case study about agriculture in the philippines

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Agricultural Production " A Case Study of Mamala Farm Sariyaya, Quezon Province, Philippines"

Abstract The nation’s agricultural development strategy aims at inclusive growth and improved welfare for rural households, particularly poor farmers and fishers. They lead agency for agricultural development is the Department of Agriculture (DA). The DA determines the policy framework, directs public investments, and, in partnership with local government units (LGUs), provides support services for agriculture. With the abundant agricultural resources in the country, the output of agriculture can be significantly increased without doing much harm to the environment. The current state of agricultural production is low and there are a lot of factors militating against this. These factors include: insufficient capital, bad weather, poor storage facilities and weak government support programs among others. A more direct involvement of the government in providing unhindered access to capital, investment in infrastructure and R&D, regular orientation programs and an active involvement of the farmers in these activities through the various authorized organizations will bring about a remarkable turnaround in the agricultural production in the farms in Mamala Sariyaya, Quezon.

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Toward A Human-Centered Agriculture Modernization: Cases From The Philippines

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Agriculture modernization is “the process of transforming the agriculture (and fisheries) sector into one that is dynamic, technologically advanced, and competitive, yet concerned on human resource development, guided by the sound principles of social justice” (Agriculture and Fisheries Modernization Act of 1997). Anchored to the Centenary Declaration for the Future of Work in 2018, which called for a “human-centered approach for the future of work,” this research aimed to understand better the role of human capital productivity management towards the improvement of competitiveness in the agriculture sector as well as it aimed to contribute to the realization of agriculture modernization for the Philippines.

Employing a qualitative approach and case study design through select agriculture cooperatives producing the country’s priority commodities, which present the key insights from analyzing the institutions, strategy, and culture, this research found that it is essential to acknowledge the role of human capital productivity management to improve the competitiveness and technology adoption of agribusinesses in the country. This hoped to open doors for dialogues toward policy reforms and strengthen collaboration among relevant stakeholders so that more human-centered productivity management strategies will be implemented for the agriculture sector, especially in paying attention to utilizing human capital, gainsharing, and promoting productivity culture in the sector. Lastly, this research provided recommendations that may be considered for realizing the vision for agriculture modernization using a human-centered approach to productivity management.

Keywords: human capital, labor productivity, agriculture modernization, economy, Philippines

RESEARCHERS: Arianne Ishreen C. Bucar | Lara P. Fameronag | Athena Mari E. Son | Diether B. Navarosa

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Pest surveillance system for food security: A case study in the Philippines

Ensuring food security amidst the increasing population requires a pest surveillance system for staple food. Regularly collected pest surveillance data serve as the basis for the development of timely pest management recommendations and provisions of targeted interventions to reduce yield losses and mitigate pest risks.

Specific and targeted pest surveillance systems in most countries are designed to prevent the introduction and movement of pests and pathogens for trade and quarantine purposes and reduce the threat of plant pests on food security.

Ensuring food security also requires general or passive surveillance in most countries to detect plant pests , characterize pest constraints and assess the intensity of injuries caused by endemic and nonregulated pests and not just those that are regulated.

A country where pest surveillance is being conducted for regulated and non-regulated pests to ensure food security is the Philippines.

It is estimated that 12.8 million tons of rice are needed to meet the demand of its population which is projected to reach 118 million by 2025. Aside from the growing population, the rice supply gap persists which is partly attributed to unfavorable geography, insufficient irrigation water, the occurrence of adverse weather, inefficiency in rice production technology, and decreasing rice production areas due to conversion of land for non-agricultural use.

These constraints are aggravated by yield losses from acute and chronic pests, specifically, insect pests , diseases , weeds , and rats , which indicates that increasing rice production in the country requires the development of ecologically based pest management strategies and the ability to prevent or mitigate pest risks.

Reduction of yield losses caused by pests and provision of targeted interventions rely heavily on the capacity of the Philippine Department of Agriculture (DA) to acquire and provide timely information on pest risks to farmers and various stakeholders. Lack of accurate information has led to inefficient pest management strategies and waste of resources.

Pest surveillance programs have been implemented in the Philippines, the most prominent of which was the Surveillance and Early Warning System launched in 1974 as a response to massive pest outbreaks. The system was based on systematic and continuous monitoring of pests in farmers’ fields using a standard procedure and the results were used as the basis for the timing of pest control measures. After this project was completed, access to data on pest intensity, production situation, and yield was difficult, and when available, the collection procedure was not standardized.

Surveys were conducted by the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) and the Philippine Rice Research Institute (PhilRice) in lowland rice areas in different provinces in 1987, 1996, and from 2009 to 2010 using a standard procedure. However, the data need to be updated using standard procedure because of changes in cropping practices. More specifically, new varieties have been grown, irrigation infrastructure has changed, and crop establishment in several areas has shifted from transplanting to direct-seeding to cope with the increasing scarcity of farm labor.

In 2013, the DA and IRRI launched the Philippine Rice Information System (PRISM) to provide reliable information on rice to policy-makers. The project involved pest surveillance in selected farmers’ fields in all rice-growing regions to provide the DA with updated and actionable information to improve rice production and ensure food security in the Philippines.

After the research and development phase of PRISM ended, pest surveillance was continued under the Pest Risk Identification and Management (PRIME) project which was launched in 2017. Pest surveillance in farmers’ fields is being conducted to regularly assess the incidence of pest injuries and insect count and yield; identify pest risk indicators (e.g., egg mass, insect pest population, and cropping practices) and pest risk factors; and analyzes the relationship between pests and pest injuries, production situation and yield. Results are provided to the DA and regional partners to continue providing the DA with updated information on pest constraints.

Ensuring food security amidst the increasing population requires a pest surveillance system for the staple food as currently implemented for rice in the Philippines. The implementation of monthly pest surveillance in 15 rice-growing areas of the Philippines can be attributed to the full support of the DA, close coordination between government and non-government agricultural research institutes and regional partners, and the commitment of regional partners to provide resources and manage data collection in farmers’ fields.

The system has leveraged advances in information and communication technologies in the development of a dedicated infrastructure and software applications to ensure the efficiency of data collection and management, and dissemination of pest bulletins with actionable recommendations for the DA and other stakeholders.

Results of conducted surveys as of 2020 showed the increase in the incidence and reemergence of several bacterial and fungal diseases compared to the 1990s and the emergence of dirty panicle, red stripe, and rice grain bug. The shift in pest profile is mainly associated with changes in cropping practices.

This illustrates the importance of surveillance of all pests and not only those that are regulated. Regularly collected pest surveillance data serve as the basis for the development of timely pest management recommendations and provision by the DA of targeted interventions to reduce yield losses and mitigate pest risks.

A rapid assessment of pest injuries in farmers’ fields that are not covered during monthly pest surveillance is being developed and will be integrated into the system in 2021.

The protocol was designed to assess pest intensity and coordinate timely responses during confirmed and potential pest risks in wider geographic areas. The Philippine Bureau of Plant Industry (BPI), the government agency responsible for pest surveillance, forecasting, and early warning, has manifested its commitment to sustain the pest surveillance system over the long term. BPI is using the system as a model for the surveillance of pests in other major agricultural crops that contribute to food security in the Philippines.

Read the study: Castilla NP, Duque UG, Marquez LV, Martin EC, Callejo AML, Montecillo JD and Laborte AG (2021) Pest surveillance system for food security: A case study in the Philippines . In: Souvenir – International Web Conference on Ensuring Food Safety, Security and Sustainability through Crop Protection , August 5 & 6 2020, Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour, Bhagalpur, India. Eds. Ganguly P, Siddiqui MW, Goswami TN, Ansar M, Sharma SK, Anwer MA, Prakash N, Vishwakarma R and Ghatak A. Pp 43 – 49, ISBN: 978-81-950908-4-6.

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Original research article, examining underutilized jackfruit ( artocarpus heterophyllus ) seeds as a potential source of human subsistence in the byse community, india.

1 Amrita School for Sustainable Futures Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Amritapuri Campus, Kollam, Kerala, India
2 Amrita School of Biotechnology Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Amritapuri Campus, Kollam, Kerala, India

Introduction: The seeds of jackfruit are often overlooked and discarded globally, leading to the underutilization of this valuable resource. This study explored the potential of utilizing underutilized jackfruit seeds as an alternative source of human subsistence by investigating the availability of jackfruit, the utilization and underutilization of seeds at the household level, and the types of subsistence activities in the community.

Methods: We used a case study of Byse village in Karnataka, India, to understand this topic. A mixed research approach was used. First, a descriptive research design was employed to collect and describe the data, while a correlation design was used to examine the relationships among variables related to jackfruit seed utilization. Second, a bibliometric analysis was conducted to explore global trends in jackfruit seed utilization.

Results and Discussion: The findings indicated that agriculture, particularly arecanut farming followed by paddy rice cultivation, was the primary means of subsistence in the community. While human consumption of jackfruit seeds is statistically significant, it has a detrimental effect on seed utilization in the community (r = −0.295, p = 0.008). The study also revealed that consuming jackfruit seeds in a semidry form had a positive and significant influence (r = 0.345, p = 0.002) compared to eating them in a fresh form. Consequently, more focus could be placed on encouraging the consumption of semidry jackfruit seeds as a preferred option among residents. Despite the abundance of jackfruits, their seeds are rarely used, with a mean utilization score of 1.77. Since jackfruit seeds are limited in their application and are readily available, they could be utilized as an alternative source for sustainable human subsistence. sustainable human subsistence.

1 Introduction

Jackfruit seeds, often overlooked, possess immense potential for both household consumption and industrial applications, as evidenced by various global culinary traditions and recent research findings ( Waghmare et al., 2019 ). The global significance of jackfruit seeds has been recognized through diverse applications, notably, sustainable microbial fermentation and environmentally friendly green extraction methods, yielding biochemicals, and renewable energy sources ( Brahma and Ray, 2023 ). The multifaceted utilization of jackfruit seeds not only underscores their economic value but also contributes to the burgeoning opportunities within the sustainability discourse, especially in the energy sector. The nomenclature “jackfruit” finds its origins in the Portuguese term “ Jaca ” ( Bakewell-Stone, 2023 ). Jackfruit ( Artocarpus heterophyllus ), a prominent fruit plant indigenous to Asian nations ( Waghmare et al., 2019 ), represents a sizable, tree-borne tropical fruit within the Moraceae family, and both the primary and secondary branches of the jackfruit tree exhibit prolific fruit-bearing capacity. Burgeoning research has revealed that the jackfruit tree demonstrates commendable productivity, yielding an average of approximately 25.71 tons per hectare, with mature trees yielding approximately 10 to 200 fruits each, and this could be harnessed for socioeconomic livelihood welfare ( Ranasinghe et al., 2019 ). While the typical weight of a fully matured jackfruit ranges from 10 to 25 kg, certain cultivars may yield giant fruits weighing up to 50 kg, and an individual ripe jackfruit typically contains between 100 and 500 seeds ( Suzihaque et al., 2022 ).

