an alternative source of energy.
• Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons Effect on Water Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) constitute one of the largest groups of compounds that produce widespread organic environmental pollution posing a risk to marine biota
• Lack of Water in California as an Environmental Issue California can run out of water because of technological and social problems that affected the region. Defining water resources’ “development” is critically important.
• Water Scarcity in the Middle East The Arab region has always had issues with the water supply but as the population continues to grow steadily, this issue has become even more alarming
• Potential Threats to Water Supplies in Ottawa The purpose of the research is to identify the distribution of threats to drinking water in the city and determine who might benefit and who might be harmed in the process.
• Water Quality in Savannah, Georgia The City of Savannah Water Supply and Treatment Department conducts numerous annual tests to ensure that drinking water in the region is safe for human consumption.
• Water Pollution Index of Batujai Reservoir, Central Lombok Regency-Indonesia Despite having 6% of the world’s water resources, Indonesia’s environmental policies have not only been raising concerns but also pushed the country to the brink of water crisis.
• Dream Water Company’s Product Marketing The core product is the main benefit that the product brings to the consumer. For Dream Water, the core product is the medication against insomnia.
• Water Management in the “Flow” Documentary The documentary “Flow” discusses and describes two significant things that are preventing people from having access to freshwater.
• Water Sanitation Program in Saudi Arabia In the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, as the demand for water continues to increase without an equivalent increase in the supply, the level of hygiene may soon become a problem.
• Virtual Water Content and Global Water Savings The Virtual Water Content concept was the byproduct of discussions regarding the need to provide food in countries suffering from drought or plagued with perpetual water scarcity.
• Active Remediation Algorithm for Water Service in Flint The Active Remediation algorithm aims to inspect the water service in Flint, Michigan, and identify those lead pipes that need to be replaced by copper pipes.
• Water Savings and Virtual Trade in Agriculture Water trade in agriculture is not a practice that is unique to the modern generation. The practice was common long before the emergence of the Egyptian Empire.
• Virtual Water Trade and Savings in Agriculture This essay discusses the savings associated with virtual water trade in agriculture and touches on the effects of a shift to local agricultural production on global water savings.
• Virtual Water Trade of Agricultural Products Virtual water trade is a concept associated with globalization and the global economy. Its rise was motivated by growing water scarcity in arid areas around the world.
• Environmental Legislation: Clean Water Act Clean Water Act determines water quality standards, serves as a basis for the enactment of pollution control programs, and regulates the presence of contaminants in surface water.
• Green Infrastructure in Water Management This paper evaluates the utility of water management in urban areas from the aspect of perception and interpretation of green infrastructure in water management.
• Third-Party Logistics, Water Transportation, Pipelines Transportation plays a crucial role in today’s business world. This work shows the benefits and limitations of third-party logistics providers, water transportation, and pipelines.
• Water Quality and Contamination In this paper, carries out detailed experiments on the bottled and tap water available to consumers to establish whether it is worthwhile to purchase bottled water.
• Oil, Water and Corruption in Central Asian States The region of Central Asia has been a focus of the world’s political and economic attention due to its rich oil and gas resources. Corruption is the main curse of Central Asian states.
• Environmental Studies: Water Recycling Different countries face varying challenges in as far as the provision of clean water to its population is concerned depending on its economic development level and geographic location.
• Environmental Pollution (Fresh Water) In terms of the water Pollution, conditioning it would be analyzed whether it has declined or improved over the past few years and if so the degree would be determined.
• How Does Water Pollution Affect Human Health?
• Are Sports Drinks Better for Athletes Than Water?
• What Happens if You Don’t Filter Your Water?
• Can Game Theory Help to Mitigate Water Conflicts in the Syrdarya Basin?
• How Can We Reduce Water Scarcity?
• Are Water Filters Really That Important?
• How Much Water Do We Need to Feed the World?
• Why Is Water Important for Food Production?
• Can Markets Improve Water Allocation in Rural America?
• How Can We Reduce Water Consumption in Food Industry?
• Can Public Sector Reforms Improve the Efficiency of Public Water Utilities?
• What Are the Modern Technologies Used to Treat Water?
• How Does Water Pollution Affect Global Warming?
• Can Sea Water Generate Usable Energy?
• What Are the Steps Taken by the Government to Reduce Water Pollution?
• Can Sugar Help Lower the Freezing Point of Water?
• Do We Need More Laws to Control Water Pollution?
• Can the Global Community Successfully Confront the Global Water Shortage?
• What Is the Government Doing to Save Water?
• Can Virtual Water ‘Trade’ Reduce Water Scarcity in Semi-arid Countries?
• Does Urbanization Improve Industrial Water Consumption Efficiency?
• How Has Technology Helped Us Save Water?
• Does Piped Water Improve Household Welfare?
• Can Water Pollution Policy Be Efficient?
• How Does Green Infrastructure Improve Water Quality?

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These essay examples and topics on Water were carefully selected by the StudyCorgi editorial team. They meet our highest standards in terms of grammar, punctuation, style, and fact accuracy. Please ensure you properly reference the materials if you’re using them to write your assignment.

This essay topic collection was updated on January 9, 2024 .

A - Z Topics

Research Topics & Ideas: Environment

100+ Environmental Science Research Topics & Ideas

Finding and choosing a strong research topic is the critical first step when it comes to crafting a high-quality dissertation, thesis or research project. Here, we’ll explore a variety research ideas and topic thought-starters related to various environmental science disciplines, including ecology, oceanography, hydrology, geology, soil science, environmental chemistry, environmental economics, and environmental ethics.

NB – This is just the start…

The topic ideation and evaluation process has multiple steps . In this post, we’ll kickstart the process by sharing some research topic ideas within the environmental sciences. This is the starting point though. To develop a well-defined research topic, you’ll need to identify a clear and convincing research gap , along with a well-justified plan of action to fill that gap.

If you’re new to the oftentimes perplexing world of research, or if this is your first time undertaking a formal academic research project, be sure to check out our free dissertation mini-course. Also be sure to also sign up for our free webinar that explores how to develop a high-quality research topic from scratch.

Overview: Environmental Topics

• Ecology /ecological science
• Atmospheric science
• Oceanography
• Soil science
• Environmental chemistry
• Environmental economics
• Environmental ethics
• Examples  of dissertations and theses

Topics & Ideas: Ecological Science

• The impact of land-use change on species diversity and ecosystem functioning in agricultural landscapes
• The role of disturbances such as fire and drought in shaping arid ecosystems
• The impact of climate change on the distribution of migratory marine species
• Investigating the role of mutualistic plant-insect relationships in maintaining ecosystem stability
• The effects of invasive plant species on ecosystem structure and function
• The impact of habitat fragmentation caused by road construction on species diversity and population dynamics in the tropics
• The role of ecosystem services in urban areas and their economic value to a developing nation
• The effectiveness of different grassland restoration techniques in degraded ecosystems
• The impact of land-use change through agriculture and urbanisation on soil microbial communities in a temperate environment
• The role of microbial diversity in ecosystem health and nutrient cycling in an African savannah

Topics & Ideas: Atmospheric Science

• The impact of climate change on atmospheric circulation patterns above tropical rainforests
• The role of atmospheric aerosols in cloud formation and precipitation above cities with high pollution levels
• The impact of agricultural land-use change on global atmospheric composition
• Investigating the role of atmospheric convection in severe weather events in the tropics
• The impact of urbanisation on regional and global atmospheric ozone levels
• The impact of sea surface temperature on atmospheric circulation and tropical cyclones
• The impact of solar flares on the Earth’s atmospheric composition
• The impact of climate change on atmospheric turbulence and air transportation safety
• The impact of stratospheric ozone depletion on atmospheric circulation and climate change
• The role of atmospheric rivers in global water supply and sea-ice formation

Topics & Ideas: Oceanography

• The impact of ocean acidification on kelp forests and biogeochemical cycles
• The role of ocean currents in distributing heat and regulating desert rain
• The impact of carbon monoxide pollution on ocean chemistry and biogeochemical cycles
• Investigating the role of ocean mixing in regulating coastal climates
• The impact of sea level rise on the resource availability of low-income coastal communities
• The impact of ocean warming on the distribution and migration patterns of marine mammals
• The impact of ocean deoxygenation on biogeochemical cycles in the arctic
• The role of ocean-atmosphere interactions in regulating rainfall in arid regions
• The impact of ocean eddies on global ocean circulation and plankton distribution
• The role of ocean-ice interactions in regulating the Earth’s climate and sea level

Tops & Ideas: Hydrology

• The impact of agricultural land-use change on water resources and hydrologic cycles in temperate regions
• The impact of agricultural groundwater availability on irrigation practices in the global south
• The impact of rising sea-surface temperatures on global precipitation patterns and water availability
• Investigating the role of wetlands in regulating water resources for riparian forests
• The impact of tropical ranches on river and stream ecosystems and water quality
• The impact of urbanisation on regional and local hydrologic cycles and water resources for agriculture
• The role of snow cover and mountain hydrology in regulating regional agricultural water resources
• The impact of drought on food security in arid and semi-arid regions
• The role of groundwater recharge in sustaining water resources in arid and semi-arid environments
• The impact of sea level rise on coastal hydrology and the quality of water resources

Topics & Ideas: Geology

• The impact of tectonic activity on the East African rift valley
• The role of mineral deposits in shaping ancient human societies
• The impact of sea-level rise on coastal geomorphology and shoreline evolution
• Investigating the role of erosion in shaping the landscape and impacting desertification
• The impact of mining on soil stability and landslide potential
• The impact of volcanic activity on incoming solar radiation and climate
• The role of geothermal energy in decarbonising the energy mix of megacities
• The impact of Earth’s magnetic field on geological processes and solar wind
• The impact of plate tectonics on the evolution of mammals
• The role of the distribution of mineral resources in shaping human societies and economies, with emphasis on sustainability

Topics & Ideas: Soil Science

• The impact of dam building on soil quality and fertility
• The role of soil organic matter in regulating nutrient cycles in agricultural land
• The impact of climate change on soil erosion and soil organic carbon storage in peatlands
• Investigating the role of above-below-ground interactions in nutrient cycling and soil health
• The impact of deforestation on soil degradation and soil fertility
• The role of soil texture and structure in regulating water and nutrient availability in boreal forests
• The impact of sustainable land management practices on soil health and soil organic matter
• The impact of wetland modification on soil structure and function
• The role of soil-atmosphere exchange and carbon sequestration in regulating regional and global climate
• The impact of salinization on soil health and crop productivity in coastal communities

Topics & Ideas: Environmental Chemistry

• The impact of cobalt mining on water quality and the fate of contaminants in the environment
• The role of atmospheric chemistry in shaping air quality and climate change
• The impact of soil chemistry on nutrient availability and plant growth in wheat monoculture
• Investigating the fate and transport of heavy metal contaminants in the environment
• The impact of climate change on biochemical cycling in tropical rainforests
• The impact of various types of land-use change on biochemical cycling
• The role of soil microbes in mediating contaminant degradation in the environment
• The impact of chemical and oil spills on freshwater and soil chemistry
• The role of atmospheric nitrogen deposition in shaping water and soil chemistry
• The impact of over-irrigation on the cycling and fate of persistent organic pollutants in the environment

Topics & Ideas: Environmental Economics

• The impact of climate change on the economies of developing nations
• The role of market-based mechanisms in promoting sustainable use of forest resources
• The impact of environmental regulations on economic growth and competitiveness
• Investigating the economic benefits and costs of ecosystem services for African countries
• The impact of renewable energy policies on regional and global energy markets
• The role of water markets in promoting sustainable water use in southern Africa
• The impact of land-use change in rural areas on regional and global economies
• The impact of environmental disasters on local and national economies
• The role of green technologies and innovation in shaping the zero-carbon transition and the knock-on effects for local economies
• The impact of environmental and natural resource policies on income distribution and poverty of rural communities

Topics & Ideas: Environmental Ethics

• The ethical foundations of environmentalism and the environmental movement regarding renewable energy
• The role of values and ethics in shaping environmental policy and decision-making in the mining industry
• The impact of cultural and religious beliefs on environmental attitudes and behaviours in first world countries
• Investigating the ethics of biodiversity conservation and the protection of endangered species in palm oil plantations
• The ethical implications of sea-level rise for future generations and vulnerable coastal populations
• The role of ethical considerations in shaping sustainable use of natural forest resources
• The impact of environmental justice on marginalized communities and environmental policies in Asia
• The ethical implications of environmental risks and decision-making under uncertainty
• The role of ethics in shaping the transition to a low-carbon, sustainable future for the construction industry
• The impact of environmental values on consumer behaviour and the marketplace: a case study of the ‘bring your own shopping bag’ policy

Examples: Real Dissertation & Thesis Topics

While the ideas we’ve presented above are a decent starting point for finding a research topic, they are fairly generic and non-specific. So, it helps to look at actual dissertations and theses to see how this all comes together.

Below, we’ve included a selection of research projects from various environmental science-related degree programs to help refine your thinking. These are actual dissertations and theses, written as part of Master’s and PhD-level programs, so they can provide some useful insight as to what a research topic looks like in practice.

• The physiology of microorganisms in enhanced biological phosphorous removal (Saunders, 2014)
• The influence of the coastal front on heavy rainfall events along the east coast (Henson, 2019)
• Forage production and diversification for climate-smart tropical and temperate silvopastures (Dibala, 2019)
• Advancing spectral induced polarization for near surface geophysical characterization (Wang, 2021)
• Assessment of Chromophoric Dissolved Organic Matter and Thamnocephalus platyurus as Tools to Monitor Cyanobacterial Bloom Development and Toxicity (Hipsher, 2019)
• Evaluating the Removal of Microcystin Variants with Powdered Activated Carbon (Juang, 2020)
• The effect of hydrological restoration on nutrient concentrations, macroinvertebrate communities, and amphibian populations in Lake Erie coastal wetlands (Berg, 2019)
• Utilizing hydrologic soil grouping to estimate corn nitrogen rate recommendations (Bean, 2019)
• Fungal Function in House Dust and Dust from the International Space Station (Bope, 2021)
• Assessing Vulnerability and the Potential for Ecosystem-based Adaptation (EbA) in Sudan’s Blue Nile Basin (Mohamed, 2022)
• A Microbial Water Quality Analysis of the Recreational Zones in the Los Angeles River of Elysian Valley, CA (Nguyen, 2019)
• Dry Season Water Quality Study on Three Recreational Sites in the San Gabriel Mountains (Vallejo, 2019)
• Wastewater Treatment Plan for Unix Packaging Adjustment of the Potential Hydrogen (PH) Evaluation of Enzymatic Activity After the Addition of Cycle Disgestase Enzyme (Miessi, 2020)
• Laying the Genetic Foundation for the Conservation of Longhorn Fairy Shrimp (Kyle, 2021).

Looking at these titles, you can probably pick up that the research topics here are quite specific and narrowly-focused , compared to the generic ones presented earlier. To create a top-notch research topic, you will need to be precise and target a specific context with specific variables of interest . In other words, you’ll need to identify a clear, well-justified research gap.

Need more help?

If you’re still feeling a bit unsure about how to find a research topic for your environmental science dissertation or research project, be sure to check out our private coaching services below, as well as our Research Topic Kickstarter .

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Research Topics

The 2nd International Congress on Water and Sustainability is divided into four main lines of research in which you can find different topics to include your research, project and / or experience.

Abstracts submission finishes on February 27, 2021 . Confirmation of accepted abstracts will be before March 1, 2021 . Those who want to apply for special issues in journals must send the complete manuscript before March 10, 2021 . The congress is multilingual, therefore abstracts in Catalan, Spanish or English are accepted for review. Once selected, the author will be responsible for putting it in the format and language of the journal, for formal review in it. Final acceptance is not guaranteed until the journal make the final review.

The research lines are:

Water Treatment:

• Purification
• Waste management and treatment
• Waste water
• Environmental management
• Integral management of water resources

This line includes the use of natural products, membranes processes and innovative technologies for the treatment of water. Also includes the analysis of water quality in rivers, aquifers and seas as well as the life cycle assessment of systems and processes and other types of environmental studies. Finally, the integral management of water resources includes topics such as the management of hydrographic basins, data collection, data transmission or processing, etc.

Cooperation:

• Water and cooperation
• Water management
• Technology and cooperation for development
• Case studies and innovative and sustainable cooperation projects

The cooperation line allows the analysis and presentation of case studies of water treatment, both potable and wastewater, in countries with difficulties. In addition, the analysis of the agents that participate in cooperation in water and studies focused on human rights.

Sustainability and LCA:

• Technology for sustainability
• Innovation and ecodesign
• Life Cycle Assessment and Water Footprint

This line aims to incorporate all environmental aspects related to water, from strictly scientific-practical points of view. Finally, there is a technological aspect with three different approaches, the economic and social development of the beneficiaries, sustainability and explanation of how innovation and eco-design can participate in it. 

Water Management Models:

• Legal aspects
• Transition models
• Partnership experiences
• Participation and transparency

This last line of research includes all those aspects that refer to water management models, taking into account all relevant aspects in transition processes and the strengths and weaknesses of each model, such as decision-making systems, the transmission of information, participation and transparency, etc.

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NWQP Water-Quality Topics Active

Curious about water-quality science, learn more about these topics and how they relate to groundwater quality and surface-water quality and ecology.

From chloride to corrosivity, from pesticides to PAHs, find the most recent National Water Quality Program (NWQP) science on these topics and effects on surface water, groundwater, and ecology.  Informative web pages provide an overview and links to related web pages, publications, maps, news, and data.

RELATIONS BETWEEN LAND USE AND WATER QUALITY       Urban       Agricultural  

CONTAMINANTS IN WATER       Arsenic       Chloride and salinity       Emerging contaminants  (including pharmaceuticals and hormones)       Mercury       Metals       Nutrients       National Atmospheric Deposition Program (NADP)       Pesticides       Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and coal-tar sealant       Radionuclides       Sediment-associated contaminants       Volatile organic compounds (VOCs), including MTBE  

DRINKING WATER ISSUES       Corrosivity       Domestic (private) supply wells       Public-supply wells       Drinking-water taste and odor       Water-quality benchmarks       Drinking-water and source-water research  

RELATIONS TO AQUATIC LIFE       Stream ecology       Mercury in stream ecosystems       Flow alteration       Harmful algal blooms (HABs)  

TRENDS IN WATER QUALITY       Water-quality trends       Water-quality trends from lake sediment cores  

PROCESSES       Oxidation/Reduction (Redox)

►    Confused by some of the water-quality terms?  Find the definitions and explanations you're looking for in the  Water-Quality Glossary .    

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Faster and Safer: Research Priorities in Water and Health

Karen setty.

a The Water Institute at University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Department of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, 166 Rosenau Hall, CB #7431, Chapel Hill, NC, 27599-7431;

Jean-Francois Loret

b Suez, Centre International de Recherche sur l’Eau et l’Environnement (CIRSEE), 38 rue du President Wilson, 78230, Le Pecq, France;

Sophie Courtois

Charlotte christiane hammer.

c Norwich Medical School, University of East Anglia Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Norwich, NR4 7TJ, UK;

Philippe Hartemann

d Université de Lorraine, Faculté de Médecine, EA 7298, ERAMBO, DESP, Vandœuvre-lès-Nancy, France;

Michel Lafforgue

e Suez Consulting, Le Bruyère 2000 - Bâtiment 1, Zone du Millénaire, 650 Rue Henri Becquerel, CS79542, 34961, Montpellier Cedex 2, France;

Xavier Litrico

f Suez, Tour CB21, 16 Place de l’Iris, 92040 Paris La Defense Cedex, France;

Tarek Manasfi

g Eawag, Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, 8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland;

Gertjan Medema

h KWR Watercycle Research Institute, Groningenhaven 7, 3433 PE, Nieuwegein, The Netherlands;

i Delft University of Technology, Stevinweg 1, 2628 CN, Delft, The Netherlands

Mohamed Shaheen

j School of Public Health, University of Alberta, 3-300 Edmonton Clinic Health Academy, 11405 - 87 Ave, Edmonton, AB T6G 1C9, Canada;

Vincent Tesson

k French National Institute for Agricultural Research (INRA), UMR 1114 EMMAH, 228 route de l’Aérodrome, CS 40 509, 84914 Avignon Cedex 9, France;

Jamie Bartram

The United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals initiated in 2016 reiterated the need for safe water and healthy lives across the globe. The tenth anniversary meeting of the International Water and Health Seminar in 2018 brought together experts, students, and practitioners, setting the stage for development of an inclusive and evidence-based research agenda on water and health. Data collection relied on a nominal group technique gathering perceived research priorities as well as underlying drivers and adaptation needs. Under a common driver of public health protection, primary research priorities included the socioeconomy of water, risk assessment and management, and improved monitoring methods and intelligence. Adaptations stemming from these drivers included translating existing knowledge to providing safe and timely services to support the diversity of human water needs. Our findings present a comprehensive agenda of topics at the forefront of water and health research. This information can frame and inform collective efforts of water and health researchers over the coming decades, contributing to improved water services, public health, and socioeconomic outcomes.

Introduction

To promote public health and wellbeing, the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 6 seeks to “ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all” by 2030 ( UN Water, 2018 ). Many entities are scaling up efforts to address this challenge, including responses to the new aspects of SDG 6 as compared to the earlier Millennium Development Goals (1990–2015). These aspects include universality, inclusivity, cooperative participation, and “safely managed” services, as well as improved coordination with environmental protection efforts to support integrated water resource management. Evidence-informed decision-making (EIDM) is a common goal in many service provision sectors, including water, sanitation, and hygiene (WaSH). Barriers to the use of EIDM in WaSH policy and practice have included a weak enabling environment, bounded by relatively low political priority, lack of mutual accountability, poor coordination, insufficient financing, and limited data availability or relevance ( SWA, 2018 ). Because the transition to SDG 6 is accompanied by new evidence needs, it requires review of corresponding research priorities ( Setty et al., 2018b ).

