background of congo essay

A short history of instability in the Congo...

The region that is now the Democratic Republic of the Congo was first settled about 80,000 years ago. Bantu migration arrived in the region from Nigeria in the 7th century AD. The Kingdom of Kongo developed between the 14th and the early 19th centuries. Belgian colonization began when King Leopold II founded the Congo Free State, a corporate state run solely by him. Reports of widespread murder and torture in the rubber plantations led the Belgian government to seize the Congo from Leopold II and establish the Belgian Congo. Under Belgian rule, the colony was run with the presence of numerous Christian organizations that wanted to Westernize the Congolese people.

After an uprising by the Congolese people, Belgium surrendered to the independence of the Congo in 1960. However, the Congo was left unstable because tribal leaders had more power than the central government. Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba tried to restore order with the aid of the Soviet Union as part of the Cold War, causing the United States to support a coup led by Colonel Joseph Mobutu in 1965. Mobutu quickly seized complete power of the Congo and renamed the country Zaire. He sought to Africanize the country, changing his own name to Mobutu Sese Seko, and demanded that African citizens change their Western names to traditional African names. Mobutu sought to repress any opposition to his rule, and retained his position for 32 years through several sham elections, as well as through brutal force. However, with his regime weakened in the early 1990s, Mobutu was forced to agree to a power-sharing government with the opposition party. Mobutu remained the head of state and promised elections for the next two years that never happened.

In the First Congo War, Rwanda invaded Zaire, which overthrew Mobutu during the process. Laurent-Desire Kabila later took power and renamed the Democratic Republic of the Congo. After a disappointing rule under Kabila, the Second Congo War broke out, resulting in a regional war with many different African nations taking part. Kabila was assassinated by his bodyguard in 2001, and his son, Joseph, succeeded him and was later elected president by the Congolese government in 2006. In October 2002, the new president was successful in negotiating the withdrawal of Rwandan forces occupying the eastern DRC; two months later, the Pretoria Accord was signed by all remaining warring parties to end the fighting and establish a government of national unity.

A transitional government was set up in July 2003; it held a successful constitutional referendum in December 2005 and elections for the presidency, National Assembly, and provincial legislatures took place in 2006. In 2009, following a resurgence of conflict in the eastern DRC, the government signed a peace agreement with the National Congress for the Defense of the People (CNDP), a primarily Tutsi rebel group. An attempt to integrate CNDP members into the Congolese military failed, prompting their defection in 2012 and the formation of the M23 armed group - named after the 23 March 2009 peace agreements.

Renewed conflict led to large population displacements and significant human rights abuses before the M23 was pushed out of DRC to Uganda and Rwanda in late 2013 by a joint DRC and UN offensive. In addition, the DRC continues to experience violence committed by other armed groups including the Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda, the Allied Democratic Forces, and assorted Mai Mai militias. In the most recent national elections, held in November 2011, disputed results allowed Joseph Kabila to be reelected to the presidency. The DRC Constitution bars President Kabila from running for a third term, but the DRC Government has delayed national elections originally slated for November 2016. The failure to hold elections as scheduled has fueled sporadic street protests by Kabila’s opponents. In late December 2016, government officials and opposition leaders struck a last-minute deal that will require Kabila to step down after elections to be held by the end of 2017. Today, the Congo remains dangerously unstable.

The Democratic Republic of Congo: A brief history

Tracking the african country's troubled times, social sharing.

Scottish explorer David Livingstone explores the Congo River and surrounding area.

King Leopold II of Belgium makes plans for colonization of Congo. He commissions former journalist Henry Morton Stanley to ink treaties with local chiefs.

Congo Free State established under Leopold after being formally recognized by European powers at Conference of Berlin.

Belgian forces annex a number of areas of the Congo basin, forcing control of trade. Congolese are pressed into forced labour to harvest rubber and ivory and to build transportation and other infrastructure. Millions of Congolese are killed by Leopold's enforcement squads.

Reacting to outcry over atrocities committed against Congolese, the Belgian parliament annexes Congo Free State. It is renamed Belgian Congo.

June 30, 1960

The Republic of the Congo gains independence from Belgium. Patrice Lumumba, leader of the Congolese National Movement (the country's first nation-wide party), wins the first national election. He is deposed within months by army leader Joseph Désiré Mobutu and killed by secessionists on Jan. 16 of the following year.

Up to 20,000 UN peacekeepers are sent to the Congo after the newly independent country asks for help resisting Belgian troops. The UN Security Council asks Belgium to withdraw. In the years immediately following independence, a number of secessionists (including foreigners and Congolese nationals) clash with the provisional UN forces for control.

November 1965

Mobutu installs himself as president.

November 1970

Mobutu officially elected president in national elections.

Mobutu changes the country's name to Zaire (and changes his own name to Mobutu Sese Seko Kuku Ngbendu Wa Za Banga, which is usually translated as "the all-powerful warrior who, because of his endurance and inflexible will to win, will go from conquest to conquest leaving fire in his wake" or also" the rooster that watches over all hens"). Foreign interests are nationalized.

Most nationalized property returned to former owners.

December 1977

Mobutu re-elected.

1977-1978

Zairian rebels launch raids from Angola and Zambia into the Katanga region of Zaire. They are repelled with the help of French and Belgian troops.

For the first time, Mobutu allows legislative elections (although not the formation of opposition parties).

Mobutu is re-elected president for the third time. It is his 20th year in office.

Mobutu declares the Third Republic and promises multi-party elections. Canada is among a number of countries that cut off aid to Zaire after a group of protesting students are killed by government fighters.

Mobutu fires newly acclaimed Prime Minister Étienne Tshisekedi (who opposes Mobutu) and replaces him with a series of puppet leaders. Western nations react by cutting off all ties with Zaire and pulling their citizens out of the country.

While Mobutu is out of the country, Tutsi rebels take control of a large portion of eastern Zaire. With the help of Rwanda, they take the capital.

Laurent-Désiré Kabila becomes president and re-names Zaire the Democratic Republic of Congo (DR Congo). The following year, troops from Rwanda and Uganda invade in hopes of removing Kabila from power. They are halted by Angolan, Namibian and Zimbabwean troops allied with Kabila.

After more than two years of fighting, the countries involved sign the Lusaka peace accord. But the fighting continues, even despite the presence of a contingent of more than 5,000 UN peacekeepers sent to monitor the ceasefire.

January 2001

Laurent Kabila killed by a bodyguard and succeeded by son Joseph. Later that year, Joseph Kabila reaches an agreement for Rwandan- and Ugandan-backed troops to pull back and for the withdrawal of UN troops. By this point, an estimated 2.5 million people had died in the fighting, according to the U.S.-based International Rescue Committee.

Separate peace deals are reached between DR Congo and Rwandan- and Ugandan-backed troops for their withdrawal. Most pull out, but pockets of soldiers remain in the country, virtually unchecked by opposition.

New constitution signed, providing for the installation of a provisional government agreed upon by rival factions.