In most research, Artocarpus heterophyllus species are believed to originate from the Western Ghats of India, a region known as the foremost producer ( Mandave et al., 2018 ), and cultivation outreach has now stretched to several tropical regions and countries, such as Bangladesh, Burma, Malaysia, Indonesia, Uganda, Thailand, Brazil, and Australia ( Fine, 2021 ; Rao, 2023 ). In regions such as Bangladesh, jackfruit seeds are integral to traditional cuisines, offering unique flavors to dishes and serving as a base for stews and curries, prompting explorations into value addition and export potential ( Akter and Haque, 2018 ). Similarly, Brazilian researchers have identified innovative uses such as fermenting, roasting, and grinding seeds into flour, offering an alternative to cocoa with economic benefits for farmers ( Suzihaque et al., 2022 ). Studies have reported the use of jackfruit seeds as a protein source in Nigeria, where they are commonly roasted, cooked, or ground into flour for inclusion in stews and soups ( Eburuaja et al., 2020 ; Chandran et al., 2022 ). Furthermore, these seeds find application in the production of animal feed, thereby creating new revenue streams in agricultural economies ( Eburuaja et al., 2020 ; Chandran et al., 2022 ). Jackfruit seeds have gained traction in the United States as a viable meat substitute, aligning with the increasing adoption of vegetarian diets among consumers ( Hamid et al., 2020 ). Consequently, consumers now have the opportunity to choose products that align with their values without compromising taste or convenience ( Hamid et al., 2020 ). This trend reflects a broader shift toward meeting diverse dietary needs through ethically and sustainably produced alternatives, including those derived from jackfruit seeds and the possibility of using jackfruit and its seeds for several purposes ( Hamid et al., 2020 ).

In this context, given the widespread prevalence of jackfruit, especially in India, there is potential for its seeds to be utilized or serve myriad purposes, such as a source of starch ( Kumoro et al., 2020 ). This is evidenced in several regions where jackfruit seeds are roasted with salt and spices and eaten as tasty wholesome snacks after being boiled or steamed. Similarly, Indian curries and gravies are traditionally made with jackfruit seeds to give the meal a distinctive texture and flavor, presenting a novel narrative for making curries with jackfruit seeds in several states. The continuous realization of this potential has attracted innumerable Indian business people to turn even more jackfruit seeds into flour. They have also explored the use of seeds as a thickener in various recipes or as an alternative to gluten in baking ( Hidayati et al., 2019 ). This partly explains the use of ground jackfruit seeds in paste and as a batter to make thin pancakes (also known as steamed rice cakes), called dosas and idlis ( Hidayati et al., 2019 ; Waghmare et al., 2019 ). This enhances their flavor as well as their nutritional value. Jackfruit seeds, especially boiled or roasted seeds, are good sources of protein, making them crucial in vegetarian dishes, and are preserved with pickling, which is an additional conventional technique that commonly serves as a tangy and spicy side dish that enhances the taste of rice dishes ( Hidayati et al., 2019 ; Waghmare et al., 2019 ). The astounding availability in most of India’s states and the use of jackfruit and its seeds are well reported in the National Horticulture Board’s statistics. Accordingly, the top ten Indian states in terms of jackfruit production in 2018–2019 included Kerala, West Bengal, Assam, Orissa, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Tripura, and Karnataka ( Table 1 ), with 18,57,000 MT grown on 1,87,000 hectares of land ( Antony and Thottiam, 2018 ; The Indian Blog, 2020 ; Ibrahim et al., 2022 ). According to Table 1 , Karnataka (the study area) is the fifth most abundant state in India, with 196.47 metric tons.

Table 1 . The top ten jackfruit-producing states in India.

Unfortunately, even though Karnataka ranks among the top 10 producers of jackfruit in India, the potential of jackfruit seeds has not been fully exploited. Multiple studies have revealed that approximately 2,000 crore Indian rupees worth jackfruit are wasted in Karnataka alone ( Karelia, 2019 ). Related studies, notably by Hossain (2014) , noted that approximately 15% of jackfruit seeds are discarded and considered waste, irrespective of the state in India. This perspective and insight are well nested in the Byse community in Karnataka state, where although jackfruits are abundant, the seeds are less utilized and dumped as waste ( Saibhavana et al., 2023 ). Additionally, excessively ripe jackfruits are mostly left to decay and litter into the environment in many places of the community, posing sanitary and health risks that could emanate from pathogenic microorganisms ( Ubisi et al., 2017 ). Increased loss of jackfruit and seeds is not only a threat to sustainability but also limits the ability to tap the benefits of jackfruit, especially from the nutritional components that could aid the socioeconomic welfare of vulnerable and poor communities, as reported in several studies on the potential use of underutilized jackfruit seeds for both industrial and household purposes ( Waghmare et al., 2019 ). However, limited research has been conducted on the utilization of jackfruit seeds, especially among poor communities in India, which contributes to human subsistence diversity, livelihoods, and environmental sustainability ( Aryal et al., 2009 ). Thus, the primary objective of this study was to assess whether underutilized jackfruit seeds in the Byse community in the state of Karnataka, India, could be used as an alternative source of human sustenance and improve livelihood welfare. To further explore this topic, our study explored the status of jackfruit availability and seed utilization and identified instances of underutilization of seeds at the household level. To critically explore the systemic causation of low jackfruit usage and utilization, we also delve deeper into alternative subsistence activities to chart transformative narratives for sustainable utilization of both jackfruit seeds and other agronomic byproducts.

2 Study area

The study was conducted in Byse, a small village in Hosanagara Taluk in the Shimoga district of Karnataka state in India ( Figure 1 ). Byse is situated 15 km south of the southwest of the town of Hosanagara (13 0 49′ 45” N to 75 0 00′ 43″ E), 96 km away from Shimoga district headquarters in the state of Karnataka ( Menon, 2012 ). According to the Indian village directory, the total geographical area of Byse village is 1266.61 hectares. According to the 2011 Government of India census report, Byse has 208 houses and approximately 961 people, with an estimated population of 1,057 in 2021. Records show that in 2022, the population was 1,076, and it is estimated to be 1,172 in 2023. The local population explosion dynamics in Byse are synonymous with global population trends and, if unmanaged, might create local development conundrums, especially related to community shrinkage, sustainability, regeneration strategies, and the social dynamics of demographic change. Thus, transitioning to sustainable practices could be a conduit for fair development and livelihood welfare sustainability, and this crucially aligns with the Government of India’s development agenda, which seeks to align local perspectives with the need for local governments to take action for sustainable development, emphasizing inclusivity and economic diversification.

Figure 1 . Byse village, Karnataka, India. Source: Modified by authors from Google Maps.

3 Methodology

A mixed research paradigm was adopted in this study ( Shah, 2021 ). First, a descriptive research design ( Helen, 2015 ) was chosen to obtain and describe information regarding jackfruit availability, human subsistence activities, seed utilization in producing final products and how these products could be transformed toward achieving sustainable human subsistence. This was supplemented with a correlational design to facilitate an examination of the relationships among variables related to jackfruit seed utilization and to determine its consumption and economic benefits for the rural community in the Byse.

3.1 Search strategy for bibliometric analysis

The growing interest in this subject is demonstrated by first conducting a bibliometric analysis of jackfruit seed utilization to understand global trends. Bibliometric analysis is a scientific computer-assisted review methodology used to identify core research or authors, as well as their relationships, by covering all publications related to a given topic or field ( Han et al., 2020 ). In this study, 39 findings from 34 diverse sources were compiled, all obtained through an online search using the phrase “jackfruit AND seeds AND utilization” in the Scopus database. The analysis was carried out using a bibliometric cloud platform called “biblioshiny.” Notably, no limitations were imposed on the type of documents or the years of publication, although the search was confined to English-language publications. [Link to CSV file – https://t.ly/GimwQ ].

3.2 Sampling methodology

N is the population size (that is, the total number of the selected population).

n is the required sample size, and.

e is the sampling error (which is 5%).

N = 108.

n = 80.

3.3 Data collection

This study used Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) and a Household survey as the main methods for collecting data using both structured and unstructured questionnaires. This was done to thoroughly examine aspects linked to knowledge on jackfruit, its utilization and underutilization. We also used participant observation to identify instances of underutilization and human subsistence activities in the Byse community.

3.4 Data analysis

Descriptive statistical analysis was performed on the quantitative data obtained from the study participants in Byse. To comprehensively validate and synthesize the findings, we quantified the findings, especially on jackfruit availability and consumption patterns. Simultaneously, we calculated and visualized data on aspects related to the underutilization of seeds and the distribution of human subsistence activities. These quantitative results offered a quantifiable baseline for evaluating human subsistence activities and the frequency and kind of jackfruit-related practices in the households.

Thematic analysis was used to examine the qualitative data gathered from the FGDs. To do this, recurrent themes and patterns in the participants’ narratives were identified, coded, and categorized. The aim was to gain an in-depth understanding of the human subsistence activities that are carried out in the Byse community and to uncover complex viewpoints on the use and importance of jackfruit. This technique allowed for the extraction of themes that addressed the economic and social aspects of jackfruit-related activities, which helped to provide a thorough understanding of the value of jackfruits and local perspectives on their utilization. The combination of both quantitative and qualitative findings enabled a comprehensive analysis of the data, enhancing the general conclusions reached from the study.

4 Results and discussions

4.1 jackfruit seed utilization trends from bibliometric analysis.

The application of jackfruit seeds has gained traction in research since it is believed that they are a frequently disregarded and undervalued part of jackfruit. Research reveals that jackfruit seeds are rich in compounds such as proteins, lignins, saponins, flavonoids, and phenolics ( Thiruselvi and Durairaj, 2018 ). Numerous physiological advantages, including anticancer, antihypertensive, antiaging, antioxidant, and antiulcer capabilities, have been linked to metabolites, especially in jackfruit seeds ( Cheok et al., 2018 ; Chakraborty et al., 2022 ). The seeds of jackfruit fruit are also a rich source of vital minerals, especially potassium, followed by sodium, magnesium, and calcium ( Ulloa et al., 2017 ). The recognition of these benefits has partly led to the proliferation of research in this field in recent years, with the highest spike of annual scientific article publications occurring in 2021 ( Figure 2 ).

Figure 2 . Annual scientific production of publications (1993–2023). Source: Authors.

Unfortunately, booming research in jackfruit has hardly translated into increased citation interest. For instance, the highest number of average citations was recorded in 2019, and there has been a consistent decline in the number of citations related to jackfruit utilization since 2021. The lowest number of citations occurred between 1998 and 2003 ( Figure 3 ).

Figure 3 . Shows the average number of citations per year (1993–2023). Source: Authors.

In terms of country contributions to research in this field, a plethora of countries, especially in the tropics, have contributed articles on jackfruit utilization. A comprehensive survey on Scopus revealed that India, China, Brazil, Indonesia, and Malaysia have emerged as the primary contributors in this domain, with India taking the lead by a significant margin by the year 2023 ( Figure 4 ). It is also noteworthy that 20.51% of the total production comprises documents coauthored internationally.

Figure 4 . Shows a country’s scientific article production from 1993 to 2023. Source: Authors.

In the context of India, however, author leadership has shifted to authors in other countries over time. To put this into a clear perspective, while India has been actively publishing articles since 1993, the other countries began their contributions approximately 2015. Zhang, a Chinese national author, is the leading author of 29 articles about the utilization of jackfruit seeds ( Figure 5 ).

Figure 5 . Publication of the leading authors in Jackfruit seeds from 2017 to 2023. Source: Authors.