Research on water and health involves both quantitative and qualitative studies, generating and matching data from a complex mixture of disciplines, such as environmental science, engineering, epidemiology, economics, hydrology, chemistry, microbiology, toxicology, human biology, sociology, anthropology, statistics, and geospatial mapping. Interventions to change processes or behaviors to improve public health are often complex. Unlike medical trials, it can be difficult to implement WaSH interventions in a controlled way, or to blind researchers and participants to randomized assignment. Some of these challenges are exacerbated in low-income settings, leading to weak main effects and strong contextual influences ( Hamilton and Mittman, 2017 ). The resulting evidence base is characterized by heterogeneity with highly variable effects dependent on site-specific characteristics. The state of evidence in WaSH may exasperate decision-makers, who look for clear, usable, and immediate guidance when policy windows open ( Brocklehurst, 2013 ; Rose et al., 2017 ).

A number of international events focus on water and health topics, including World Water Week in Stockholm, the rotating International Water Association World Water Congress and Exhibition, and the Water and Health conference in Chapel Hill, North Carolina. These events draw hundreds to thousands of participants. Since 2009, the multinational utility company Suez has likewise organized an International Water and Health Seminar annually in Cannes, France to promote meaningful exchange between researchers and practitioners. It invites senior academic experts and junior scientists (typically finishing PhD students) into a smaller forum with greater contact time. Participating experts form a standing scientific committee, and new student participants apply to attend each year. Typically, the scientific committee selects 16–20 PhD students to maximize geographical and topic diversity. Attendees have come from countries including Australia, Brazil, Canada, China, Denmark, Egypt, England, Finland, France, Germany, Hungary, Iceland, South Africa, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Tunisia, the United States, and Wales.

We set out to explore water and health research priorities by harvesting the perspectives of participants at the 2018 International Water and Health Seminar. All participants joined a simplified nominal group technique (NGT) exercise that explored drivers, adaptation needs, and perceived research priorities. Ideally, research priority setting should be transparent, consider context, take a comprehensive stance, establish focal criteria, and include multiple categories of stakeholders ( Viergever et al., 2010 ). The NGT approach is often used in quality improvement, business, and other group settings to engender active and equal participation, and to achieve prioritization and consensus ( CDC, 2006 ; Tague, 2004 ).

We applied a simplified and slightly modified NGT ( CDC, 2006 ; Tague, 2004 ) including all participants at the 2018 International Water and Health Seminar held in Cannes, France. This in-person, participatory method was selected as a structured and inclusive way to develop consensus among a fairly large and mixed group of researchers and practitioners (water and sanitation service providers). It aimed to achieve theoretical saturation (comprehensive exploration of research themes) by not limiting the number of submissions per person and triangulating concepts through multiple rounds of inquiry ( Saunders et al., 2018 ). The technique was adapted because of time constraints, and used a color indicator for paper submissions to confidentially record, and permit analysis of, differences in perceptions among the three types of participants: academics, students, and practitioners. We also examined past programs and prepared summary statistics to compare results to presentation topics from the first ten years of the seminar (2009–2018). Owing to the expansive topic, data interpretation included a group-based narrative review ( Dijkers, 2009 ) focused on the most pertinent literature relevant to each research theme.

Data collection

Thirty-three participants (8 senior academic researchers, 10 Suez research staff members, and 15 doctoral or postdoctoral scholars) attended the seminar. All agreed to participate in the NGT exercise. No compensation was offered, nor any penalty for choosing not to participate. Most participants came from Europe, with representatives from the US, Canada, and Australia; names, classifications, and institutions of participants are listed in the acknowledgements. The students were at an advanced trainee level in their careers, pursuing pre- or postdoctoral research, while the academics held advanced degrees and professorships and were generally late career. Professional attendees ranged from early- to mid- to late-career and were permanent or contract employees of research and development branches within Suez, a large multinational utility group headquartered in France. The seminar and NGT sessions were conducted in English, which was a second language for some participants. In consultation with the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Office of Human Research Ethics, the study was not submitted for formal IRB approval because the information gathered related to the research needs assessment rather than the participants themselves.

Five days before the seminar, all participants received an email with written instructions concerning the exercise. Participants were asked to consider questions about water and health research priorities, but not to share their ideas with others. The scope of “water and health” was deliberately not defined, as the scope of understanding of the term was itself of interest. The instructions requested feedback at the seminar on research themes separately from research questions, but during the exercise these categories were merged and a new question was added on adaptations to the underlying drivers.

At the seminar, two sessions of NGT were conducted. In each, no prior knowledge of the instructions was assumed and participants were briefly introduced to the question(s) to be tackled. Ten to twelve minutes were dedicated to “silent idea generation” in which participants recorded each of their ideas on sticky note paper, with different colors to differentiate ideas from different participant groups (students, academics, and practitioners). The practice of writing responses before sharing ensured accountability to the original idea and equal participation, to prevent cognitive “anchoring and adjustment” or reporting bias based on what others shared with the group. The facilitator (JB) served as a participant in accordance with good practice for NGT.

Method modifications of standard NGT ( CDC, 2006 ; Tague, 2004 ) included (a) accepting clustered contributions after the first round, and (b) performing counting for prioritization afterwards, following electronic data entry. One round of round-robin idea presentation was conducted in which each participant described one idea from their sticky notes and the note was added to a display board. Notes were loosely organized into categories, typically proposed by the person who first raised a new idea, and grouped by joining similar submissions as themes emerged. Subsequent rounds proceeded similarly, except that to conserve time, individuals were permitted to offer up notes duplicative of or similar to an idea being presented at any time, without waiting for their next turn, keeping them in the same grouping with the original idea. Rounds continued until all ideas were exhausted. Participants then checked the results on the boards, discussed, and modified the idea organization and groupings. The outcome was adopted by informal consensus and transcribed into an electronic record.

The first round involved all groups of participants (students, academics, and practitioners) and lasted approximately two hours. It addressed two questions (drivers and research questions), and participants indicated at the time of presentation whether the idea they were presenting was a driver or a research question/theme. The second session took place two days after the first, and lasted approximately two hours. It addressed practical adaptations to the drivers and involved only the academics and practitioners, as students were assumed to have less applied experience.

Data processing

We inductively compared responses based on the three different approaches using different questions ( Figure 1 ) to identify prominent research priorities, underlying drivers, and adaptations. A research agenda was constructed primarily using input on research questions, with cross-comparison for sensitivity to drivers and adaptations. The participant input was similarly cross-compared with prior program topics gleaned from annual programs from 2009–2018. This data triangulation helped to ensure missing topics and perspectives were covered. Several authors separately assessed data via conventional qualitative content analysis ( Hsieh and Shannon, 2005 ), using line-by-line (in vivo) coding in most cases, to evaluate the frequency of subthemes as a basis for presentation of findings and discussion.

Relationship between three lines of inquiry pursued using the NGT method to support data triangulation and comprehension.

The relatively rapid sorting into themes at the in-person sessions was supplemented with follow-up checks involving two authors (JB and KS). Using the submitted research priorities and categorical organization as the primary input, category wording was harmonized to create a set of distinct concepts related to the umbrella of water and health. First, alternative categorization schemes were explored to determine which best fit the data. Second, categories with three or fewer nominated research topics were merged into other larger categories, and dominant subcategories were elevated to categories to create a relatively even distribution of topics. Third, each category assignment was reviewed and some research topics were reassigned, using the original wording of the submission and giving deference to the original category assignment if wording was unclear. Categories were ordered by frequency of topic nomination, counting each entry as one “vote,” as a means to convey overall prominence. Finally, the wording of each submission was revised to correct minor spelling and grammar errors, to help clearly convey the intended topic. In some cases, for example when inferring the meaning of acronyms, the most probably meaning in common use was assigned, although alternative meanings were possible.

Input based on submitted drivers and adaptations were reviewed and cross-compared with the research priorities, to identify gaps and novel insights. Additionally, the research priorities were compared with topics from the 10-year history of the Cannes seminar, to offer insight as to trends over time. This involved assignment of topics to themes by year by a third author (JFL). All participants were offered a follow-up opportunity to help with data interpretation and contribute to manuscript preparation. As a result, the draft results were shared with a sub-group of participants who volunteered, to continue to validate and refine understanding of the results in a participatory manner. This team-based approach engendered a narrative literature review of the most relevant references on each topic, to aid communication and uptake of the findings.

Participation

We tracked participant type, numbers of submitted “ideas,” and average per-person idea generation rates to characterize representation ( Table 1 ). Since no limit was assigned, the estimated number of submissions per individual ranged from approximately five to 25.

Number of participants and responses submitted at the seminar workshop by respondent type and round of questioning

Research priorities

Refinement of the draft topic categorization initiated at the in-person sessions helped to solidify eleven major themes capturing water and health research priorities ( Figure 2 ). A somewhat broad category about the social, political, economic and other context in which people use water was of greatest concern, reflecting increased attention toward sustainable global development and soft science in addition to engineering approaches. Next, some traditional disciplines such as water quality, water treatment, and water microbiology were prominent. Risk assessment and management, sanitation, and water resources held a moderate position. Less frequent emergent categories included information and artificial intelligence, real-time or rapid methods, water reuse, and the water-energy nexus. Some key subthemes also emerged across categories or nested within categories. These included technological innovation, metagenomics, “one health,” and disinfection.

Identified water and health research priorities, with themes and subthemes in order of frequency of research question submissions (in parentheses)

Triangulation

Using three different approaches (i.e., requesting research priorities directly versus asking indirectly about prevalent drivers and adaptations) allowed triangulation of the data from multiple perspectives. Similarities and differences among responses contributed to the framing of the research agenda. Overall, they revolved around protecting human health in the face of global changes as a critical underlying concept. Pure environmental (including wildlife and domestic animal) protection played a lesser role. Although deemed important by a number of participants, ecological sustainability represents a newer aspect of WaSH development goals. In many cases, environmental science, agriculture, and public health fields have traditionally had separate regulatory and research-funding structures, which may fail to promote disciplinary overlap. Shifts toward unified planetary health were recognized during participatory review of the study as a newer paradigm that will ultimately affect research drivers.

Drivers fell into seven categories: demographic change, climate, chemicals, microbes, infrastructure, nexus systems, and socio-political demands. In comparing drivers to the research themes, the perspective of drivers emphasized the health concerns underlying the research topics, which largely focused on water and sanitation services. Some categories overlapped with the research questions and themes. For instance, nexus-related topics captured energy ( Figure 2 ) as well as trends in food production, soil conditions, and shifting plant life. Climate change appeared as a prominent driver for weather-related risks, and was also mentioned under risk assessment and management ( Figure 2 ). Shifts in chemical production, especially of micropollutants, likewise linked to research questions under risk assessment and management, water quality, and water treatment.

Other driver topics were less prominent among the research questions. Sociopolitical shifts, such as increasing attention to equity and changing international relations, indirectly matched with the socioeconomy of water category, and thus might underlie all research themes. Commonly-referenced drivers for changes in service needs and water-related health vulnerabilities included demographic trends, such as population growth, aging populations, and migration (especially to urban areas). The research themes overlooked some drivers such as antimicrobial resistance and emerging diseases, both of which should fall under the water microbiology category. Aging infrastructure appeared as a prominent driver, but was mentioned less frequently as a research need, relative to information and artificial intelligence as well as water treatment.

Adaptations

Due to the smaller group size, the adaptations had fewer submitted ideas and in-seminar groupings. The main overlap with the research questions was a category called knowledge management and data science, corresponding to the information and artificial intelligence research category. Additional analysis revealed that the draft groupings of adaptations could be broken down further, and all research categories related to at least one adaptation idea submission. Secondary groupings related to the use of science to inform policy and regulations, as well as improved service provision. Subthemes included integration across systems, sectors, and exposures (e.g., engineering for complex systems with interdependencies and trade-offs); decentralization (e.g., of treatment infrastructure and monitoring capabilities); safety and surveillance, and responsiveness (e.g., to crises or situations of increased demand like migration or local droughts). In connection with sanitation, human biomonitoring (e.g., via sewage) emerged as a human health-oriented complement to established environmental health monitoring approaches. Such bridges address traditional divides between environmental protection and human health regulations. Surveillance responsibilities may be siloed among different entities, though, limiting rapid and effective communication and response.

Topics from prior seminar programs

Though presentation topics varied widely over the past ten years of the seminar (2009–2018), four primary categories could be identified: microbiology, chemistry, general topics (e.g., policies, modeling, risk management), and technology ( Figure 3 ). Subcategories further broke down these classifications. For water microbiology, Legionella , amoeba, and intra-amoebal pathogens were the most popular topics. For water quality, occurrence and treatment of micropollutants were prevalent in past seminars. Epidemiology and public health surveillance took the lead for the general category, mirroring the NGT adaptation topics. Biofiltration and biodegradation took the lead under technology. Additional prominent subcategories included pharmaceuticals and endocrine disruptors, antimicrobial resistance, nanomaterials, virus occurrence and treatment, perfluorates, and biofilms. Many of these topics matched those raised in the NGT sessions in 2018, although the prevalent terminology may have evolved over time. For instance, the microbiome and metagenomics appear more frequently in recent years, building on concepts prominent in earlier years such as biofilms and “viable but not culturable” bacterial cells.

Broad categorization of past seminar topics (2009–2018, inclusive)

Some previous presentation topics not mentioned in the NGT included specific viruses (e.g., Ebola, adenovirus, norovirus), parasites (e.g., Cryptosporidium ), and bacteria (enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli , Shigella , Helicobacter ), as well as perfluorinated chemicals, biofiltration, biodegradation, advanced oxidation, and recreational waters. These might reflect oversights, actual shifts in attention, or the wider stance requested for the exercise versus the specificity of individual research presentations, as these topics remain globally prominent. The focus on single pathogens, contaminants, or treatment approaches may also have given way to more holistic approaches to water safety, with the understanding that biological and chemical threats are constantly evolving. Surprisingly, the SDGs were not explicitly mentioned in the NGT, perhaps because they were recognized implicitly. Terrorism was a more prominent topic in past years, but in 2018 was included as one type of risk under risk assessment and management.

Contributors

The classification of submissions as coming from students, academics, or practitioners permitted observations about similarities and differences in perspective among stakeholder groups. In general, practitioners submitted more ideas than the academics or students, who provided roughly the same number of submissions. Past seminar topics were not broken down by contributor type, but came predominantly from academic and student attendees at the seminar, and reflected somewhat narrower topic specificity than the NGT.

Regarding drivers , students did not raise infrastructure issues. Among adaptations , few trends or contrasts were apparent in the diversity of suggestions by practitioners and academics. Within the knowledge management and data science category, practitioners dominantly raised real-time security. Within the research questions , all submissions on development of rapid or real-time monitoring methods and most submissions on the water-energy nexus and water reuse came from practitioners. Few students at the NGT expressed ideas about risk assessment and management or sanitation, although former students covered these topics in past seminars. Few academics addressed the socioeconomy of water, which may reflect a greater degree of specialization in other areas.

Within the umbrella topic of water and health, we present discussion around key themes and subthemes in order of decreasing frequency of participant submissions ( Figure 2 ). Aspects introduced through the data triangulation methods are integrated within the same thematic areas. The scope of participants’ understanding of “water and health” appeared to match the scope of the event itself, which focused on natural, social, and health sciences connected to water and wastewater services. It delved less frequently into water policy. Due to the natural overlap among these thematic categories, some topics were assigned to the closest fit while others appear in multiple contexts.

Socioeconomy of water

The socioeconomy of water concerns interactions of sociology, behavior, culture, and economics with water needs. Socioeconomic issues underlie many other water usage and safety concerns, as they make up the wider contextual structures in which water systems operate. This theme presents an opportunity to identify synergies among topics and issues, and traverse traditional disciplinary fields of research. Integration of different fields and novel combinations of viewpoints such as political ecology, international security, and anthropology can enhance understanding of the complexities of socioeconomic, socio-cultural, and broader water research questions, as well as their impacts on water safety and resilience. Integrated approaches can help to model complex systems ripe with interdependencies and trade-offs. Within this topic, contributions from participants broadly fit into three key subthemes: human factors, governance, and interdisciplinarity. Based on drivers, this theme must consider shifting international relations, demographic trends, and transboundary issues, such as increased migration. Considering the drivers and adaptations, aging infrastructure was another reality that will require added long-term investment and efficient planning ( Value of Water Campaign, 2017 ).

Human factors consist of attitudes, cultures, and practices. They include broad philosophical approaches towards the meaning of water ( Lycan, 2010 ) as well as applied issues such as perceptions and attitudes towards water conservation ( Tarlock, 1987 ; Hermanowicz, 2008 ) and wastewater reuse ( Po et al., 2003 ; Hartley, 2006 ). Further research in these fields should accompany future technological advances and socio-political changes, considering both their empirical and ethical implications for complex water systems. For instance, community-based and public participation in research processes may help redress inequities perpetuated by prevalent power dynamics in science ( Kemmis et al., 2016 ). Equity and social and environmental justice topics were underrepresented at the seminar, but may be a vital component of research context in both low- and high-income settings (e.g., Stillo and MacDonald Gibson, 2017 ). These contextual factors are likely to affect the selection and implementation of water and public health system interventions.

Governance issues include diverse settings from industrialized smart cities to resource-poor settings such as slums. In this field, research has focused on issues such as equitable and affordable access to safe water, which remains integral to accomplishing global development goals ( Onda et al., 2012 ). This subtheme spans access to piped water and wastewater disposal, as well as the health outcomes of limited access, for instance stemming from water carriage over large distances ( Geere et al., 2018 ; Sorenson et al., 2011 ). Water governance broadly encompasses situations of limited water ( Kummu et al., 2010 ) and increasing pressures from climate change across different world regions as diverse as Australia ( Dijk et al., 2013 ), the Middle East ( Hadadin et al., 2010 ), South Africa ( Mukheibir, 2008 ), China ( Cheng et al., 2009 ), and North America ( Gober and Kirkwood, 2010 ). Associated challenges for water conservation thus interact with many of the human factors mentioned above.

The third field concerns interdisciplinarity, transdisciplinarity, and the integration of social sciences, natural sciences, engineering, and operational research. This is at the forefront of many fields, especially in the context of “One Health” ( Min et al., 2013 ; Manlove et al., 2016 ), planetary health ( Galway et al., 2016 ), nutrition ( Picchioni et al., 2017 ), and other fields ( Morillo et al., 2003 ). Brown et al. (2015) mapped out how such an approach can lead to fruitful collaboration within and beyond the field of water research by forging a shared mission, developing “T-shaped” researchers, nurturing constructive dialogue, offering institutional support, and bridging research, policy, and practice. These approaches are especially important in water and health research due to the inherent integration of scientific inquiry with applied solutions in a complex socio-political environment. One example is the relationship between water and wastewater pricing and human behavior, where microeconomics (traditionally a business field) informs good water provision practices ( Nauges and Whittington, 2017 ).

Water quality

The notion of water quality, defined as measurement and understanding of how compounds and organisms in water can influence human and environmental health, has evolved alongside scientific and technical progress. It was essentially limited to organoleptic descriptors (color, odor, taste and temperature) until the early 19 th century ( Symons, 2006 ). The emergence of epidemiology and bacteriology resulted in the development of water disinfection and microbial indicators as new quality parameters, representing substantive public health achievements ( CDC, 1999 , Sedlak, 2014 ). Developments in analytical chemistry during the second half of the 20 th century led to an increasing number of new chemical parameters ( Trussel, 2006 ). The consciousness raised by a series of popular works (e.g., Carson, 1962 ; Colborn et al., 1996 ) likewise contributed to expanding the lists of quality parameters to encompass pesticides, pharmaceuticals, and endocrine disruptors. To measure and understand how compounds and organisms in water can influence human health, NGT participants recommended continued improvement in analytical methods for chemical and microbial contaminants. Subthemes raised by participants included microplastics, disinfection byproducts (DBPs), antimicrobial resistance, perfluorinated chemicals, toxicity detection, Water Safety Plans, and security issues. Microplastics have recently been an area of intense activity, especially in marine waters, but questions regarding their potential health effects on humans and the significance of waterborne exposure remain unanswered ( Rocha-Santos, 2018 ). DBPs remain major concern in drinking and recreational waters, with increased attention on understanding formation from different precursors, toxicity, and strategies to reduce or eliminate formation ( Li and Mitch, 2018 ; Manasfi et al., 2018 ). Antimicrobial resistance represents a major and increasing threat to public health, and the role of waste and drinking waters in the transmission of resistance genes needs to be clarified ( Manaia, 2017 , Wuijts, et al., 2017 ). Perfluorinated compounds such as PFOA and PFOS have gained increased public attention due to the potential health effects of levels found in source water and drinking water ( Morrison, 2016 ).

In-vitro bioassays for toxicity detection used for more than half a century to assess the safety of water reuse schemes have demonstrated their usefulness for the assessment of complex mixtures of pollutants. Their application, however, is still limited by lack of demonstration of the linkages between in-vitro and in-vivo response, and difficulty in interpreting results ( Leusch & Snyder, 2015 ). Water Safety Plans (incorporating water quality and security issues) have been recommended by the World Health Organization (WHO) since 2004 ( WHO, 2004 ) and are being deployed worldwide. Their application should lead to improved ways of assessing water quality using real-time parameters and on-line sensors for operational control (e.g., turbidity at filter outlet or intrusion detection), in addition to typically lengthier time-to-result laboratory analyses used for compliance.