May 30, 2003

The United Nations votes to send a multinational peacekeeping force into DR Congo. France leads a force into the Bunia region with instructions to take all necessary means to gain control. Since the pullout of Ugandan troops earlier in the month, Bunia had been racked by violence between warring tribal groups.

June 6, 2003

Residents of the Congolese town of Bunia cheer as French troops begin to arrive in the region. UNICEF says the hostilities are preventing it from aiding millions of people. As many as 500 people had been killed in the eastern province of Ituri in the past month. That prompted the UN to authorize a 1,400-troop force led by France to go to DR Congo to attempt to restore order.

June 10, 2003

The first 40 French combat troops arrive in the Congolese town of Bunia, with the aim of ending years of tribal violence. The troops will be part of a 1,400-strong international contingent that's taking shape under a mandate from the European Union and the UN. More than 600 French troops are scheduled to arrive in Bunia within a week.

July 13, 2003

More than a month after French troops first arrived to demilitarize Bunia, the crackle of gunfire continues to break the night time silence. People have started to trickle back after a spike in fighting in May 2003 sent many streaming out. But there are still skirmishes on the outskirts of the city. Earlier in the week, the UN-mandated force was showing off how safe Bunia was; now it refuses to take journalists along on night-time patrols.

July 17, 2003

DR Congo's two main rebel leaders are sworn in as vice-presidents in a new power-sharing government. The development is viewed as a major step toward ending a bloody civil war, but it comes amid renewed violence in the expansive African country. Jean-Pierre Bemba and Azarias Ruberwa were sworn in at a ceremony attended by thousands in the capital, Kinshasa. Also sworn in as vice-presidents were a member of the political opposition and an ally of standing president Joseph Kabila. The new government's mandate is to reunify the country, which has been torn apart by a five-year civil war.

Fighting between the Congolese army and armed men loyal to a suspended military officer breaks out in Bukavu, near the border with Rwanda. Col. Jules Mutebutsi is a former officer with the Rally for Congolese Democracy, a Rwanda-backed rebel group that joined the power-sharing government.

June 2, 2004

Two groups of renegade soldiers seize Bukavu despite the presence of several hundred UN peacekeepers. The rebels say the region's army commander was persecuting Tutsis in eastern DR Congo. The UN Security Council condemns the seizure and Congolese President Joseph Kabila accuses Rwanda of helping the renegades.

June 9, 2004

Government forces retake Bukavu without firing a shot, marching into the centre of the city as residents sing, beat drums and honk horns. Troops loyal to Col. Mutebutsi fled the city the previous night.

July 27, 2006

A violent riot in Kinshasa leaves at least five people dead days before DR Congo's first free multi-party elections in 46 years. A mob attacks and kills a soldier who reportedly fired into a crowd at a campaign rally. The UN says two police officers were killed, and officials for candidate Jean-Pierre Bemba say three civilians died.

July 30, 2006

Millions cast ballots in the first multi-party parliamentary and presidential elections since DR Congo won independence from Belgium. About 25 million people are registered to cast ballots for 33 presidential, 9,000 national legislative and 10,000 provincial assembly candidates. About 60,000 Congolese police, 17,000 UN peacekeepers and 1,000 soldiers from Europe provided security for the vote.

October-November 2008

Fighting continues between fighters loyal to Tutsi warlord Laurent Nkunda, militia groups and the army. A total of between 1.4 million and two million people have been displaced since 2007 in the North Kivu province, says the UN World Food Program.

Nkunda calls a unilateral ceasefire and asks for direct negotiations with the country's government. The ceasefire comes after four days of violence as Nkunda's followers tried to take the city of Goma.

Leaders of DR Congo and Rwanda agree to meet UN Secretary General Ban Ki-moon to help resolve the conflict.

Violence continues despite the talks and ceasefires, with reports of drunk Congo army soldiers pillaging and raping in Goma and renegade government forces looting and burning refugee camps.

The UN Security Council unanimously agreed on Nov. 20 to send 3,100 more peacekeeping troops to DR Congo. The current mission involving 17,000 peacekeepers, the world's largest UN contingent, is considered ineffective because it is spread thin in an area as large as Western Europe and unable to stop the fighting.

The Independence of the Congo (1959-1960)

By 1959, the Congo (now Democratic Republic of Congo- DRC) was producing about 9% of the world’s copper, 6.5% of the tin, 49% of the cobalt, 69% of the world’s industrial diamonds. 53million pounds worth of palm oil, cotton and coffee were exported from the country. By this time, the Belgian government had little oversight over the colony’s affairs. The colony was governed by a handful of Belgian officials, church leaders and businessmen who were rarely scrutinized. However, it was the Africans who were making this the wealthiest colony in Africa at the time. Every male was required to provide sixty days of free labor to the state’s efforts.

Only about 10% of the population was attending mostly primary schools. Racial segregation was rampant in social and economic sectors. Belgians working in the Congo made 40 times more on average than the local Congolese. In 1959, only 3 Congolese held posts in the top three grades of civil service with the other 4,872 held by Belgians. There were no Congolese doctors, lawyers, military or secondary school teachers.

Education and Social Status

Education in the Congo was controlled by the Church. Most of the Congolese in this sector worked as primary school teachers. Of the 35,244 Congolese primary school teachers, only 10,000 had actually completed a full teacher training course, 13,000 had no training at all and the rest had only received some training. In 1948, the Belgian administration introduced a scheme for literate Africans who did not practice polygamy and sorcery. They could apply for social integration as Carte du Merite Civique . However, most Belgians were opposed to anything that would appear to offer equal status to Africans. So in 1952, the administration introduced immaculation, where the applicant would have to prove they were sufficiently educated and civilized. To qualify, the candidate would have to be interrogated about his relationship with his wife, friends and had to have his house inspected. Only 200 Congolese qualified for this status in a five year period. Most of the Congolese who achieved this status still found themselves treated as second class citizens socially and economically. This left many of them more discontent.

Independence

Patrice Lumumba’s Mouvement National Congolais won the most number of seats: 33. The party formed a weak coalition with 12 other parties and at the age of 35, Patrice Lumumba became the Congo’s first Prime Minister.

Even during the Independence Day celebrations, King Baudouin of Belgium gave a speech praising Belgian colonizers especially Leopold II. In response Lumumba gave a nationalist speech that described the humiliations the Congolese suffered under Belgian rule. The Belgians were deeply insulted by the speech. Barely a week after Independence, great discontent began simmering in the army and the Africans demanded higher pay and Congolese leadership. On July 6, 1960, Lumumba dismissed the Belgian leadership in the army and Victor Lundula was appointed army commander while Joseph Mobutu was selected as Chief of Staff. Mobutu had also been Lumumba’s private secretary.