Nevertheless, the examination of the correlation between articles, as reflected in their titles and keywords, reveals that India stands among the top ten countries, with a significant focus on research related to jackfruit seeds ( Figure 6 ). This could allow for more impactful and insightful research into which India would be more productive in contributing to specific themes related to jackfruit seed utilization. This could be achieved through prioritizing collaboration with countries with lower scientific productivity but with significant contributions in specific document titles or keywords such as the United Kingdom, Thailand, and Sri Lanka. This is partly because research has proven that jackfruit seed-associated keywords are consistent for India, which confirms the trend of the jackfruit seed theme in the literature.

Figure 6 . A three-field plot depicting the best performing countries based on article titles and authors’ keywords. Source: Authors.

Other insights for India include geographical patterns showing emphasis on particular topics. Additionally, India’s authorship, which has a great impact on this kind of research, offers opportunities for the global distribution of expertise. Prominently, document titles indicate a concentration in specific aspects such as nutrition, agriculture, or health benefits of jackfruit utilization. The most recurring terms in the document titles include jackfruit, heterophyllous, seed, Artocarpus, and starch, with dominant keywords comprising jackfruit, functional properties, jackfruit seed starch, Artocarpus heterophyllus , waste utilization, jackfruit seed, starch, and jackfruit seed flour.

The survey also showed that the word ‘ Artocarpus heterophyllus’ , a species of jackfruit, is the most trending topic among all other dominating words. It had the highest frequency under investigation in these studies, followed by starch, as depicted in Figure 7 .

Figure 7 . The word cloud shows the top 50 words dominating publications. Source: Authors.

The co-occurrence network analysis ( Figure 8 ) revealed distinct clusters in the study of jackfruit seeds. The Red and Green Clusters focus on general characteristics, composition, and potential uses. They address functional features, chemical composition, and extraction methods. In these clusters, “ Artocarpus heterophyllus” and “starch” were central, indicating high levels of significance. The blue cluster centers on jackfruit seed properties, especially functional and physicochemical aspects, suggesting applications in the bakery industry. The purple cluster highlights broader applications and characteristics of Artocarpus. It incorporates waste utilization, chemical, and aroma compounds. Researchers and policymakers are encouraged to explore the potential applications and significance of jackfruit seed starch depicted in the Red and Green Clusters. Additionally, the Blue Cluster offers insights for those interested in functional and physicochemical properties, guiding further research and applications in the Byse community for human subsistence.

Figure 8 . The co-occurrence network of common words in publications. Source: Authors.

The relationship between Artocarpus heterophyllus and starch ( Figure 8 ) emphasizes the value of jackfruit seeds as a possible source of starch for several useful applications, such as cosmetic formulations, animal nutrition, dietary fiber sources, thickening agents, and binder and sizing agents ( Kushwaha et al., 2023 ).

As demonstrated by the prominence of the keyword “waste utilization” in Figure 6 above, there is a growing emphasis and/or interest in research in this particular domain. However, as revealed in most studies, gaps are still prevalent in understanding or exploring the nutritional and health benefits of jackfruit seeds, as in most cases, they remain significantly underutilized on an industrial scale. This is irrespective of evidence that more than 15% of the fruit’s weight is made up of seeds, and increased research in this area could be a promising and profitable byproduct for sustainability ( Sibi, 2022 ). To address this knowledge gap, a study in The Pharma Innovation Journal explored the possibility of using jackfruit seeds to make an affordable and healthy bread spread with desirable properties such as texture, flavor, and aroma ( Habibah et al., 2021 ). Other studies have explored the use of jackfruit seeds to create innovative products, recognizing their untapped potential. This not only minimizes waste and postharvest losses but also diversifies business opportunities ( Waghmare et al., 2019 ; Sibi, 2022 ). Considering every aspect, jackfruit seeds have the potential to be a sustainable and adaptable product. However, most studies still lacked local perspectives and evidence for advancing this case, and this is profoundly factored into our study by bringing to the fore local perspectives of people in Byse.

5 Demography of Byse village respondents

The study demographics showed that there were more female participants than male participants, representing 70 and 30%, respectively. The age group most engaged in the study was 40–50 years, representing 47% of the participants ( Table 2 ). The demographic implications suggest that women had more contact with the use of jackfruit seeds.

Table 2 . Demographics of the respondents from the 27 households in Byse village.

6 Human subsistence in Byse village

According to Chimhowu and Hulme (2006) and Chambers and Conway (1992) , human subsistence comprises people, their capacities, and their means of subsistence, such as their access to food, money, and property. In simpler form, it’s a way to make a living.

6.1 Insights from participant interactions related to jackfruit seeds

Field findings revealed that people in the Byse community mainly depend on agriculture for their human subsistence ( Table 3 ). Studies have shown that in many cases, men are the majority involved in agricultural practices ( John, 1998 ; Bradstock, 2005 ) and, as such, give them the power to control finances, leaving women vulnerable ( Coley et al., 2023 ; Kanyagui et al., 2023 ). A study by ( Ellis and Allison, 2004 ) noted that most of the time, women are left behind on farms. However, they have limited real control to direct the use of agricultural resources, yet their ability to generate income on their own is limited.

Table 3 . Byse village’s gender-based work status.

Therefore, it is imperative to examine the potential of underutilized jackfruit seeds as an alternative source of subsistence. This could enhance smallholder farmers’ income generation in the Byse rural community and reverse the gender inequality issues that affect most communities, especially in the developing world ( Waghmare et al., 2019 ; Weintraub et al., 2022 ).

6.2 Main agricultural activities for human subsistence

The principal agrarian pursuits constituting the primary means of sustenance within the Byse community were elucidated during the focus group discussion (FGD). These activities predominantly entail the cultivation of areca nuts and paddy rice, with areca nut cultivation being particularly prevalent. As evidenced by one farmer’s testimony during the FGD, “…. Areca nuts have gained popularity in the past five years due to their profitability. However, before then, paddy rice cultivation was the most popular .” Additionally, there are instances of ownership of cashew nut and coconut plantations among community members. A member of the women’s self-help group (SHG) highlighted that “ … “…. It is also a common practice in the Byse community for people with unstable incomes to work on either areca nut farms or paddy farms or sell milk if they own milk cows. ” Figure 9 delineates the prevalent means of subsistence within the Byse community.

Figure 9 . Common human subsistence of the people in the Byse community, Source: Authors.

6.3 Distribution of human subsistence activity

The findings from the household survey revealed that, depending on the level of economic stability/security, a household would be either a farm owner or a farm worker. Figure 10 illustrates the human subsistence activity distribution.

Figure 10 . Byse village human subsistence activities against the percentage of people. Source: Authors.

With respect to the human subsistence activity distributions that were revealed in the Byse community, households mainly depend on agriculture in a variety of ways to support livelihood welfare. One of the main agricultural practices carried out in this community is the growth of areca nuts. Approximately 28% of the respondents were arecanut farm owners who rely on arecanut cultivation for income generation, while 6% of the participants utilized arecanut for home use. It is a common practice in the Byse community for less privileged people to work in farmlands for income. Approximately 6% of the participants earn a living by working in arecanut fields. They maintain their human subsistence while supporting a collaborative effort that sustains the village’s agricultural foundation. Paddy rice is another important source of income and a staple food. A significant 18% of people are paddy rice farm owners who make their living from cultivating and selling the product. While 6% cultivated paddy rice for their home consumption, approximately 8% of the participants were employed as paddy rice farm workers. This dual representation shows the value of paddy rice as a staple food and as a source of income. The cultivation of black pepper and cashew nut also plays a role in income generation. It accounted for approximately 2 and 4% of the participants, respectively. The Byse community significantly practices dairy cattle rearing, of which 4% of the participants make their living by selling cow milk and 2% of people use cow milk only for home consumption. Additionally, coconut cultivation provided 8% of the participants with a significant additional source of income, and only 2% cultivated coconut for home consumption. Despite income-focused activities ( Ganesh et al., 2020 ), it is interesting to note that there is a heavy emphasis on self-consumption as well. For example, 6% of the population consumes more cashew nuts to satisfy their demands, which also provides income for approximately 4% of the participants. In contrast to agricultural operations, approximately 8% of the population does not participate in any plantation activity. These complex human subsistence patterns demonstrate the community’s reliance on agriculture for sustenance and income while also demonstrating a balance between income generation and local consumption. To further diversify their livelihoods, some local households are venturing into jackfruit cultivation, which is complemented by the harvesting of wild jackfruit. This is because local people anticipate that this could increase their household revenue streams, promote resilience in the face of shifting agricultural dynamics, alleviate risks emanating from the declining revenue associated with low crop yields, and mitigate fluctuations in markets as well as climatic uncertainties. These perspectives on the need for diversification and alternative sources for human subsistence are supported by several studies ( Baird and Gray, 2014 ).

6.4 Challenges facing human subsistence in the Byse community

A duopoly of human and environmental risks is prevalent in Byse. Prominently, climate change poses a significant challenge to the Byse community, impacting essential economic sectors, with agriculture emerging as the most vulnerable. Alterations in temperature, rainfall, and other life-threatening events stemming from climate variations have far-reaching consequences for community well-being. Furthermore, the community has experienced the consequences of climate change in the form of drought and flash rains, thus leading to soil degradation. The topsoil of the land surface is eroded by runoff water from heavy rains, resulting in diminished harvests of main crops and drying of jackfruit trees. This agricultural setback has compelled residents to travel to Nagara Market, which is situated 10 kilometers away from the village, to meet their daily basic (foodstuff) needs.

This is compounded by multitude human challenges, especially knowledge gaps related to the viability of jackfruit as a commercial product and the limited knowledge about commercially producing value-added products from jackfruit. Bridging these gaps could enhance their survival and improve their welfare, and alternative options based on jackfruit utilization could be developed, which could be completed with the continuous diversification of local businesses and assets (human subsistence diversification activities).

7 Jackfruits in Byse village

Byse village is blessed with natural resources such as jackfruit. Jackfruit is commonly called Halasa in the Kanada local language. In this village, jackfruit is utilized for consumption, but its seed is less used despite its many benefits. The jackfruit trees normally grow wildly or are planted and spread unevenly in the community, growing in different locations spanning many hectares or acres of land. Most of the jackfruit trees are also preserved within the arecanut fields, and some have been planted within local community households as part of a local sociocultural system construct.

7.1 Planted versus naturally grown jackfruit trees per household

At least 15 households among those recorded in the survey had the most naturally growing jackfruit trees ( Figure 11 ). These homes had trees that had grown because of natural processes, which may be an indication of a longer-standing presence of jackfruit trees in the Byse community. Approximately nine houses had mainly planted jackfruit trees. These households intentionally cultivated jackfruit trees. Interestingly, 22 houses had both naturally growing trees and a significant number of planted trees, demonstrating a variety of cultivation techniques. In some locations, households 18 and 20 stood apart because they also had a mixture of trees that were both planted and naturally grown, while household 26 appeared to be making minimum attempts with just a few planted trees. This variety of cultivation techniques illustrates the numerous methods households utilize to manage their jackfruit tree resources, including encouraging natural development and active planting techniques.

Figure 11 . Number of trees per household in Byse community; Source: Authors.

7.2 Seasonality and harvesting of jackfruit

The jackfruit tree life cycle in the Byse community has a varied annual seasonal pattern ( Table 4 ). The trees produce flowers during the months from November to December, and they start to bear fruit during this period. The growing season begins at the start of the new year and lasts through March.