Water treatment

Water treatment includes technology, infrastructure, and methods for ensuring safe water supply. Since water treatment technologies may be tailored to a range of sources including surface water, groundwater, marine water, stormwater, and recycled wastewater, this thematic area overlaps with water resources, water reuse, and sanitation. Ensuring safe water supply requires a holistic perspective and attention to four main subthemes: cost-effectiveness of treatment and treatment upgrades (e.g., membranes); avoidance or removal of chemical additives, DBPs, and emerging contaminants; alternatives for pathogen removal or disinfection; and ecological sustainability (e.g., safe disposal of brine waste from seawater desalination). An additional participant contribution focused on updating treatment technologies for distributed (cellular) systems and water reuse. In reference to drivers and adaptations, much of the world’s water treatment infrastructure was constructed in the latter half of the twentieth century, and is increasingly in need of repair or replacement ( Moe and Rheingans, 2006 ).

Updates to water treatment systems must take into account the best available technology, as well as cost, resilience, and environmental constraints. Cost-effectiveness and cost-benefit analyses require accessible methods (e.g., Whittington and Hanemann, 2006 ) that consider costs and benefits accrued beyond the utility, for instance to the public and the environment. Such plans are especially pertinent when planning to replace or repair infrastructure that can flexibly meet needs (e.g., for a growing or declining population) over a multi-decadal lifespan. In addition to disinfection methods using chlorine, ozone, or ultraviolet light (UV), novel disinfection methods might include induction of autolysis of bacteria in water systems, for instance using quorum-sensing particles or bacteriophages. Limiting the formation of DBPs was recognized as a driver for this subtheme ( Li and Mitch, 2018 ). While new approaches are constantly under development, consideration of the health impacts of pathogen reduction by various methods and degrees would help to support decision-making. The extension of the SDGs to serve all, including remote populations in unique environments, requires added attention to water treatment decentralization and conservation via onsite reuse ( Insight et al., 2017 ).

Water microbiology

Water microbiology research concerns microbial communities and their effects on water resources and human or animal health. Microbes can float freely in water, attach to particles, aerosolize, or live in biofilms (slimy matrices that form on surfaces). Knowledge about pathogenic microorganisms in water and wastewater has saved millions of lives over the last century from enteric disease outbreaks such as cholera ( Rosen, 2015 ; Schlipköter and Flahault, 2010 ) and typhoid. The drinking water microbiome may comprise up to 40 phyla, which change during various stages of water treatment and distribution ( Proctor and Hammes, 2015 ). The primary global burden of disease is associated with enteric pathogens spread via water and food, particularly rotavirus, Cryptosporidium, Shigella, and Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC) ( Kotloff, 2017 ). Microbes and their pathogenicity are constantly evolving in response to environmental stimuli, which can lead to antimicrobial resistance and emerging human diseases. Topics raised by participants included interaction within microbiomes and biofilms, community stability or regrowth (e.g., in distributed or stored water), and investigative tools such as metagenomics.

Among biological hazards to human health, water treatment processes have traditionally targeted enteric pathogens only ( Fewtrell and Bartram, 2001 ) and these continue to be critical for safety ( Setty et al., 2018a ). More recently, disease outbreaks associated with treated water and other water systems, such as cooling towers, show a significant increase in respiratory diseases caused by water-based opportunistic pathogens such as Legionella pneumophila ( Beer et al., 2015 ; Gargano et al., 2017 ). Effective and safe drinking water distribution systems and plumbing systems in large buildings ( Cunliffe et al., 2011 ) are crucial to protect and improve health. Water treatment processes, nutrients, disinfection residuals, DBPs, and the abiotic factors of distribution systems and on-premises plumbing (e.g., stagnation of water, temperature) have significant impacts on the microbial community of tap water and associated water quality ( Wang et al., 2018 ). Moreover, free-living amoebae and some other protozoa present in distribution systems protect certain bacterial pathogens from disinfectants and support intracellular growth of pathogens like Legionella ( Balczun and Scheid, 2017 ; Lu et al., 2014 ; Pagnier et al., 2015 ).

Microbial quality and chemical quality interact, especially where chemical disinfectants used for microbial inactivation give rise to added chemical hazards. One primary concern has been the health effects of DBPs, since many are considered carcinogenic ( Richardson et al., 2007 ). Some suggest adapting treatment processes to select for bacteria such as Rhodococcus and Mycobacterium , which are capable of biodegrading DBPs ( Sharp et al., 2010 ; Gerrity et al., 2018 ). Yet, another concern is inadvertent selection of disinfectant-resistant bacteria such as mycobacteria or antimicrobial resistant bacteria that can opportunistically cause infection in immunocompromised people ( Von Reyn et al., 1994 ; Whiley et al., 2012 ; Gerrity et al., 2018 ; Liu et al., 2018 ; Potgieter et al., 2018 ; Stüken et al., 2018 ). Thus, manipulation of microbial ecology to promote “beneficial” microbes is an important area of continuing research.

Advancement in gene sequencing methods provide exciting new insights and opportunities for water microbiology research, although the presence of nucleic acids does not translate directly to infectivity ( Tan et al., 2015 ). Future research might target biological processes in water treatment, use of metagenomics to characterize occurrence and fate of antimicrobial resistance genes, the virome of wastewater, or microbial ecology. Understanding microbial ecology is important to design sustainable and safe water systems. Some studies suggest that tap water bacterial composition depends primarily on treatment processes rather than source water ( Wang et al., 2013 ; Zhang et al., 2017 ). Thus, the microorganisms and DBPs present in treated drinking water could alter the microbiota in the human gut, which would ultimately influence human health (e.g., Von Hertzen et al., 2007 ). A better understanding these relationships could inform the best drinking water management approaches for achieving public health benefits.

Risk assessment and management

Risk assessment and management consists of technologies, methods, behaviors, and processes that support conversion of evidence about risk to planning and mitigation among stakeholders. This often involves ranking different hazards harmful to people at different life stages, taking into account mortality, illness (disability-adjusted life years or DALYs), and other types of consequences. Subthemes of participant contributions on this topic included: (a) management tools for combining multiple types or measures of risk under a common framework, (b) risks related to extreme weather events, (c) security in the face of political instability (e.g., war or terror attacks), and (d) accounting for uncertainties and unknown risks. An additional submission related to the water microbiology and information and artificial intelligence categories suggested using burgeoning data availability (e.g., metagenomics and other “omics”) to inform risk management. Changing demographics represented a relevant driver, as this may lead to shifts in the sensitivity or receptivity of populations to various hazards.

Multiple risk management tools and approaches were raised as potential options for water systems, including synthesis frameworks such as Water Safety Plans ( Bartram et al., 2009 ), quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA; Petterson and Ashbolt, 2016 ) for microbial pathogens, as low as reasonably achievable (ALARA; Lindhe et al., 2010 ) principles for contaminant reduction, and geospatial modeling (e.g., Lafforgue et al., 2018 ). One issue may be how to combine data-driven management of multiple risk categories (e.g., water quality, financial risk, reputational risk). Risk management programs such as Water Safety Plans have been actively piloted and evaluated in recent years ( WHO and IWA, 2017 ), demonstrating potential benefits to public health ( Gunnarsdóttir, et al., 2012 ; Setty et al., 2017 ), but work remains to facilitate an enabling implementation environment in both low-middle and high-income countries ( Baum and Bartram, 2018 ). While most efforts in past decades were dedicated to managing chemical hazards, emerging risks are more often linked to microorganisms ( Rusin et al., 1997 ). Based on prior seminar topics, risk assessment related to nanotechnology is needed as compounds may be more or less toxic at the nanoscale ( Rocha-Santos, 2018 ). Climate extremes are expected to become more severe in coming decades ( IPCC, 2014 ), leading to a great deal of research among water suppliers, environmental managers, and public health officers around mechanisms for planning, adaptation, and resilience ( Deere, 2017 ).

Regarding security, the terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001 led to greater awareness around water supply vulnerabilities ( Camarillo et al., 2014 ). Safety largely requires responsiveness to both urgent and subtle water crises, including those with non-malevolent causes such as long-term drought or shifting water demands. In the NGT exercise, hospitals were mentioned as a particularly vulnerable type of institution, mirroring newer findings of poor attention to water, sanitation, and hygiene systems in settings with greater-than-average immunocompromised populations at risk of infectious diseases ( WHO & UNICEF, 2015 ). Loss of hospital water supplies (e.g., due to a crisis or intermittent service) puts patients at greater risk and often requires compromises in sanitary procedures or physiologically stressful patient transfers. Approach and methodology options for addressing uncertainty and unknown risks include the precautionary principle, expert consultation, probabilistic inference, sensitivity tests, fuzzy-set theory, value-based weighting preferences, or conditional rules ( Almaarofi et al., 2017 ; Dominguez-Chicas and Scrimshaw, 2010 ; Petterson and Ashbolt, 2016 ). Automated data production, management, and decision-support systems may aid in earlier detection of risks, enabling faster response times.

Sanitation considers management of human excreta, wastewater, and solid waste to lessen negative human, animal, and environmental consequences. Within this area, key subthemes raised by participants included access to sanitation services and improving their quality, especially using decentralized wastewater treatment systems (DEWATS). Priorities also included improving knowledge of pathogens and micropollutants in liquid and solid waste disposal, particularly for risks associated with their persistence, removal from wastewater, and the sanitary, environmental, and occupational implications. In sum, these topics complement the water resources and socioeconomic subthemes, and create synergies for enhancing usability of freshwater and marine resources.

Ensuring availability and improvement of sanitation systems has been an area of intense activity. The WHO and United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply, Sanitation and Hygiene (JMP) reported that more than 2.1 billion people gained access to improved sanitation between 1990 and 2015 ( WHO and UNICEF, 2017 ). Still, more than 2.4 billion people had no access to improved sanitation and 1 billion remained without any sanitation system. Taking into account the ambitious new service norm of “safely managed” sanitation, meaning a household has an improved facility with in-situ excreta disposal or transport and treatment offsite, a whopping 5.3 billion people lacked coverage ( WHO and UNICEF, 2017 ). Decentralization appears as a logical evolution for handling increasing loads of wastewater and urban stormwater. A study published by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) demonstrated the potential for sustainable decentralized water resource management in urban environments, with better flexibility and at a lower cost than current sanitation systems ( OECD, 2015 ). In addition, many urban centers continue to seek solutions for managing concentrated urban runoff, in some cases by facilitating treatment of discharge collected by separate or combined sewer systems ( Barbosa et al., 2012 ).

Better knowledge of the fate of pathogens and micropollutants from wastewater represents a valuable addition to the research docket, as it will improve understanding and management of subsequent risks to public health ( Campos et al., 2016 ; Gavrilescu et al., 2015 ). Along with molecular and chromatographic methods, high-throughput sequencing and mass spectrometry have enabled more rapid analysis of their transport, dissemination, and persistence in the environment. Still, researchers have limited information on both the long-term effects of micropollutant cocktails and their relationship with the emergence of new bacterial and viral pathogens ( Jekel et al., 2013 ; Sano et al., 2016 ). Concerning the implications of waste disposal, some studies have addressed wastewater reuse and solid waste disposal ( Kellis et al., 2013 ; Kinnaman, 2017 ; Maimon et al., 2010 ), but more attention is needed to determine method effectiveness and pollutant persistence. Seminar participants felt that wastewater reusability (e.g., for water, energy, nutrients) and mastery of pollutant removal were critical components of waste management for the next 5–10 years. Forward-looking commentary on adaptations and the potential use of wastewater revolved around public health surveillance via human biomonitoring ( Joas et al., 2017 ).

Water resources

Water resources refers to conservation of existing and potential new ambient water supplies for human and ecological use. Research priorities primarily fell into two subthemes: (a) water supply quantity and quality stressors and (b) water management solutions. Quantity stressors included shortage, drought, and water loss. Quality stressors related to industrial, agricultural, and other pollutant sources that lead to groundwater contamination and fecal pollution in watersheds. Regarding management solutions, participants cited protection, conservation, improved management planning at the watershed level, and attention to irrigation practices. To achieve SDG 6, the 2018 United Nations’ world water development report emphasizes nature-based solutions tapping wastewater as an underused resource ( WWAP/UN-Water, 2018 ), consistent with the sanitation theme above.

Water resources planning and accounting will require projection of suspected stressors, such as climate change ( Olmstead, 2014 ). Accounting concepts include a water footprint, defined as the total volume of freshwater used directly and indirectly by a nation or a company, or in the provision of a product or service ( Chenoweth et al., 2014 ). Economic approaches such as payment for environmental services (PES) represents a potential option to protect water quality at the watershed scale ( Lafforgue, 2016 ). Bioremediation and source tracking methods were similarly raised as management tools to address pollutant fate and movement within surface and groundwater. Overlapping with the water reuse category, an additional submission had to do with considering the circular economy of water resources in which uncontaminated water circulates in closed loops, allowing repeated use ( Eneng et al., 2018 ) rather than traditional collection, use, and disposal into the environment.

Information and artificial intelligence

This category revolves around data collection and processing to enable EIDM. Few submissions were repetitive or demonstrative of trends, suggesting a wide array of needs in this research area. Data modeling was a research need for holistically considering contaminant sources, pathways, effects on water quality, and control options at a systems level inclusive of the watershed, infrastructure, and receptors (e.g., Lafforgue et al, 2018 ). Other needs included management, transmission, integration, and safe storage of large amounts of data from diverse sources (e.g., watershed, water supply and treatment, public health, open data, video streams, social media). Appropriate instrumentation and centralized management systems should be developed to accomplish these tasks. Speed was of key concern, for example using artificial intelligence as an alternative to long, difficult, and costly epidemiology studies.

Experts recognize care should be taken in communicating the potential for artificial intelligence to replace existing methods. For instance, Google Flu Trends ( Ginsberg, 2009 ) was released in 2006, but withdrawn after a few years due to its tendency to over-predict influenza infections based on Google search data. Despite some limitations, data analytics and artificial intelligence will be considered useful and necessary tools to explore data and contribute to better management of water systems in the future. Participants recommended data systems both to survey ongoing performance shifts and to detect or diagnose abnormalities (e.g., in infrastructure integrity). Optimization exercises can help to solve complex water network design or health hazard problems, taking into account many different criteria, and leading to better solutions than manual design (e.g., Maier et al., 2014 ).

Real-time/rapid methods

Real-time monitoring of drinking water systems includes the technologies and data systems that help managers to maintain safety and respond quickly to accidental or malevolent incidents. Participant feedback dealt with early, real-time, online, and point-of-use contaminant detection, spanning both chemical and biological parameters. In addition to informing water treatment processes, participants anticipated deployment of sensors in source water, distribution systems, and at the point of use to maintain active surveillance and problem detection.

Research interest has been growing in online monitoring for both chemical and biological water quality, including harmful algal bloom (HAB) toxins ( Storey et al. 2011 ; Lopez-Roldan et al. 2013 ). Online monitoring equipment can be installed as an early warning system for the water intake, treatment process monitoring and main entry points to the distribution system. In ambient waters, real-time and rapid methods also concern water-contact and other recreational uses. Complexity derives from the current impossibility of constructing a single sensor to detect all contaminants or pathogens. Studies investigating the performance of various water quality sensors on different contamination patterns suggest monitoring changes to conventional parameters, such as pH, temperature, turbidity, electrical conductivity, and free chlorine concentration, may sufficiently address concerns associated with health risk, customer perceptions (aesthetic taste and odor), and asset management ( Hall et al. 2007 ).

Such monitoring systems should distinguish abnormal changes from normal variations. Thus, event detection models are required for exploring the time series of each water quality parameter and detecting anomalies in water supply systems and networks ( Housh & Ostfeld 2015 ). The cost for sensor deployment and operation limits the number of locations that can be monitored in real time. Future studies will likely aim to develop low-cost and miniaturized sensor technologies to make continuous and complete monitoring possible throughout a water system. In addition to treatment facilities, participants raised installing sensors in distribution pipes (such as sensor chips attached to pipe walls), consumer taps, and individual water meters.

Water reuse

Water reuse refers to safe reuse and recycling to enable sustainable water supplies for human and ecological use. Increasing water supply challenges, aggravated by human population growth and climate change, have driven interest in water reuse as a main component of the new era of water management ( Hering et al., 2013 ). Within this area, key subthemes raised by participants included: technologies for the treatment and reuse of wastewater or alternative water sources, health risks associated with water reuse in particular for potable purpose, and public perception and acceptance of water reuse for potable and non-potable (e.g., agriculture, industry, toilet flushing) purposes.

Research into engineered treatment technologies has been intense, including membrane filtration and oxidation treatment to eliminate microbial and chemical contaminants ( Tang et al., 2018 ; Zodrow et al. 2017 ). Recent advances in membrane technology, particularly reverse osmosis (RO), have played a key role in producing highly purified recycled water and driving an increase in water reuse projects worldwide. This research aims to achieve cost-effectiveness and reliability in removing microbial and chemical contaminants ( Tang et al., 2018 ). Since some chemical contaminants (e.g., certain DBPs, pharmaceuticals) can cross RO membranes, post-RO oxidation treatments capable of removing these contaminants have been integrated into treatment schemes. Traditionally, advanced oxidation processes that generate hydroxyl radicals have been used, and electrochemistry-based oxidation treatment has been attracting increasing attention ( Feng et al., 2016 ). The degree of adoption of any technology will depend on its effectiveness, energy demands, feasibilty, and integration into future water treatment systems ( von Gunten, 2018 ). Nature-based solutions such as managed aquifer recharge (MAR) and biofiltration similarly show promise for promoting water reuse ( Water JPI, 2016 ).

To enhance understanding around the safety of water reuse, further toxicological and epidemiological studies are warranted ( NRC, 2012 ). In exposure circumstances where toxicological and epidemiological dose-response data are lacking, risk assessment can account for uncertainty and use the best available knowledge to support design of safe reuse systems ( NRC, 2012 ). Further, quality assurance of treatment schemes with regard to elimination of chemical and biological contaminants, economic effectiveness, and feasibility of integration into water systems must be resolved to demonstrate usefulness of novel treatment approaches, for example via studying the scaled-up engineering designs ( Lazarova et al, 2013 ). Water reuse may be an especially efficient option in water-scarce contexts, where regulation permits reuse and other options cost more ( Lafforgue and Lenouvel, 2015 ).

In sum, water reuse complements other efforts to increase water availability (e.g., conservation, desalination) and appears as a critical component of ongoing sustainable water management. Some participants mentioned public perception of water reuse, which overlaps with the socioeconomy of water. Public acceptance of water reuse is a prominent factor in determining the future of water reuse, as it significantly influences political decisions on water reuse projects ( Dolnicar et al., 2011 ).

Water-energy nexus

The water-energy nexus refers to the study of how energy use interacts with provision of sustainable water services. Within this area, key subthemes raised by participants included resource rarefaction (water, energy, raw materials) and how to counteract this phenomenon by developing synergies between water-energy-waste cycles, redefining water and sanitation using decentralized and renewable energy-based solutions, safe water treatment at a low energy cost, and microbial fuel cells for sustainable energy production.

Water rarefaction is increasing due to long-term increases in water abstraction, declining resource availability ( Damania et al., 2017 ; 2030 Water Resources Group, 2009 ), and the projected effects of climate change. Research focuses on three main options: increasing water production by desalination, reducing abstraction by recycling urban waters, and reducing water consumption and water losses. However, desalination and water recycling frequently use energy-intensive membrane filtration, replacing a problem by another one. Singapore, for example, is an island city-state faced with this issue ( Lenouvel et al., 2014 ). An integrated perspective would account for such risk substitution.

For instance, the Water and Wastewater Companies for Climate Mitigation (WaCCLIM) roadmap to carbon neutrality in urban water recommends research into low-energy options to produce, transfer and purify water ( Ballard et al., 2018 ). One option is to recover or produce energy from water (e.g., hot water recycling, energy-neutral wastewater treatment, hydropower production in water networks, microbial fuel cells). Another option is to save energy (e.g., low-energy membrane filtration, pumping and pressure optimization, reduction of water consumption, early leak detection). Water recycling in short loops using nature-based solutions may improve water management and save energy ( WWAP/UN-Water, 2018 ; Lafforgue and Lenouvel, 2015 ; Kavvada et al., 2016 ). OSMOSUN® solar desalination units are one example of a technology combining renewable energy and water production. Similar recommendations are included in the International Water Association Principles for Water-Wise Cities being adopted around the world ( IWA, 2016 ).

In sum, NGT participants felt that water-energy synergies, water short loops, and renewable energy emerged as prominent options to investigate resource rarefaction. Flexible solutions require time and development, as they are very context dependent ( Lafforgue et al., 2014 ). Investigative tools for structuring and testing potential water-energy option combinations (e.g., Urb’Advanced) may be useful.

Comparison to other studies

With increased activity around the SDGs, WaSH professionals have renewed efforts to examine high-priority research areas ( UN Water, 2018 ; WHO and UNICEF, 2017 ). Needs assessments are a valuable step in structuring research, policy, and practice responses. This study is one of several efforts to gather data on water and health knowledge needs, for instance via literature review ( Hutton and Chase, 2016 ), electronic survey ( Setty et al., 2018b ), review of meeting abstracts ( Kogevinas, 2017 ), and knowledge translation activities ( USAID, 2017 ). While the framing differs among agenda-setting methods and studies, these synergistic efforts contribute to capacity building to support global goals toward safe water and sanitation for all.

In connection with WHO-Europe efforts to set priorities for environmental health research, Kogevinas (2017) recommended dialogue between researchers and stakeholders rather than algorithms or semi-quantitative grading to non-prescriptively assess potential research topics against novelty, importance to people, impact on policy, and technical innovation and development. The WaSH research prioritization survey in collaboration with the Sanitation and Water for All partnership ( Setty et al., 2018b ) was structured around SDG 6 targets, with heavy representation from African partners, whereas the present effort garnered representation primarily from high-income regions. The literature review ( Hutton and Chase, 2016 ) looked retrospectively at peer-reviewed and gray literature, in contrast to the forward-looking expert elicitation used here. Both the literature review, which is subject to publication bias, and our in-person approach, requiring costly travel, likely underrepresent researchers from lowand middle-income countries.