The Buganda Agreement of 1900 & Land Tenure in the Protectorates

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In This Article Expand or collapse the "in this article" section Congo, Republic of (Congo Brazzaville)

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Congo, Republic of (Congo Brazzaville) by Brett Logan Carter , John F. Clark LAST REVIEWED: 30 September 2013 LAST MODIFIED: 30 September 2013 DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780199846733-0114

The Republic of the Congo (hereafter Congo), long overshadowed by its eastern neighbor, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, has suffered a history no less tragic. Pierre Savorgnan de Brazza won the right bank of the Congo River for France in the 1880s. Though Savorgnan de Brazza is regarded as a humanist by posterity, the early years of French colonial administration were marked by a concessionary regime, in which French companies forced indigenous populations to collect rubber and other natural resources with a mix of coercion and wages; the colonial administration then expropriated these wages with a poll tax. The early years of Congolese independence were marked by a series of popular protests and coups d‘état, culminating in Marxist dictatorship in 1968 and the rapid nationalization of private enterprise. Controlled by a clique of northern military officers, the Congolese government presided over an expanding oil sector that did little to raise the living standards of most Congolese citizens. Amid the global recession of the late 1980s, the 1991 National Conference stripped President Denis Sassou Nguesso of sovereign authority and organized Congo’s first free and fair elections. The period of optimism that accompanied President Pascal Lissouba’s 1992 inauguration was short-lived, however. As global oil prices rose, the state treasury became increasingly valuable to ambitious politicians. Sassou Nguesso, with the support of the French and Angolan governments, again seized power following the 1997 civil war, ushering in a decade of violence that cost the country 1 percent of its population. Sassou Nguesso has now ruled the country for all but five years since 1979, and though Brazzaville has largely recovered from war, Congo’s economy remains dominated by oil and subject to global market volatility. The country is marked by severe income inequality, with oil revenue controlled by Sassou Nguesso and his political allies. Scholarship has largely reflected Congo’s economic and political fortunes. Until roughly 1975, most students of Congo were based in Europe. They produced magisterial studies of precolonial and colonial Congolese society and assembled detailed collections of primary source material. In the early 1970s, economic historians, mostly Marxists, sought the causes of Congo’s economic stagnation. As the 1980s gave way to the 1990s, a new generation of Congolese writers contributed vitally to our knowledge of the country’s literature, performing arts, and political history. Congolese historiography, however, also became more overtly political, a trend that intensified as the civil wars of the late 1990s produced clear “winners” and “losers.”

There are a number of general overviews that usefully situate Congo in historical and regional context. Ghazvinian 2007 and Shaxson 2008 both explore the political implications of oil production in contemporary Africa, and both feature chapters on Congo. Ross 2012 is currently the leading account of the natural resource curse; the book places Congo in the context of global oil producers. Knight 2007 describes the economic and political conditions that led to the civil wars of the late 1990s and early 2000s in particularly accessible prose. Manning 1998 provides an excellent survey of Francophone Africa since the early colonial era, while Birmingham and Martin 1983–1998 does the same for Central Africa. Ballif 1993 and Soret 1978 remain the best introductions in the French language; the latter is more appropriate for longtime Africa specialists.

Ballif, Noël. Le Congo . Paris: Karthala, 1993.

A general overview of the country’s geography, vegetation, cultural and religious traditions, economic development, and politics. Written by a noted French documentary film producer, the book is intended for a general audience.

Birmingham, David, and Phyllis M. Martin, eds. History of Central Africa . 3 vols. New York: Longman, 1983–1998.

A three-volume overview of Central African history between 1400 and the late 20th centuries. The first volume includes an essay by Jan Vansina that discusses the Tio and Loango kingdoms of the precolonial period, while the second volume features an essay by Ralph Austen and Rita Headrick on the administration of French Equatorial Africa from Brazzaville. The third volume, published in 1998, features a comparative analysis of Gabon, Congo, and the Central African Republic.

Ghazvinian, John. Untapped: The Scramble for Africa’s Oil . Orlando, FL: Harcourt, 2007.

A highly readable survey of oil-producing Africa: part travelogue, part analysis of the political implications of oil wealth. Although the portions on Congo are relatively brief, Gahzvinian underscores the relevance of French oil interests in the civil wars of the late 1990s and early 2000s; he also situates Congo in the broader context of Gulf of Guinea oil producers.

Knight, Cassie. Magic and Rebellion in the Republic of the Congo . London: Frances Lincoln, 2007.

Features a series of historical and cultural reflections that contextualize the author’s experiences as an aid worker in Congo during the early 2000s. Knight focuses particular attention on the political and economic developments in the 1990s that led to the 1997 civil war.

Manning, Patrick. Francophone Sub-Saharan Africa, 1880–1995 . New York and Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1998.

An excellent survey of Francophone Africa from early colonialism. Most importantly for scholars of Congo, Manning situates Congo in broader regional trends: French colonial administration, nationalist and independence movements in the 1950s and 1960s, and postcolonial economic and political fortunes. He also includes chapters on culture and religion, as well as a number of useful maps.

Ross, Michael L. The Oil Curse: How Petroleum Wealth Shapes the Development of Nations . Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2012.

Currently the leading account of the political effects of oil wealth. Ross finds that oil-producing countries are nearly 50 percent more likely to suffer from civil wars than their non-oil-producing counterparts, and 50 percent more likely to be ruled by autocrats. Oil, Ross contends, enables autocrats to increase spending, reduce taxes, buy the loyalty of the armed forces, and conceal government corruption.

Shaxson, Nicholas. Poisoned Wells: The Dirty Politics of African Oil . New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008.

A journalistic account of contemporary oil-producing Africa. Like Ghazvinian 2007 , Shaxson situates Congo’s experience in broader continental trends; Shaxson’s account is distinctive for its focus on a handful of Congolese citizens who have campaigned—often at great personal risk—for transparency within the oil sector.

Soret, Marcel. Histoire du Congo: Capitale Brazzaville . Paris: Berger-Levrault, 1978.

A more thorough overview of Congolese history than Ballif 1993 . Soret provides a detailed account of the economics of slavery in the precolonial period, with attention to the implications for domestic political organization. The latter half of the volume focuses on the evolution of French colonial administration and the popular protests that forced Youlou from power. Throughout, Soret includes quantitative data.

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World History Edu

The Congo Crisis of 1960-1965: History, Causes & Effects

by World History Edu · October 9, 2022

The 1960s was a turbulent era in Africa as many of the colonized countries began gaining their independence and adjusting to self-rule. Just a few weeks after winning its independence from Belgium, the Republic of Congo, now the Democratic Republic of Congo, experienced a severe crisis that shook the country to its core and cost more than a hundred thousand lives, including the life of the first prime minister of Congo, Patrice Lumumba. It also transformed the Republic of Congo into a one-party state (under the authoritarian rule of Joseph-Désiré Mobutu) that endured until 1997.

The Congo Crisis (1960-1965), the first major crisis in Sub-Saharan Africa post-colonial era, claimed over 95,000 lives.

Below, World History Edu explores the major causes of the 1960 Congo Crisis, the key figures involved in the crisis, how it was resolved, and the effects on the country today.

The Congo Free State was established in 1885 and privately owned by King Leopold II of Belgium. However, due to the outcry by European countries and the United States on the atrocities committed against the locals during the extraction of ivory and rubber, the Belgian king reluctantly handed over Congo Free State to the Belgium government in 1908, which led to the formation of the Belgian Congo.