Table 4 . Byse community jackfruit seasonal calendar.

In preparation for the next harvest, the immature jackfruit grows over these months. The ripe jackfruits are ready for harvest around April. The months during which the fruits are harvested from the trees when they have reached full maturity are May, June, July, and August. During September and October, fallowing is performed for the jackfruit trees, during which they are unable to bear fruit as they recover from the production cycle. The Byse community’s annual jackfruit cultivation pattern is defined by this cycle of flowering, fruiting, growth, and rest, which also influences the community’s agricultural practices and means of human subsistence.

7.3 Jackfruit plant ownership

The distribution of jackfruit tree ownership across the 27 households that were surveyed revealed a wide variety of tree counts. For instance, eight households had considerable ownership of 25-five jackfruit trees, while ten and 22 households had significant ownership of 15 and 20 trees, respectively. With tree counts ranging from two to seven, most homes maintained more moderate ownership. The fewest trees, however, were found in households 16 and 26, each of which had only one jackfruit tree. The heterogeneity of tree ownership within the community is highlighted by this distribution, which is likely driven by elements such as accessible land, agricultural endeavors, and individual preferences. These differences in ownership in the findings depict the varied levels of jackfruit cultivation engagement, showing the predominance of this practice in certain households and its comparatively little interest in others.

7.4 Jackfruit utilization in Byse village

The analysis of jackfruit seed utilization in the Byse community is crucial due to its implications for community well-being and resource optimization. This section highlights the potential for enhancing the nutritional and economic benefits derived from jackfruit seeds, thereby advocating for their alternative uses to benefit villagers and the community at large. The consumption of jackfruit seeds by humans had a statistically significant but negative effect on the utilization of jackfruit seeds in the Byse community ( r = −0.295, p = 0.008) ( Table 4 ). This is an indication that jackfruit seeds are underutilized and must therefore be put to other uses to benefit the community at large. In confirmation of the above findings, the study results indicate that human consumption of jackfruit seeds had a positive and significant effect on consumption in the semidry form rather than in the fresh form ( r = 0.345, p = 0.002) ( Table 5 ). For this reason, more emphasis must be placed on the consumption of jackfruit in semidry form as a preference by the people of Byse village.

Table 5 . Correlations with statistical significance of variables related to jackfruit seed utilization.

As shown in Table 6 , the mean for rare utilization of seeds (1.77) was greater than that for the other means of utilization. This means that generally, there is less use of jackfruit seeds.

Table 6 . Statistical summary of means and frequencies for jackfruit seed utilization.

It was also found that among jackfruit seed users, there was more seed utilization by women than by men, which presupposes that some women eat fruit pulp and use semidried seeds in samba. As shown in Table 7 , the mean seed utilization of women was greater than the mean seed utilization for men.

Table 7 . Statistical summary of means for jackfruit seed utilization with respect to sex.

This is indicative of the gender domains in jackfruit use, as field findings revealed that more women use jackfruit seeds but on rare occasions than men do. This is well illustrated in Table 8 , which shows that women make use of jackfruit seeds in the semidry form more than men do in Byse village.

Table 8 . Frequency of jackfruit seed utilization with respect to sex.

From Table 9 , approximately 77.5% of users claim that using jackfruit seeds has benefits, while another 22.5% believe that using jackfruit seeds has no benefits.

Table 9 . Number of responses with regard to gender on the benefits of jackfruit seeds to humans.

From Table 10 , it is clear that most local people have great knowledge of the benefits of jackfruit seeds. Approximately 21 women agreed that the seeds can be turned into powder and used in food preparation. These benefits corroborate several findings in research that unearth several potential benefits of jackfruit, irrespective of the fact that in most communities, products such as jackfruit seeds are less utilized. When it is tapped into valuable products, it will help augment the income of the community.

Table 10 . Number of responses with regard to gender on the types of benefits of jackfruit seeds to humans.

Field findings from the Byse community have revealed significant insights related to jackfruit seeds and their (under)utilization, which could be well described in the literature. First, most local communities acknowledge the value of jackfruit, especially as a panacea for its nutritional requirements, alternative livelihood and sustainable economic stability ( Ulloa et al., 2017 ). However, in most cases, harnessing the potential of jackfruit products, especially jackfruit seeds, largely remains untapped, and local knowledge on the benefits of these seeds is largely lacking. With this insight, increasing the amount of research and localizing initiatives in this discourse could be a feasible conduit for leveraging the untapped benefits of jackfruits, including seeds. This could occur through the turning of jackfruit seeds into flour and its use as an ingredient in food products with added value, which could crucially benefit local communities, especially women.

8 Conclusion

Our study focused on examining the potential of underutilized jackfruit ( Artocarpus heterophyllus ) seeds as a source of human subsistence (encompassing livelihood welfare) and sustainability at the microscale using the Byse community in Karnataka, India, as a case study. We used a multifaceted approach, first involving the critical synthesis of literature jackfruit seeds that was analyzed using bibliometrics and, second, an evidence-based interaction with local participants. Byse, our study revealed key insights into the discourse of underutilized jackfruit seeds that could be well-factored into sustainability studies and research, and this could be key in unlocking systemic challenges that have riddled several jackfruit-producing zones with regard to harnessing the value of jackfruit seeds. From the study findings, it is clear that jackfruit is predominant in several tropical regions, especially in the rural communities of India, and in most cases, it has abundant seeds. However, despite this abundance, underutilization of jackfruit seeds was observed and still prevalent, with most jackfruit harnessed for consumption and byproducts such as discarded seeds. This signifies a missed opportunity, especially in the tapping of alternative beneficial uses of seeds for the community. In recent studies, it has been well documented that the inclusion of jackfruit seeds as an alternative source of human subsistence not only aligns with sustainable development goals (SDGs), such as poverty eradication and hunger alleviation, but could also be a panacea for alleviating health and nutritional concerns among poor communities, and this could further be scaled up in novel research domains, especially in phytochemical research. Even though our study used a small case study of Byse village, which limits the generalizability of the findings to other places with unique socioeconomic, cultural, and environmental contexts, key insights were generated; in particular, underutilization could be factored into transdisciplinary research domains to use local resources for social, economic, and environmental benefits/sustainability. Thus, future studies could focus on multidisciplinary research to address diverse geographical locations. This is because diverse community participation and cross-cultural investigations are essential for the advancement of jackfruit seed utilization; notably, fostering economic and nutritional benefits would promote the enhancement of local food systems and reduce dependency on external sources. In local contexts, a multidimensional approach, advocating for educational programs, promoting awareness of jackfruit seed benefits, establishing local processing units, addressing gender-based disparities, integrating jackfruit cultivation into local policies, and encouraging research and development could further be used to advance this.

Data availability statement

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.

Author contributions

AM: Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. CE: Formal analysis, Methodology, Software, Writing – review & editing. IL: Methodology, Writing – original draft, Writing – review and editing, Software, Visualizations, Validation. CB: Supervision, Writing – review & editing. SS: Supervision, Writing – review & editing.

The author(s) declare that no financial support was received for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank the E4LIFE International Ph.D. Fellowship Program offered by Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Kerala, India. We extend our gratitude to the Amrita Live-in-Labs academic program for providing all the necessary support and for facilitating the conduct of this study.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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Keywords: sustainable human subsistence, jackfruit seeds, community development, agro-diversity, SDGs 1 and 2

Citation: Manianga A, Ekuban CAA, Lukambagire I, Bose C and Sabarinath S (2024) Examining underutilized jackfruit ( Artocarpus heterophyllus ) seeds as a potential source of human subsistence in the Byse community, India. Front. Sustain. Food Syst . 8:1377076. doi: 10.3389/fsufs.2024.1377076

Received: 26 January 2024; Accepted: 02 April 2024; Published: 12 April 2024.

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Copyright © 2024 Manianga, Ekuban, Lukambagire, Bose and Sabarinath. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: S. Sabarinath, [email protected]

Why is nutrient cycling in food systems so limited? A case study from the North-Netherlands region

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Published: 12 April 2024

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Durk W. Tamsma ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-3748-6660 1 ,
Corina E. van Middelaar ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-6835-998X 2 ,
Imke J. M. de Boer ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-0675-7528 2 ,
Johannes Kros ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-1354-4990 3 ,
Martin K. van Ittersum ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-8611-6781 1 &
Antonius G. T. Schut ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-7512-728X 1

Identifying pathways to circular agriculture requires a profound understanding of nutrient flows and losses throughout the food system, and of interactions between biophysical conditions, land use, food production and food consumption. We quantified nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) flows of the food system of the North-Netherlands (NN) region and of its 30 subregions varying in biophysical and socio-economic conditions. The food system included agriculture, food processing, consumption, and waste processing. Nitrogen use efficiency (NUE), phosphorus use efficiency (PUE) and the nutrient cycling counts were calculated. Results show a low NUE (25%) and PUE (59%) of the food system. External inputs were used to maintain high yields and production. Nutrient cycling was very limited with losses from agriculture ranging from 143 to 465 kg N ha −1 y −1 and 4 to 11 kg P ha −1 y −1 . Food system losses ranged from 181 to 480 kg N ha −1 y −1 and from 7 to 31 kg P ha −1 y −1 and varied with biophysical conditions, population density and farming systems. Large losses were associated with livestock farming and farming on drained peat soils. Food system efficiency was strongly associated with the utilization of produce. We conclude that increasing circularity requires tailoring of agriculture to local biophysical conditions and food system redesign to facilitate nutrient recycling. Steps towards circularity in NN include: matching livestock production to feed supply from residual flows and lands unsuitable for food crops, diversifying crop production to better match local demand and increasing waste recovery.

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Introduction

Today’s food system has a significant impact on the planet (Crippa et al. 2021 ; Mueller et al. 2012 ; Pereira et al. 2010 ). Currently food systems heavily rely on external resources including energy, mined nutrients and chemicals (Kuokkanen et al. 2017 ). Various factors enhance this input dependency. The disconnection of food production and consumption leads to losses of nutrients in the system from urban areas. On-farm and regional specialization in agriculture with de-coupled crop and livestock production (Garrett et al. 2020 ; Martin et al. 2016 ; Schut et al. 2021 ) has resulted in inefficient use of nutrients (Tan et al. 2022 ) with manure excess in areas of intensive livestock production (Bai et al. 2022 ; de Vries et al. 2021 ). Furthermore, the utilization of less suitable soils for intensive agriculture comes with substantial nutrient losses and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, the latter in particular from degradation of organic soils (Crippa et al. 2021 ). The theory of circular agriculture provides a guideline to resolve several of these issues and is increasingly seen as an important means for a sustainable food future.

The concept of circularity has been applied to agriculture (de Boer and van Ittersum 2018 ), food systems (Jurgilevich et al. 2016 ) and the biobased economy (Muscat et al. 2021 ). Muscat et al. ( 2021 ) argue that the foremost principle of circular agriculture is to safeguard the health of (agro)ecosystems by not exceeding the regenerative capacity of natural resources. In addition, they emphasize the importance of efficient resource use by avoiding non-essential products and residual flows of essential products, prioritizing biomass use for human needs, and by recycling of unavoidable residual flows. Finally, they propose that the external energy requirement of the system can be decreased by working with nature and by maximising the utility of materials and recycling (Bergen et al. 2001 ; Muscat et al. 2021 ). By following these principles of circularity, food systems could in theory transition from a linear extract-consume-discard system to a more circular one in which resource loops are closed to prevent depletion of mineral and fossil resources and reduce emissions to the air, water and soil (Muscat et al. 2021 ).