While the results of these studies overlap in many ways, research policy and the financing of research were not considered in this study. Similarly, while hygiene and associated behavior change were not excluded topics, they did not emerge as a substantive focus during the NGT exercises. Though not explicitly discussed during the NGT sessions, the context for the study was set in an era of shifting priorities, as the SDGs set out more challenging expectations for water and health professionals, and unlike similar development initiatives in preceding decades, the SDGs explicitly apply to countries at all stages of development. The targets for SDG 6 ( UN, 2018 ) comprise:

• Achieve universal and equitable access to safe and affordable drinking water for all
• Achieve access to adequate and equitable sanitation and hygiene for all and end open defecation, paying special attention to the needs of women and girls and those in vulnerable situations
• Improve water quality by reducing pollution, eliminating dumping and minimizing release of hazardous chemicals and materials, halving the proportion of untreated wastewater and substantially increasing recycling and safe reuse globally
• Substantially increase water-use efficiency across all sectors and ensure sustainable withdrawals and supply of freshwater to address water scarcity and substantially reduce the number of people suffering from water scarcity
• Implement integrated water resources management at all levels, including through transboundary cooperation as appropriate
• Protect and restore water-related ecosystems, including mountains, forests, wetlands, rivers, aquifers and lakes
• Expand international cooperation and capacity-building support to developing countries in water- and sanitation-related activities and programs, including water harvesting, desalination, water efficiency, wastewater treatment, recycling and reuse technologies
• Support and strengthen the participation of local communities in improving water and sanitation management

Equity represents a central component of SDG 6 and also appeared as an underlying driver of research needs in this study. Many aspects of SDG 6, such as “safe,” “affordable,” and “participation” were mentioned using similar wording under the socioeconomy of water category, which dominated the research priorities; however, subthemes addressed neither transboundary management nor capacity building. Untreated wastewater management features in both the SDG 6 targets and the sanitation category of the research priorities, although the SDG 6 focus on ending open defecation was reflected as increasing access to sanitation. The water resources and water reuse categories corresponded well to the SDG 6 targets, including remediation of polluted ecosystems and desalination, respectively. The research agenda presented here paid less heed to the specific needs of women and girls (e.g., for physical safety and menstrual hygiene management).

Limitations

The NGT approach was appropriate for including all ideas (rather than just the majority), accommodating heterogeneity of experience in the group, and ensuring equal footing for underrepresented voices in research planning ( CDC, 2006 ; Tague, 2004 ). Although the results provided sufficient information for the study’s purposes and saturation was achieved via subsequent data triangulation, limitations to internal validity include adaptations of the process used to fit time constraints. Limitations of NGT include the need for conformity within a somewhat mechanical process. The group sizes (33 or 18 participants) were large by NGT standards ( Taylor et al., 1958 ). While unlikely to have restricted idea generation, this might have hampered full-group discussion and clustering of ideas. We sought to overcome this by more thoroughly reviewing the categorization afterward, using multiple reviewers. Normally, NGT includes scoring and ranking after grouping ( CDC, 2006 ), but we accomplished this afterward using simple frequencies and requested member checking remotely several months following the sessions.

While an effort was made to consider ten years of data and multiple categories of water and health professionals, the methods inherently rely on a sample of professionals, which limits external validity and generalizability. As is the case with focus groups, the viewpoints captured may not represent all members of a certain demographic. Since participants need to travel to attend the conference in person, representation skewed toward a small number of high-income countries especially in vicinity of France. Furthermore, the scientific committee and practitioners were invited, and this method of “sampling” is more likely to result in a cohesive group that shares similar viewpoints. The student participants, in contrast, can openly apply to attend, and are intentionally selected to increase diversity. Water and health topics specified on the event announcement aim to attract student expertise in the area of emerging waterborne pollutants and pathogens, epidemiology, microbiology, toxicology, analytical chemistry, risk assessment, water treatment, water hygiene, public health, and sociological aspects of risk management. Advertisement and marketing is generally limited and likely does not reach all possible candidates.

Recommendations

Research planning processes often stem from independent primary investigators, either in isolation or in collaboration with others, typically with a goal of achieving publication in a peer-reviewed journal. In many cases, research planning and execution is closely determined by funding availability on specific topics, for example via requests for proposals ( Setty et al., 2018b ). Mechanisms for accountability to the public, governments, and practitioners are less well established in academia, although applied, translational, and implementation research has gained traction in recent decades ( Hering, 2018 ). Setty et al. (2018b) found stakeholders outside of academia (e.g., governmental and civil society organizations) sought but perceived fewer opportunities to engage in learning and training events. Making research relevant to potential end users and decision makers recommends cross-sector communication about research priorities ( Kogevinas, 2017 ; Roux et al., 2006 ). Although not inclusive of all possible stakeholder types, this project offered one approach to eliciting practitioner and potentially other stakeholder group perspectives on research planning.

Broad, inclusive processes are recommended for research planning ( Setty et al., 2018b ), including scientists as well as other stakeholder types, with attention to underrepresented voices. Such processes are more likely to identify a mix of short- and long-term priorities as well as diverse perspectives and needs. The SDG process, for instance, provide an example of inclusive priority setting, which can be used to justify research efforts from 2016–2030 ( UN General Assembly, 2015 ). Another example comes from the US National Science Foundation’s Advisory Committee for Environmental Research and Education in 2018, which invited input from members of the Association of Environmental Engineering and Science Professors, an international group of professors educating on environmental protection, science, and technology topics ( NSF, 2018 ). They sought to identify environmental research and education directions that would further advance national security and economic competitiveness. This direct solicitation took place in tandem with a public comment period over about two months.

Conscientious, structured exercises such as NGT can bolster equity, transparency, and inclusivity of research planning processes ( Viergever et al., 2010 ). This and other approaches may be adapted to fit case-specific constraints and needs, although users should document adaptations to consider how they might alter effectiveness ( Allen et al., 2017 ; Bartunek and Murninghan, 1984 ). Depending on organizational needs, periodic reflective exercises can be timed to fit into research planning cycles ( Weichselgartner and Kasperson, 2010 ). In practical terms, participation in research prioritization exercises can be time-consuming. At a macro level, doing an exercise in conjunction with an existing collaborative event created minimal additional cost and labor. At a micro level, grouping similar responses together as they came up likewise offered a time advantage.

Conclusions

High-priority research areas (in order of frequency) included the socioeconomy of water, water quality, water treatment, microbiology, risk assessment and management, sanitation, water resources, real-time and rapid methods, water reuse, and the water-energy nexus. Each of these themes housed a range of more detailed research subthemes and questions. Underlying drivers of water and health research included social inequity, shifting international relations, demographic trends, aging infrastructure, antimicrobial resistance, and emerging diseases. To support attainment of the SDG targets for water and sanitation, water and health professionals will need to integrate efforts across environmental and health systems, sectors, and exposures; decentralize infrastructure and monitoring capabilities; and adopt more advanced processes for safety, surveillance, and responsiveness. The study methods and findings may prove useful for planning research funding offerings, projects, practicums, and quality improvement efforts among a variety of organizational types focused on water and health issues.

• Expert elicitation technique ranked water and health research priorities.
• A prime concern centered on the socioeconomics of meeting water needs.
• Team-based narrative review provided commentary on all research priorities.
• Dialogue among scientists and practitioners is needed to progress toward SDGs.

Acknowledgements

Our gratitude extends to all participants in the 2018 International Water and Health Seminar in Cannes for their enthusiastic collaboration. We are especially indebted to the meeting coordinators for arranging the session logistics. Suez provided financial sponsorship for the meeting, and student travel was in many cases made possible by their respective sponsors and institutions. Additional financial support for research (KS) was provided by the US National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (grant T32ES007018), and the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Royster Society of Fellows.

Declaration of interest

Authors include employees and contractors of Suez, who received remuneration for their time and travel expenses to attend work functions such as the seminar where this study took place. Senior academics on the scientific committee were similarly reimbursed for travel expenses to attend the seminar. Students accepted to the seminar received accommodations and meals for the duration of the seminar. Some participant institutions have received separate funding from Suez for specific research projects.

Workshop participants

Jamie Bartram, The Water Institute at UNC

Elke Dopp, IWW Water Center

Martin Exner, University of Bonn

Philippe Hartemann, University of Lorraine

Paul Hunter, University of East Anglia

Gertjan Medema, KWR Water Cycle Research Institute

Mark Wiesner, Duke University

Michael Wilhelm, Ruhr-University Bochum

Practitioners

Reynald Bonnard, Suez

Sophie Courtois, Suez

Jerome Enault, Suez

Michel Lafforgue, Suez Consulting

Xavier Litrico, Suez

Jean-François Loret, Suez

Pierre Pieronne, Suez

Olivier Schlosser, Suez

Daniel Villessot, Suez

Flavia Zraick, Suez

Claire Bertelli, University of Lausanne*

Helena Bielak, IWW Water Center

Nadratun Chowdhury, Duke University

Christina Fiedler, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna

Charlotte Christiane Hammer, University of East Anglia

Tarek Manasfi, University of Aix-Marseille*

Manon Michaut, University of Rouen

Laura Palli, University of Florence

Yoann Perrin, University of Poitiers

Nicholas Rogers, Duke University

Sydney Rudko, University of Alberta

Mohamed Shaheen, University of Alberta

Sohan Shrestha, University of Queensland

Esther Sib, University of Bonn

Vincent Tesson, French National Institute for Agricultural Research

* postdoctoral scholar

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102 Water Pollution Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

Water pollution essays are an excellent way to demonstrate your awareness of the topic and your position on the solutions to the issue. To help you ease the writing process, we prepared some tips, essay topics, and research questions about water pollution.

🌎 Air and Water pollution: Essay Writing Tips

🏆 best water pollution essay topics & examples, 📌 remarkable air and water pollution research topics, 👍 good research topics about water pollution, ❓ research questions about water pollution.

Water’s ready availability in many locations makes it an easy choice for a variety of purposes, from cleaning to manufacturing to nuclear reactor cooling. However, many companies will then dump water, now mixed with waste, back into rivers or lakes without adequate cleaning, leading to significant environmental pollution.

However, there are other types of harm, such as noise pollution, which are less obvious but also dangerous to sea life. It is critical that you understand what you should and should not do during your writing process.

The stance that big manufacturing industries are the sole culprits of the damage done to the world’s rivers and oceans is a popular one. However, do not neglect the effects of other water pollution essay topics such as microorganisms.

Microbes can spread dangerous illnesses, making them a danger for both water inhabitants and the people who then use that water. Furthermore, they can eat up oxygen if left unchecked, starving fish and other water organisms and eventually making them die out.

Such situations usually result from agricultural practices, which can lead to powerful nutrients entering the water and enabling algae and other microorganisms to grow excessively. An overly lively environment can be as harmful as one where everything is threatened.

With that said, industrial manufacturers deserve much of the attention and blame they receive from various communities. Construction of dedicated waste-cleaning facilities is usually possible, but companies avoid doing so because the process will increase their costs.

You should advocate for green practices, but be mindful of the potential impact of a significant price increase on the global economy. Also, be sure to mention more exotic pollution variations in your types of water pollution essay.

Provide examples of noise pollution or suspended matter pollution to expand on the topic of the complexity of the harm humanity causes to the ecosphere.

You should show your understanding that there are many causes, and we should work on addressing all of them, a notion you should repeat in your water pollution essay conclusions.

However, you should try to avoid being sidetracked too much and focus on the titles of pollution and its immediate causes.

If you stretch far enough, you may connect the matter to topics such as the status of a woman in Islam. However, doing so contributes little to nothing to your point and deviates from the topic of ecology into social and religious studies.

Leave the search for connections to dedicated researchers and concentrate on discussing the major causes that are known nowadays. By doing this, you will be able to create an excellent and powerful work that will demonstrate your understanding of the topic.

Here are some tips for your writing:

• Be sure to discuss the different types of pollution that is caused by the same source separately. Surface and groundwater pollution are different in their effects and deserve separate discussions.
• Focus on the issues and not on solutions, as an essay does not provide enough space to discuss the latter in detail.
• Be sure to discuss the effects of pollution on people and other land inhabitants as well as on water creatures.

Check IvyPanda to get more water pollution essay titles, paper ideas, and other useful samples!

• Water Pollution: Causes, Effects and Possible Solutions This is why clean water is required in all the places to make sure the people and all the living creatures in the planet live a good and healthy life.
• Air and Water Pollution in the Modern World The high number of vehicles in the city has greatly promoted air pollution in the area. Poor sewerage system, high pollution from industries and automobiles are among the major causes of air and water pollutions […]
• Water Pollution: Causes, Effects, and Prevention Farmers should be encouraged to embrace this kind of farming which ensures that the manure used is biodegradable and do not end up accumulating in the water bodies once they are washed off by floods.
• Water Pollution in the Philippines: Metropolitan Manila Area In this brief economic analysis of water pollution in Metro Manila, it is proposed to look at the industrial use of waters and the household use to understand the impact that the population growth and […]
• Coca-Cola India and Water Pollution Issues The first difficulty that the representatives of the Coca-Cola Company happened to face due to their campaign in the territory of India was caused by the concerns of the local government.
• Cashion Water Quality: Spatial Distribution of Water Pollution Incidents This essay discusses the quality of water as per the report of 2021 obtained from the municipality, the quality issue and the source of pollution, and how the pollution impacts human health and the environment […]
• Water Pollution: OIL Spills Aspects The effects of the oil spill on a species of ducks called the Harlequin ducks were formulated and the author attempted to trace out the immediate and residual effects of the oil on the birds.
• Importance of Mercury Water Pollution Problem Solutions The severity of the mercury contamination consequences depends on the age of the person exposed to the contamination, the way of contamination, the health condition, and many other factors.
• Water Pollution as a Crime Against the Environment In particular, water pollution is a widespread crime against the environment, even though it is a severe felony that can result in harm to many people and vast territories.
• Newark Water Crisis: Water Pollution Problem The main problem was rooted in the fact that lead levels in the drinking water were highly elevated, which is dangerous and detrimental to the population’s health.
• Water Pollution in a Community: Mitigation Plan Though for the fact that planet earth is abundant with water and almost two-thirds of the planet is made up of water still it is viewed that in future years, a shortage of water may […]
• Food Distribution and Water Pollution Therefore, food distribution is one of the central reasons for water pollution. According to Greenpeace, one of the ways to improve the ecology of the planet is by creating healthy food markets.
• Water Pollution and Associated Health Risks The results of plenty of studies indicate the existence of the relation between the contamination of water by hazardous chemicals and the development of respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, cancer, asthma, allergies, as well as reproductive […]
• Lake Erie Water Pollution There are worries among the members of the community that the lake could be facing another episode of high toxicity, and they have called for the authorities to investigate the main causes of the pollution […]
• Storm Water Pollution Prevention Plan All players need to be trained in significant areas of business so as they can handle them with care and beware of the potential they have in causing damage.
• Water Pollution in the US: Causes and Control Although water pollution can hardly be ceased entirely, the current rates of water pollution can be reduced by resorting to the sustainable principle of water use in both the industrial area and the realm of […]
• Water Pollution and Management in the UAE The groundwater in UAE meets the needs of 51% of users in terms of quantity mainly for irrigation. Surface water is the source of groundwater and plays a major role in groundwater renewal.
• Water Pollution and Its Challenges Water pollution refers to a situation where impurities find way into water bodies such as rivers, lakes, and ground water. This is a form of pollution where impurities enter water bodies through distinct sources such […]
• Water Pollution Sources, Effects and Control Unfortunately, not all the users of water are responsible to ensure that proper disposal or treatment of the used water is done before the water is returned to the water bodies.
• Water in Crisis: Public Health Concerns in Africa In the 21st century, the world faces a crisis of contaminated water, which is the result of industrialization and is a major problem in developing countries.
• Air and Water Pollution Thus, it is classified as a primary pollutant because it is the most common pollutants in the environment. In the environment, the impact of carbon monoxide is felt overtime, since it leads to respiratory problems.
• Causes of Water Pollution and the Present Environmental Solution Prolonged pollution of water has even caused some plants to grow in the water, which pose danger to the living entities that have their inhabitants in the water.
• Water Pollution & Diseases (Undeveloped Nations) Restriction on movement and access to the affected area affects trade and the loss of human life and deteriorated health is a major blow on the economy and on the quality of human life.
• Water and Water Pollution in Point of Economics’ View This research tries to explain the importance of water especially in an economist’s perspective by explaining the uses of water in various fields, pollution of water and the agents of pollution.
• Environmental Justice Issues Affecting African Americans: Water Pollution Water pollution in the 1960s occurred due to poor sewage systems in the urban and rural areas. Unlike in the 1960s, there are reduced cases of water pollution today.
• Water Pollution and Wind Energy Chemical pollution of water is one of the leading causes of death of aquatic life. It is thus evident that chemical pollution of water not only has negative effects on health, but it also substantially […]
• Air and Water Pollution in Los Angeles One of the major problems facing major cities and towns in the world is pollution; wastes from firms and households are the major causes of pollution.
• Water Pollution Causes and Climate Impacts The biggest percentage of sewage waste consists of water, treating the wastes for recycling would help in maintaining a constant supply of water.
• Water Pollution Origins and Ways of Resolving The evidence provided by environmental agencies indicates that industrial agriculture is one of the factors that significantly contribute to the deterioration of water quality.
• Mud Lick Creek Project – Fresh Water Pollution This potential source of pollutants poses significant risks to the quality of water at the creek in terms altering the temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen, and the turbidity of the water.
• Water Pollution in the Jamaican Society
• Water Pollution and Abstraction and Economic Instruments
• Water Pollution and Individual Effects of Water Pollution
• Understanding What Causes Water Pollution
• An Analysis of Water Pollution as a Global Plague That Affects the People, Animals and Plants
• Water Pollution Through Urban and Rural Land Use and Freshwater Allocation in New Zealand
• Water Pollution: Globalization, One of the Causes and Part of the Solution
• Voluntary Incentives for Reducing Agricultural Nonpoint Source Water Pollution
• The Impact of Water Pollution on Public Health in Flint, Michigan
• Understanding Water Pollution and Its Causes
• The Promises and Pitfalls of Devolution: Water Pollution Policies in the American States
• We Must Fight Against Water Pollution
• Transaction Costs and Agricultural Nonpoint-Source Water Pollution Control Policies
• Water Pollution and Drinking Water Quality
• Water Pollution: An Insight into the Greatest Environmental Risk
• US Water Pollution Regulation over the Past Half Century: Burning Waters to Crystal Springs
• Environmental Impact and Health Risks of Water Pollution to a Child
• Water Pollution Environment Effects Chemicals
• The Negative Effects of Water Pollution on Fish Numbers in America
• The Problem of Oil Spills and Water Pollution in Alaska
• Water Pollution in the United State: The Causes and Effects
• California Water Pollution Act Clean Laws
• The Need to Immediately Stop Water Pollution in the United States
• Water Pollution, Causes, Effects and Prevention
• The Water Pollution Prevention in Oceanic Areas
• Water Pollution and the Biggest Environmental Issues Today
• Fresh Water Pollution Assignment
• Water pollution in Southeast Asia and China
• Water Pollution Caused by Industrial Equipment
• The Impacts of Water Pollution on Economic Development in Sudan
• The Importance of Recycling to Prevent Water Pollution
• Water Pollution and Its Effects on The Environment
• The Sources, Environmental Impact, and Control of Water Pollution
• Water Quality and Contamination of Water Pollution
• Water Pollution and the World’s Worst Forms of Pollution
• The Problem of Water Pollution and the Solutions
• Comparing Contrast Legislative Approach Controlling Water Pollution Industrial
• An Analysis of the Water Pollution and it’s Effects on the Environment
• Water Pollution and The Natural Environment
• The Importance of Clean Drinking Water Pollution
• Water Pollution and Arsenic Pollution
• The Issue of Water Pollution in the Drinking Water in Brisbane
• What Are the Causes and Effects of Water Pollution?
• What Is the Effect of Water Pollution on Humanity?
• How Can Leaders Tackle with Water Pollution in China?
• What Is the Drinking Water Pollution Control Act?
• What Was the Social Water Pollution?
• How Non-Point Is Water Pollution Controlled in Agriculture?
• What Is Canada’s Water Pollution Dilemma?
• Water Pollution: Why Is There Trash in the Ocean?
• What Are the Problems Associated with Water Pollution?
• What Is the Connection Between Air and Water Pollution?
• How Water Pollution Effects Marine Life?
• What Are the Leading Factors of Water Pollution Around the World?
• Why Is Water Pollution an Important Issue Environmental Sciences?
• What Are the Factors That Causes Water Pollution and Its Effects on the World Today?
• What Are There Inorganic Chemicals Cause Water Pollution?
• How Does Drinking Water Pollution Impact the World Environmental Sciences?
• Is There a Connection Between Drinking Water Quality and Water Pollution?
• How to Deal with the Big Problem of Deforestation and Water Pollution in Brazil and the Colombian Amazon?
• Why Is China’s Water Pollution Challenge?
• What Is the Ground Water Pollution Assignment?
• How to Deal the Big Problem of Water Pollution in the World?
• How to Reduce Air and Water Pollution?
• What Is the Harmonizing Model with Transfer Tax on Water Pollution Across Regional Boundaries in China’s Lake Basin?
• Are the Causes and Effects of Water Pollution Determined in Lake Huron?
• Can Water Pollution Policy Be Efficient?
• What Are the Kinds of Water Pollution Environmental Sciences?
• What Causes Water Pollution and Its Effects?
• What Effect Does Water Pollution Have on KZN Citizens?
• How Is Water Pollution Managed in Viet Nam’s Craft Villages?
• What Should You Know About Water Pollution?
• Chicago (A-D)
• Chicago (N-B)

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Water Pollution Research Paper Topics

This comprehensive guide to water pollution research paper topics is designed to provide students studying environmental science with a wealth of options for their research papers. The guide offers a broad array of topics, divided into ten categories, each containing ten unique research topics. Additionally, the guide provides expert advice on how to choose a topic from the multitude of water pollution research paper topics and how to write a compelling research paper on water pollution. The guide also introduces iResearchNet’s writing services, which offer students the opportunity to order a custom water pollution research paper on any topic. The services boast a range of features designed to ensure the delivery of high-quality, custom-written papers.