The Congo under the Belgium government led to the introduction of Christianity and education, which also led to the urbanization of the country and subsequently the push for self-governance by Congolese. The push for independence was not a walk in the park, it was plagued with resistance from the colonial master and tribal politics by the different ethnic groups in the country. The Congolese elites pushed for an independent Congo by organizing themselves into three main political parties;

The ABAKO (Alliance of Bakongo; French: Alliance des Bakongo) was founded in 1950 as an Association for the Bakongo people and it was led by Joseph Kasa-Vubu who would become the first elected president of the Republic of Congo.

The Mouvement National Congolais (MNC) was established in 1958 and it sought a centralized Congo and immediate withdrawal of the Belgium government. It was led by Albert Kalonji and Patrice Lumumba .

The Confederation of Tribal Association of Katanga people (CANAKAT) was formed in 1958 and sought the protection of the rich Katanga Province. It was pro-western and was led by Moïse Tshombe and Godefroid Munongo.

Congo’s struggle for independence

In January 1959, the call for independence turned aggressive as a protest from ABAKO got out of hand and turned into a bloody riot that took several days to resolve. Hundreds of lives were lost as a result of the riots.

The scream for independence rattled the Belgian government and King Baudouin promised independence would be given without delay and irresponsible rashness. The following year, the Congolese political elites were invited for a round table conference in Brussels and all the demands of Congolese leaders were granted. It was agreed that elections were to be held in May 1960 and the country became an independent nation in June 1960.

Joseph Kasa-Vubu was the first president of the DRC

The elections showed how divided the country was, as ABAKO and the MNC were tied and had to come to a compromise with Joseph Kasa-Vubu becoming the president of an independent Congo and Patrice Lumumba becoming its first head of government.

The Belgians handed over power officially to the new Congolese government on June 30, 1960.

Causes of the Congo Crisis

Just a week after independence was declared, the Congolese soldiers of Force Publique (a white militia group) rebelled against the force because the commander, Lt. General Emile Janssens, refused to allow promotions and salary increases for the Congolese members of the force.

Lumumba was a radical nationalist who opposed the post-colonial mining contract that was signed between Congo and Belgium

This mutiny soon led to widespread violence across racial lines in the country. Due to the murders of Belgian officers, the Belgium government deployed its own troops to restore peace and evacuate its citizens without the approval of the new Congolese President or Prime Minister.

The newly christened government sought the help of the United Nations to restore order to the country and the eviction of Belgian troops. The Belgian troops evacuated over 850,000 Belgians that were living in Congo; sadly, this was not the end but rather the beginning of the Congo Crisis. Colonel Mobutu took control of the army and saw to the promotion of certain officers to gain their allegiance.

The Main Cause of the Congo Crisis

Following the unrest, the resource-rich province of Katanga, led by Moïse Tshombe, seceded from the DRC. The Katangan rebels were allegedly backed by Belgian support. The South Kasai province, led by Albert Kalonji, Lumumba’s former ally, followed suit and seceded.

With support from the United States government, the United Nations sent a peacekeeping force but they refused to interfere in the Congolese government’s fight with the secessionists as they viewed this as an internal conflict.

This forced Prime Minister Lumumba’s hand to seek help from the Soviet Union, which angered the United States government. The U.S. and its western allies hoped the new Congolese government would be pro-west.

The arrival of a thousand Soviet advisors distanced Lumumba from the other members of the government, who feared the implications of involving the Soviet Union. This caused relationships between President Joseph Kasa-Vubu and Patrice Lumumba to sour.

With support from the Soviets, Congolese troops launched an aggressive attack against South Kasai, resulting in the deaths of many civilians and thousands of Luba civilians fleeing their homes.

The United States feared Congo’s relationship with the Soviet Union would lead to the spreads of communism in Africa. Therefore, Patrice Lumumba became a threat that simply had to be removed from power.

Moïse Tshombe – President of secessionist Katanga

Kasa-Vubu announced the dismissal of Prime Minister Lumumba. Lumumba also tried to dismiss the President but did not get the support, resulting in a constitutional deadlock.

It is alleged the CIA (Central Intelligence Agency) sought the help of an agent in the person of Joseph-Désiré Mobutu to get rid of the Lumumba threat. There is no evidence to back this claim, however, Mobutu executed a bloodless coup d’état in September 1960 to avoid a civil war. Upon assuming of power in the country, the military leader ordered the Soviet advisors to leave the country immediately.

Deposed Prime Minister Lumumba was placed under house arrest with the UN peacekeepers as his guards. The arrest of Lumumba resulted in the emergence of another rebel government in Stanleyville by Antoine Gizenga in November of 1960.

Belgium deployed its troops to the DRC during the Crisis. Belgium backed secessionist leader Moise Kapenda Tshombe of the Katanga province

Lumumba’s removal allowed for the negotiation of a truce between the central Congolese government and the Katanga secessionists.

Patrice Lumumba, with the help of his loyalist, escaped house arrest and fled to the rebel-backed Stanleyville. Unfortunately, he was captured on December 1, 1960, and taken to the capital, Léopoldville.

The Soviet Union petitioned the United Nations Security Council for Lumumba’s release and immediate restoration as the Prime Minister. The Soviets also called on Mobutu’s troops to disarm. The petition was voted 8 against and 2 in favor.

Assassination of Patrice Lumumba

Following the resolution, Lumumba was tortured and taken to Katanga, where he was handed over to Tshombe’s forces and was executed on 17 January 1961.

News of Lumumba’s execution was met with outcry and protest in major cities like New York and London, and the Belgium embassies in Yugoslavia and Belgrade were attacked.

Cease-fire negotiations and the death of Hammarskjöld

The battle to end the secession of Katanga province continued despite the execution of Lumumba because the re-appointed president Kasa-Vubu and Moïse Tshombe could not reach an agreement. In September 1961 some UN peacekeepers were kidnapped by Katangese forces and held prisoners.

The then-UN secretary Dag Hammarskjöld decided to fly to Congo to broker a cease-fire between the two factions and effect the release of the peacekeepers. Unfortunately, the plane carrying the UN secretary and his delegates crashed, killing all onboard.

Dag Hammarskjöld was the Secretary-General of the United Nations from 10 April 1953 – 18 September 1961, when he died. The top UN official was en route to the DRC to broker peace in the country when his crashed, killing all of the 15 other passengers. Dag Hammarskjöld was posthumously honored with the Nobel Peace Prize, making him the only person to receive the prize after dying.

Secretary-General U Thant, Hammarskjöld’s successor, ordered the UN troops to step up its efforts. Ultimately, the captured peacekeepers were released in October. The UN troops launched an offensive with the Congolese army and took over regions of the Katanga province.

By January 1963, Moïse Tshombe had surrendered and fled the country. This resulted in the end of the war between the central government and the Katangese secessionists.