Circularity of resource flows in the food system requires a food systems lens to quantify and eventually optimize flows between food system components in order to minimize resource use and environmental impacts at the level of the entire food system. This goes beyond resource use efficiency of individual agricultural sectors or production chains. Circular food systems also require spatial reconfiguration of production to enhance re-coupling of nutrient flows with limited biomass transport and to stay within local environmental carrying capacities (Bai et al. 2022 ; Koppelmäki et al. 2021 ). Furthermore, production may need to be coupled to food demand on more local or regional scales to limit nutrient imbalances between regions and to minimize energy use and GHG emissions from transportation. However, the feasibility of recoupling nutrient flows locally is strongly tied to the local biophysical production conditions which determine the suitability for and efficiency of food production. The scale at which striving for circularity in food systems is feasible is therefore determined by the biophysical context affecting the ability to produce food, but also by the processing capacity of agricultural products, food demand and the availability of consumer waste.

Several studies have quantified biomass and/or nutrient flows at farm (de Vries et al. 2018 ; Schröder et al. 2003 ), regional (Hanserud et al. 2016 ; Le Noë et al. 2017 ; Theobald et al. 2016 ; Vingerhoets et al. 2023 ), national (van Selm et al. 2022 ) or global (Crippa et al. 2021 ; Willett et al. 2019 ) levels with the aim of more circular resource use. However, such studies either focus on the entire food system with a subnational region as the smallest spatial unit, or on agriculture in its local context but with limited attention for the complexity of agriculture as part of the food system. Hence, it is still poorly understood how the biophysical production environment, type and productivity of production systems and local food demand interact with nutrient flows, losses and circularity of the food system.

To improve our understanding of these interrelationships, the objective of this study was twofold. First, we aimed to quantify nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) flows and to evaluate differences in efficiency between subsystems of the food system and between subregions within the ‘North-Netherlands’ (NN); and second to benchmark the circularity of the current food system and provide a deeper understanding of nutrient cycling, losses and inefficiencies in this highly specialized, food exporting region. We compared four subregions that strongly differed in soil type as a proxy for the biophysical conditions, production volumes of crop- and animal products as an indicator of specialization and population as a proxy for consumption. Three subregions had suitable sandy- and clay soils. Of these Achtkarspelen was characterized by predominantly intensive husbandry and low population density, Veendam-Pekela by arable farming and low population density and Assen by mixed farming and high population density. Subregion de Fryske Marren was characterized by predominantly peat soils with dairy farming and a low population density. Nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) and phosphorus use efficiency (PUE) were evaluated at subsystem level and for the entire food system. A cycling count indicator (van Loon et al. 2023 ) was used to evaluate the degree of nutrient recycling in the current food system and to identify opportunities to enhance circular resource use. We hypothesized that subregional differences in indicators of efficiency and circularity of the food system are directly linked to the biophysical characteristics of the production environment and associated agricultural specialization and to local food demand and thus to import and export.

A mass flow analysis was conducted to quantify nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) flows in the food system of the North Netherlands region and of constituent subregions for the years 2015–2019. Total flows and losses as well as nutrient use efficiency and the nutrient cycling count of the current food system were calculated.

Delineation of case study

Region description.

The North Netherlands (NN) region covers an area of 8,292 km 2 land and includes the provinces of Friesland, Groningen, and Drenthe with in total 1,7 million inhabitants. The population density of 216 inhabitants km −2 is much lower than the Dutch average of 517 inhabitants km −2 , yet is still far above the EU27 average of 118 inhabitants km −2 (CBS 2020 ; EUROSTAT 2021 ). However, NN is relatively land abundant with 0.31 ha of cultivated land per capita, which includes cropland, grassland, and horticulture (CBS 2022a , b ). This is way more than the 0.06 ha cultivated land per capita for the Netherlands and 0.22 ha cultivated land per capita for the EU27 (The World Bank 2020 ), highlighting the role of NN as a food producing region. About 70% of the land in NN is used for agriculture, including 45% for livestock farming and 19% for cropping (CBS 2018 , 2022b ). Main crops are: winter and spring wheat, barley, sugar beets and seed, ware and starch potatoes. The livestock sector consists mainly of dairy cattle with a smaller number of pig and poultry farms (Smit et al. 2017 ). Horticulture takes up about 1% of total agricultural land (Smit et al. 2017 ). There is an ongoing trend of specialization and increasing farm size, in line with wider European trends (Schut et al. 2021 ; Smit et al. 2017 ). The NN is a strong exporting region producing for the EU and world markets (CBS 2016 ). The region includes a wide variety of bio-physical conditions, with different soil types and ground water levels. NN is an important region for biodiversity conservation, and supports large populations of migratory birds (Reneerkens et al. 2005 ) and has unique habitats for various animal and plant species (Aptroot et al. 2012 ; Peeters and Reemer 2003 ). It also borders the Wadden sea, the largest tidal flats in the world that provide a unique habitat for numerous species (Wortelboer 2010 ).

We divided NN into 30 constituent subregions that contrasted in predominant soil type, agricultural specialization and population density (Fig. 1 ). Soil type was chosen as a proxy for variations in the biophysical production environment, as it is the most important determinant of the suitability for and the nutrient efficiency of the production of different crops in the region. Agricultural specialization determines what is produced, processed and exported from a subregion. Variation in population density is directly related to consumption and the availability of recyclable consumer waste. These proxies for the biophysical environment, specialization and consumption together give insight in the potential for and possible pathways to circularity in a local or regional food system.

Map and summary statistics of four subregions in North Netherlands (NN). These subregions illustrate the local contrasts in soil types, agricultural specialization and population density found within the region. The presented statistics include farm- and livestock counts (CBS 2022b ), the cultivated area of arable and feed crops (CBS 2022b ) and population density (CBS 2022a ) and are average values for the years 2015–2019. The pie charts show the ratio between different soil types in each subregion

Definition of the food system and substance flow model

This case study focused on the food system within mainland NN. The subsystems included were: agriculture, food- and feed processing, (human) consumption and waste processing. A substance flow model was developed to analyse annual nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) in- and outflows of the system, including flows within and between the different subsystems (Supplementary Material; Fig. S1 ). The selection of flows was based on earlier studies on comparable food systems (Smit et al. 2010 ; van der Wiel et al. 2020 , 2021 ) and adapted to region-specific conditions. Where possible, flows were quantified by using publicly available data from national databases and research reports. Important sources included Statistics Netherlands (CBS), the Dutch Ministry of Infrastructure and Water Management (Rijkswaterstaat), the National Institute for Health and the Environment (RIVM) and the INITIATOR (Integrated Nutrient ImpacT Assessment Tool On a Regional scale) model developed by Wageningen Environmental Research. Gaps in the data were filled through interviews with experts from the region. Data was collected for the municipality level. Average data from the years 2015–2019 was used where possible to account for temporal variation. As the 2015–2019 period coincided with a reorganisation of municipalities in NN, the spatial entities changed. Therefore, subregions were created by merging municipalities to the level at which data was available for all years, creating the smallest possible spatial entities. For several flows no data was available at the subregional spatial level, most notably trade data for food and feed. In these cases a feed and food balance approach was used to estimate imports and exports (van der Wiel et al. 2021 ). Agricultural products were assumed to be processed in the subregion of origin, since flows of agricultural products to centralized processing facilities could not be tracked. Thus the systems presented here for NN and each subregion represent the food systems flows that are associated with the food production and consumption in NN and in each respective subregion.

Calculation of flows

A complete overview of all flows, their main data sources and calculation is given in the Supplementary Material (Fig. S1 ; Table S1 ). The entire calculation procedure has been made available online (DOI: https://doi.org/10.4121/8899e893-c68a-4fe1-813e-6af228eb0ef1 ). Below we provide an outline of the calculation procedure for the main components in the food system.

Agriculture

Agriculture was restricted to arable crop and livestock production, (greenhouse) horticulture was excluded. Livestock included dairy and beef cattle, pigs, poultry, and sheep. Livestock from hobby farms were excluded as these were not included in the agricultural census.

Most internal flows in the subsystem agriculture were calculated using the INITIATOR model (de Vries et al. 2023 ; Kros et al. 2019 ). INITIATOR calculates spatially explicit N, P and C fluxes in agriculture, including the supply of N, P and C in the form of fertilizer, animal manure, deposition and N fixation, the N and P discharge by the crop and the emissions of methane (CH 4 ), ammonia (NH 3 ), nitrous oxide (N 2 O) and nitrogen oxides (NO x ) to the atmosphere. The model uses detailed spatial data that largely came from available national datasets, such as the geographically explicit agricultural census data, including crop type, cropping area, livestock numbers and housing type at farms. INITIATOR was used to calculate manure excretion on farm level as well as gaseous N losses from animal housing and manure storage. Manure was distributed over the fields of the farm, up to the legal application limit for animal manure per hectare. Any excess manure was initially divided over the agricultural area within each (aggregated) municipality. Any remaining excess was subsequently exported to regions of NN with a manure shortage, i.e. where more manure could be applied within the legal limit. Similarly, if the legal application limit was not reached, manure was imported from other regions of the Netherlands with excess manure. In the Netherlands, legislation enforces that excess manure needs to be exported as manure or in processed form to farmers in manure deficient areas who get rewarded for manure application on cropland. Gaps between effective N and P applied with animal manure and the legal total effective application limits were assumed to be filled up with artificial fertilizers and compost. This is a reasonable assumption, because fertilizer inputs are cheap relative to product prices in the Netherlands and farmers utilize the entire application norm (Langeveld et al. 2007 ; Reijneveld et al. 2010 ). In addition N and P inputs from atmospheric deposition were taken into account. The INITIATOR soil module was used to calculate the amounts of nitrogen fixation and decomposition of organic matter as well as crop uptake and losses from manure storage, fertilizer application, leaching, runoff and denitrification per hectare. Loss fractions differed between soil types and groundwater levels (de Vries et al. 2023 ).

The crop offtake of kg N ha −1 and kg P ha −1 and crop area obtained from INITIATOR were multiplied to obtain production per subregion. Crops in INITIATOR output were grouped into: potatoes, sugar beet, wheat, other cereals, grass, silage maize and miscellaneous crops. We segregated the production of crop groups into individual crops by estimating for each subregion the production ratio between each crop in a group. To this aim crop areas and yields from (CBS 2022b ) and crop nutrient content obtained from experimental studies in the Netherlands were multiplied to provide N and P production per crop (de Ruijter et al. 2020 ; Ehlert et al. 2009 ). The total mass of N and P in consumed feed was calculated using the average fodder and feed concentrate consumption per animal per feed group reported by (CBS 2019 ) and the livestock numbers from the agricultural census (CBS 2022b ). It was assumed that all fodder was produced in the region. In most cases the production of fodder crops did not exactly match the calculated consumption by livestock. Such discrepancies were resolved by adjusting the grass nutrient content, as this was a major source of uncertainty. The feed concentrate requirement was filled with residual flows from the processing and waste processing industries and supplemented with feed imports if needed (see Sects. 2.2.3 and 2.2.5). Animal production was calculated by multiplying livestock numbers by production per animal and the N and P content of various animal products (CBS 2019 ). Nutrient balances were maintained, i.e. nutrients in feed supply exactly matched offtake with animal products and excreta.