100 Water Pollution Research Paper Topics

Water pollution is a vast and complex issue, making it a rich subject for research. The following list of water pollution research paper topics is divided into ten categories, each containing ten unique topics. This comprehensive list is designed to inspire and guide you in your quest for knowledge and understanding of water pollution.

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Causes of Water Pollution

• Industrial waste and water pollution.
• Agricultural runoff and water pollution.
• Household waste and water pollution.
• Oil spills and water pollution.
• Mining and water pollution.
• Deforestation and water pollution.
• Urban development and water pollution.
• Climate change and water pollution.
• Plastic waste and water pollution.
• Radioactive waste and water pollution.

Effects of Water Pollution

• Water pollution and human health.
• Water pollution and aquatic ecosystems.
• Water pollution and biodiversity.
• Water pollution and food security.
• Water pollution and climate change.
• Water pollution and economic development.
• Water pollution and social inequality.
• Water pollution and tourism.
• Water pollution and natural disasters.
• Water pollution and future generations.

Water Pollution Solutions

• Water treatment technologies.
• Waste management strategies.
• Policy interventions for water pollution.
• Public awareness and education.
• Corporate social responsibility and water pollution.
• Sustainable agriculture practices.
• Green technology and water pollution.
• International cooperation on water pollution.
• Community-led initiatives for clean water.
• Innovation and research in water pollution control.

Water Pollution Policies

• The Clean Water Act.
• The Safe Drinking Water Act.
• The role of the EPA in water pollution control.
• Water pollution laws in developing countries.
• International laws and treaties on water pollution.
• The effectiveness of water pollution policies.
• Challenges in enforcing water pollution laws.
• Policy gaps in water pollution control.
• The role of local governments in water pollution control.
• Future directions for water pollution policies.

Water Pollution Case Studies

• The Flint water crisis.
• The Ganges River pollution.
• The Great Pacific Garbage Patch.
• Oil spills: The Deepwater Horizon case.
• Eutrophication in the Gulf of Mexico.
• Microplastics in the Great Lakes.
• Industrial pollution in the Yangtze River.
• Agricultural runoff in the Mississippi River.
• Radioactive pollution in Fukushima.
• Sewage pollution in the Thames River.

Water Pollution and Public Health

• Waterborne diseases and water pollution.
• The impact of water pollution on child health.
• Water pollution and mental health.
• The link between water pollution and cancer.
• Water pollution and antimicrobial resistance.
• The role of clean water in disease prevention.
• Health inequalities and water pollution.
• The psychological impact of water pollution.
• Water pollution and food safety.
• The future of public health in a polluted world.

Water Pollution and Climate Change

• The impact of rising temperatures on water pollution.
• Sea-level rise and water pollution.
• Climate change, extreme weather events, and water pollution.
• The role of water pollution in exacerbating climate change.
• Climate change mitigation strategies and water pollution.
• The future of water pollution in a warming world.
• Climate justice and water pollution.
• Climate change adaptation and water pollution.
• The role of climate change education in water pollution control.
• Climate change policies and water pollution.

Water Pollution and Social Issues

• Water pollution and poverty.
• Water pollution and gender inequality.
• Water pollution and racial disparities.
• Water pollution and indigenous rights.
• Water pollution and migration.
• Water pollution and conflict.
• Water pollution and education.
• Water pollution and community resilience.
• Water pollution and social activism.
• Water pollution and the media.

Water Pollution and Technology

• The role of technology in water pollution detection.
• Technological solutions for water treatment.
• The impact of digital technology on water pollution control.
• The role of AI in water pollution management.
• Technology and water pollution education.
• The future of technology in water pollution control.
• The role of technology in water conservation.
• Technology and sustainable water management.
• The impact of technology on water quality.
• Technological innovation and water pollution policies.

Water Pollution and Sustainability

• The role of sustainable development in water pollution control.
• Water pollution and the Sustainable Development Goals.
• Sustainable water management practices.
• The role of sustainability education in water pollution control.
• Sustainability and water conservation.
• The future of sustainability in a polluted world.
• The role of sustainable agriculture in water pollution control.
• Sustainable cities and water pollution.
• Sustainability and water security.
• The role of sustainability in water policy.

In conclusion, this comprehensive list of water pollution research paper topics offers a wide range of options for students interested in studying this critical environmental issue. Whether you’re interested in the causes, effects, solutions, or social implications of water pollution, there’s a topic here for you. Remember, the best research papers start with a topic you’re passionate about, so choose a topic that resonates with you and start exploring.

Water Pollution Research Guide

Water pollution is a critical environmental issue that poses significant challenges to ecosystems, human health, and sustainable development. As students of environmental science, it is vital to understand the complexities of water pollution and its implications for our planet. One of the essential tasks assigned to students in this field is to write research papers on water pollution, which not only enhance their knowledge but also contribute to the collective efforts in finding solutions. In this comprehensive guide, we will explore a wide range of water pollution research paper topics, provide expert advice on choosing suitable topics, and offer valuable insights on how to write an impactful research paper.

Water pollution encompasses various sources and factors, including industrial waste, agricultural runoff, sewage discharge, and chemical contaminants. By delving into research papers on water pollution, students can gain a deeper understanding of the causes, effects, and potential mitigation strategies for this environmental concern. Moreover, these research papers serve as platforms for students to contribute to the existing body of knowledge and propose innovative solutions to combat water pollution effectively.

Throughout this guide, we will present a diverse range of water pollution research paper topics that cover different aspects of the issue. These topics will be organized into comprehensive categories to facilitate your exploration and ensure you find a subject that aligns with your interests and academic goals. By addressing topics such as the impact of industrial pollutants on aquatic ecosystems, the role of agriculture in water contamination, and the effectiveness of wastewater treatment methods, you can explore the multifaceted dimensions of water pollution and contribute to the ongoing efforts to address this global challenge.

In addition to the extensive list of water pollution research paper topics, we will provide expert advice on how to choose the most suitable topic for your study. Selecting the right research topic is crucial as it determines the scope, relevance, and impact of your research. Our expert tips will guide you through the process, helping you identify areas of interest, narrow down your focus, and ensure that your chosen topic aligns with your academic goals and research objectives.

Furthermore, we understand that writing a research paper can be a daunting task, especially for those new to the field. Therefore, we have included a dedicated section on how to write a water pollution research paper. We will provide you with a step-by-step guide, from formulating a research question to conducting literature reviews, collecting and analyzing data, and presenting your findings. Additionally, we will share tips and techniques to enhance your writing skills, improve the structure and flow of your paper, and effectively communicate your research findings.

We also recognize that time constraints and other academic commitments may sometimes hinder students from devoting ample time to their research papers. That’s why we offer our professional writing services to assist you in crafting a custom water pollution research paper tailored to your specific requirements. Our team of expert degree-holding writers possesses extensive knowledge in environmental science and will conduct in-depth research to deliver a top-quality paper that meets your academic needs.

Choosing a Water Pollution Research Topic

Choosing a compelling and impactful research topic is crucial when writing a water pollution research paper. It sets the foundation for your study and determines the scope and relevance of your research. With numerous dimensions to explore within the realm of water pollution, selecting the right topic can be a challenging task. To help you navigate this process effectively, we have compiled expert advice and practical tips to guide you in choosing the most suitable water pollution research paper topic. Consider the following ten tips:

• Identify your interests and passion : Begin by reflecting on your personal interests and areas of passion within the field of water pollution. Do you have a particular interest in industrial pollutants, agricultural runoff, or plastic waste in water bodies? Identifying your interests will help you stay motivated throughout the research process.
• Conduct preliminary research : Before finalizing a topic, conduct preliminary research to familiarize yourself with the current state of knowledge in the field. Read scholarly articles, research papers, and reports related to water pollution to gain insights into existing gaps, emerging trends, and potential research areas.
• Narrow down your focus : Once you have an understanding of the broad field of water pollution, narrow down your focus to a specific aspect or subtopic that aligns with your interests and research goals. For example, you could explore the impact of microplastics on marine ecosystems or the effectiveness of water pollution regulations in urban areas.
• Consider the research context : Take into account the geographical context and research opportunities available to you. Is there a specific region or local water body where you can conduct fieldwork or gather data? Considering the research context can add depth and relevance to your study.
• Evaluate the research significance : Assess the significance and potential impact of your chosen topic. Does it address an important research gap, contribute to existing knowledge, or offer practical implications for water pollution management and conservation efforts? Aim for a topic that has both academic and real-world relevance.
• Consult with your professor or advisor : Seek guidance from your professor or research advisor, as they can provide valuable insights and suggestions based on their expertise. They can help you refine your research questions, identify suitable methodologies, and offer suggestions for relevant literature.
• Consider interdisciplinary perspectives : Water pollution is a complex issue that requires interdisciplinary approaches. Consider incorporating perspectives from other disciplines such as ecology, chemistry, public health, or policy analysis. This interdisciplinary approach can add depth and richness to your research.
• Explore emerging trends and technologies : Stay updated with the latest research advancements, emerging trends, and innovative technologies in the field of water pollution. Investigate how new methodologies, monitoring techniques, or data analysis tools can be applied to your research topic to enhance its impact and contribute to the field.
• Balance feasibility and interest : While it is essential to choose a topic that interests you, also consider its feasibility within the scope of your research project. Assess the availability of data, resources, and the time required to conduct research on your chosen topic.
• Seek ethical considerations : Consider the ethical implications of your research topic, especially if it involves human subjects, sensitive ecosystems, or policy-related issues. Ensure that your research design adheres to ethical guidelines and safeguards the welfare of those involved.

By following these expert tips, you can select a compelling and meaningful water pollution research paper topic that aligns with your interests, contributes to the field, and inspires you throughout your research journey. Remember that the chosen topic will shape your research direction and influence the significance of your findings.

How to Write a Water Pollution Research Paper

Writing a water pollution research paper requires careful planning, systematic organization of ideas, and adherence to academic standards. In this section, we will provide you with ten practical tips to guide you through the process of writing an effective and compelling research paper on water pollution.

• Understand the research question : Start by clearly understanding the research question or objective of your study. Identify the specific aspect of water pollution you aim to investigate and formulate a concise and focused research question that will guide your entire paper.
• Conduct a comprehensive literature review : Before diving into writing, conduct a thorough literature review to familiarize yourself with existing research on the topic. Identify key theories, concepts, and findings that will serve as the foundation for your own study. Analyze the gaps and controversies in the literature that your research can address.
• Develop a solid research methodology : Outline the research methodology that will best address your research question. Determine whether your study will involve quantitative analysis, qualitative research, or a combination of both. Clearly define your variables, sampling methods, data collection techniques, and analytical tools.
• Gather relevant and reliable data : Collect data from credible sources to support your research findings. This may involve fieldwork, laboratory analysis, surveys, interviews, or secondary data collection. Ensure that your data is accurate, relevant, and representative of the research problem.
• Analyze and interpret the data : Once you have collected the necessary data, conduct a rigorous analysis using appropriate statistical or qualitative techniques. Interpret the results in light of your research question and objectives. Use clear and concise language to present your findings, tables, charts, or graphs to enhance understanding.
• Structure your paper effectively : Organize your research paper in a logical and coherent manner. Begin with an introduction that provides background information, states the research question, and outlines the structure of the paper. Follow with a literature review, methodology section, results and discussion, and a conclusion that summarizes your findings and implications.
• Provide a critical analysis : While presenting your research findings, critically analyze the data and discuss its strengths, limitations, and implications. Highlight the significance of your findings in relation to existing knowledge and theories. Identify any areas for further research or potential policy implications.
• Use clear and concise language : Communicate your ideas effectively by using clear and concise language throughout the paper. Avoid jargon or complex terminology unless necessary, and ensure that your arguments and explanations are easily understood by your target audience.
• Cite and reference sources accurately : Give credit to the authors of the works you have referenced by using proper citation and referencing formats, such as APA, MLA, or Chicago style. This ensures that your paper is academically sound and avoids any plagiarism concerns.
• Revise and edit your paper : Before finalizing your research paper, thoroughly revise and edit it for clarity, coherence, grammar, and punctuation. Ensure that your arguments flow logically, the structure is coherent, and the writing is polished. Seek feedback from peers or professors to improve the quality of your paper.

By following these ten tips, you can write a comprehensive and well-structured water pollution research paper that contributes to the field and effectively communicates your findings. Remember to maintain a critical mindset, engage with relevant literature, and present your research in a clear and concise manner.

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• Open access
• Published: 29 March 2024

Reliable water quality prediction and parametric analysis using explainable AI models

• M. K. Nallakaruppan 1 ,
• E. Gangadevi 2 ,
• M. Lawanya Shri 1 ,
• Balamurugan Balusamy 3 ,
• Sweta Bhattacharya 1 &
• Shitharth Selvarajan 4 , 5  

Scientific Reports volume  14 , Article number:  7520 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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• Electrical and electronic engineering
• Engineering

The consumption of water constitutes the physical health of most of the living species and hence management of its purity and quality is extremely essential as contaminated water has to potential to create adverse health and environmental consequences. This creates the dire necessity to measure, control and monitor the quality of water. The primary contaminant present in water is Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), which is hard to filter out. There are various substances apart from mere solids such as potassium, sodium, chlorides, lead, nitrate, cadmium, arsenic and other pollutants. The proposed work aims to provide the automation of water quality estimation through Artificial Intelligence and uses Explainable Artificial Intelligence (XAI) for the explanation of the most significant parameters contributing towards the potability of water and the estimation of the impurities. XAI has the transparency and justifiability as a white-box model since the Machine Learning (ML) model is black-box and unable to describe the reasoning behind the ML classification. The proposed work uses various ML models such as Logistic Regression, Support Vector Machine (SVM), Gaussian Naive Bayes, Decision Tree (DT) and Random Forest (RF) to classify whether the water is drinkable. The various representations of XAI such as force plot, test patch, summary plot, dependency plot and decision plot generated in SHAPELY explainer explain the significant features, prediction score, feature importance and justification behind the water quality estimation. The RF classifier is selected for the explanation and yields optimum Accuracy and F1-Score of 0.9999, with Precision and Re-call of 0.9997 and 0.998 respectively. Thus, the work is an exploratory analysis of the estimation and management of water quality with indicators associated with their significance. This work is an emerging research at present with a vision of addressing the water quality for the future as well.

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Introduction

The major part of our earth comprises water and it is extremely important for the survival of all humans and animal species. Water makes up over 326 cubic metres of the planet’s surface, which is almost 71% of its total area out of which 97% is seawater. Only 0.5 percentage of the drinkable water on earth is accessible, while the remaining 2.5 percentage is either trapped in glaciers, polar ice caps, the atmosphere, on soil, is polluted, or lies beneath the earth’s surface far beyond human reach. If the global water supply is 100 L, consequently the amount of drinking water would be only 0.003 L, which is just a teaspoon. Therefore, the management and preservation of drinking water is regarded as a top priority. It is the most critical issue for mankind to address given the extremely limited amount of water that is accessible for use. The quantum of water around the world is represented in Table 1 .

Water is a common and crucial resource shared among all humans, animals, and plants and is a necessity for all species. Each one of these species has its own respective needs for water quality. Total Dissolvable Solids (TDS) of soft water for human consumption range from the best quality stated, which is between 50 mg/dL and 150 mg/dL. Between 150 mg/dL and 300 mg/dL is the next level that can be applied to humans. The plants need water that is between 700mg/dL and 800mg/dL. The animals, especially cattle consume water around the quality of 1000 mg/dL. It is thus evident from all these observations that water quality management is essential to ensure sustainability and a healthy life on Earth. The impact of water quality prediction is crucial at a global level for many reasons. First of all, to get clean and safe water is a basic human necessity and water quality prediction aids to guarantee the availability of potable water for societies worldwide. Water quality is related to public health as polluted water may cause waterborne diseases which could affect millions of humans globally. A sustainable environment is an important aspect of human well-being by preserving ecosystems and biodiversity. The significance of water quality assessment is profound and intricate by various organizations globally. The WHO (World Health Organization) , UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme), EPA (United States Environmental Protection Agency), EEA (European Environment Agency), IWA (International Water Association) and WEF (Water Environment Federation) are fanatical for water quality assessment and addressing the mitigation strategies for water quality challenges. Water quality creates impact on public health globally and resulting in dissemination of waterborne diseases like typhoid, dysentery, cholera, dengue and malaria and cause substantial risks worldwide.

The advancement in computing technologies and artificial intelligence have elevated the standards of water quality assessments 1 . Measurements and estimations about the quality of the water have become easier to calculate and accurate, especially with the development of Industry 4.0 standards and Internet of Things (IoT) sensors. With the integration of IoT sensors, AI solely serves as a supporting tool to automate water quality checks 2 . Classification and Regression models based on machine learning help in determining the water quality. Depending on the outcomes, classification results tend to be binary or multi-classified. Real-time sensor data are collected, given feature labels, and then classified based on the importance of the feature labels. Earlier, these measurements used to be carried out with fuzzy-based decision support systems 3 with subjective decision-making models. AI development has made it possible to classify and analyse quality aspects quantitatively. The accuracy of the water quality assessment has been validated using various performance metrics like accuracy, precision, recall, and f1-score. AI models also support such quantitative analysis, classification of water sources, and prediction of drinkable water as well as identifying the mixing of bouyant pollutants in water sources 4 .

Despite its success in automating tasks and making water quality predictions using diverse models, the AI models lack transparency and are considered black-box where the decisions are derived but the reasoning behind such decisions is not revealed. The present generation validation frameworks for water quality management need justifiability, transparency and explainability, which is possible to be rendered by Explainable AI (XAI) based systems. XAI is a technology that is white-box and answers the uncertainty related to the classification and regression problems of AI. XAI applies a model-agnostic approach, where the machine learning models can be treated independently for interpretation. Additionally, XAI discusses how the model is chosen, how it works, and how it performs categorization. Through the assessment of a problem’s feature weights, XAI also can determine a feature’s relevance. This clarifies how a feature value relates to a certain target class classification. As an example, XAI uses models like Partial Dependency Plots (PDP) 5 , which describes the relationship between the features using lasso functions. This model may identify the linear relationship between two characteristics of water quality data and explain their correlation. In XAI, models like Local Interpretable Model agnostic Explainer(LIME), explain the relationship between a single feature and relevant others in local surrogacy. This infers that, except for the one-row value of the dataset, it is possible to relate a target attribute to the other independent variables. LIME in this regard can be used to explain the target classification for a single row instance about the water quality 6 . In the proposed work, XAI, which employs both local and global surrogates, includes SHAPELY. The model offers a solution that takes into account the importance of each feature in determining the target as well as the dependency between features, the relationship between features, and the explanation of decisions through a variety of plots, including force plots, summary plots, dependency plots, and decision plots. The framework is very adaptable and capable of giving a thorough explanation of the characteristics of the water quality and how they affect the classification of the water quality.

Advantages of the proposed model

Explainable AI plays an important role in improving the interpretability of predictions made by machine learning models. More transparent predictions are generated by these models. In the proposed approach, the authors have employed LIME and SHAP to interpret predictions achieved from machine learning, which identifies inputs as an important metric for selecting the features. By applying the XAI approach, the proposed model provides deep insights into the features and allows informed decision-making in water management processes.

Contributions of the paper

The following points describe the contribution of the proposed work.

The proposed work offers a comprehensive analysis and white-box description of the classification problem for water quality.

The framework incorporates extensive pre-processing of the dataset to ensure it fit to be fed into the XAI model.

Imputation of missing data is carried out to increase the accuracy of the findings.

The proposed work ensures achievement of most significant features, identification of the feature importance, feature dependencies, and feature weights, that enable optimized classification of water quality dataset.

The proposed approach employs both model-based and model-agnostic interpretations, using model-based ML implementations and model-agnostic XAI implementations.

Organization of the paper

Section “ Introduction ” of the paper introduces the problem of the research paper with the description of the unique contributions. Section. Introduction ” also describes the literature review of the related problems on water quality, in related works subsection, with an exhaustive survey of the various applications and case studies pertaining to water quality management using AI and machine learning approaches. Section “ System model and architecture ” describes the methods applied in the proposed work with the implementation of the mathematical model with the algorithm of the proposed work. Section “ Results ” describes the results of various ML and XAI models with relevant tables and graphs. Section “ Discussion ” provides the comparative analysis of the results with a discussion of challenges and solutions of the proposed work. Section “ Conclusion ” concludes the paper with future directions.