The Simba Rebellion

After the end of the conflict, President Kasa-Vubu appointed the exiled former leader of Katanga province Moïse Tshombe interim Prime Minister. However, this did little to quell the discontentment among the Congolese. There were agitations by Lumumba loyalists spearheaded by Pierre Mulele, which led to the Kwilu Rebellion of 1964. Soon the rebellion, which was termed the Simba Rebellion, spread to western Congo. The fighters called themselves “Simbas”, meaning lions.

Simba rebels, who were primarily comprised uneducated young men, sought to overthrow the central Congolese government not because they were loyal to Lumumba but because they wanted better opportunities for themselves. With the backing of the Soviet Union and China, the rebels founded a new state called the People’s Republic of the Congo, and trade unionist Christophe Gbenye was voted president.

The two years’ long rebellion led to the death of thousands of lives, including westerners. It is important to state the Simba rebellion was not totally crushed, pockets of resistance were still operated in the 1980s and into the 1990s by former president Laurent-Désiré Kabila.

The new state was also supported by Tanzania and Cuba, who supplied the rebels with 100 troops led by Che Guevara . The Simbas gained ground initially but were soon met with opposition from the Congolese Army and mercenaries who fought for Tshombe.

Desperate for global attention, the Simbas kidnapped and held over 500 Belgians hostage. This move by the rebels turned out to be a huge mistake because this prompted the Belgium government to send their troops to recover the hostages. The majority of the hostages were evacuated, about 75 of the rebels lost their lives, and a thousand civilians lost perished as well.

End of the Congo Crisis

Following the suppression of the rebellions, elections were held in March 1965, but once again due to political differences and ethnicity, there was a deadlock between Tshombe’s party and President Kasa-Vubu. Instead of compromising Kasa-Vubu sacked Tshombe as Prime Minister and appointed Évariste Kimba; once again, history was repeating itself.

Army leader Mobutu launched a second bloodless coup in November 1965, but this time, he consolidated power for himself, promising to restore power to a democratically elected government in five years but he never did.

Joseph-Désiré Mobutu (1930-1997) ended up ruling Congo following the crisis. He was the Chief of Staff of the Congolese Army who masterminded the overthrow of nationalist Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba in 1965. Mobutu ruled the country with iron fist from 1965 to 1997

The office of the prime minister as well as parliament was abolished and the DRC was plunged into decades of kleptocracy and autocracy from 1965 to 1997, when Mobutu was finally deposed.

Effects of the Congo Crisis

The crisis, which lasted from 1960 to 1964, resulted in the deaths of more than 95,00 people, most notable among those people was Patrice Lumumba, the first Prime Minister of Congo. The crisis also claimed the life of Dag Hammarskjöld, a senior UN official who was trying to broker peace between the warring sides. Hammarskjöld lost his life when the plane he was flying on crashed.

The scars of the Congo Crisis run deep because it has resulted in years of ethnic unrest in the Congo, especially among the Luba people of the south-central region. There was a rise in insurrection from the 1970s to the 1990s.
There is this palpable feeling among many Congolese that the Congo Crisis was never truly resolved and the murder of Patrice Lumumba set the nation into a period of darkness and hardship.
The first major crisis in sub-Saharan Africa had a ripple effect on other African countries in the 1960s, including the Chadian Civil War and the Nigerian Civil War .

Did you know?

It is important to note that in 2002 the Belgium government apologized for its role in the arrest and execution of Patrice Lumumba. The golden tooth of Patrice Lumumba was returned to his family by the Belgium government in June 2022. The former leader was also given a state funeral by the government of the Democratic Republic of Congo.

One wonders if the call for independence in the Republic of Congo was premature; did the country need more time to understudy its colonial master? Were the superpowers really to blame for this conflict, or was it caused by the sheer diverse nature of the country, a feature that should be a strength, but unfortunately worked against Congo? No matter your stance, we all agree that the Congo Civil War without a shred of doubt was one of the darkest periods of the central African country, and the ghost of the crisis continues to haunt Congolese even to this day.

Frequently Asked Questions about the Congo Crisis

The Congo Crisis was a period of political upheaval and conflict from 1960 to 1965 in the Republic of the Congo, following its independence from Belgium.

Here’s what you need to know:

Why did the Congo Crisis happen?

The crisis was a result of a combination of factors, including rapid decolonization, internal power struggles, regional secessionist movements, Cold War geopolitics, and interventions by foreign powers.

Who was Patrice Lumumba?

Patrice Lumumba was the first Prime Minister of independent Congo, known for his nationalist and pan-African views. He was controversially dismissed from his position, arrested, and eventually assassinated.

Why did Katanga secede?

Katanga, under the leadership of Moise Tshombe and with the backing of Belgian business interests, declared independence to maintain control over the province’s significant mineral wealth, especially its copper mines.

What was the role of the United Nations during the crisis?

The UN sent peacekeeping troops to restore order, prevent civil war, and oversee the removal of Belgian troops. However, their mandate was limited, leading to criticism from various parties.

How did the crisis end?

The crisis concluded with Mobutu Sese Seko’s military coup in 1965. He then established a one-party state and ruled for over three decades.

Did foreign powers play a role in the crisis?

Yes. Belgium, the United States, and the Soviet Union were involved either directly or indirectly, driven by economic interests and Cold War politics.

What was the impact of Lumumba’s assassination?

Lumumba’s death intensified the crisis and remains controversial. It symbolized the challenges faced by post-colonial African leaders and the extent of foreign intervention in African affairs.

Who were the Simba rebels?

The Simba rebels were leftist insurgents who supported Lumumba’s vision and started a rebellion in 1964. They posed a significant threat to the central government and captured large parts of the country.

What were the long-term effects of the Congo Crisis on the country?

The Congo Crisis set a precedent for political instability, ethnic conflicts, and a legacy of foreign intervention in the DRC. Mobutu’s long rule saw authoritarianism, economic mismanagement, and corruption.

Why is the Congo Crisis significant in world history?

The crisis exemplifies the challenges of decolonization, the role of superpowers in post-colonial states, and the complexities of African politics in the wake of independence.

Did the Congo Crisis relate to the Cold War?

Yes. The Cold War dynamics played out in the Congo, with the U.S. and the Soviet Union supporting different factions. Lumumba’s perceived leftist leanings led to Western apprehensions, while the U.S. supported anti-communist leaders like Mobutu.

Tags: Democratic Republic of the Congo Mobutu Sese Seko Patrice Lumumba The Congo Crisis

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ReviseSociology

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A Very Brief History of the Democratic Republic of Congo

This year I’m using the DRC as a major case study in underdevelopment (it is last on the UN’s HDI rankings after all) – Here’s my (mainly cut and paste from Wikipedia) very brief history of the DRC – I’ll add in video links, general links, pictures and extracts from numerous books later…

The Stuff in italics below each heading are the ‘key historical reasons for underdevelopment’

Pre-Colonialism

It was quite nice, suggesting Western Nation States f***ed The Congo Up

[Pre-Colonialism, tribes in the region were doing pretty well for themselves – Organised into the Kingdom of Luba, according to Wikipedia – Each of these kingdoms became very wealthy due mainly to the region’s mineral wealth, especially in ores. The civilization began to develop and implement iron and copper technology, in addition to trading in ivory and other goods. The Luba established a strong commercial demand for their metal technologies and were able to institute a long-range commercial net (the business connections extended over 1,500 kilometres (930 miles), all the way to the Indian Ocean). By the 16th century, the kingdom had an established strong central government based on chieftainship.’

The African Congo Free State (1877–1908) – Colonialism, Brutalisation and Extraction

History of Colonialism

King Leopold II of Belgium formally acquired rights to the Congo territory at the Conference of Berlin in 1885 and made the land his private property and named it the Congo Free State.Leopold’s regime began various infrastructure projects, such as construction of the railway that ran from the coast to the capital of Leopoldville (now Kinshasa). It took years to complete. Nearly all such projects were aimed at increasing the capital which Leopold and his associates could extract from the colony, leading to exploitation of Africans.

Rubber was the main export from the Congo Free State, used to make tyres for the growing automobile industry, and the sale of rubber made a fortune for Leopold.

Leopold’s colonization of the Congo was incredibly brutal. Thousands of Congolese were forced to work on Leopold’s Rubber plantations, and the practice of cutting off the limbs of the natives as a means of enforcing rubber quotas was widespread. During the period of 1885–1908, millions of Congolese died as a consequence of exploitation and disease. In some areas the population declined dramatically; it has been estimated that sleeping sickness and smallpox killed nearly half the population in the areas surrounding the lower Congo River.

The actions of the Free State’s administration sparked international protests led by British reporter Edmund Dene Morel and British diplomat/Irish rebel Roger Casement, whose 1904 report on the Congo condemned the practice. Famous writers such as Mark Twainand Arthur Conan Doyle also protested.

The Belgian Congo (1908–1960) – Colonialism, Condescension and More Extraction

In 1908, the Belgian parliament took over the Free State from the king. From then on, as a Belgian colony, it was called the Belgian Congo and was under the rule of the elected Belgian government. The governing of the Congo improved significantly and considerable economic and social progress was achieved. The white colonial rulers had, however, generally a condescending, patronizing attitude toward the indigenous peoples , which led to bitter resentment from both sides. During World War II, the Congolese army achieved several victories against the Italians in North Africa.

Independence and Political crisis (1960–1965) – Turmoil and Transition

The Belgian Congo achieved independence on 30 June 1960 under the name ‘The Democratic Republic of Congo’. Just previous to this, in May a growing nationalist movement, led by Patrice Lumumba, had won the parliamentary elections. The party appointed Lumumba as Prime Minister. Shortly after independence, most of the 100,000 Europeans who had remained behind after independence fled the country, opening the way for Congolese to replace the European military and administrative elite.

On 5 September 1960, Kasavubu dismissed Lumumba from office. Lumumba declared Kasavubu’s action unconstitutional and a crisis between the two leaders developed. Lumumba had previously appointed Joseph Mobutu chief of staff of the new Congo army. Taking advantage of the leadership crisis between Kasavubu and Lumumba, Mobutu garnered enough support within the army to create mutiny. With financial support from the United States and Belgium, Mobutu paid his soldiers privately. Mobutu took power in 1965 and in 1971 changed the country’s name to the “Republic of Zaïre”.

Mobutu and Zaire (1965 – 1996) – Dictatorship (propped up by the United States), extreme corruption, yet more extraction and infrastructure deterioration

Corruption, Aid, The United States, Cold War

The new president had the support of the United States because of his staunch opposition to Communism. Western powers appeared to believe this would make him a roadblock to Communist schemes in Africa.

A one-party system was established, and Mobutu declared himself head of state. He periodically held elections in which he was the only candidate. Although relative peace and stability were achieved, Mobutu’s government was guilty of severe human rights violations, political repression, a cult of personality and corruption. By 1984, Mobutu was said to have $4 billion (USD), an amount close to the country’s national debt, deposited in a personal Swiss bank account. International aid, most often in the form of loans, enriched Mobutu while he allowed national infrastructure such as roads to deteriorate to as little as one-quarter of what had existed in 1960.

During the 1970s and 1980s, Mobutu was invited to visit the United States on several occasions, meeting with U.S. Presidents Richard Nixon, Ronald Reagan and George H. W. Bush. In June 1989, Mobutu was the first African head of state invited for a state visit with newly elected President Bush. Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, however, U.S. relations with Mobutu cooled, as he was no longer deemed necessary as a Cold War ally.

The first and second Congo Wars (1996 – 2003) – Rwanda’s Ethnic conflict heads west while neighbouring nations plough in and extract resources

End of the Cold War, Ethnic Conflict, Rwanda, Resource Curse

By 1996, following the Rwandan Civil War and genocide and the ascension of a Tutsi-led government, Rwandan Hutu militia forces (Interahamwe) had fled to eastern Zaire and began refugees camps as a basis for incursion against Rwanda. These Hutu militia forces soon allied with the Zairian armed forces to launch a campaign against Congolese ethnic Tutsis in eastern Zaire.

A coalition of Rwandan and Ugandan armies, led by Lawrence Kabila, then invaded Zaire to overthrow the government of Mobutu, launching the First Congo War. By May 1997, Kabila had made it to the capital Kinshasa, named himself president and changed the name of the country back to the Democratic Republic of Congo. Mobutu was forced to flee the country.

However, a few months later, President Kabila asked foreign military forces to return back to their countries because he was concerned that the Rwandan military officers who were running his army were plotting a coup against him. Consequently, Rwandan troops in DRC retreated to Goma and launched a new Tutsi led rebel military movement (the RCD) to fight against their former ally, President Kabila, while Uganda instigated the creation of another rebel movement called the Movement for the Liberation of Congo (MLC), led by the Congolese warlord Jean-Pierre Bemba. The two rebel movements, along with Rwandan and Ugandan troops, started the Second Congo War by attacking the DRC army in 1998. Angola, Zimbabwe and Namibia became involved militarily on the side of the government.

Kabila was assassinated in 2001 and was succeeded by his son Joseph Kabila, who organised multilateral peace talks which to the signing of a peace accord in which Kabila would share power with former rebels. By June 2003 all foreign armies except those of Rwanda had pulled out of Congo. On 30 July 2006 DRC held its first multi-party elections. Joseph Kabila took 45% of the votes and his opponent, Jean-Pierre Bemba took 20%. On 6 December 2006 Joseph Kabila was sworn in as President.

Contemporary Conflicts in the DRC (2003 – Present Day) – Numerous groups fighting over various things

Ethnic Conflict, Rwanda, learned violence.

There are a number of rebel groups still operating mostly in the Eastern Democratic Republic of Congo. It is widely suspected that Rwanda is funding some of these rebel groups. A lot of the recent conflicts seem to go back to the Hutu-Tutsi conflict from Rwanda.

The FDLR -The Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda- Consist almost entirely ethnic Hutus who wish to regain power in Rwanda. The FDLR contains some of the ‘original Hutu genociders’ who carried out the genocide in Rwanda and currently have about 7000 troops still in operation in the DRC. Some of the leaders of the FDLR are facing trial for crimes against humanity in the ICCJ

The CNDP – In 2006, the Congolese military declared that it was stopping operations against the FDLR. This lead to some troops mutinying and the foundation of the CNDP , or The National Congress for the Defence of the People , mostly consisting of ethnic Tutsis, whose main aim continued to be the eradication of the Hutu FDLR. The CNDP consisted of approximately 8000 troops and was believed to be backed by Rwanda.

The M23 Rebels – In March 2009, The CNDP signed a peace treaty with the government, in which it agreed to become a political party and its soldiers integrated into the national army in exchange for the release of its imprisoned members. Its leader, Lawrence Nkunda was also arrested and is now facing trial at the United Nations Court for ‘Crimes against humanity’.

However (here we go again) in 2009 Bosco Ntaganda, and troops loyal to him mutinied from this new ‘integrated army’ and formed the rebel military March 23 Movement, claiming a violation of the treaty by the government. M23 claims that some CNDP troops have not received jobs in the military as promised by the government and also want some limited political reforms.

M23 is estimated to have around 1500 – 6000 troops and as recently as November 2012, M23 captured the city of Goma, with a population of over 1 million, and the provincial capital of the Kivu Province in Eastern DRC, with the aim of getting its political demands met.

Rwanda is widely suspected of funding this rebel group as well, although both Rwanda and M23 deny this.

Other Rebel Groups – In addition to the above there is on and off fighting amongst other rebel groups. For example, Joseph Kony’s Lord’s Resistance Army moved from their original bases in Uganda (where they have fought a 20-year rebellion) and South Sudan to DR Congo in 2005.

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Grade 12 - Topic 2 - Independent Africa

In 1884, at the Berlin Conference, the European powers carved up Africa amongst themselves. By 1914 all of Africa, except Liberia and Ethiopia, was under colonial rule. Today, African countries are politically independent of their former European masters.

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Vachel Lindsay’s “The Congo” demonstrates the traits of his work that would later emerge in the poetry of the Beat movement and the genre of Spoken Word poetry. Noted Beat poet Allen Ginsberg once called Lindsay “an early Allen Ginsberg,” though he called “The Congo” “totally racist at this point” and “cornball.” Beats like Ginsberg, Gregory Corso, Lawrence Ferlinghetti, and Jack Kerouac envisioned a poetic lifestyle similar to Lindsay’s: itinerant, bohemian wanderers in pursuit of beauty. Like Lindsay, the Beat Movement espoused a loose poetics based on rhythm rather than meter , and often alliteration over rhyme .

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Independent Africa comparative case study: the Congo and Tanzania Essay

Independent Africa comparative case study: the Congo and Tanzania Essay for Grade 12 and Grade 11 History.

This page contains an answer guide to the below History Essay Questions (memo):

What were the ideas that influence the independent states Congo and Tanzania?

After attaining independence Congo and Tanzania were faced with economic, social, and political challenges although there were successes that Mobuto and Nyerere gained in trying to improve the living standards for blacks.

Do you agree with this statement? Use appropriate evidence to support your argument.

[Plan and construct an original argument based on relevant evidence using analytical and interpretative skills.]

Candidates should indicate whether or not they agree with the statement and support their answer with relevant historical evidence. Candidates must specifically look at the economic, social and cultural challenges facing both countries after independence.

MAIN ASPECTS

Candidates should include the following aspects in their response:

Introduction: Candidates should critically discuss the successes and challenges facing Tanzania and the Congo with specific reference to their economic, social and political development after gaining independence from colonial rule.

ELABORATION ECONOMY

The Congo and Tanzania inherited a single-product economy from their colonisers.
Tanzania followed a socialistic economic model.
Congo followed a capitalistic model.
Both countries struggled to develop their respective economies.
Nyerere adopted an African Socialism model outlined in the Arusha Declaration which led to the nationalisation of industries and land.
Its aim was to cut ties with Western countries and create self-sufficiency and self- dependency.
Society would be stable and free of economic inequalities.
Mobuto initially nationalised industries using the Zairianisation policy – which involved taking farms and businesses from the foreign owners who were replaced by Congolese.
When it failed due to lack of skills and poor management he adopted a capitalistic model and returned businesses to foreign owners.
Nyerere introduced Villagisation or Ujaama.
A rural community with farming/collective labour.
Lack of tools, water and management skills led to resistance which the police and military forces could not control.
This led to destruction and abandonment of fields.
Tanzania remained the poorest and most underdeveloped country.
Tanzania reduced corruption of government officials through the “Leadership Code”.
Both countries had to accept foreign aid and allow investments which Nyerere initially viewed as neo-colonialism.

SOCIAL CHALLENGES:

Both countries inherited a colonial education system that promoted Eurocentric values
Both countries were challenged by skills shortages; only a few technicians and engineers were available.
Both countries were taught European history and languages, the African content was regarded as inferior and not taught. Tanzania:
Promoted Swahili (local language) over English
Introduced a massive literacy campaign that saw illiteracy drop drastically (from 80% to 20%) between 1961 and 1981
Nyerere produced, ‘Education for Self-Reliance’ (1967) which promoted basic literacy in primary schools in all rural areas. Congo:
Inherited only 14 university graduates
Expanded its higher education system
Increased primary education from 1,6 million to 4,6 million people between 1960 and 1974
Unlike Swahili in Tanzania, French remained the language of instruction in Congo. Africanisation:

Villagisation (Ujamaa) in Tanzania embraced traditional community values based on self-reliance

Zairianisation in Congo replaced experienced Belgian human resources with local people and replaced European names with local names, e.g. Congo to Zaire

POLITICAL ASPECTS

Attaining independence through democratic elections (the Congo 1960) J. Kasavubu became President and P. Lumumba became the prime minister
After holding multi-party elections at independence, the Congo became a one- party state within the first five years after gaining the independence
Mobuto Sese Seko remained as president for life until his death in 2007
Mobuto Sese Seko created a kleptocracy where a group of appointed public officials abused their position for financial gain
Brought back African values
Strong centralised government
Political stability (though based on authoritarianism)
Any other relevant response
Attaining independence through democratic elections (Tanzania 1961: J. Nyerere – amended the constitution to become President (1962)
Smooth transition (peaceful change/racial harmony/commitment to promotion of human equality and dignity
After holding multi-party elections at independence, it became a one-party state
Nyerere remained as president between the 1960s and 1970s
Nyerere introduced the Leadership Code in the Arusha Declaration which demanded high levels of integrity from public officials
African socialism/ Ujamaa was appropriate for inhabitants
Establishment of the United Republic of Tanzania (1964)
Centralised and unitary state
Any other relevant response Conclusion: Candidates should tie up their arguments with relevant conclusions.

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THE CONGO ESSAY QUESTION Question: How was independence realised in Africa in the 1960s and 1970s What were the ideas that influenced the Congo? • Political • Economic • Social and cultural successes/ challenges that the Congo faced BACKGROUND The Congo was colonised during the late 19th century by Belgium. It became the personal property of
Essay
The region that is now the Democratic Republic of the Congo was first settled about 80,000 years ago. Bantu migration arrived in the region from Nigeria in the 7th century AD. The Kingdom of Kongo developed between the 14th and the early 19th centuries. Belgian colonization began when King Leopold II founded the Congo Free State, a corporate ...
PDF 315 Congo Essay (personal info removed)
April 28, 2021. beginnings of colonization continues to affect the world's portrayal of black people. It will. primary sources from the colonization of Africa. First, we will give a background of the Congo. the early colonizer's point of view. Here we will note specific vernacular used in describing. black people and the atrocities committed.
Democratic Republic of the Congo
Congo gained independence from Belgium in 1960. From 1971 to 1997 the country was officially the Republic of Zaire, a change made by then ruler Gen. Mobutu Sese Seko to give the country what he thought was a more authentic African name. "Zaire" is a variation of a term meaning "great river" in local African languages; like the country's current name, it refers to the Congo River ...
The Democratic Republic of Congo: A brief history
The Republic of the Congo gains independence from Belgium. Patrice Lumumba, leader of the Congolese National Movement (the country's first nation-wide party), wins the first national election. He ...
The Independence of the Congo (1959-1960)
The Belgian government convened a round table conference in January 1960 and invited 96 Congolese delegates from 13 political groups. On January 27, 1960 Belgium agreed to independence for the Congo and on June 30, 1960, the Congo became independent. Patrice Lumumba's Mouvement National Congolais won the most number of seats: 33.
Democratic Republic of the Congo
History of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The country that began as a king's private domain (the Congo Free State), evolved into a colony (the Belgian Congo), became independent in 1960 (as the Republic of the Congo), and later underwent several name changes (to the Democratic Republic of the Congo, then to Zaire, and back again to the Democratic Republic of the Congo) is the product ...
Congo, Republic of (Congo Brazzaville)
Introduction. The Republic of the Congo (hereafter Congo), long overshadowed by its eastern neighbor, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, has suffered a history no less tragic. Pierre Savorgnan de Brazza won the right bank of the Congo River for France in the 1880s. Though Savorgnan de Brazza is regarded as a humanist by posterity, the early ...
PDF THE DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO Recent History
Mobutu was in turn violently ousted in the First Congo War (of 1996-97), which was sup-ported by the USA. Laurent-De ́sire ́ Kabila assumed the presi-dency and ruled through the Second Congo War from 1998 until his violent death in 2001, when he was succeeded by his son Joseph, who oversaw peace agreements but imposed increasingly violent rule.
Conflict in The Democratic Republic of Congo: a Mosaic of ...
This essay analyzes the role of INTRODUCTION insurgent groups in the anti. Kabila civil war in the Congo. Laurent The Kabila became president of the 1998 civil war was dominated Democratic by Republic of Congo (DRC) autonomous state players using rebel groups as proxies to achieve in May 1997 after a seven-month civil state's goals.
The Congo Crisis of 1960-1965: History, Causes & Effects
The 1960s was a turbulent era in Africa as many of the colonized countries began gaining their independence and adjusting to self-rule. Just a few weeks after winning its independence from Belgium, the Republic of Congo, now the Democratic Republic of Congo, experienced a severe crisis that shook the country to its core and cost more than a hundred thousand lives, including the life of the ...
Democratic Republic of the Congo
This is part of a series of reading lists from African Affairs about countries and key themes in African studies. They are designed to help readers navigate the breadth of research published in the journal. Non-profit research institutions in Democratic Republic of Congo can get free access to African Affairs as part of the developing countries ...
A Very Brief History of the Democratic Republic of Congo
Independence and Political crisis (1960-1965) - Turmoil and Transition. The Belgian Congo achieved independence on 30 June 1960 under the name 'The Democratic Republic of Congo'. Just previous to this, in May a growing nationalist movement, led by Patrice Lumumba, had won the parliamentary elections.
The Congo
The Congo - Essay Summary and Key points. Course. History. Institution. 12th Grade. A summary of the grade 12 Congo section of history. This provides an easy way to study and learn the content without it being overwhelming. I got 90% in my grade 12 Mock exam after writing and using this document. Highlights key dates and divides the content up ...
Congo Essay
Thus The Congo was successful to a lesser extent in bringing about political stability. (Link) These are the other facts that needs to be added to the essay: - Kleptocracy - Violation of human rights - Extravagance - Aligned himself with the West - Zairianisation - Africanisation - Central government. Economic
Grade 12
Grade 12 - Topic 2 - Independent Africa. In 1884, at the Berlin Conference, the European powers carved up Africa amongst themselves. By 1914 all of Africa, except Liberia and Ethiopia, was under colonial rule. Today, African countries are politically independent of their former European masters. Background and focus.
The Congo Background
Get unlimited access to SuperSummaryfor only $0.70/week. Thanks for exploring this SuperSummary Study Guide of "The Congo" by Vachel Lindsay. A modern alternative to SparkNotes and CliffsNotes, SuperSummary offers high-quality Study Guides with detailed chapter summaries and analysis of major themes, characters, and more.
Abridged Principal Congo Research Essay
(ESSAY) INDEPENDENCE OF CONGO. Background/ Introduction. Colonial rule in the Congo, by the Belgians, began in the late 19th century. The Congo's rich natural resources led to a large interest in the region, from the Belgians, the Soviet Union and the United States. After independence Congo experienced political, economic, social and cultural ...
HISTORY T1 W6 Gr. 12: INDEPENDENT AFRICA: THE CONGO
NSC Past Papers & Memos NSC Exam Timetable NSC Exam Results FET Exemplars FET Common Papers eAssessment Preparation Amended Senior Certificate ... THE CONGO . Free . By. History Curriculum Advisors. Download. Type: pdf . Size: 0.94MB . Share this content.
Independence of Congo || History grade 12
Congo achieved independence from Belgium on 30 June 1960 and was immediately confronted by a series of secessionist movements, which culminated in the seizur...
Independent Africa comparative case study: the Congo and Tanzania Essay
Independent Africa comparative case study: the Congo and Tanzania Essay for Grade 12 and Grade 11 History. This page contains an answer guide to the below History Essay Questions (memo): What were the ideas that influence the independent states Congo and Tanzania? After attaining independence Congo and Tanzania were faced with economic, social, and political challenges although there were ...
Belgian Congo
Belgian Congo, former colony (coextensive with the present-day Democratic Republic of the Congo) in Africa, ruled by Belgium from 1908 until 1960. It was established by the Belgian parliament to replace the previous, privately owned Congo Free State, after international outrage over abuses there brought pressure for supervision and accountability.The official Belgian attitude was paternalism ...
Mobutu Sese Seko
Mobutu Sese Seko (born October 14, 1930, Lisala, Belgian Congo [now Democratic Republic of the Congo]—died September 7, 1997, Rabat, Morocco) was the president of Zaire (now the Democratic Republic of the Congo) who seized power in a 1965 coup and ruled for some 32 years before being ousted in a rebellion in 1997.. Mobutu was educated in missionary schools and began his career in 1949 in the ...