Food processing

Food processing included processing of raw products from agriculture in each subregion and NN only. The fraction of each raw crop and animal product that was processed was derived from literature (Supplementary Material; Table S1 ). The remaining produce was assumed to be consumed in unprocessed form. Crop and animal products were converted into food products and residual flows using transfer coefficients (TCs). TCs were derived either directly from processing industries in the region or from Dutch sectorial sources (Supplementary Material; Table S1 ). The most common application of each residual flow was obtained from industry reports or directly from processing companies. Applications of processing output were grouped as: food, livestock feed, soil amendment and other flows that left the food system. In case flows had multiple applications a best-case scenario was assumed where application as livestock feed was preferred over application to soil, which in turn was preferred over applications outside the food system. Food, feed, and soil amendments that were not exported were designated as inputs to consumption and agriculture respectively (see 2.2.5). We assumed that seed potatoes and non-food cash crops (e.g. fiber hemp) were exported as whole products from the region without further processing. Losses from processing to the environment were not quantified because of data limitations.

Food consumption

Consumption included the food consumption of the human population in the region, excluding their pets and recreational animals. Food consumption was calculated from regional and municipal demographic data (CBS 2022a ) and consumption per capita. Per capita consumption of products in different food groups was derived from the Dutch Food Consumption Survey (van Rossum et al. 2020 ). An overview of food groups is given in (van Rossum et al. 2020 ). One average diet was assumed for the entire population, based on the average diet of males and females between the ages of 1 and 79, weighed by the population composition of NN (van Rossum et al. 2020 ). The N and P contents per food item were obtained from the Dutch Food Composition Database and averaged for all products in a food group (RIVM 2021 ). The amount of food waste was estimated based on the food waste survey by (CREM Waste Management 2017 ). Human body mass changes were ignored, and it was therefore assumed that all consumed N and P in food was excreted.

Waste processing

Waste processing included organic waste arising from the food system only, thus including food waste and human excreta but excluding garden waste. All human excreta were assumed to be treated at a typical communal wastewater treatment plant (WWTP), since 99.7% of Dutch households is connected to the communal sewer (Oosterom and Hermans 2013 ). N and P from human excreta were allocated to sludge, emissions to the air and to surface water (Rijkswaterstaat 2019 ; WSBD 2018 ). In the Netherlands nutrients are currently not recovered from sludge in any significant quantity and were therefore considered lost from the system (Regelink et al. 2017 ). Food waste went to incineration, landfilling, livestock feed, composting or anaerobic digestion in ratios derived from (Soethoudt and Vollebregt 2020 ). All incinerated and landfilled food waste was considered lost from the food system. Compost, digestate and livestock feed were returned to agriculture.

Retail: Food and feed import- and export

A net balance approach was used to estimate food and feed imports and exports at subregional and at NN regional level. Livestock N and P requirements were met with local roughage and co-products from processing industries and waste processing and were supplemented with feed imports. Local food demand for each food group was filled with produce from the subregion or NN region and supplemented with food imports. Consumed horticulture products were part of the food imports, as horticulture was not included in this study due to its small acreage in the region. Products that were produced but not consumed were assumed to be exported. Summed totals of import and export were used to calculate the net import/export balance over all food groups. This is an approach that determines the highest possible degree of local consumption rather than actual local consumption, used to compensate for the lack of trade data at the sub-national level. Losses from retail were ignored as losses from supermarkets in the Netherlands are estimated at only 1.7% (CBL 2020 ).

Data reliability

Data uncertainty was accounted for using the approach of (van der Wiel et al. 2021 ). An uncertainty level was assigned to each flow based on the type of data source, as most sources did not provide uncertainty estimates. Flows were assigned the uncertainty level of the most uncertain data source used in their calculation, rather than the propagated uncertainty of all variables (van der Wiel et al. 2021 ). The level of aggregation of source data differed substantially between flows, meaning that uncertainty propagation would disproportionally affect flows based on less aggregated data. Each uncertainty level was associated with a relative uncertainty interval as specified by (van der Wiel et al. 2021 ) (Table 1 ). Subsequently, uncertainty ranges were calculated by multiplying each flow by their respective relative uncertainty interval. Flows in the subsystem agriculture were assigned the uncertainty level nearest to the uncertainties reported for each flow by (de Vries et al. 2003 ) and N losses were assigned the highest uncertainty level as the fate of N in the environment is not well documented. The uncertainty estimates of all flows can be found in the Supplementary Material (Table S1 ).

All flows, balances and indicators were computed for the NN region and for each subregion. Flows were expressed in megagram per year (Mg y −1 ) and converted to kilogramme per hectare of agricultural land per year (kg ha −1 y −1 ), using the total area used for agriculture in a (sub)region. Checks were done to ensure the law of mass conservation was observed. This was done for each subsystem and for the whole food system. The use efficiencies (UE) for N (NUE) and P (PUE) were determined for the whole food system and for each subsystem:

For NUE and PUE output and input are the N or P flows out of and into the respective (sub)system, excluding losses. An overview of the most important inputs and outputs into the system and subsystems is given in Fig. 2 . For example, inputs into subsystem livestock are feed from waste processing, feed from food processing, feed import and feed crops. Outputs of livestock are animal products and excreted manure with losses all resulting from manure storage. A complete overview of all individual flows is given in the Supplementary Material (Fig. S1 ). All flows with a purpose outside the food system or outside the (sub)region were considered outputs, thus including food exports, manure export (in the case of any excess) and residual flows of food processing, but excluding landfilled food waste which was considered a loss. To assess the effects of the assumption that manure is a useful export product, we also calculated UEs excluding manure export as useful output, as excess manure is of limited value compared to food exports. In this case excess manure was counted as a loss. Furthermore, we estimated the externalized losses from the production of feed imports, by dividing the amount of imported feed by the production efficiency of feed crops in NN. Depletion of N and P in the soil was counted as an input to the system and accumulation as an output.

Nitrogen (panel a.) and phosphorus (panel b.) flows in the North Netherlands food system expressed in kilograms per hectare of agricultural land per year (kg ha −1 y. −1 ). System in- and outputs are shown in blue where inputs enter the system (and each subsystem) from the left, outputs leave from the right. Internal flows are shown in green and losses are shown as red arrows leaving the (sub)system from the bottom. Values are averages for the period 2015–2019. Note that all (sub)system balances are 0, which may appear differently in this figure due to rounding. The unrounded numbers for each flow are given in the Supplementary Material (Fig. S2 )

To assess the recycling of nutrients within the food system, we determined the cycle count indicator (CyCt) for nitrogen (CyCt N ) and phosphorus (CyCt P ) (van Loon et al. 2023 ). The CyCt quantifies the average number of times that inputs are cycled through the food system before being removed from the system as outputs or losses. It is defined as:

where A is the fraction of inputs that is removed from the food system per cycle and (1-A) indicates the fraction of inputs retained in the system after each cycle.

The flows, UE and CyCt of N and P in the NN region were compared to studies on regional nutrient flows to contextualize our results and thereby provided the baseline for subregional food system flows.

Nutrient flows in North Netherlands food system

In total, 99% of imported N and 96% of imported P went to agriculture and the rest was captured in imported food (Fig. 2 ). The largest N inputs were artificial fertilizer (41%), mineralisation of organic peat soils (26%) and imported animal feed (22%). The largest P inputs were imported animal feed (48%), soil stock change due to lowered yearly application limits (15%), mineralisation of organic peat soils (13%) and artificial fertilizer (10%). The main system outputs were the export of food, non-food biomass from processing and the production and export of seed potatoes. About 91% of N losses and 72% of P losses were from agriculture. The NUE and PUE were respectively 0.25 and 0.59 for the food system compared to 0.36 and 0.74 for agriculture (Table 2 ).

The largest flows in the food system were associated with agriculture (Fig. 2 ), as NN region is a net production region. Total crop offtake was 237 kg N ha −1 y −1 and 35 kg P ha −1 y −1 , of which 81% was in fodder, and 19% in food and feed crops for processing. The combined production of plant and animal products for processing and human consumption was 124 kg N ha −1 y −1 and 22 kg P ha −1 y −1 . Of this, 36% of N and 34% of P were in plant products and 64% of N and 66% of P in animal products. Losses from agriculture were the largest of the food system, with the majority of N losses being lost from the soil via denitrification (72%), fertilizer application losses consisting mainly of NH 3 (9%), runoff (7%) and leaching (2%). The remaining 9% was lost from manure storage, predominantly as NH 3 . P was only lost from the soil via leaching (76%) and runoff (24%). In total, 81% of harvested N and 79% of P was directly fed to livestock. Losses were largest in the subsystem soil. Hence, a large proportion of losses from agriculture can to attributed to feed production. Of all livestock feed 26% of N and 30% of P was imported from outside the region. The losses during the production of imported feed were not included in this analysis. Including such losses would increase the N and P losses associated to animal production even further.

Processing and retail

Of the total production of crop- and animal products in the region about 60% of N and P ended up in food products, 23% was returned to agriculture as feed or soil amendment and 14% ended up in products not used in the food system (Fig. 2 ). A substantial part of the flows leaving the food system was offal, of which a large part is used in the production of pet feed. Smaller flows leaving the system included seed potatoes, non-food cash crops and non-food/feed products of animal origin (Supplementary Material; Fig. S2 ). Losses from processing could not be accounted for due to a lack of data. However, 14% of N and P going into processing ended up in non-food products, that left the food system and were essentially lost. For instance, offal from animal carcases is processed into pet feed and is eventually excreted by pets and generally not recovered. The generation of non-food flows thus indicates an inefficiency in the use of food crops that could (partly) have been used to feed the human population.

Only 25% of N and 18% of P of locally produced food products was consumed within the region, with the rest being exported. This means that 75% of N losses and 82% of P losses from agriculture and food processing could be attributed to the production of food exports, when assuming uniform losses per kg of N and P across crops and animal products. As animal products made up a large share of exports, the percentage of losses associated with export is likely higher.

Consumption and waste

About 24% of N and 30% of P in purchased food was imported from outside the NN food system (Fig. 2 ). Of purchased food, 91% of N and 93% of P was consumed and ultimately disposed in wastewater. The remaining 9% of N and 7% of P was food waste, which is in line with the 10% reported by (Yahia and Mourad ( 2020 ) for European consumers.

Nitrogen in wastewater was lost as N 2 (64%) or N 2 O (1%). About 19% ended up in sewage sludge and 16% was lost to surface water. Phosphorus in wastewater went to sludge (86%) and to surface water (14%). Sludge is usually dried and burned or landfilled, and N and P in sludge was a loss from the system.

Food waste was either burned (35% of N and 40% of P) or composted (30% of N and 27% of P), digested (22% of N and 9% of P), landfilled (3% of N and 3% of P) or used as livestock feed (2% of N and 21% of P). Only compost, digestate and feed from waste were returned to the system, with the rest effectively being lost.