Related works

Lu et al. 7 proposed the central environmental protection inspection (CEPI), which was implemented and the causes of transboundary water contamination were investigated. The triple difference technique (DDD) was used to assess how the CEPI affected pollution and the results to determine how significantly water pollution was decreased as well as the significance of CEPI laws for addressing transboundary pollution. Halder et al. 8 , the Turag River’s neighbouring communities are suffering from major health problems as a result of water contamination. For the sustainability of household and aquatic life, the river’s water quality was unsuitable. The study noted that the threshold values for turbidity, total dissolved solids (TDS), chloride (CL-), chemical oxygen demand (COD), carbon dioxide (CO2), and biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) are higher than the standard permissible limits, which may result in health problems like respiratory illnesses, diarrhoea, cholera, dengue, malaria, anaemia, and skin problems. A study evaluating metal pollution management and mitigation tactics on soil and water was presented by Wang et al. 9 . In this study, the remediation of metal contamination from water and soil utilising chemical, physical, and biological approaches was discussed. In this study, the current methods for reducing heavy metal pollution of the soil and water are examined. Elehinafe et al. 10 discussed the importance of water contamination and examined the main cause of water scarcity. The proposed work discussed the effect of hazardous chemicals on the water, including pesticides, heavy metals, and micro-pollutants. This study outlined the numerous technologies that are currently available to eliminate hazardous materials and provide sustainable clean water resources. Mu et al. 11 proposed a solution for the investigation into farmers’ readiness to implement Rural Water Pollution Control (RWPC). This study examines farmers’ viewpoints to improve the quality of life for locals who reside in rural regions and avoid water contamination. To analyse the contributions of contaminants, Wang et al. 12 developed a unique contaminant flux variable model for river water quality assessment. The framework effectively identified the sources of pollution and evaluated the efficacy of projects designed to reduce water pollution. Zadeh et al. 13 proposed WQPs for estimating chemical oxygen demand and biochemical oxygen demand using the MKSVR algorithm. PSO algorithm is used for solving optimization problems. The multiple kernel support vector regression (MKSVR) is compared with SVR and Random Forest Regression and achieves a better accuracy level for BOD prediction. Nagaf et al. 14 presented a framework for assessing the WQI values based on the NSF guidelines. This framework uses four data-driven models such as EPR, M5 MT, GEP and MARS for predicting WQI values in the Karun River. The classification uses 12 water quality parameters and missing values were extracted from the image analysis. Zadeh et al. 15 proposed a model that utilizes gene expression programming, evolutionary polynomial regression, and model trees for predicting WQPs. The biochemical oxygen demand, dissolved oxygen and chemical oxygen demand are used for estimation with nine parameters. The gamma test is used for determining important parameters. Najaf et al. 16 proposed a water quality predicting framework for estimating the water quality index in the Hudson River based on Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment (CCME) guidelines. The four artificial intelligence techniques M5 MT, Multivariate Adaptive Regression Spline, Evolutionary Polynomial Regression and Gene Expression Programming are used with Landsat 8 OLI-TIRS images. The results proved that the MARS technique achieved the best outcome compared to other models.

Chowdhury et al. 17 emphasized the sources of water contamination which are caused by densely populated industrial areas that are located close to water bodies. The main causes of water contamination are dangerous chemicals and heavy metals. Farmers’ pre-owned pesticides, including different types of carbamate and organophosphorus pesticides, are the main causes of water contamination on agricultural grounds as per the study. Ahivar et al. 18 examined the use of heavy metal pollution indices (HPIs) in soil, water, and sediments. For assessing metal contamination, HPI is considered a crucial instrument. Each method’s pollution index is assessed to interpret the pollution levels. The selection of HPIs based on the parameters and standards for evaluating the quality of the water and soil is offered. Chen et al. 19 presented a study by used various mathematical and statistical approaches to check the quality of water. The factors indicating the water pollution and the seasonal characteristics are evaluated to reduce the river water pollution. The Principal Component Analysis, Cluster Analysis, Network Analysis and Co-Occurrence Analysis were carried out to find the potential source of river water pollution. Fan et al. 20 examined the quality of water using several mathematical and statistical techniques. To lessen river water pollution, the variables implicating contamination and the seasonal traits are assessed. To identify a likely cause of river water pollution, the Principal Component Analysis, Cluster Analysis, Network Analysis, and Co-Occurrence Analysis were performed. Wang et al. 21 formulated the performance indices for explaining the Water-Energy-Pollution nexus (InWEP) effects of scales. The Nexus Pressure Index (NPI) and Nexus Coupling Index (NCI) were used to represent the pollution pressure and the interacted relations. The factors for InWEP were analysed using the Structural Equation Model (SEM) considering four objects namely enterprises, countries, industrial zones and cities. The performance of InWEP was evaluated for the performance metrics - efficiency, structure and location. To evaluate the quality of groundwater surrounding nearby areas in an industrial metropolis, Asomaku 22 evaluated the water pollution indices. Nine samples from three landfills are used in the analysis of the groundwater’s chemical and metal characteristics. The study in Balaram et al. 23 explored many elements that have an impact on water quality, including climate change, industry, aquaculture, mining, and agriculture. For the quantitative and qualitative evaluation of hazardous metals, metal species, isotopes, and other contaminants that are present in water, various ICP-MS techniques are applied. Yuan et al. 24 proposed a water quality monitoring framework using biological sensors for water quality assessment. Borzooei et al. 25 presented a study to estimate the frequency weather events that creates impact on waste water assessment. The Time series data mining approach is used for categorizing the dry and wet weather events. Noori et al. 26 presented a report on decline of groundwater recharge in Iran. The study presents the average amount of ground water recharge is more than the annual runoff 4 utilized WCSPH (A weakly compressible smoothed particle hydrodynamics) model for simulating the near-shore hydrodynamics. The study conducted experimental and numerical evaluation for detecting the causes for mixing the buoyant pollutants in coastal water source. Yeganeh-Bakhtiar 27 presented a framework using MOS (Model Output Statistics) for establishing the statistical relationships among predicator and predicant.

When evaluating water quality using factors like toxicity and pollutants, computer vision and biological sensor systems are utilised in tandem. To retrieve the important data from images taken by a microscope, a microfluidic chip with sensors is utilised. This chip monitors water samples. Figure 1 describes various factors causing water pollution in smart cities including construction activities, atmospheric deposition, natural factors, municipal wastewater, stormwater runoff, incorrect waste disposal, industrial discharges, agricultural runoff, and municipal wastewater. Jeihouni et al. 28 implemented and compared five data mining techniques, including the Ordinary Decision Tree (ODT), Random Forest (RF), Chi-square Automatic Interaction Detector (CHAID), Iterative Dichotomiser 3 (ID3), and Random tree, to identify high-quality water zones. Eight parameters are used in the evaluation process while deriving rules. Compared to the remaining models, the RF performed well, with an accuracy rate of 97.10%. Lee et al. 29 implemented a framework for evaluating the quality of groundwater utilising a Self-Organizing Map (SOM) technique and fuzzy c-means clustering (FCM) was given. The two methods are employed to describe the complex nature of groundwater. SOM employed 91 neurons to categorise 343 groundwater samples, and FCM grouped the water sources into three groups. Agarwal et al. 30 proposed AI based water evaluating technique to predict the water quality index using Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO), Naïve Bayes Classifier (NBC), and Support vector machine (SVM). PSO was used in this regard for optimizing the classifiers wherein the PSO-optimized NBC obtained 92.8% accuracy and PSO-optimized SVM obtained 77.60% accuracy. Table 3 illustrates various existing state-of-art techniques proposed for assessing water quality, its advantages and research gaps.

Figure 1 illustrates the factors causing water pollution. The factors includes Industrial discharges, agricultural runoff, municipal waste water, storm water, improper waste disposal, oil spills and chemical spills, construction wastages, and atmospheric deposition. The factors are very crucial to protect public health and ecosystem , sustainability development, creating public awareness and for pollution prevention.

Factors causing water pollution.

Figure 2 depicts the required physical parameters such as Temperature, Turbidity, Conductivity, Odour and Color represented in percentage, for evaluating the quality of water. Examining the physical parameters is essential for identifying the potential hazards that leads to poor water quality and for preventing ecosystem health.

Physical Parameters.

Figure 3 depicts the necessary chemical parameters, such as pH, Dissolved Oxygen (DO), Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), Nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus), Total Suspended Solids (TSS), Heavy Metals, and Organic Matter (OM), as well as Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) and Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) with percentages, that must be measured in order to assess the water’s quality.

Chemical parameters.

Figure 4 presents various supervised learning models for estimating water quality, including Random Forest, Support Vector Machine (SVM), Decision Trees, Neural Networks, and Gradient Boosting Approaches like XGBoost and AdaBoost.

Supervised learning models.

Figure 5 represents various unsupervised learning models such as Principal Component Analysis, Cluster Analysis and Self-Organizing Maps (SOM) for addressing the quality of the water. PCA is a dimensionality reduction approach mainly utilized for analyzing the high dimensional datasets. Cluster analysis techniques are used primarily for grouping water samples based on similarities. SOM technique is principally used for organizing the water quality data.

Unsupervised learning models.

Figure 6 highlights the various Hybrid ML models such as ensemble models with Reinforcement Learning (RL) for addressing the evaluation of quality of water. The various machine learning models can be verified based on the applications, parameters in order to determine the quality of the water, dataset size and its quality based on the assessment of the performance metrics.

Hybrid ML models.

The motivation for the proposed research, along with the research gap analysis with similar existing research works is discussed as per Table 2 . The comparative analysis and research of similar existing works are presented in Table 3 . These two discussions provide a comprehensive understanding of the requirements, that are essentially required in the design of the proposed system and implementation.

Table 3 refers to similar literature review of various models of machine learning such as DT,RF,DCF, SVM, and so on. This table also discusses about various deep learning models such as, Artificial Neural Networks (ANN), Probablistic Neural Network (PNN), Convolution Neural Networks (CNN) and statistical regression models such as Auto-Regression in Moving Average(ARIMA). This table discusses the the research gaps identified and enhanced in the proposed work. These models were mostly numerical evaluations with regression analysis. The proposed model and the system is classifier which deploys XAI framework, to discuss the impact of parameters, that determine the portability of the water with end user perspective. This is towards achieving environmental sustainability on water conservation and harvesting.

Statement of objectives

The proposed work offers a comprehensive analysis and white-box description of the classification problem for water quality . The framework incorporates extensive pre-processing of the dataset to ensure it fits into the XAI model. Imputation of missing data is carried out to increase the accuracy of the findings. The proposed work ensures the achievement of the most significant features, identification of the feature importance, feature dependencies, and feature weights, that enable optimized classification of the water quality dataset. The proposed approach employs both model-based and model-agnostic interpretations, using model-based ML. Donnelly et al. 46 implementations and model-agnostic XAI implementations. The quality of water is greatly challenged by innumerable influencing factors. These factors vary from condition to condition and place to place. For example, Microplastics (MP) are emerging pollutants in the marine environment with potential toxic effects on littoral and coastal ecosystems 47 and as well as identifying the mixing of bouyant pollutants in water sources 4 . The laboratory evaluations show the presence of polyethene (PE) particles in the waves of the ocean with wave steepness Sop of 2–5%. The transportation of which could cause severe water pollution on the seashores 48 .These measurements require quantification and feature analysis when it is evaluated with AI. This is where the XAI plays a vital role in measuring the order and degree of the pollutants causing the quantifiable pollution in the water.

Case studies

Importance of XAI in Water Quality Assessment: The following case studies delineate the advent of the potential impact of XAI, with a groundbreaking revolution in water quality assessment.

Case Study 1: Pollution of Ganges 49 This case study emphasises the Ganga River pollution issue in India, which has an extremely detrimental impact on humans and the entire ecosystem. The Ganga River is polluted by industrial, animal, and human waste. The main source of pollutants is industrial rubber waste, followed by leather and plastic manufacturers who dump their untreated wastewater into the river. The Ganga Action Plan was developed by the Indian government to combat Ganga pollution. This implies the need for the reinforcement of environmental restrictions to improve river quality.

Materials and methods

An effective policy for health protection should thus emphasize providing access to safe drinking water regardless of social and economic diversity. In some places, it is evident from previous studies that investments in access to clean water and sanitation yield economic benefits for any country. It is a significant aspect of eco-friendly health and public safety, as it regulates the appropriateness of water for numerous purposes, such as drinking, agriculture, industry, and recreational purposes. The important key indicators related to water quality are its physical, chemical, and biological characteristics and its sources of pollution. The dependent target class is potability. The other independent features are pH value, hardness, solids (Total Dissolved Solids-TDS), Chloramines, sulfate, conductivity, organic carbon, trihalomethanes, and turbidity. Water’s potability indicates its purity and safety for ingestion. The parameters used and their WHO limits, the hyper-parametric analysis are listed in Table 4 , and the feature description of parameters are listed in Table 5 .

XAI framework facilitates transparent and interpretable explanations of the outcome generated by the ML algorithm-based frameworks. XAI can thus be applied in the present context of water quality assessment to ensure accurate decision-making, thereby, enabling trustworthiness, enhancement of transparency and interpretability of the behaviour of the model.

Hydro-climatic application

XAI framework can be used to solve Hydro-Climatic problems 50 with diverse spatio-temporal scales. XAI is utilized to unveil the nonlinear correlative causes, in which the performance of the model is enhanced. It enables the users to discover new knowledge and further easily understand the rationale behind the decision outcomes.

Groundwater potential predictions

XAI approach can explain the decisions made by ML models for groundwater potential prediction. The user can easily interpret the outcomes and further comprehend the underlying for an outcome in the realm of water quality evaluation for conservation, and sustainability of water management.

Water quality predictions

XAI framework can forecast water quality using metrics and factors with interpretable results. Water quality assessment managers can comprehend the variables and parameters used for outcomes. This forces quality managers to mitigate water quality issues.

Flood hazard risk predictions

Floods can trigger landslides from excessive rainfall. Flooding causes countless casualties and property damage. Disaster warning systems need a flood risk assessment. XAI can forecast rapid water depths and provide timely, interpretable alerts to protect public health and safety.

Environmental impact assessment

XAI approach can be used for assessing the environmental impact on the water pollution incidents, and provide insight for mitigation and management. It enhances transparency and accountability by providing insights into the factors and parameters influencing environmental conditions. The analysis provided by the XAI model helps the stakeholders to identify the most significant factors contributing towards the environmental outcome.

System model and architecture

System model.

Worldwide, numerous water bodies are contaminated by a variety of anthropogenic and natural processes, resulting in a variety of health problems for human life. Thus water quality requires rigorous monitoring and management to prevent pollution. In accordance with WHO guidelines, the polluted water must be treated using the proper water treatment techniques before consumption. The quality of water is contaminated by the incessant addition of toxic chemicals and microbes and also by the relentless addition of local and industrial sewage sludge, trash, and extra hazardous waste that are toxic to humans and society. Many uncertainties are required to be quantified for all machine learning models. The uncertainties such as selecting and gathering the training data, absolute and accurate training data, understanding the machine learning models with performance bounds and drawbacks and finally the uncertainties which are based on the operational data. To minimize the challenges, adhoc steps like studying the model variability and sensitivity analysis are applied. In current years, the validation of water quality has taken active momentum because of ever-increasing water pollutants which spoil water that is dedicated for domestic use and irrigation. Water quality indices (WQIs) are used worldwide very efficiently for the assessment of the quality of both groundwater and other relevant water sources. Machine Learning techniques play a substantial role in identifying the quality of water using explainable AI. Figure 7 depicts the overall architecture of the proposed framework of our study. The dataset used in the study is split into the ratio of 70:30 wherein 70% is used for training and 30% is used for testing. The model is trained using a decision tree, random forest, SVM, logistic regression, and Naive Bayes algorithms. XAI model is implemented in the framework wherein LIME and Shapely are used to provide explainability and interpretability to the results generated by the machine learning model .

Interfacing ML algorithms with XAI.

Decision tree

The decision tree is stated as a recursive partition of the set of all possible instances 27 51 . The goal of a decision tree is to split the data which consequences in maximum information gain 52 . Let L be a sample for learning, L= ( \(v_{1}\) , \(c_{1}\) ), ( \(v_{2}\) , \(c_{2}\) ),( \(v_{i}\) , \(c_{j}\) ). Here, \(v_{1}\) , \(v_{2}\) , \(v_{3}\) , \(v_{i}\) are represented for measurement vectors, and \(c_{1}\) , \(c_{2}\) , \(c_{3}\) , \(c_{j}\) are represented for class labels.The batch conditions are reliant on one of the vector variables denoted as \(s_{i}\) 53 . Let us assume if the \(e_{i}\) of an element fits class label \(c_{i}\) , then \(p_{i}\) is denoted as per the Eq. ( 1 ).

Entropy evaluates the random value from the given samples and the homogeneity of the expected rate of a group of data 54 . To divide the data most optimally, the lowest value of entropy signifies better homogeneity.

L represents the data set evaluated by the entropy, ‘i’ denotes the classes in the set L, and \(e_{i}\) indicates the number of data labels that fit class ’i’ 55 . The least value of entropy is used for choosing the best feature. Information gain enumerates the amount of information provided by a particular characteristic about the target variable to minimize the uncertainty present in the data set. It is calculated by comparing the weighted average of entropy to the original data set after the splitting process. Let us assume that R is the rate for the features ‘f’, \([|{L}^R|]\) denotes the subset of LS so that bf=R 56 . After splitting L on the feature, information gain is given as follows.

The Gini index evaluates the heterogeneity of a selected node in the decision tree. It counts the probability of wrongly identifying data in the node. The Gini index begins from the value 0 to 1, where 0 indicates a pure node and 1 denotes a node that is distributed equally. The Gini index is represented as

Here, \(e_{i}\) represents the quantity of data labels. When the data is divided on class d as L1 and L2 with sizes \(s_{1}\) and \(s_{2}\) , Gini is evaluated as

Due to its comprehensible nature, decision trees can manage both numerical and categorical data with automatic feature selection.

Random forest

Random forest is an ensemble method that groups the results of multiple decision trees to compute predictions with enhanced accuracy. Every decision tree is improved on a random subset of labels from the dataset, to achieve diversity between the trees. When the data in the training label is t, then with replacement ‘n’ data are verified as bootstrap data 57 . This is done to produce the decision tree with training data. When there are ’m’ labels, a \(<<\) m is selected so that ‘a’ values are considered at random from ‘m’. The value ‘a’ is constant when the tree is growing to the highest level. The highest vote is noted as a new instance. (GE*) is the generalization error for the random forest and is denoted as

Here, f(X, Y) is a margin function to count the average number of votes from (X, Y). X denotes the prediction value and Y denotes the classification problem. The margin function is represented as

where ’F’ is for the indicator function. The value for the margin function is indicated as

The average value of a random forest and the mean correlation of the classifiers are combined as generalization errors. The p denotes the mean of the correlation. The generalization error for the upper bound is

Random forest reduces the over-fitting problem compared to a single decision tree. It can effectively manage high-dimensional data.

Support vector machine (SVM)

Let us consider a binary classification problem 1 or −1 to represent the sample variables 58 . When i elements of the sample variable is − 1, it is a positive class. When the i variables of the samples is 1, it is a negative set. Let V_i  = X1, X2,...Xn, Yi, i = 1,2,...n, \(Y\_{i}\in {-1,1}\) , Si indicates i item from the samples. Yi is the i item of the tests performed 59 . To split the samples into two parts, the function f(X) = ZTX+ b is used, where Z is the coefficient vector to normalize the hyperplane. The optimal margin is given as

\(\underbrace{MIN}_{\begin{array}{c} w, b, \\ \varepsilon \end{array}} \left( {\frac{1}{2}}Z^{TZ}+C\sum _{i=1}^{n}\varepsilon _i\right)\)

subject to:

The Lagrangian equation is given as

\(\underbrace{MAX}_{\propto } \left( \sum _{i=1}^{n}{\propto _i-\frac{1}{2}}\sum _{i,j=1}^{n}{\propto _i\propto _jY_iY_jX_iX_j}\right)\)

The Lagrangian equation with the maximum value with \(\propto _i\) a positive multiplier for the equation \(\sum _{i=1}^{n}{\propto _iY_i=0}\) and \(\propto _i\ge 0\) to change the optimal hyperplane 60 is presented. The optimal equation is given as

In the above equation \(\propto _i=0\) of the Lagrangian multiplier is nearest to the margin of the optimal hyperplane denoted as a support vector. This data is linearly separable by the kernel to evaluate the expected result from the instance 61 . The kernel function is denoted as

The generalized linear equation is changed to represent the non-linear dual Lagrangian \(La(\alpha )\) .

\(Lag\left( \propto \right) =\ \sum _{i=1}^{n}{\propto _i-\frac{1}{2}\sum _{i,j=1}^{n}{\propto _i\propto _jY_iY_jK\left( X_i,X_j\right) }}\)

Subject to:

The Lagrangian equation can be used for the separable case as

The SVM algorithm is very effective when the quantity of features is higher than the number of samples 62 .

Logistic regression

Logistic regression is used for binary classification problems to forecast the probability of an occurrence matching to a particular class. If the dependent value is binary, a regression analysis is used. The idea in logistic regression(logreg) is the logarithm ‘logn’ of odds of X, and odds are the ratios of probabilities ‘pb’ of X 63 . The rate of the independent value is termed odds because logistic regression measures the probability of an act that happens over the likelihood of an occurrence that does not happen.

where p is the probability of a positive output and x is the variable. The \(\alpha\) and \(\beta\) , are the logistic regression parameters 64 . The above equation is used for finding the number of occurrences as

\(p=probability(Y=positive\ outcome|X=x,\) a specific value)

For multiple predictors, a logic regression equation can be written as

\(p=probability(Y=positive\ outcome|X_1=x_1,\ldots ,x_k)\)

Here, pb refers to the probability of the positive occurrence of the event, the Y-intercept is \(\alpha\) , the regression coefficient is \(\beta\) , and e is 2.71828. Logistic regression is applied in various domains like finance, healthcare, social sciences, and many more for predicting diseases, credit default, etc.

Naive Bayesian classification

Gaussian Naive Bayes is a probabilistic classification algorithm developed based on Bayes theorem. It refers to the features which represent a normal distribution 65 . It classifies the samples as most likely classified as

If the sample \(Y_{j}\) is a vector, \(x_{j}\) is the \(j^{th}\) value which contains different values of \(y_{j}\) . The attributes used are dependent and it is shown as

Substituting the above equation into Bayes classification, we get

The Gaussian Naive Bayes algorithm is mainly applied for spam filtering, sentiment analysis, and text classification problems where the features must be continuous and follow the Gaussian distribution 66 .