Subregional variation in specialization, soil type and N balances of agriculture

Within NN there is spatial heterogeneity in soil types (Fig. 3 ; panel a), population density (Fig. 3 ; panel b) and agricultural specialization, represented by the fraction of produced N in crop products (Fig. 3 .; panel d). Most areas dominated by sandy soils have a mixture of specialized crop and livestock farms. The eastern part of the region with sandy soils, with some oligotrophic peat residues that were left after peat excavation, is largely specialized in crop production. The fertile clay soils near the coast that were reclaimed from the sea are used by specialized crop farmers (light grey in Fig. 3 ; panel a), whereas the areas with heavy clay soils further inland (dark grey in Fig. 3 ; panel a) are dominated by dairy farmers. The south-(western) part of the region that is dominated by peat soils is largely livestock-oriented, specifically toward dairy farming. The spatially segregated specialized crop and livestock production in the northern part of the region is not distinguishable on these maps due to low spatial resolution of the available data, thus showing a ratio of crop to animal production close to 50%. Patterns of specialization largely follow patterns of soil type and groundwater levels. Urban centres are relatively small and population densities are diluted by low population density in the rest of the subregion.

Maps of soil types and urban areas ( a. ), population density ( b. ), total N yield of crop and animal products ( c. ), proportion of N yield in crop products ( d. ), nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) of agriculture ( e. ) and nitrogen losses from agriculture ( f. ) per subregion in NN

The maps of NUE (Fig. 3 ; panel e) and losses (Fig. 3 ; panel f) show a similar pattern as specialization (Fig. 3 ; panel c). The highest NUEs and lowest losses were found in the eastern parts, whilst NUE was lower and losses were higher in the southern part of the region. In the cropping regions higher production levels of agricultural products (excl. feed) were achieved (Fig. 3 ; panels c and d) with lower losses (and less inputs). Most subregions with predominantly animal production had lower NUE and higher losses per hectare. However, there were several outliers to this pattern, which are explained below. The spatial correlation between soil type and NUE and losses was less clear than that between specialization and NUE. The exception was that losses on the south-western peat soils were notably higher than in the rest of the region.

Comparing nutrient flows in contrasting subregions

The N balances of the food system of four selected subregions, contrasting in specialization, soil type and population density are shown in Fig. 4 and NUE and PUE values of their subsystems in Table 2 . Additionally, an overview of N flows in the food systems of these subregions is given in the Supplementary Material (Fig. S3 ). These balances and flows are used to explain the patterns observed for NUE and PUE and specialization and soil type, as well as exceptions to patterns.

Overview of contrasting subregions in north-Netherlands (NN), varying in soil type, specialization, and population density ( a. ) and their respective food system N balances and nitrogen use efficiencies (NUE) ( b. ). Food system losses were especially large in areas of dairy farming on peat soils ( Fryske Marren ) and in more urbanized areas where losses were large from both agriculture and consumer waste ( Assen ). Intensive animal production had lower losses inside the region ( Achtkarspelen ), as losses from the production of imported feed and utilization of exported manure took place outside the region. Including such losses would drastically reduce the NUE. Arable farming was associated with higher yields per hectare and smaller losses, but as a large share of nutrients in crop products was processed into livestock feed, the food system NUE and outputs in areas dominated by arable farming were very low ( Veendam-Pekela )

De Fryske Marren

De Fryske marren is located on peat soil and is strongly specialized in dairy production (Fig. 4 ). There was a substantial input from decomposing peat of 335 kg N ha −1 y −1 . Agriculture in De Fryske Marren had an NUE of 0.23 and a PUE of 0.68, slightly lower than the average NUE of 0.36 and PUE of 0.74 for the NN region (Table 2 ). Losses from agriculture were 465 kg N ha −1 y −1 , 86% higher than the regional average of 250 kg N ha −1 y −1 . Production was 96 kg N ha −1 y −1 , 23% lower than the regional average of 124 kg N ha −1 y −1 . The excess N was mostly lost to the air via denitrification. De Fryske Marren also had a high feed self-sufficiency, as local feed production met 77% of demand. The losses associated with feed production were thus largely internalized. Of the N in harvested plant material, 99% was in fodder. As the largest part of consumed feed was converted into manure and not into food products, food production was low despite the large inputs and losses.

Achtkarspelen

Achtkarspelen is located on sandy soil (Fig. 4 ) and had the highest intensity of animal production in the region including landless poultry and pork production, yielding 149 kg N ha −1 y −1 in animal source food products, which was 89% higher than the regional average. The total production including crops was 151 kg N ha −1 y −1 , which was 22% above the regional average. At the same time, the NUE of agriculture of 0.53 and PUE of 0.88 were among the highest of all subregions (Table 2 ). Losses from agriculture were 219 kg N ha −1 y −1 , which was 13% lower than the regional average.

The apparently high efficiency of animal production in this subregion resulted from the externalization of some main sources of losses, i.e. feed production and manure application. Achtkarspelen had the largest feed imports and manure exports per hectare of all subregions (Supplementary Material; Fig. S2 ). About 40% of feed was imported from outside the subregion, thus externalizing a large part of the losses associated with growing feed crops. Also, manure export made up about a third of system output, but manure is of much lower utility than food products and its utilization causes losses elsewhere. Excluding manure export as system output reduced the NUE of this subregion from 0.53 to 0.38 and the PUE from 0.88 to 0.55 (Table 2 ). Also including the losses related to the production of imported feed would further reduce the efficiency (to about NUE 0.25).

Veendam-Pekela

Veendam-Pekela is situated on sandy soils with mostly arable farming of especially starch potatoes along with substantial areas of sugar beets and cereals (Fig. 4 ). The NUE of agriculture in Veendam-Pekela was 0.47 and the PUE 0.90, which was higher than the NUE of 0.36 and PUE of 0.74 for the NN region (Table 2 ). Losses were 169 kg N ha −1 y −1 , 32% lower than the regional average. Production was 147 kg N ha −1 y −1 , which was 19% higher than the regional average. About 74% of N outputs were in plant products and 26% in animal products. Starch potatoes and sugar beets are processed into starch and sugar products which mostly consist of carbohydrates, whilst most of the nutrients in the raw products end up in non-edible residual flows. Therefore only 27% of total N production ended up in food products; the other part was used for animal feed (58%), soil amendment (9%) or left the food system in non-food products (9%). Therefore, whilst the NUE and PUE of agriculture and productivity were higher than average, food export was lower than in less productive subregions as a large proportion of produce ended up in non-food flows. This resulted in an NUE of only 0.15 and PUE of 0.60 on food system level (Table 2 ).

With 25 persons ha −1 Assen is the subregion with the highest population density in the NN region (Fig. 4 ). Consumers purchased 188 kg N ha −1 y −1 in food, of which 87% was imported from outside the subregion. The largest leak of the system was consumer waste processing (178 kg N ha −1 y −1 ) rather than agriculture (143 kg N ha −1 y −1 ). The NUE of agriculture was 0.51 compared to 0.05 for waste processing (Table 2 ). The PUE of agriculture was 0.74, compared to 0.04 for waste processing. Therefore, subregions with higher population density generally had a lower food system NUE and PUE. However, per kg N in produced food products, 4.0 kg N ha −1 y −1 was lost from agriculture, while of each kg N in purchased food products 0.9 kg N ha −1 y −1 was lost after waste(water) processing. Thus, per kg N in food products losses from agriculture still outweighed losses from consumption. Even if all N lost through consumer waste in this urban subregion were returned to agriculture, it would not be sufficient to replace current inputs to agriculture. Agriculture in turn did not provide sufficient food to feed the local population.

Current circularity in NN and subregions

Nutrient cycling was very low in the food systems of NN and its subregions (Table 2 ), indicating that hardly any N inputs were recycled through the system. All calculated CyCt values were < 0.03, indicating that the vast bulk of N and P inputs did not complete a full cycle through the food system. This resulted from very little re-use of nutrients after consumption and large losses and exports from the system. Subregions with a high production to consumption ratio scored worse on the circularity indicator. Nutrients in exported food were lost from the region and not returned as recycled system inputs and therefore reduced the cycling count.

Nutrient flows and efficiencies varied strongly between subsystems and subregions. At system level NUE varied most strongly with agricultural specialization and soil type, whilst PUE varied most strongly with population density. The cycling count was very low for both N and P in all subregions, indicating that the current system heavily depends on external inputs with large losses from the system.

Nutrient dynamics of the food system and its subsystems

Food system performance in this export oriented region was mainly determined by the performance of the subsystem agriculture. The very limited recovery from consumer waste had an insignificant impact on the NN region as these flows were relatively small (Geertjes et al. 2016 ; Soethoudt and Timmermans 2013 ). The NUE of the current food system in the NN region was 0.25, which equals the NUE for the Netherlands (Erisman et al. 2018 ) and is higher than the reported NUE value (0.18) for Europe (Leip et al. 2022 ). The relatively high PUE of 0.59 was mostly due to small P surpluses in agriculture when compared to other regions (Einarsson et al. 2020 ) and partly due to the legacy of historically applied P (Sattari et al. 2012 ).

The low NUE (0.36) of the agriculture subsystem mainly resulted from the low N conversion efficiency of livestock, the cultivation of feed crops and mineralisation of peat soils. This NUE was lower than the 0.43 reported by CBS for agriculture in the Netherlands (CBS 2022c ). The lower NUE found here was mainly the result of counting the additional inputs provided by peat soil, which are usually omitted. In peatlands large nutrient surpluses were found. Strongly reducing application limits for peatlands would improve NUE, reduce N 2 O emission and limit P saturation of peatlands without production loss.

The cycle count (CyCt) of the NN food system was only 0.0069 for N and 0.0091 for P. These figures were lower than the CyCt of 0.02 found by van Loon et al. ( 2023 ) for the highly linear food system in the Flanders region (Belgium). The lower values for NN can be explained by larger inputs and larger losses per hectare in NN and especially by a larger share of products leaving the region in exports. Of all inputs into the subsystem agriculture only 7% of N was recycled from the NN food system. A similarly strong dependency on nutrient imports has also been reported in other regions with intensive agriculture (Chowdhury et al. 2018 ; Le Noë et al. 2018 ; Papangelou and Mathijs 2021 ). Increasing the CyCt and reducing the dependency on nutrient imports can be achieved by reducing exports and reducing losses, as the CyCt counts the proportion that remains in the system but does not distinguish between losses and useful flows that leave the system.

Differences in nutrient flows between subregions

Variation with soil type: large losses from organic soils.

Nutrient flows and losses varied substantially with soil type. Losses from peat soils were higher than from clay and sandy soils and consequently, UE and CyCt were low in subregions with mainly peat soils (Fig. 3 ; panels a. and f.). Groundwater tables in areas of peat soils in NL are typically lowered to facilitate intensive agriculture. The resulting aerobic conditions strongly enhance the mineralisation rate of organic matter stored in peat soils, estimated here at 335 kg N ha −1 y −1 and 38 kg P ha −1 y −1 for a subregion dominated by peat soils. Similar rates were found for one test site in the Netherlands (Pijlman et al. 2020 ), though most estimates for the Netherlands are somewhat lower, i.e. ca. 250 kg ha −1 y −1 (Pijlman et al. 2020 ; Vellinga and André 1999 ). Peat soils also receive substantial inputs of N and P from applications of animal manures and artificial fertilizers, resulting in a comparatively large surplus of 465 kg N ha −1 y −1 and 11 kg P ha −1 y −1 . Most of the N surplus is eventually lost through denitrification with a substantial amount of N 2 O (Velthof et al. 2009 ). The oxidation of peat soils is also one of the largest sources of GHGs from agriculture worldwide (Leifeld and Menichetti 2018 ; Lin et al. 2022 ; Tiemeyer et al. 2016 ). Peat soils in the Netherlands are frequently P saturated (Schoumans and Chardon 2015 ), which increases the potential risk of P leaching to water bodies (Lin et al. 2022 ; Schrier-Uijl et al. 2014 ).The large differences in NUE and PUE between soil types suggest that prioritizing the use of most suitable soils for agriculture will substantially increase efficiency and reduce losses from agriculture (Muscat et al. 2021 ; Netherlands Scientific Council for Government Policy 1992 ).

Nutrient use efficiency of agriculture is strongly associated with specialization

Spatial patterns of NUE, PUE and losses from agriculture largely matched patterns of specialization. In subregions more specialized in crop production the inputs were generally lower, but N and P yields were higher. Losses from animal production were substantial and resulted from losses in the field for feed crop production, manure storage and manure application. The efficiency of e.g., dairy fed mostly with local roughage was low (NUE 0.23). The N and P efficiency of intensive animal husbandry systems fed on imported feeds was much higher, i.e., up to NUEs of 0.53 and PUEs of 0.88. In this case losses during the production of imported feed and application of exported manure took place outside the subregion’s borders and are externalised. Externalizing losses may give a false sense of efficiency of the production systems in question (Quemada et al. 2020 ; Schröder et al. 2011 ). When accounting for the external losses that result from manure application elsewhere, the NUE of 0.25 of these subregions was similar to that of subregions with more local feed production, congruent with an NUE of 23% for pig farms (Quemada et al. 2020 ).

The apparently high NUE and PUE of agriculture in subregions specialised in crop production do not account for the larger losses at food system level. For example Veendam-Pekela mainly produces food crops for the processing industry, predominantly starch potato and sugar beet. During processing most nutrients in these crops end up in residual flows that are used as feed and for non-food purposes. Yet, animal food derived from these food crops comes with a substantially larger loss per kg food than food crops: only around 27% of N and 33% of P of nutrients in feed crops is converted into edible food. The rest of the N and P is recycled via manure with associated losses elsewhere. Hence, at system level the UE is much lower. Sectors should therefore be evaluated in a food system context to account for such externalized losses (van Loon et al. 2023 ).

Low efficiency and large losses from urban areas

Population density was negatively associated with UE and CyCt of the food system, as the UE of waste treatment was lower than that of agriculture and processing. For PUE this effect was stronger than for NUE, as relatively little P was lost from agriculture (PUE 0.74) whilst from waste processing most P was lost (PUE 0.04). The NUE for the subsystem waste processing was 0.05, still much lower than the NUE of 0.36 of the subsystem agriculture. Subregion Assen was the only subregion with a net-consumption, i.e., more food was consumed than produced. In this subregion, only 13% of the N that was consumed came from local products. This means recycling of N from consumer waste into agriculture also adds some external N to the farming system. However, about 49% of N going into agriculture is lost in agriculture and another part ends up as non-food product flows after processing. This means that even in a region with net food import, recycling consumer waste can only replace a very limited part of agricultural N inputs. Recycling P from waste processing to agriculture strongly reduces losses in the system, as the main P losses were from consumer waste whilst P losses from the agriculture subsystem were relatively small. Recycling the nutrients from waste flows requires the adoption of technologies for resource recovery into the waste management system, that until now has been geared toward pollution prevention rather than resource recovery (Coppens et al. 2016 ; Verger et al. 2018 ).

Towards circularity in NN

Improving circularity in nn.

The circularity of food systems can be improved by avoiding non-essential products and residual flows of essential products, prioritizing biomass use for human consumption, repurposing residual flows and minimizing energy use (Muscat et al. 2021 ). Applying these principles to the food system of NN could provide benefits to the environment (IFA 2022 ; Struik and Kuyper 2017 ) and human health (van Selm et al. 2021 ), but may also have other consequences. First, nutrient inputs would need to be reduced and internal cycling enhanced by limiting the currently large losses and by re-using residual flows. This could increase the currently low NUE (0.25) and PUE (0.59) of the food system. Reducing losses requires more efficient farming methods and technologies to recover unavoidable urban waste. Food exports should be limited, to maintain a neutral regional nutrient balance. Where possible, nutrients must also be recovered from non-food flows with applications outside the food system such as pet feed or biobased building materials. Second, limiting feed imports would mean that a higher share of the feed that is used in the region must be produced locally, preferably from land unsuitable for food crops and from residual flows from the food system. In NN heavy clay soils that are currently used as grasslands may be unsuited for cropping. Peat soils are not suitable for circular intensive agriculture, including feed production, as oxidation and associated N emissions from peat soils can only be restricted by restoring and maintaining high groundwater tables (Lin et al. 2022 ; Schrier-Uijl et al. 2014 ). Safeguarding peat soils would therefore limit their agricultural use to systems suited to wet conditions (Lin et al. 2022 ; Offermanns et al. 2023 ; Schoumans and Chardon 2015 ). The possible production of additional feed from available recyclable flows that are not yet used is very limited when compared to current feed imports. Therefore, adhering to the principles of circularity would strongly reduce current livestock production in NN. Third, to meet most of the food demand with food produced in NN requires that rotations are diversified and include more crop types, consequently diversifying current narrow crop rotations. Diversification of crop rotations has additional benefits, including reduced nutrient leaching (Nemecek et al. 2015 ), increased resilience to biotic and abiotic stress (Degani et al. 2019 ) and increased productivity (Mudgal et al. 2010 ). Lastly, a more local food production may lower energy use by reducing the need for transportation. However, there are trade-offs: local production may be less efficient and lead to larger losses (Schulte-Uebbing and De Vries 2021 ), more energy use and higher GHG emissions in agriculture when more land is needed for cultivation. In subregions with sandy and suitable clay soils for cropping it may be possible to provide a full diet locally, yet in subregions dominated by peat and heavy clay soils only few crops can be grown. In subregions with plenty suitable land but low population density, the exploitation of good soils would be limited by the availability of residual flows as circular inputs. Therefore, closing nutrient loops in NN on the subregional level is probably not feasible.

Consequences of circularity in NN

A more circular food system will have economic consequences for a strongly export-oriented region like NN. Required changes will affect exports (and associated inflow of foreign currency) and the income of farmers, but will at the same time reduce environmental costs that are currently not accounted for. Reducing food export to improve circularity in NN would affect food importing regions, including the nearby Randstad metropolitan area (with larger cities including Amsterdam) with insufficient suitable land. Reduced food production in exporting regions might affect food availability in food importing regions in the short term (Mayer et al. 2015 ; van Berkum 2021 ) when this cannot be compensated elsewhere. However, it can also be argued that maintaining the current system compromises global food security due to the strong food-feed competition of current intensive animal production systems (Mottet et al. 2017 ; Muscat et al. 2021 ). Increasing food security with limited environmental impact and reduced land requirements per person requires a shift towards more plant-based diets (Leip et al. 2022 ). Regardless of dietary composition, some regions may not have the capacity to produce enough food to fulfil local demand in a sustainable way (Schulte-Uebbing and De Vries 2021 ). For example, there is not much suitable soil for food crops in the Randstad area, located in a region with mostly peat soils unsuitable for most crops. In other areas, crop production may be less efficient than in NN. Shifting production to such an area is likely to lead to large losses with large impacts in those regions, and consequently increase resource use and GHG emissions at national or global level (Leifeld and Menichetti 2018 ; Tiemeyer et al. 2016 ). Hence a strict application principles of circularity may thus be detrimental for efficiency at larger scales. A circular food system at the appropriate scale increases the options to produce food where it can be done most efficiently (Billen et al. 2018 ), where the optimum scale is determined by trade-offs between the efficiency of production and use of recycled biomass flows including associated transport requirements. These environmental and socio-economic trade-offs of circularity on various scales and with varying land use intensities are still poorly understood (Koppelmäki et al. 2021 ; Muscat et al. 2020 ). Our study shows that integrating knowledge of the local context and the food system will be key for proper planning of circular systems with limited losses at larger geographical scales, such as the Netherlands including the Randstad metropolitan area.

Quantification of nutrient flows as a prerequisite for circular agriculture

The first step towards circularity is a clear understanding of nutrient flows in the current food system, by using the best available data. Yet, we acknowledge data limitations encountered for the NN region. Nutrient flows are currently poorly monitored, at both the farm and regional scales. Nutrient emissions from food processing and waste processing facilities were not readily available. Some of the most important flows in the food system, such as livestock feed composition and origin of ingredients, are currently unavailable (Koppelmäki et al. 2021 ; van der Wiel et al. 2021 ). We recommend open access of existing data sources and for regular sampling of nutrient contents of farm inputs and produce and of all processing flows including waste. This would also provide key insights in crop nutrient offtakes and hence direct options to improve soil nutrient management and reduce losses in the agricultural system in a local context (Silva et al. 2021 ; Sylvester-Bradley et al. 2022 ).

Large differences in flows and efficiencies between subregions with different soil types, specialization, and population density were found. In food system studies not accounting for the local context, such differences are masked. We also found that the efficiency of subsystems in the food system and specialized subregions within the region differ strongly. Food system efficiency strongly depends on how flows are utilized in the system. If flows are not utilized efficiently, food system efficiency will be very low, even though the efficiency of individual subsystems may be high. Hence, to improve efficiency and circularity, a food system lens is required to better tailor the agricultural system to local biophysical conditions and regional food demand. Follow-up research will be needed to address the question what a circular food system would look like in practice, or at what scale such systems should operate.

In the current NN food system the NUE and PUE were low and nutrient recycling was extremely limited with a cycling count close to zero. The system depends heavily on feed and fertilizer imports. A large proportion of the losses can be attributed to production for export. There is little scope to improve nutrient cycling by utilizing unused residues as these residual flows are small compared to the losses from the system. We conclude that reducing losses would therefore require substantial changes to the current food system, especially to the subsystem agriculture. Important steps towards circularity in production-oriented regions such as NN include: matching livestock production with the potential feed supply from residual flows and lands unsuitable for food crops, diversification of crop production to better match local demand and the adoption of technologies to facilitate recovery of nutrients from (consumer) waste. In more urbanized regions where consumption exceeds production, dietary change and the adoption of technologies for nutrient recovery from waste will be most important.

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This work was funded by the Dutch Research Council (NWO) Green III program (Grant number GROEN.2019.001) with co-funding from the Dutch Ministry of Agriculture, Nature and Food Quality; Rabobank; Agrifirm Noord-West Europa; and Meststoffen Nederland. The authors express their gratitude to all supporting parties.

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Durk W. Tamsma, Corina E. van Middelaar, Imke J.M. de Boer, Martin K. van Ittersum and Antonius G.T. Schut wrote the main manuscript and contributed to the study design. Durk W. Tamsma prepared the figures. Durk W. Tamsma and Johannes Kros collected the data. Durk W. Tamsma and Antonius G.T. Schut prepared R scripts and analyzed the data. All authors reviewed the manuscript.

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