LIME (Local interpretable model-agnostic explanations)

LIME explains the predictions of any kind of classifier by approximating locally along with an interpretable system. It changes the data sample by altering the values of features and monitors the impact of the result. It explains the predictions from every sample 67 . To receive the labels for the current data, alter the samples z ’s into the unique form \(z \in {\mathbb {R}}^d\) . Since the samples x ’ are generated randomly, x samples closer to the unique instance z for weighing are considered. The weight is evaluated as \(\Pi _z(x)\) for measuring the intimacy between the data z to x. The currently weighted data X and the samples formed by f ( x ), are trained as \(g \in G\) , where G is a model. The interpretable model \(\xi (x)\) of the current data g for explaining f ( x ) as

L is the loss function to measure whether g is following the state of f in the nearest neighborhood of z . If the loss function is reduced, the behaviour of g takes the behaviour of f as \(\Pi _z\) . The complexity of the model \(\Omega (g)\) should be low. When \(g(x')\) is considered as a linear function, \(g(x') = \varphi ^T x' + \varphi _0\) , changes the equation into a linear regression task to evaluate \(\varphi\) and \(\varphi _0\) .

SHAP (SHAPELY Additive exPlanations)

SHAP values determine the status of each feature for the prediction of a specific class 68 . The prediction f ( y ), using \(s(y')\) , a model for the binary elements \(x' \in \{0,1\}^M\) with the sets \(\emptyset _i \in {\mathbb {R}}\) , is given as

M refers to the explanation variable.

where f is the model of the SHAP, z refers to the variable, and \(z'\) are the variables chosen. The value \(f_y(x') - f_y(x'\setminus i)\) indicates all the predictions.

In this section two algorithms are discussed: one for the algorithm-based evaluation of water quality 1 and another for the algorithm-based explanation of water quality 2 . These two algorithms provide a holistic analysis and explanation of water quality management.

Algorithm for water quality classification

Algorithm for water quality Explanation

The water quality is assessed in the proposed work based on nine parameters such as pH value, Hardness (Total Dissolved Soils), Sulphate, Chloramines, Trihalomethanes, Conductivity, Organic carbon, and Turbidity. The target class for this dataset is Potability which is binary where 0 indicates that the water is not potable and 1 reflects its potability.

The dataset consisted of high missing values on sulphate and lower missing values on Chloramines and Trihalomethanes. The missing value imputation is hence performed and all the attributes are imputed for the missing values. The target class is converted into a numeric array for the processing of XAI models. This is done with the label encoder application of Python. The dataset is split with a ratio of 80:20 for training and testing.

The correlation analysis is performed on the dataset. The attribute Hardness has a high correlation of 0.34 with the target attribute potability. The next best correlation value is 0.24, which is rendered by the attribute Chloramines, followed by 0.21 produced by the Trihalomethanes attribute. Turbidity is the next better parameter with a correlation value of 0.16. The correlation heat map between the attributes of interest and the target attribute is presented in Fig. 8 .

Correlation analysis for water quality attributes.

The trained dataset is applied with SVM, LR, DT, RF and Gaussian Naive Bayes machine learning models. The SVM did not provide the desired classification and failed to converge for the portable data. The other models generated the results within the desired range and are presented in Table 6 .

The sensitivity and specificity measurements for the Machine learning models are presented in Table 7 . Considering the performance metrics, the results reveal the superiority of the RF model which generates a better outcome in comparison to the other models and thus it has been selected to be fed into the XAI model to provide enhanced interpretability, justifiability and transparency.

The XAI model implementation is performed considering SHAPELY values in the pandas’ application. This application focuses on the value of each feature in determining the target attribute which is potability. The significance of every feature is assessed through the various applications of SHAPELY. The first XAI model generated is the force plot, which provides the minimum and maximum prediction score of the target attribute in a dataset. The blue colored contour shows that a low score is measured and the red color shows a high score. The values at the separation boundary have the highest priority attribute. The force plot is presented in the Figs. 9 and 10 .

Force plot for water quality.

Force plot for potability.

The Global surrogate version of the force plot is presented in Fig. 11 . The blue regions indicate no potability and the red-coloured regions indicate potability. The border areas of the intersection show the attributes which have higher significance for the feature selection. The Sulphate value of 444 at the point of intersection indicates its significance in explaining this test patch for the entire dataset.

Test patch for potability.

The next XAI application of SHAPELY is the summary plot. This plot describes the features in determining binary classification problems. This predicts the scale of low to high for two significant results. The blue contour indicates lower significance towards the prediction and red indicates higher significance. The summary plot is shown in Fig. 12 . The Solids, pH, Sulfate, and Hardness show higher significance in determining the output.

Summary plot for potability.

The dependency plot shows the relationship between two features in the dataset. It provides the output in granular form with a variable-like result rather than simply a graph-like result of a Partial Dependency Plot(PDP). The relationship between the Sulphate and Potability is depicted in Fig. 13 . The mid-range of the dataset provides more granular output, which shows that the Sulphate parameter values are more significant in determining the values of potability in the mid-range of the dataset.

Dependency plot for potability.

The decision plot, which displays how the values of the features affect the goal, is the final model of XAI. This plot is a local surrogate plot, which would only explain a certain data instance, in which what values of the attributes influence the decision to be 1 or 0 as the decision of the model. The decision plot for the potability as 1 is illustrated in Fig. 14 . The potability 0 is illustrated in Fig. 15 .

Decision plot for potability.

The results of the experiment reveal the superiority of the RF model which generates an accuracy of 0.999 followed by DT, generating an accuracy of 0.998. The lowest accuracy is generated by the SVM model of 0.63. The RF is thus chosen for the implementation of the XAI model using SHAPELY. The comparative analysis of the aforementioned various models is depicted in Fig. 16 , considering evaluation metrics accuracy, precision, recall, and f1-score. In the case of all the performance metrics, the RF model outperforms the other models. Figure 17 shows the comparison of the sensitivity and specificity measures. The RF model stands superior in these considerations as well. Thus, the discussion offers a visual representation and justification of the reasoning behind the choice of RF to be included in the XAI framework to offer explainability.

Comparative analysis of machine learning models used.

Comparative analysis of sensitivity and specificity.

Apart from the selection of the RF model, SHAPELY provided five different models to explain the feature importance and relationships. The proposed work presented the force plot, summary plot, test patch, dependency plot, and decision plot. The Final decision plot explained how the classification is carried out using the corresponding values of the independent variables. Thus the black-box classification is explained in the white-box context of XAI. The following section describes the challenges and opportunities of the proposed work with an emphasis on future directions.

The proposed work may be influenced by the following challenges which are described in detail as follows,

Global unity

For the successful implementation of the system, a unanimously accepted implementation is essential. Unfortunately, water quality estimation and related research are limited to consideration of specific datasets acquired for a particular region, wherein the generated results may differ with the changes in geographic location. Thus the generated results can never be considered suitable on a global scale. The parameters that influence the water quality may also vary across the world, and hence the proposed work can never be considered as a universal solution.

Training and re-training

The qualifying attributes that determine the quality of water vary across the globe and hence the proposed model needs to be re-trained 69 when applied to a new environment of study. This would allow the model to unlearn and re-learn new environments. On the contrary, the complexity of the model would also increase. The accuracy and other performance metrics which are measured in the proposed work may drastically decrease as well in a different environment of study. Thus applying this model to versatile environments is complex and would be a challenging task.

Subjective or quantitative

The trade-off from subjective analysis (which was done through fuzzy-based methods in the form of the Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) and The Technique for Order of Preference by Similarity to Ideal Solution (TOPSIS)) has improved the performance and ability to classify the models with better accuracy. However, the involvement of a subject matter expert is a missing point in the current research. Despite all the implementation and analysis from an engineering perspective, the involvement of an environmental scientist in any aspect of water research would contribute towards the enhancement of research quality.

Confusing solids

The proposed work identifies Solids as the primary influencing factor that affects potability. In real-world applications, solids can be of any form. For example, in sewage water treatment plants it can be either mud, Fat-Oil-Grease(FOG), or any other substances. Every solid wastage has its way of filtration and impact on water quality, which makes the recordings unstable from time to time. The attributes of research are too complex to handle in real-life scenarios, which acts as an inevitable yet detrimental impact.

Environmental challenges

Water resources are under serious threat due to water scarcity, water contamination, water conflicts and climate changes. Chemical and the municipal wastewater contaminates the water and endangering the life of the aquatic organisms and affect their ability to reproduce. This also makes them an easier prey to their predators. The food cycle and livelihood of the human is also greatly affected by the water contamination. Chemical substances make the water hard to recycle and consume by reducing the regeneration ratios.

Water quality and industrial sustainability

The era of Industry 5.0 focuses on the consumer centric industrial evolution with the idea of environmental sustainability. The futuristic technologies evolve with the improvement of technical viability, with the mission of sustainable development in the environmental aspects. Since the water is an irreplaceable and finite, the demand of the water is increasing with the industrial evolution and the water requirements on manufacturing and production industries would be very much essential as ever. The challenge is enhancement of the water harvesting, recycling and conservation. For all the above said processes quality of the water is the common essential requirement. Thus the quality of the water is more critical in all futuristic technological developments.

Research finding of the proposed work

The following items are presented as the findings are outcomes of the proposed work

The proposed work performs an exploratory analysis with XAI implementation providing an ability to improve the reliability of machine learning models providing explanation and transparency to the classification process.

The proposed work acquires data from a single dataset, where the performance of classification yields optimized results. This result may vary if the model is subjected to a different dataset constituting different features and instances.

The XAI reveals the most significant features contributing towards classification results and also explains the same.

The best fitting machine learning model is chosen for the explanation through an exhaustive analysis and evaluation of all the models considering the essential performance metrics. Thus the results produced by SHAPELY can be considered as the most reliable and acceptable. 

The proposed work also suggests the importance of the subject matter expert, which can extend the usability of the proposed model at the universal level.

The predictions of the proposed work with the support of an explainer, helps end users and consumers to understand the quality of the water they use.

The features related to the classification and explanation, can be further controlled to diminish the levels of chemicals and pollutants in water recycling.

Total dissolvable solids quantification and the feature weights for the same determine the levels of filtration and carbon purification required in the recycling plants.

The proposed work brings insights of pollutants on the seashore and how the explainabilty can support the impurity estimations for such conditions also.

Water quality management impacts almost all aspects of life on earth and clean water is a basic necessity. The proposed work is extremely relevant in this regard wherein an exploratory analysis conducted to analyze and control the factors that deteriorate the quality of the water. The impact of these factors is explained using XAI models. The contribution of the XAI model lies in its ability to explain the role of the underlying parameters towards the classification of water being potable or not, based on their relative importance and unique properties. The XAI model uses SHAPELY considering the probabilistic prediction generated from the Random Forest classifier. This RF model in this regard is chosen as it yields the highest accuracy of 0.999 with sensitivity and specificity of 0.999 and 0.998, which is found to be superior in comparison to the other state-of-the-art models considered in the study. This justifies the reason for the RF to be selected for XAI implementation. The proposed model identifies the parameter “solid” as the most significant in terms of its impact on the potability of water. The proposed model yields optimized and explainable results considering the dataset used in the study. Future work may involve more complex and heterogeneous datasets to generate predictions. In such scenarios, the metric evaluations may differ. The usage of deep learning algorithms could further enhance the examination the solid sediments and generate classification results based on their mass, dimensions, and shape. The use of XAI in such a model would ensure a better explanation of factors relevant to the solid sedimentation in water.

Data availability

The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author, upon reasonable request.

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Nallakaruppan, M.K., Gangadevi, E., Shri, M.L. et al. Reliable water quality prediction and parametric analysis using explainable AI models. Sci Rep 14 , 7520 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-56775-y

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From The Editor | September 26, 2014

The 10 hottest topics in wastewater—what you need to know.

By Laura Martin

Behind on what's hot in the wastewater industry? Get up-to-date with this list of Water Online articles on the industry trends and challenges that everyone is talking about. Read on and you'll be sure to impress your colleagues.

1) Energy Production And Conservation

Finding the ideal balance between energy and water consumption has always been a challenge. Energy use at a water or wastewater utility can be 30 percent to 50 percent of the municipality’s total electricity consumption. In addition, the energy industry itself requires a significant amount of water to operate. But a water-energy nexus solution is on the horizon, as more energy-efficient technologies and alternative energy production methods are developed. 

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2) Nutrient Management

Changing regulations and increasingly stringent effluent limits have brought nutrient management to the forefront of the wastewater industry. 

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3) Residuals and Biosolids

The management and removal of residuals, sludge, and biosolids, has historically been a burden on wastewater utilities, accounting for nearly 50 percent of treatment costs. But this “waste” may hold the key to additional revenue if reclaimed and sold. 

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4) Water Reclamation And Reuse

There is a growing trend of reusing treated wastewater effluent for both drinking water and industrial applications. On the drinking water side, water shortages have made direct potable reuse (DPR) and indirect potable reuse applications a necessity in parts of the country. Pressure to use less water on the industrial sector has resulted in innovative reuse applications as well. 

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5) Water Supply And Water Management

In water-scarce areas, managing water supply can be challenging. First, it can be difficult to even determine how much water is available, via groundwater, surface water, reuse, and other sources. Then, there is the challenge of figuring out how water should be allocated between consumers and industrial applications, and how much needs to remain untouched for the sake of the environment. If there isn’t enough to go around, conservation techniques or usage restrictions may have to be considered. 

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6) Stormwater, Green Infrastructure, And Wet Weather Management

Stormwater management is a growing focus for the wastewater industry. Heavy wet-weather events often overwhelm wastewater systems — which are often too small for a growing population — and untreated sewage ends up overflowing into local water bodies. Green infrastructure solutions and growing regulation offer solutions. 

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7) ‘Flushable’ Wipes And Collection Systems

Recently, collection systems have been in the spotlight. The increased attention is thanks (or no thanks) to “flushables,” non-dispersible cleansing cloths that are wreaking havoc on headworks all over the country. 

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Nondispersibles' Turning Sewers Into Nightmares Nationwide  

Looming In The Sewers: Nonwovens Are Weaving A Tangled Web

8) Industrial Wastewater

Oil and gas, agriculture, pharmaceuticals, mining, food and beverage processing—the list of industries with growing wastewater challenges goes on and on. Water Online has reported on the modeling, design, and operation of industrial wastewater treatment systems, anaerobic and biological industrial treatment processes, regulatory impacts, and more.  

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9) Utility Management

Utility executives and managers have a wide range of challenges to overcome. Their workforce is aging and their budgets are shrinking. Public outreach is more important than ever before, and regulations and government oversight are increasing.  

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10)  Innovative Technology

Change is needed in the wastewater industry. Cutting-edge products and services focused on everything from resource recovery and big data management, to innovative green infrastructure solutions are coming to the forefront.

Stories On Innovation From Water Online:

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Ontario's Water Tech Acceleration Project: Fighting For The Future Of Water

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Subliminal —

Mars may not have had liquid water long enough for life to form, lab experiments suggest gullies on mars might form when carbon dioxide heats up..

Elizabeth Rayne - Apr 4, 2024 7:39 pm UTC

Mars has a history of liquid water on its surface, including lakes like the one that used to occupy Jezero Crater , which have long since dried up. Ancient water that carried debris—and melted water ice that presently does the same—were also thought to be the only thing driving the formation of gullies spread throughout the Martian landscape. That view may now change thanks to new results that suggest dry ice can also shape the landscape.

It’s sublime

Previously, scientists were convinced that only liquid water shaped gullies on Mars because that’s what happens on Earth. What was not taken into account was sublimation , or the direct transition of a substance from a solid to a gaseous state. Sublimation is how CO 2 ice disappears ( sometimes water ice experiences this, too).

Frozen carbon dioxide is everywhere on Mars, including in its gullies. When CO 2 ice sublimates on one of these gullies, the resulting gas can push debris further down the slope and continue to shape it.

Led by planetary researcher Lonneke Roelofs of Utrecht University in the Netherlands, a team of scientists has found that the sublimation of CO 2 ice could have shaped Martian gullies, which might mean the most recent occurrence of liquid water on Mars may have been further back in time than previously thought. That could also mean the window during which life could have emerged and thrived on Mars was possibly smaller.

“Sublimation of CO 2 ice, under Martian atmospheric conditions, can fluidize sediment and creates morphologies similar to those observed on Mars,” Roelofs and her colleagues said in a study recently published in Communications Earth & Environment.

Into thin air

Earth and Martian gullies have basically the same morphology. The difference is that we’re certain that liquid water is behind their formation and continuous shaping and re-shaping on Earth. Such activity includes new channels being carved out and more debris being taken to the bottom.

While ancient Mars may have had enough stable liquid water to pull this off, there is not enough on the present surface of Mars to sustain that kind of activity. This is where sublimation comes in. CO 2 ice has been observed on the surface of Mars at the same time that material starts flowing.

After examining observations like these, the researchers hypothesized these flows are pushed downward by gas as the frozen carbon dioxide sublimates. Because of the low pressure on Mars, sublimation creates a relatively greater gas flux than it would on Earth—enough power to make fluid motion of material possible.

There are two ways sublimation can be triggered to get these flows moving. When part of a more exposed area of a gully collapses, especially on a steep slope, sediment and other debris that have been warmed by the Sun can fall on CO 2 ice in a shadier and cooler area. Heat from the falling material could supply enough energy for the frost to sublimate. Another possibility is that CO 2 ice and sediment can break from the gully and fall onto warmer material, which will also trigger sublimation.

Mars in a lab

There is just one problem with these ideas: since humans have not landed on Mars (yet), there are no in situ observations of these phenomena, only images and data beamed back from spacecraft. So, everything is hypothetical. The research team would have to model Martian gullies to watch the action in real time.

To re-create a part of the red planet’s landscape in a lab, Roelofs built a flume in a special environmental chamber that simulated the atmospheric pressure of Mars. It was steep enough for material to move downward and cold enough for CO 2 ice to remain stable. But the team also added warmer adjacent slopes to provide heat for sublimation, which would drive movement of debris. They experimented with both scenarios that might happen on Mars: heat coming from beneath the CO 2 ice and warm material being poured on top of it. Both produced the kinds of flows that had been hypothesized.

For further evidence that flows driven by sublimation would happen under certain conditions, two further experiments were conducted, one under Earth-like pressures and one without CO 2 ice. No flows were produced by either.

“For the first time, these experiments provide direct evidence that CO 2 sublimation can fluidize, and sustain, granular flows under Martian atmospheric conditions,” the researchers said in the study.

Because this experiment showed that gullies and systems like them can be shaped by sublimation and not just liquid water, it raises questions about how long Mars had a sufficient supply of liquid water on the surface for any organisms (if they existed at all) to survive. Its period of habitability might have been shorter than it was once thought to be. Does this mean nothing ever lived on Mars? Not necessarily, but Roelofs’ findings could influence how we see planetary habitability in the future.

Communications Earth & Environment, 2024. DOI: 10.1038/s43247-024-01298-7

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New approach needed to save Australia's non-perennial rivers

by Flinders University

Non-perennial rivers, which stop flowing at some point each year, dominate surface water movement across Australia, yet monitoring the continued health of these vital waterways demands a new type of research attention.

More than 70% of this nation's rivers are non-perennial due to a combination of ancient landscape, dry climates, highly variable rainfall regimes, and human interventions that have altered riverine environments.

An extensive review of current research incorporating geomorphology, hydrology, biogeochemistry, ecology and Indigenous knowledges identifies prevailing factors that shape water and energy flows in Australia's non-perennial rivers—but the review also points to research deficiencies that must be addressed if these river systems are to be preserved and protected.

The research, "Australian non-perennial rivers: Global lessons and research opportunities," has been published in the Journal of Hydrology .

"Australia relies on our rivers, and has a strong history of research to understand river flows and ecosystems and the human impacts on them. Now, we must address emerging threats to river systems due to climate change and other anthropogenic impacts," says lead author of the review, Dr. Margaret Shanafield, from Flinders University's College of Science and Engineering.

"We have to work together to tackle emerging threats to our rivers. If we are going to plug gaps in existing knowledge, which this review identifies, then a new style of inter-disciplinary scientific research is necessary to achieve the required outcomes."

While dominant research themes in Australia focus on drought, floods, salinity, dryland ecology and water management, four other areas of research attention are urgently needed, namely:

• Integrating Indigenous and western scientific knowledge;
• Quantifying climate change impacts on hydrological and biological function ;
• Clarifying the meaning and measurement of "restoration" of non-perennial systems;
• Understanding the role of groundwater.

Addressing these areas through multi-disciplinary efforts supported by technological advances will provide a map for improved water research outcomes that the rest of the world can follow.

"Australia is globally unique in its spread and diversity of non-perennial rivers spanning climates and landforms—but most, if not all, of the classes of non-perennial rivers found in Australia also occur in other regions of the world with similar climates and geology," says Dr. Shanafield.

"Therefore, the evolving body of knowledge about Australian rivers provides a foundation for comparison with other dryland areas globally where recognition of the importance of non-perennial rivers is expanding."

The review authors are concerned that Australian non-perennial river research has been driven by the needs of its inhabitants for survival, agriculture, resource economics, environmental concern and politics.

"Considering the continent's ancient geological history and its harsh, arid climate , it comes as no surprise that significant attention has been directed toward water resource management during drought periods, the reduction of salinization, and gaining insights into the intricate dynamics of the transient rivers that are a defining feature of central Australia," says the review.

"The prevalence of prolonged drought periods has had a marked impact on driving research—so it is critical to address the knowledge gaps this review has identified, given that increasing trends in hydrological droughts are projected to negatively impact streamflow not just in Australia, but also in South America, southern Africa, and the Mediterranean."

The review authors—a multi-disciplinary collective of scientists from across more than two dozen institutions and government departments—say more investment in long-term hydrological monitoring is desperately needed to increase water management knowledge that can address the competing water needs of communities, agriculture, mining and ecosystems in a dry environment—not only in Australia, but throughout the world.

"We anticipate that changing global water fluxes and continued groundwater pumping will cause more of the world's rivers to become non-perennial, accelerating our need to understand these systems across many disciplines," says Dr. Shanafield.

"In turn, a more thorough understanding will help to underpin science-driven management of non-perennial rivers to both meet the needs of a growing Australian population while protecting the integrity of ecological systems."

Provided by Flinders University

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7 Types of Bottled Water

Water, water, everywhere. is one variety healthier than others.

Andrea Wickstrom,

Standing in front of the water aisle in stores can feel overwhelming. Once we filled our glasses with the simplest drink that just flowed from the tap, but now the choices are dizzying: vitamin water, hydrogen water, sparkling water, electrolyte water.

Americans spent an estimated $49 billion in 2023 on bottled water and drank about 16 billion gallons , according to the Beverage Marketing Corp. That’s a lot of bottled-up H2O.

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Though it’s true that staying hydrated is crucial to overall health — and many older adults are dehydrated — it’s not clear whether spending extra money on something that’s included in your monthly water bill can make you any healthier.

How are all the drinking water choices different, and is one better than another?

In general, the United States has some of the world’s safest drinking water. Some U.S. water is safe to drink directly from the source, while water from other sources must be treated before consumption because of potential chemical and bacterial contamination.

On April 10, the Biden administration finalized limits on “forever chemicals” in drinking water, requiring utilities to reduce them to the lowest level that can be reliably measured. Government officials say these chemicals, called PFAS (polyfluoroalkyl substances), are linked to liver disease, heart disease and certain cancers. The administration has also proposed rules that would require cities to replace lead water pipes within 10 years.

An estimated 43 million Americans receive water from a private underground well. Well water can be cloudy, have a rotten egg odor from hydrogen sulfide, and leave rust stains. This water is not regulated, so homeowners are responsible for ensuring their supply is safe for drinking, usually through recommended annual testing.

Hard Water Vs. Soft Water

Many households have soft water, but it isn’t a requirement. A water softener removes the water’s hardness, caused by calcium and magnesium, and replaces it with sodium.

Some may wonder if their soft water tastes salty. Some sources say that’s a myth; others say people with very discerning taste buds may notice it.

The amount of sodium in one 8-ounce glass of softened water is about 12.5 milligrams (the recommended daily intake is 2,300 mg). Soft water is safe for the general public, but those with strict low-sodium diets may need their doctor’s guidance on water selection.

To avoid drinking soft water, you can switch to a nonsalt-based softening system (using potassium instead) or add a reverse osmosis system to your kitchen supply. Other solutions include having the water softener hooked up to your hot water to reserve for laundry, bathing and cleaning.

Other than private well water, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) regulates and monitors public water supply and tests and treats the water.

Water that doesn’t taste or smell good may be confused with water that is not good for you. A safe amount of chlorine kills bacteria and viruses and keeps water pipes clean, but it doesn’t taste good. Chlorine can be removed with a filter.

“Water can sometimes have a bad smell, taste or appearance, but these features don’t usually last long or indicate a public health concern,” says registered dietitian Kourtney Johnson. “Chlorine, chemicals or a medicine-like taste or smell don’t typically mean there’s an immediate health threat.”

Tap water that doesn’t taste or smell good, as well as news reports of problems with the water coming from our faucets, may explain in part why millions of Americans turn to bottled water.

Bottled water

The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) strictly regulates bottled water production and distribution. The FDA has set out Current Good Manufacturing Practices (CGMPs) that require bottled water companies to maintain sanitary conditions throughout manufacturing and transportation, protect the approved water sources and test the final product.

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Some sparkling waters, seltzer waters, tonics and club soda aren’t included as bottled water under FDA regulations. They are considered soft drinks.

Although experts say bottled water is generally safe, there are a few concerns.

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Filtered water may remove fluoride, which is safe to drink and helps prevent tooth decay. Sometimes, manufacturers will reintroduce minerals after purification.

Microplastics are substances used to give plastic bottles transparency, shape and flexibility. A possible link between plastics and disruption of the endocrine system and thyroid is under investigation.

“Growing evidence shows that microplastics negatively affect the endocrine, reproductive and immune systems, as well as bacteria found in the gut. The thyroid plays a role in regulating almost all organs in the body, and long-term exposure to plastics negatively affects its ability to regulate growth, development, metabolism and reproduction,” Johnson says.

Water Filters

Options to enhance the condition of your home’s well or tap water include:

• A whole house filtration system. 
• A filtered refrigerator water dispenser.
• A filtered countertop water pitcher or faucet attachment.
• A reverse osmosis system.

Here’s a breakdown on seven popular varieties of bottled water.

1. Spring water

Spring water originates from rainwater that moves underground and is filtered naturally by rock and minerals. After it is pushed up to the ground’s surface, the water is collected in springs. Per FDA regulations, when manufacturers bottle and sell it, it must have the same composition and quality as the spring water at its source.

The amount of minerals in spring water isn’t substantial, so it doesn’t provide additional health benefits compared with other water. However, many people enjoy the taste.

2. Mineral water

To be labeled mineral water, this type of bottled water must contain at least 250 parts per million total dissolved solids. It differs from other types of bottled water due to minerals and trace elements that are present at the water source. Minerals cannot be added later, according to FDA rules.

3. Alkaline water 

Multiple brands manufacture alkaline water, which is altered to a higher pH. Alkaline water can be more expensive than other bottled water, but studies have yet to prove its health benefits. Some claim it can neutralize acid in the bloodstream, give better workout recovery and help prevent disease. A 2021 Iranian study found it may improve bone density in postmenopausal women with osteoporosis. The science on these claims is limited, and studies are generally small or in animals, not humans. Larger studies are needed to evaluate any potential health benefits.

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“The body does an incredible job at keeping our pH within a very tight and controlled range. Consuming more alkaline water will not shift your pH outside of its normal range,” says Jen Hernandez, a registered dietitian who specializes in helping people with kidney disease.

Some suggest drinking alkaline water may help those who suffer from acid reflux, but Hernandez is skeptical.

“Adding this type of water into a very acidic environment, like the stomach, which is supposed to be producing acid to help us with digestion and breaking down foods, is almost counterintuitive,” Hernandez says.

4. Water with vitamins

Some manufacturers enhance water with vitamins. This water usually comes in sugar-sweetened and sugar-free options. In some brands, a 20-fluid-ounce bottle has up to 27 grams of added sugar (50–100 percent of the daily recommended limit), so those watching sugar content should check labels. Sugar-free options use stevia, monk fruit or artificial sweeteners.

Vitamin-infused waters may contain more than 100 percent of the daily recommended value of vitamins B and C. These are water-soluble vitamins, meaning that the kidneys will excrete any excess in your urine.

“So you’re just going to pay for expensive urine at that point. ... Your body is going to say, ‘I don't need this quantity,’ ” Hernandez says. “It is ideal to get our vitamins from foods as they provide many other benefits and nutrients.”

5. Electrolyte water

Sports drinks are intended for athletes who lose a lot of fluid and electrolytes through sweat. Such drinks often aren’t necessary for moderate exercisers or sedentary people. Electrolyte water may be beneficial short-term under certain circumstances, such as when people are exercising for long periods, have prolonged exposure to heat or are ill with vomiting and diarrhea. Experts say regular water is usually sufficient for meeting moderate exercise hydration needs.

6. Hydrogen water

Hydrogen water is plain water with hydrogen gas added to it. The water can be bought with the hydrogen in it, or people can purchase hydrogen tablets to add to water at home.

Hydrogen water is gaining interest due to its potential health benefits. A 2024 review of studies found that it may have antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, as well as improve physical endurance. Most studies have been small, and research is mixed. Further rigorous research is needed to confirm any benefits.

7. Purified water

Plain bottled water is not merely tap water in a bottle, although some bottled water does come from municipal sources. To be labeled purified, the water goes into a production plant and through a process that can include distillation, deionization or reverse osmosis, according to the International Bottled Water Association . It is then sold in individual, sanitary, sealed containers.

Is one type better?

Most people get the electrolytes and minerals they need from food, not fluids. The amount in drinking water is relatively low and not enough to meet our dietary needs.

Is there a best daily drinking water? Some say the right water is the one you will drink. Many people enjoy the taste and convenience of bottled water and prefer it to tap water.

On the other hand, purified, highly regulated, readily available tap water is likely coming from your kitchen faucet. With additional home filters, cost-effective tap water is an excellent daily drinking choice, and there are no toxins from plastic bottles.

Having a pitcher of filtered tap water on the counter at home, in sight as a reminder, can be great for hydration needs, Hernandez says.

Andrea Wickstrom is a registered nurse who has covered health and medical topics as well as health-related news for multiple publications including Next Avenue, Nurse Journal, HeartValveSurgery.com and Healthnews.

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Healthy Living with Diabetes

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How can I plan what to eat or drink when I have diabetes?

How can physical activity help manage my diabetes, what can i do to reach or maintain a healthy weight, should i quit smoking, how can i take care of my mental health, clinical trials for healthy living with diabetes.

Healthy living is a way to manage diabetes . To have a healthy lifestyle, take steps now to plan healthy meals and snacks, do physical activities, get enough sleep, and quit smoking or using tobacco products.

Healthy living may help keep your body’s blood pressure , cholesterol , and blood glucose level, also called blood sugar level, in the range your primary health care professional recommends. Your primary health care professional may be a doctor, a physician assistant, or a nurse practitioner. Healthy living may also help prevent or delay health problems  from diabetes that can affect your heart, kidneys, eyes, brain, and other parts of your body.

Making lifestyle changes can be hard, but starting with small changes and building from there may benefit your health. You may want to get help from family, loved ones, friends, and other trusted people in your community. You can also get information from your health care professionals.

What you choose to eat, how much you eat, and when you eat are parts of a meal plan. Having healthy foods and drinks can help keep your blood glucose, blood pressure, and cholesterol levels in the ranges your health care professional recommends. If you have overweight or obesity, a healthy meal plan—along with regular physical activity, getting enough sleep, and other healthy behaviors—may help you reach and maintain a healthy weight. In some cases, health care professionals may also recommend diabetes medicines that may help you lose weight, or weight-loss surgery, also called metabolic and bariatric surgery.

Choose healthy foods and drinks

There is no right or wrong way to choose healthy foods and drinks that may help manage your diabetes. Healthy meal plans for people who have diabetes may include

• dairy or plant-based dairy products
• nonstarchy vegetables
• protein foods
• whole grains

Try to choose foods that include nutrients such as vitamins, calcium , fiber , and healthy fats . Also try to choose drinks with little or no added sugar , such as tap or bottled water, low-fat or non-fat milk, and unsweetened tea, coffee, or sparkling water.

Try to plan meals and snacks that have fewer

• foods high in saturated fat
• foods high in sodium, a mineral found in salt
• sugary foods , such as cookies and cakes, and sweet drinks, such as soda, juice, flavored coffee, and sports drinks

Your body turns carbohydrates , or carbs, from food into glucose, which can raise your blood glucose level. Some fruits, beans, and starchy vegetables—such as potatoes and corn—have more carbs than other foods. Keep carbs in mind when planning your meals.

You should also limit how much alcohol you drink. If you take insulin  or certain diabetes medicines , drinking alcohol can make your blood glucose level drop too low, which is called hypoglycemia . If you do drink alcohol, be sure to eat food when you drink and remember to check your blood glucose level after drinking. Talk with your health care team about your alcohol-drinking habits.

Find the best times to eat or drink

Talk with your health care professional or health care team about when you should eat or drink. The best time to have meals and snacks may depend on

• what medicines you take for diabetes
• what your level of physical activity or your work schedule is
• whether you have other health conditions or diseases

Ask your health care team if you should eat before, during, or after physical activity. Some diabetes medicines, such as sulfonylureas  or insulin, may make your blood glucose level drop too low during exercise or if you skip or delay a meal.

Plan how much to eat or drink

You may worry that having diabetes means giving up foods and drinks you enjoy. The good news is you can still have your favorite foods and drinks, but you might need to have them in smaller portions  or enjoy them less often.

For people who have diabetes, carb counting and the plate method are two common ways to plan how much to eat or drink. Talk with your health care professional or health care team to find a method that works for you.

Carb counting

Carbohydrate counting , or carb counting, means planning and keeping track of the amount of carbs you eat and drink in each meal or snack. Not all people with diabetes need to count carbs. However, if you take insulin, counting carbs can help you know how much insulin to take.

Plate method

The plate method helps you control portion sizes  without counting and measuring. This method divides a 9-inch plate into the following three sections to help you choose the types and amounts of foods to eat for each meal.

• Nonstarchy vegetables—such as leafy greens, peppers, carrots, or green beans—should make up half of your plate.
• Carb foods that are high in fiber—such as brown rice, whole grains, beans, or fruits—should make up one-quarter of your plate.
• Protein foods—such as lean meats, fish, dairy, or tofu or other soy products—should make up one quarter of your plate.

If you are not taking insulin, you may not need to count carbs when using the plate method.

Work with your health care team to create a meal plan that works for you. You may want to have a diabetes educator  or a registered dietitian  on your team. A registered dietitian can provide medical nutrition therapy , which includes counseling to help you create and follow a meal plan. Your health care team may be able to recommend other resources, such as a healthy lifestyle coach, to help you with making changes. Ask your health care team or your insurance company if your benefits include medical nutrition therapy or other diabetes care resources.

Talk with your health care professional before taking dietary supplements

There is no clear proof that specific foods, herbs, spices, or dietary supplements —such as vitamins or minerals—can help manage diabetes. Your health care professional may ask you to take vitamins or minerals if you can’t get enough from foods. Talk with your health care professional before you take any supplements, because some may cause side effects or affect how well your diabetes medicines work.

Research shows that regular physical activity helps people manage their diabetes and stay healthy. Benefits of physical activity may include

• lower blood glucose, blood pressure, and cholesterol levels
• better heart health
• healthier weight
• better mood and sleep
• better balance and memory

Talk with your health care professional before starting a new physical activity or changing how much physical activity you do. They may suggest types of activities based on your ability, schedule, meal plan, interests, and diabetes medicines. Your health care professional may also tell you the best times of day to be active or what to do if your blood glucose level goes out of the range recommended for you.

Do different types of physical activity

People with diabetes can be active, even if they take insulin or use technology such as insulin pumps .

Try to do different kinds of activities . While being more active may have more health benefits, any physical activity is better than none. Start slowly with activities you enjoy. You may be able to change your level of effort and try other activities over time. Having a friend or family member join you may help you stick to your routine.

The physical activities you do may need to be different if you are age 65 or older , are pregnant , or have a disability or health condition . Physical activities may also need to be different for children and teens . Ask your health care professional or health care team about activities that are safe for you.

Aerobic activities

Aerobic activities make you breathe harder and make your heart beat faster. You can try walking, dancing, wheelchair rolling, or swimming. Most adults should try to get at least 150 minutes of moderate-intensity physical activity each week. Aim to do 30 minutes a day on most days of the week. You don’t have to do all 30 minutes at one time. You can break up physical activity into small amounts during your day and still get the benefit. 1

Strength training or resistance training

Strength training or resistance training may make your muscles and bones stronger. You can try lifting weights or doing other exercises such as wall pushups or arm raises. Try to do this kind of training two times a week. 1

Balance and stretching activities

Balance and stretching activities may help you move better and have stronger muscles and bones. You may want to try standing on one leg or stretching your legs when sitting on the floor. Try to do these kinds of activities two or three times a week. 1

Some activities that need balance may be unsafe for people with nerve damage or vision problems caused by diabetes. Ask your health care professional or health care team about activities that are safe for you.

Stay safe during physical activity

Staying safe during physical activity is important. Here are some tips to keep in mind.

Drink liquids

Drinking liquids helps prevent dehydration , or the loss of too much water in your body. Drinking water is a way to stay hydrated. Sports drinks often have a lot of sugar and calories , and you don’t need them for most moderate physical activities.

Avoid low blood glucose

Check your blood glucose level before, during, and right after physical activity. Physical activity often lowers the level of glucose in your blood. Low blood glucose levels may last for hours or days after physical activity. You are most likely to have low blood glucose if you take insulin or some other diabetes medicines, such as sulfonylureas.

Ask your health care professional if you should take less insulin or eat carbs before, during, or after physical activity. Low blood glucose can be a serious medical emergency that must be treated right away. Take steps to protect yourself. You can learn how to treat low blood glucose , let other people know what to do if you need help, and use a medical alert bracelet.

Avoid high blood glucose and ketoacidosis

Taking less insulin before physical activity may help prevent low blood glucose, but it may also make you more likely to have high blood glucose. If your body does not have enough insulin, it can’t use glucose as a source of energy and will use fat instead. When your body uses fat for energy, your body makes chemicals called ketones .

High levels of ketones in your blood can lead to a condition called diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) . DKA is a medical emergency that should be treated right away. DKA is most common in people with type 1 diabetes . Occasionally, DKA may affect people with type 2 diabetes  who have lost their ability to produce insulin. Ask your health care professional how much insulin you should take before physical activity, whether you need to test your urine for ketones, and what level of ketones is dangerous for you.

Take care of your feet

People with diabetes may have problems with their feet because high blood glucose levels can damage blood vessels and nerves. To help prevent foot problems, wear comfortable and supportive shoes and take care of your feet  before, during, and after physical activity.

If you have diabetes, managing your weight  may bring you several health benefits. Ask your health care professional or health care team if you are at a healthy weight  or if you should try to lose weight.

If you are an adult with overweight or obesity, work with your health care team to create a weight-loss plan. Losing 5% to 7% of your current weight may help you prevent or improve some health problems  and manage your blood glucose, cholesterol, and blood pressure levels. 2 If you are worried about your child’s weight  and they have diabetes, talk with their health care professional before your child starts a new weight-loss plan.

You may be able to reach and maintain a healthy weight by

• following a healthy meal plan
• consuming fewer calories
• being physically active
• getting 7 to 8 hours of sleep each night 3

If you have type 2 diabetes, your health care professional may recommend diabetes medicines that may help you lose weight.

Online tools such as the Body Weight Planner  may help you create eating and physical activity plans. You may want to talk with your health care professional about other options for managing your weight, including joining a weight-loss program  that can provide helpful information, support, and behavioral or lifestyle counseling. These options may have a cost, so make sure to check the details of the programs.

Your health care professional may recommend weight-loss surgery  if you aren’t able to reach a healthy weight with meal planning, physical activity, and taking diabetes medicines that help with weight loss.

If you are pregnant , trying to lose weight may not be healthy. However, you should ask your health care professional whether it makes sense to monitor or limit your weight gain during pregnancy.

Both diabetes and smoking —including using tobacco products and e-cigarettes—cause your blood vessels to narrow. Both diabetes and smoking increase your risk of having a heart attack or stroke , nerve damage , kidney disease , eye disease , or amputation . Secondhand smoke can also affect the health of your family or others who live with you.

If you smoke or use other tobacco products, stop. Ask for help . You don’t have to do it alone.

Feeling stressed, sad, or angry can be common for people with diabetes. Managing diabetes or learning to cope with new information about your health can be hard. People with chronic illnesses such as diabetes may develop anxiety or other mental health conditions .

Learn healthy ways to lower your stress , and ask for help from your health care team or a mental health professional. While it may be uncomfortable to talk about your feelings, finding a health care professional whom you trust and want to talk with may help you

• lower your feelings of stress, depression, or anxiety
• manage problems sleeping or remembering things
• see how diabetes affects your family, school, work, or financial situation

Ask your health care team for mental health resources for people with diabetes.

Sleeping too much or too little may raise your blood glucose levels. Your sleep habits may also affect your mental health and vice versa. People with diabetes and overweight or obesity can also have other health conditions that affect sleep, such as sleep apnea , which can raise your blood pressure and risk of heart disease.

NIDDK conducts and supports clinical trials in many diseases and conditions, including diabetes. The trials look to find new ways to prevent, detect, or treat disease and improve quality of life.

What are clinical trials for healthy living with diabetes?

Clinical trials—and other types of clinical studies —are part of medical research and involve people like you. When you volunteer to take part in a clinical study, you help health care professionals and researchers learn more about disease and improve health care for people in the future.

Researchers are studying many aspects of healthy living for people with diabetes, such as

• how changing when you eat may affect body weight and metabolism
• how less access to healthy foods may affect diabetes management, other health problems, and risk of dying
• whether low-carbohydrate meal plans can help lower blood glucose levels
• which diabetes medicines are more likely to help people lose weight

Find out if clinical trials are right for you .

Watch a video of NIDDK Director Dr. Griffin P. Rodgers explaining the importance of participating in clinical trials.

What clinical trials for healthy living with diabetes are looking for participants?

You can view a filtered list of clinical studies on healthy living with diabetes that are federally funded, open, and recruiting at www.ClinicalTrials.gov . You can expand or narrow the list to include clinical studies from industry, universities, and individuals; however, the National Institutes of Health does not review these studies and cannot ensure they are safe for you. Always talk with your primary health care professional before you participate in a clinical study.

This content is provided as a service of the National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK), part of the National Institutes of Health. NIDDK translates and disseminates research findings to increase knowledge and understanding about health and disease among patients, health professionals, and the public. Content produced by NIDDK is carefully reviewed by NIDDK scientists and other experts.

NIDDK would like to thank: Elizabeth M. Venditti, Ph.D., University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine.