crime and deviance essay questions

7.2 Theoretical Perspectives on Deviance and Crime

Learning objectives.

By the end of this section, you should be able to:

• Describe the functionalist view of deviance in society through four sociologist’s theories
• Explain how conflict theory understands deviance and crime in society
• Describe the symbolic interactionist approach to deviance, including labeling and other theories

Why does deviance occur? How does it affect a society? Since the early days of sociology, scholars have developed theories that attempt to explain what deviance and crime mean to society. These theories can be grouped according to the three major sociological paradigms: functionalism, symbolic interactionism, and conflict theory.

Functionalism

Sociologists who follow the functionalist approach are concerned with the way the different elements of a society contribute to the whole. They view deviance as a key component of a functioning society. Strain theory and social disorganization theory represent two functionalist perspectives on deviance in society.

Émile Durkheim: The Essential Nature of Deviance

Émile Durkheim believed that deviance is a necessary part of a successful society. One way deviance is functional, he argued, is that it challenges people’s present views (1893). For instance, when Black students across the United States participated in sit-ins during the civil rights movement, they challenged society’s notions of segregation. Moreover, Durkheim noted, when deviance is punished, it reaffirms currently held social norms, which also contributes to society (1893). Seeing a student given detention for skipping class reminds other high schoolers that playing hooky isn’t allowed and that they, too, could get detention.

Durkheim’s point regarding the impact of punishing deviance speaks to his arguments about law. Durkheim saw laws as an expression of the “collective conscience,” which are the beliefs, morals, and attitudes of a society. “A crime is a crime because we condemn it,” he said (1893). He discussed the impact of societal size and complexity as contributors to the collective conscience and the development of justice systems and punishments. For example, in large, industrialized societies that were largely bound together by the interdependence of work (the division of labor), punishments for deviance were generally less severe. In smaller, more homogeneous societies, deviance might be punished more severely.

Robert Merton: Strain Theory

Sociologist Robert Merton agreed that deviance is an inherent part of a functioning society, but he expanded on Durkheim’s ideas by developing strain theory , which notes that access to socially acceptable goals plays a part in determining whether a person conforms or deviates. From birth, we’re encouraged to achieve the “American Dream” of financial success. A person who attends business school, receives an MBA, and goes on to make a million-dollar income as CEO of a company is said to be a success. However, not everyone in our society stands on equal footing. That MBA-turned-CEO may have grown up in the best school district and had means to hire tutors. Another person may grow up in a neighborhood with lower-quality schools, and may not be able to pay for extra help. A person may have the socially acceptable goal of financial success but lack a socially acceptable way to reach that goal. According to Merton’s theory, an entrepreneur who can’t afford to launch their own company may be tempted to embezzle from their employer for start-up funds.

Merton defined five ways people respond to this gap between having a socially accepted goal and having no socially accepted way to pursue it.

• Conformity : Those who conform choose not to deviate. They pursue their goals to the extent that they can through socially accepted means.
• Innovation : Those who innovate pursue goals they cannot reach through legitimate means by instead using criminal or deviant means.
• Ritualism : People who ritualize lower their goals until they can reach them through socially acceptable ways. These members of society focus on conformity rather than attaining a distant dream.
• Retreatism : Others retreat and reject society’s goals and means. Some people who beg and people who are homeless have withdrawn from society’s goal of financial success.
• Rebellion : A handful of people rebel and replace a society’s goals and means with their own. Terrorists or freedom fighters look to overthrow a society’s goals through socially unacceptable means.

Social Disorganization Theory

Developed by researchers at the University of Chicago in the 1920s and 1930s, social disorganization theory asserts that crime is most likely to occur in communities with weak social ties and the absence of social control. An individual who grows up in a poor neighborhood with high rates of drug use, violence, teenage delinquency, and deprived parenting is more likely to become engaged in crime than an individual from a wealthy neighborhood with a good school system and families who are involved positively in the community.

Social disorganization theory points to broad social factors as the cause of deviance. A person isn’t born as someone who will commit crimes but becomes one over time, often based on factors in their social environment. Robert Sampson and Byron Groves (1989) found that poverty and family disruption in given localities had a strong positive correlation with social disorganization. They also determined that social disorganization was, in turn, associated with high rates of crime and delinquency—or deviance. Recent studies Sampson conducted with Lydia Bean (2006) revealed similar findings. High rates of poverty and single-parent homes correlated with high rates of juvenile violence. Research into social disorganization theory can greatly influence public policy. For instance, studies have found that children from disadvantaged communities who attend preschool programs that teach basic social skills are significantly less likely to engage in criminal activity. (Lally 1987)

Conflict Theory

Conflict theory looks to social and economic factors as the causes of crime and deviance. Unlike functionalists, conflict theorists don’t see these factors as positive functions of society. They see them as evidence of inequality in the system. They also challenge social disorganization theory and control theory and argue that both ignore racial and socioeconomic issues and oversimplify social trends (Akers 1991). Conflict theorists also look for answers to the correlation of gender and race with wealth and crime.

Karl Marx: An Unequal System

Conflict theory was greatly influenced by the work of German philosopher, economist, and social scientist Karl Marx. Marx believed that the general population was divided into two groups. He labeled the wealthy, who controlled the means of production and business, the bourgeois. He labeled the workers who depended on the bourgeois for employment and survival the proletariat. Marx believed that the bourgeois centralized their power and influence through government, laws, and other authority agencies in order to maintain and expand their positions of power in society. Though Marx spoke little of deviance, his ideas created the foundation for conflict theorists who study the intersection of deviance and crime with wealth and power.

C. Wright Mills: The Power Elite

In his book The Power Elite (1956), sociologist C. Wright Mills described the existence of what he dubbed the power elite , a small group of wealthy and influential people at the top of society who hold the power and resources. Wealthy executives, politicians, celebrities, and military leaders often have access to national and international power, and in some cases, their decisions affect everyone in society. Because of this, the rules of society are stacked in favor of a privileged few who manipulate them to stay on top. It is these people who decide what is criminal and what is not, and the effects are often felt most by those who have little power. Mills’ theories explain why celebrities can commit crimes and suffer little or no legal retribution. For example, USA Today maintains a database of NFL players accused and convicted of crimes. 51 NFL players had been convicted of committing domestic violence between the years 2000 and 2019. They have been sentenced to a collective 49 days in jail, and most of those sentences were deferred or otherwise reduced. In most cases, suspensions and fines levied by the NFL or individual teams were more severe than the justice system's (Schrotenboer 2020 and clickitticket.com 2019).

Crime and Social Class

While crime is often associated with the underprivileged, crimes committed by the wealthy and powerful remain an under-punished and costly problem within society. The FBI reported that victims of burglary, larceny, and motor vehicle theft lost a total of $15.3 billion dollars in 2009 (FB1 2010). In comparison, when former advisor and financier Bernie Madoff was arrested in 2008, the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission reported that the estimated losses of his financial Ponzi scheme fraud were close to $50 billion (SEC 2009).

This imbalance based on class power is also found within U.S. criminal law. In the 1980s, the use of crack cocaine (a less expensive but powerful drug) quickly became an epidemic that swept the country’s poorest urban communities. Its pricier counterpart, cocaine, was associated with upscale users and was a drug of choice for the wealthy. The legal implications of being caught by authorities with crack versus cocaine were starkly different. In 1986, federal law mandated that being caught in possession of 50 grams of crack was punishable by a ten-year prison sentence. An equivalent prison sentence for cocaine possession, however, required possession of 5,000 grams. In other words, the sentencing disparity was 1 to 100 (New York Times Editorial Staff 2011). This inequality in the severity of punishment for crack versus cocaine paralleled the unequal social class of respective users. A conflict theorist would note that those in society who hold the power are also the ones who make the laws concerning crime. In doing so, they make laws that will benefit them, while the powerless classes who lack the resources to make such decisions suffer the consequences. Throughout the 1980s and early 1990s, states passed numerous laws increasing penalties, especially for repeat offenders. The U.S. government passed an even more significant law, the Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act of 1994 (known as the 1994 Crime Bill), which further increased penalties, funded prisons, and incentivized law enforcement agencies to further pursue drug offenders. One outcome of these policies was the mass incarceration of Black and Hispanic people, which led to a cycle of poverty and reduced social mobility. The crack-cocaine punishment disparity remained until 2010, when President Obama signed the Fair Sentencing Act, which decreased the disparity to 1 to 18 (The Sentencing Project 2010).

Symbolic Interactionism

Symbolic interactionism is a theoretical approach that can be used to explain how societies and/or social groups come to view behaviors as deviant or conventional.

Labeling Theory

Although all of us violate norms from time to time, few people would consider themselves deviant. Those who do, however, have often been labeled “deviant” by society and have gradually come to believe it themselves. Labeling theory examines the ascribing of a deviant behavior to another person by members of society. Thus, what is considered deviant is determined not so much by the behaviors themselves or the people who commit them, but by the reactions of others to these behaviors. As a result, what is considered deviant changes over time and can vary significantly across cultures.

Sociologist Edwin Lemert expanded on the concepts of labeling theory and identified two types of deviance that affect identity formation. Primary deviance is a violation of norms that does not result in any long-term effects on the individual’s self-image or interactions with others. Speeding is a deviant act, but receiving a speeding ticket generally does not make others view you as a bad person, nor does it alter your own self-concept. Individuals who engage in primary deviance still maintain a feeling of belonging in society and are likely to continue to conform to norms in the future.

Sometimes, in more extreme cases, primary deviance can morph into secondary deviance. Secondary deviance occurs when a person’s self-concept and behavior begin to change after his or her actions are labeled as deviant by members of society. The person may begin to take on and fulfill the role of a “deviant” as an act of rebellion against the society that has labeled that individual as such. For example, consider a high school student who often cuts class and gets into fights. The student is reprimanded frequently by teachers and school staff, and soon enough, develops a reputation as a “troublemaker.” As a result, the student starts acting out even more and breaking more rules; the student has adopted the “troublemaker” label and embraced this deviant identity. Secondary deviance can be so strong that it bestows a master status on an individual. A master status is a label that describes the chief characteristic of an individual. Some people see themselves primarily as doctors, artists, or grandfathers. Others see themselves as beggars, convicts, or addicts.

Techniques of Neutralization

How do people deal with the labels they are given? This was the subject of a study done by Sykes and Matza (1957). They studied teenage boys who had been labeled as juvenile delinquents to see how they either embraced or denied these labels. Have you ever used any of these techniques?

Let’s take a scenario and apply all five techniques to explain how they are used. A young person is working for a retail store as a cashier. Their cash drawer has been coming up short for a few days. When the boss confronts the employee, they are labeled as a thief for the suspicion of stealing. How does the employee deal with this label?

The Denial of Responsibility: When someone doesn’t take responsibility for their actions or blames others. They may use this technique and say that it was their boss’s fault because they don’t get paid enough to make rent or because they’re getting a divorce. They are rejecting the label by denying responsibility for the action.

The Denial of Injury: Sometimes people will look at a situation in terms of what effect it has on others. If the employee uses this technique they may say, “What’s the big deal? Nobody got hurt. Your insurance will take care of it.” The person doesn’t see their actions as a big deal because nobody “got hurt.”

The Denial of the Victim: If there is no victim there’s no crime. In this technique the person sees their actions as justified or that the victim deserved it. Our employee may look at their situation and say, “I’ve worked here for years without a raise. I was owed that money and if you won’t give it to me I’ll get it my own way.”

The Condemnation of the Condemners: The employee might “turn it around on” the boss by blaming them. They may say something like, “You don’t know my life, you have no reason to judge me.” This is taking the focus off of their actions and putting the onus on the accuser to, essentially, prove the person is living up to the label, which also shifts the narrative away from the deviant behavior.

Appeal to a Higher Authority: The final technique that may be used is to claim that the actions were for a higher purpose. The employee may tell the boss that they stole the money because their mom is sick and needs medicine or something like that. They are justifying their actions by making it seem as though the purpose for the behavior is a greater “good” than the action is “bad.” (Sykes & Matza, 1957)

Social Policy and Debate

The right to vote.

Before she lost her job as an administrative assistant, Leola Strickland postdated and mailed a handful of checks for amounts ranging from $90 to $500. By the time she was able to find a new job, the checks had bounced, and she was convicted of fraud under Mississippi law. Strickland pleaded guilty to a felony charge and repaid her debts; in return, she was spared from serving prison time.

Strickland appeared in court in 2001. More than ten years later, she is still feeling the sting of her sentencing. Why? Because Mississippi is one of twelve states in the United States that bans convicted felons from voting (ProCon 2011).

To Strickland, who said she had always voted, the news came as a great shock. She isn’t alone. Some 5.3 million people in the United States are currently barred from voting because of felony convictions (ProCon 2009). These individuals include inmates, parolees, probationers, and even people who have never been jailed, such as Leola Strickland.

Under the Fourteenth Amendment, states are allowed to deny voting privileges to individuals who have participated in “rebellion or other crime” (Krajick 2004). Although there are no federally mandated laws on the matter, most states practice at least one form of felony disenfranchisement .

Is it fair to prevent citizens from participating in such an important process? Proponents of disfranchisement laws argue that felons have a debt to pay to society. Being stripped of their right to vote is part of the punishment for criminal deeds. Such proponents point out that voting isn’t the only instance in which ex-felons are denied rights; state laws also ban released criminals from holding public office, obtaining professional licenses, and sometimes even inheriting property (Lott and Jones 2008).

Opponents of felony disfranchisement in the United States argue that voting is a basic human right and should be available to all citizens regardless of past deeds. Many point out that felony disfranchisement has its roots in the 1800s, when it was used primarily to block Black citizens from voting. These laws disproportionately target poor minority members, denying them a chance to participate in a system that, as a social conflict theorist would point out, is already constructed to their disadvantage (Holding 2006). Those who cite labeling theory worry that denying deviants the right to vote will only further encourage deviant behavior. If ex-criminals are disenfranchised from voting, are they being disenfranchised from society?

Edwin Sutherland: Differential Association

In the early 1900s, sociologist Edwin Sutherland sought to understand how deviant behavior developed among people. Since criminology was a young field, he drew on other aspects of sociology including social interactions and group learning (Laub 2006). His conclusions established differential association theory , which suggested that individuals learn deviant behavior from those close to them who provide models of and opportunities for deviance. According to Sutherland, deviance is less a personal choice and more a result of differential socialization processes. For example, a young person whose friends are sexually active is more likely to view sexual activity as acceptable. Sutherland developed a series of propositions to explain how deviance is learned. In proposition five, for example, he discussed how people begin to accept and participate in a behavior after learning whether it is viewed as “favorable” by those around them. In proposition six, Sutherland expressed the ways that exposure to more “definitions” favoring the deviant behavior than those opposing it may eventually lead a person to partake in deviance (Sutherland 1960), applying almost a quantitative element to the learning of certain behaviors. In the example above, a young person may find sexual activity more acceptable once a certain number of their friends become sexually active, not after only one does so.

Sutherland’s theory may explain why crime is multigenerational. A longitudinal study beginning in the 1960s found that the best predictor of antisocial and criminal behavior in children was whether their parents had been convicted of a crime (Todd and Jury 1996). Children who were younger than ten years old when their parents were convicted were more likely than other children to engage in spousal abuse and criminal behavior by their early thirties. Even when taking socioeconomic factors such as dangerous neighborhoods, poor school systems, and overcrowded housing into consideration, researchers found that parents were the main influence on the behavior of their offspring (Todd and Jury 1996).

Travis Hirschi: Control Theory

Continuing with an examination of large social factors, control theory states that social control is directly affected by the strength of social bonds and that deviance results from a feeling of disconnection from society. Individuals who believe they are a part of society are less likely to commit crimes against it.

Travis Hirschi (1969) identified four types of social bonds that connect people to society:

• Attachment measures our connections to others. When we are closely attached to people, we worry about their opinions of us. People conform to society’s norms in order to gain approval (and prevent disapproval) from family, friends, and romantic partners.
• Commitment refers to the investments we make in the community. A well-respected local businessperson who volunteers at their synagogue and is a member of the neighborhood block organization has more to lose from committing a crime than a person who doesn’t have a career or ties to the community.
• Similarly, levels of involvement , or participation in socially legitimate activities, lessen a person’s likelihood of deviance. A child who plays little league baseball and takes art classes has fewer opportunities to ______.
• The final bond, belief , is an agreement on common values in society. If a person views social values as beliefs, they will conform to them. An environmentalist is more likely to pick up trash in a park, because a clean environment is a social value to them (Hirschi 1969).

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The Sociology Teacher

CRIME & DEVIANCE

The 'nutshells' provide concentrated summaries. use the arrows or swipe across to explore topics in more detail, including key perspectives  and sociologists ..

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Topic 1 - Functionalism & CRIME

In a nutshell

Functionalists believe that crime is inevitable in society; poor socialisation and inequality result in the absence of norms and values being taught. In addition, functionalists believe crime is positive for society because it allows boundary maintenance, and allows a scope for adaptation and change.

Topic 2 - Interactionism theory

Interactionists focus on the social construction of crime, whereby an act only becomes deviant when labelled as such, through societal reaction. However, not every deviant act or criminal is labelled, and labelling theory is selectively enforced against some groups. Some sociologists believe labelling may cause an individual to be defined a master status.

Topic 3 - Class, Power & Crime

Marxists believe crime is inevitable in a capitalist society because it encourages poverty, competition and greed. Although all classes commit crime, the working class are largely criminalised for their actions because the ruling class control the state and can make and enforce laws in their own interests. In this instance, white collar and corporate crimes are often ignored.

Topic 4 - Realist Approaches TO Crime

Right realists see crime as a real problem for society; they see the cause of it as partly biological and party social. Because these causes cannot easily be changed, they focus on deterring offenders. Left realists, on the other hand, believe crime is caused by relative deprivation, subcultures and marginalisation. Their solution for such stems from reducing societal inequality.

topic 5 - GENDER AND CRIME

Official statistics show men commit more crime than women, however sociologists disagree on the reasons why. Some sociologists argue female offending rates go unnoticed and unpunished because the criminal justice system treats women more leniently, through ideas such as the chivalry thesis (Pollak). However, some sociologists believe the gender differences in offending are due to the way women are socialised meaning they have less opportunity or desire to commit crime. On the other hand, other sociologists argue women do commit crime, but men merely commit more due to the idea of ‘masculinity’.

topic 6 - ethnicity and crime

Official statistics highlight that black people are more likely to be stopped, arrested and imprisoned. Some sociologists argue this is because they are more likely to offend, due to poor educational achievement, dysfunctional family structure and racist stereotypes portrayed in the media. However, some sociologists they merely appear more criminal due to discrimination in wider society.

topic 7 - MEDIA AND CRIME

The media give an overly distorted image of crime - for instance, by over-representing violent crimes. This is because the news is a social construction based on news values that explain the media's interest in crime. Some sociologists see media as a cause of crime through imitation and the deviance amplification of moral panics.

topic 8 - GLOBALISATION, GREEN CRIME & STATE CRIME

Globalisation has allowed transnational organised crime to flourish - for instance, the trafficking of arms, drugs and people. We now live in a global risk society where human-made threats include large environmental damage. Green criminology adopts an ecocentric view based on harm rather than the law, and identified both primary and secondary green crimes. The state also contributes to green crime through the exploitation of health and safety laws, for example.

topic 9 - CONROL, PUNISHMENT & VICTIMS

Sociologists believe that the ability to control criminal behaviour takes several different measures - notably, it is targeted at situational crime prevention and environmental crime prevention. In addition, surveillance is another method used to control and punish criminals. Sociologists also focus on victimisation, in which positive victimology focuses on victim proneness or precipitation, whilst critical victimology emphasises structural factors such as poverty.

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Crime & Deviance: AQA A Level Sociology Topic Essays

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607 Crime Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

When writing a research paper about criminology or law, you have to consider your topic carefully. Our team came up with 465 titles, along with some crime essay examples to assist you in your assignment.

🏆 Best Crime Topic Ideas & Essay Examples

👍 good crime topics for essays, ✅ simple & easy topics about crime, 💡 most interesting crime topics to write about, 📌 useful crime topics for essays, 📑 interesting crime topics, ❓ crime research questions.

• Unemployment Leads to Crime Essay In the 1990s, the rate of unemployment was low and so was the rate of property crime. Crime rates increase steadily in society, and the rate of crime is connected to unemployment and low wages.
• Youth Crime as a Major Issue in the World The relationships that exist in the families of the youths could facilitate the indulgence in criminal activities for example when the parents are involved in crime, when there is poor parental guidance and supervision, in […]
• Applying Developmental Theories of Crime to Jeffrey Dahmer In the framework of this theory, Dahmer’s obsession with dissecting animals and necrophilic fantasies from a young age are not connected to the other events in his life but are simply manifestations of his latent, […]
• The Effects of Mass Media Glorifying Crime and Criminal Lifestyle Crime has and will dominate popular media, ranging from the traditional police and detective shows/movies to documentaries, and more recently the ‘true crime’ genre or psychological thrillers attempting to tell the story from the perspective […]
• Impact of Crime on Wider Society Therefore, just as some organs in the body can be removed in order to improve the health of a person, the people who cause problems in the society can also be removed so that the […]
• Chris Watts and His Murder Crimes Watts pleaded guilty to the killings of his children and wife. Watts concluded the interview by saying he was sorry and repented for his actions after seeking refuge in God.
• Types of Crime Analysis The goals of tactical analysis are to recognize crime trends and to develop the best suited strategies to address them. This is a matter of great concern and the department would inquire more into the […]
• Three Pathways to Crime Identified by Loeber It encompasses an account of an individual’s past in the course of time of problem behavior in a continuing increment of seriousness of problem behavior.
• Displacement: Crime Prevention It refers to circumstances where crime intervention efforts make the cost of committing an offense greater than the benefits accruing from the crime.
• Technology for Crime Prevention With the modern computer technology and advanced software, criminal justice system has been in a capacity to compile data and store it as well as share its analysis with other agencies both in and out […]
• Frankston Serial Killer: Background, Crimes, and Motives At the time, the police noted that Denyer was with his girlfriend. The letter claimed that Denyer knows his whereabouts, and that he was planning to break out of prison to kill him.
• Infamous Crimes: Laci Peterson’s Murder Even during the war in Iraq, the search for her and the ultimate arrest of Scott Peterson led the news. Her cell phone and purse were still in the house, and a neighbor said she […]
• International Organized Crime: The 14K Triads in Hong Kong Being one of the largest transnational criminal organizations globally, the 14K does not depend on the strict structure, operates according to the principles of secrecy, and it is rather difficult to bring the organization to […]
• Marxists and Functionalists’ Views on Crime and Deviance Also, the essay seeks to explain why people commit crimes in reference to a social and political transition, poverty, globalization of crime and state bureaucracy in order to evaluate the most effective conceptual approach to […]
• Social Cultural Causes of Crime There is need to highlight the social cultural factors of crime and describe the necessary positive measures to prevent the occurrences of crime.
• Social Theories of Crime in Explaining Gang Violence This theory incorporates the strain theory as well as the social disorganization it points out that as a result of strain and societal segregation there is a particular culture that establishes for the low income […]
• Consequences of Committing Crime These factors affect the behavior of an individual and might lead them to criminal activities depending on the effect of the overall combination of the elements mentioned above.
• The Impact of Social Media on the Rise in Crime For example, Jones cites revenge porn, or the practice of publishing a partner’s intimate contact on social media, as one of the results of social media use.
• Crime TV: How Is Criminality Represented on Television? The public’s views and comprehension of crime are heavily influenced by television, the internet, and print media, which can spread the message about the exaggerated danger to society.
• Why Does Crime Exist in Society? Philosophically this is the equivalent of saying that without evil one would not recognize good, and while this is evident in the criminal world and the world of law, it only provides some explanation as […]
• Solving the Issue of Crime As the director of the county juvenile court, the research question related to the problem at hand should state as follows: What are cost effective methods of solving the proliferation of violent street gangs in […]
• Parental Responsibility for Crimes of Children Parents should be held responsible for the crime of their children because in most cases criminal involvement of children is the result of lack of parental control.
• White Collar Crime Parties affected by the crime and how it affects them White collar criminals place more emphasis on their personal needs than their organization’s to the point of downplaying the real costs of their actions.
• Campus Crimes Types and Causes According to the college administrators’ records, crimes in campuses were minimal in the 19th century and in the early 20th century.
• Youth Crime According to Conflict Theory The second one is that the youth might engage in criminal activities and violence due to misappropriation of resources, lack of jobs, and inadequate strategies to meet their social needs.
• Crimes Against Property, Persons, and Public Order The least in ranking is crimes against public order for they have no serious repercussions to lives and livelihood of the involved people.
• Suspect, Crime Scene, and the Victim: Evidence Triangle In every crime investigation, it is mandatory that the evidence gathered be adequate to draw the link between the suspect, crime scene and the victim.
• “The Functions of Crime” by Emile Durkheim In the article “The Functions of Crime”, Emile Durkheim argues clearly that crime should be treated and analyzed as a normal aspect of a given society.
• Andrew Luster’s Crime and Media Attention Henry Luster, a psychiatrist, and Elizabeth Luster, the parents of Andrew Luster. The film concluded with a snapshot of Luster and an appeal for witnesses to his whereabouts to notify authorities.
• Zodiac Movie: Crime, Media Reporting and Ethics The development of the events and the rise of the killer’s popularity began as soon as the reporters of the San Francisco Chronicle received and discovered the letter with threats to American society.
• The Genre of Crime and Gangster Movies The gangster movies always tend to idolize the gangster figures with a relation to the sinister activities that always define crime and the lifestyles of the gangsters.
• “Sisters in Crime: The Rise of the New Female Criminal” by Adler This includes the extent, nature, control and cause of crime in the society. It focuses on supernaturalism in the definition and address of crime in society.
• The Impact of the Internet on Traditional Crime How the Internet helps the criminals The advancement in the modern computer technologies and the Internet has put radical changes in the concept of information and the mode of exchanging the data.
• Developmental Crime Prevention Developmental crime prevention is a subsystem of special criminological crime prevention, the target of which is the pre-criminal forms of deviant and delinquent behavior of minors.
• Youth Crime in Functionalism and Conflict Theories The analysis will focus on determining factors contributing to youth engagement in criminal acts, examining the types of delinquencies they are likely to commit, and establishing the socio-psychological facets associated with the teenagers in the […]
• An Epidemic of Knife Crime in the UK In the case of the former, it is evident that social class plays a key role in the emergence of knife crimes across the UK.
• Crime Scene Investigation in Criminal Justice In the process of controlling the crowd and maintaining order with the aid of the police officers, I took some photographs of the surrounding and then approached the main spot of event. I managed to […]
• The Influence of Peer Groups on Youth Crime The impact of youth crime on the community is profound, and so is the influence of criminal behavior on the lives of adolescents.
• Crimes Against Person Cases of murder falls in the rule of felony murder which is well stipulated by the constitution of any given country and the penalty is administered depending on whether the case was committed in an […]
• The Cause of the Crime Since it takes a lot of time and resources to get involved in crime, it is evident that involvement in crime is entirely due to decision of the person to gain the rewards that are […]
• Capital Punishment and Deterrence of Crime For the case of murder or crimes that necessitate capital punishment, the incentive to commit murder is directly related to the uncertainties that punishments for the crime will generate.
• Crime in Canada: Causes, Regulation and Legislation There are those activities that are universally accepted to constitute a crime, however, what might be considered the crime in one society is not necessarily applied in a different society; for instance, looking at a […]
• The Evolution of Behavioral and Cognitive Development Theories of Crime Behavioral theory is based upon the principles of behavioral psychology and is the basis for behavior modification and change. This theory is founded on the belief that the way in which people organize their thoughts […]
• Bernie Madoff Ponzi’s Crime Scheme The image of the American Dream and the Strain Theory works in reverse as well: if a person fails to possess lots of quantifiable treasure, then the social order will consider him as a disappointment.
• Processing a Crime Scene That is why, for the effective investigation, it is important to take all the necessary crime scene processing measures correctly, and the role of the first responding officer is particularly significant.
• White Collar Crimes From a Marxist Criminological Perspective Marxist criminologists interpret it in the following way: “…the crimes of the upper class exert a greater economic toll on society than the crimes of the ‘ordinary people’”.
• Crime: What Modifies the Human Acts? A young man entering medical school has, as proximate and intermediate ends, the passing of his exams, and the advance from the first to the second class; more remote ends are the exams and classes […]
• Factors Influencing the Commission of Crime Some of the factors that contribute to the decision-making of the offender are based on time constraints, the ability of the information available, agreeing with the offender’s plans as well as the availability of favorable […]
• Aileen Wuornos’ Background and Crimes Aileen Wuornos began her series of murders in 1989. For a short period, she killed seven people, and all of them were men.
• Relationship Between Crime Rates and Poverty This shows that the strength of the relationship between the crime index and people living below the line of poverty is.427.
• Social Disorganization and Crime Social disorganization can be conceptualized as the incapability of the community structure to attain the common values of its members and maintain effective social controls, or as the failure and degeneration of social institutions and […]
• Functionalist Approach to Deviance and Crime This paper looks at the functionalist approach to the explanation of the causes of deviance and crime. Some level of deviance is however healthy as it leads to better adaptation of the society.
• Statistics of Crime Costs to the UK Healthcare The statistic is describing the claims by Labour that the NHS uses 500 million a year to treat wounds caused by knife crimes.
• Organized Crime – John Gotti’s Analyze He argues that the American social structure and its structure of wealth distribution and that dream of achieving the ‘American dream’ all require crime to maintain social stability in the face of structural inequality.
• How Biochemical Conditions and Brain Activity are Linked to Crime Studies have shown that areas with high rates of homicide and other forms of violence had a lot of lead in the air.
• Cybercrime and Cyber-Related Crimes The introduction of computer technology has created room for cyber crimes and cyber related crimes that have caused many people pain and losses to the society.
• Drug, Crime and Violence This essay offers a brief discussion of how the abuse of illegal drugs is related to both crime and violence. It is prudent to mention that drug and violence have been noted to be closely […]
• Cyber Bullying and Positivist Theory of Crime Learning theory approaches to the explanation of criminal behavior have been associated with one of the major sociological theories of crime, the differential association theory.
• “Making Crime Pay” by Katherine Beckett The writer suggests that even if the call for tougher penalties is seen as the answer to the problem, those calling for these penalties are not necessarily affected by the rising crime. There is need […]
• Electronic Crime: Online Predators on Facebook Facebook, as one of the many social network sites, will be addressed in this paper and after looking at the dangers that such sites pose to the contemporary world, a conclusion will be arrived at […]
• Anti Money Laundering and Financial Crime There are a number of requirements by the government on the AML procedures to be developed and adopted by the firms in the financial service in industry in an attempt to fight the illegal practice.
• The First Officer at Crime Scene One should perfectly realize the fact that the crime scene investigation is an extremely important and, at the same time, complex process that determines the success of the whole case and contributes to the improved […]
• Cultural Criminology: Inside the Crime To facilitate an understanding of cultural criminology, it is essential to consider such ideas as crime as culture, culture as crime, the media constructions of crime control and corruption, and political dimensions of culture, crime, […]
• American Serial Killer Joseph Paul Franklin’s Crimes The reason for changing his name as because he wanted to join the Rhodesian Army and due to his criminal background, he was forced to change the name. The couple were killed and Franklin confessed […]
• Substance Abuse and Crime Logically, it is still not possible to prove the theories that correspond to criminal behaviour studies and consequently the correctness and relevancy of the theories vary in application depending on the strain of the situation, […]
• White Collar Crimes: Bernard Madoff Ponzi Scheme A Ponzi scheme is a white collar crime in which the perpetrator encourages people to invest in a business and promises high dividends within a short period of time.
• Note-Taking and Crime Scene Photography Concerning the effectiveness of notes, generally, they should contain a high level of detail, and straightforwardness and cover all areas of the crime scene.
• Hacking as a Crime and Related Theories The move to embrace the novel technology has led to the emergence of a new form of crime and behavior referred to as “hacking”. Today, the term is used to refer to individuals engaged in […]
• Cyber Crimes: Court – United States vs. Ancheta Reasoning: The jury argued that the defendant conspired to violate the Computer Fraud Abuse Act as well as the CAN-SPAM Act, caused havoc to computer networks of the national defense department of the federal government, […]
• Age-Crime Relationships and Motivations Of the three major factors outlined by basis theory, opportunities availability is the most determinant factor of crime commission among the youths as lack of jobs makes them engage in criminal activities in order to […]
• The Drug Crime Story of the Stickup Kids In the first part, Contreras situates the participants in the historical context of New York and the South Bronx, the epicenter of the rise of the crack-cocaine trade.
• Anthropological Theory of Crime Criminal law is a division of law that elucidates crimes, describes their nature and defines available punishment for a criminal offense.
• Crime Scene Investigation: Principles and Process Besides, the paper presents the qualities that crime investigators should have to guarantee a successful inquiry process. Upon arrival on a scene or the site of the crime, one should: Offer assistance to the injured […]
• Investigating Crimes against Property According to the Uniform Crime Report of the Federal Bureau of Investigations, there are about 9,767,915 cases of property crimes reported in America annually.
• Social Issues; Crime and Poverty in Camden This has threatened the social security and peaceful coexistence of the people in the community. The larger the differences between the poor and the rich, the high are the chances of crime.
• The Most Effective Crime Prevention Strategies in the Past Two Decades The conditions are; the desire of the criminal to carry out an offence, the opportunity to carry out the crime and finally the possession of skills and tools necessary for commitment of the crime.
• Crime and Deviance Crime is an act that is against the norm of a society and the registered law of the entire country. A person is usually taken to the court of law where the offence is listened […]
• Crime and Delinquency, Eric Smith’s Case Thus the psychological problems that smith developed were due to the experiences he had gone through the courtesy of his bright red hair, freckles, and speech problems.
• Crimes and Criminal Tendencies: Cause and Effect The school makes demands of control, discipline, and accountability which are difficult for the low self-control student to meet, and, for this reason, early school leaving is a result of low self-control, not a cause […]
• Analyzing Graffiti as a Crime Other types of graffiti such as the commercial graffiti are categorized as crimes because making use of graffiti as a form of advertisement is usually against the advertisement along with media laws established in most […]
• Crime Reporting in Irish Media The impact of the increase in crime reporting is the rise in worrisome behaviors among the citizens. On the other hand, there is an increase in crime rates, especially cyber crimes and sexual offenses.
• Sociological Perspectives on Crimes of Power: Enron Selfish ambitions of people are dangerous to the organization because this will lead to the downfall of the company in the long run as it happened with Enron.
• Criminology: Application of Crime Theories For an action to amount to crime, there has to be a breach of law followed by the administration of punishment by the state to the accused.
• Petty Crime Offenses: A Case of Mary Lee It is easy for the prosecution, in this case, to request the judge to sentence the defendant due to her criminal behavior.
• How America’s Top Cop Reversed the Crime Epidemic Bratton and his fellows at the NYPD employed computer mapping to identify areas that experienced high crime levels, and then made use of all resources available in the police to fight these crimes.
• “Crimes Against Humanity” by Ward Churchill Throughout the essay, he puts a lot of words and phrases in quotation marks to underline the unique and figurative meaning of these phrases.
• Crime Scene Reconstruction During crime scene simulation, the specialists are supposed to apply scientific methods in order to reconstruct a crime and answer the most important questions related to it that slow down the process of investigation.
• Forensic Psychology: Media and Crime Relationship Consequently, it is arguable that exposure to stimuli involving violence such as the one found in a violent video game and some TV programs including cartoons may cause activation of aggressive scripts among children.
• Crime Prevention and Risk Management This brochure will outline some basic notions of risk management and assessment and crime and victimization prevention; additionally, it will provide the reader with some basic strategies of daily risk management and include sources for […]
• Society’s Response to Crime Impacts on Justice True, the decisions of the court are generally based on nature of the crime, evidence and the manner of the plaintiff and defendant.
• Controlling Organized Crime In some instances, law enforcement officers have to get court orders first before they are allowed to search the premises of criminal suspects and this makes it difficult for them to stop different criminal incidents […]
• Crime Theories: Psychodynamics and Rational Choice The rational choice theory explained the causes of crime to be the ability of an individual to commit the crime, their need for valuable possessions and money, their physical health and ability to commit the […]
• To What Extent Are New Technologies and Organized Crime Linked? There are three major issues in the assessment of the crime and technology which will form the basis of our argument in this research paper; the level of information technology that is used by the […]
• DNA Analysis: A Crime-Fighting Tool or Invasion of Privacy? This paper set out to demonstrate that DNA analysis offers a versatile tool for fighting crime and therefore ensuring the success of our civilization.
• Medea’s Justification for Her Crime Medea felt Jason had betrayed her love for him and due to her desperate situation she was depressed and her normal thinking was affected that she started thinking of how she would revenge the man […]
• The Phases of a Crime and Their Importance in Psychological Profiling Attempt and accomplishment, the third and fourth phases of a crime respectively, differ in the sense that an attempt is a failed crime.
• Robert Merton’s Strain Theory Explaining Economic Crime Trends This theory states that “crime occurs when there are not enough legitimate opportunities for people to achieve the success goals imposed by the society”.
• White-Collar Crime-Related Data Sources in the US The data available in NCVS to examine the utility of employing the NCVS to quantify white-collar crimes includes the list of white-collar crimes and their classification.
• Design Theory in “Ornament and Crime” Essay by Loos One of the striking examples of this opinion is the desire to combine the interior and exterior decoration of the building, making them a logical continuation of each other.
• Drug Crimes and Merton’s Anomie It is also reported that in the year 2004, seven percent of the State inmates in the United States jails and eighteen percent of the Federal prisoners pointed out that they engaged in committing offenses […]
• The Theft of a Laptop in Various Crime Scenarios This paper seeks to evaluate different situations that involve the theft of a laptop with the aim of establishing the types of crime they represent and the differences between them.
• White Collar Crime: Insidious Injuries This is one of the main issues that should be considered since it is important for understanding the dangers of these injuries and reducing their risks. These are some of the main challenges that can […]
• The Crimes of Charles Manson In reality, based on the ghastly consequences of his actions and “teachings”, he is generally considered a pathological liar, a shrewd manipulator and a man guilty of not only coercing others to murder in his […]
• The British Crime Survey’s Strengths and Weaknesses The British Crime Survey’s main purpose is to check the crime level and the number of affected people in England. The investigation performed by the British Crime Survey is in the form of an interview, […]
• Crime Factors & Levels in South Africa vs. Canada Developed and developing countries have different level of crime and crime control from the developing countries. This crime is concentrated in the urban of Ontario, British Columbia and other areas like Quebec.
• Relationship Between Unemployment and Crimes Agnew, argue that crime is caused by strain that a person face throughout life, and this can be contributed to the degree of educational inequality in society.
• TV Violence, Increasing Crime Levels and Child Aggression Most of the proponents of that theory state that by witnessing a certain behavior in fiction people become more prone to repeating it in real life. One of the powers these advancements have given us […]
• Middle Class and Crime: Historical Analysis of Crime The middle class norms place a high evaluation on the cultivation and possession of skills and on the tangible achievements which are presumed to witness the possession of skills and the application of effort.
• Psychological Theories Explaining Violent Crime Genetic influences refer to the blueprints for behavior that are contained in a person’s chromosomes. It is theoretically possible for a person to carry genes that influence behavior; the behavior they express would be the […]
• Situational Crime Prevention SCP focuses on deterring crime by increasing the risk and effort in committing a crime. However, they add that the effect of such measures varies based on the location and type of crime targeted.
• Gender Factors of Crime in Campus Occurrence of violence in campus usually puts the media in a dilemma because of the perceived impact that the information would have on students, their perception and fear while in school.
• Problem‐Oriented Policing in Violent Crime Places In this study funded by the National Institute of Justice, the researchers investigate the impact of problem-oriented policing in Jersey City.
• Victimless Crimes: Definition and Types Again, the taxpayers are the victims in such a case as they have to contribute to the rehabilitation of the drug users. As such, some of the so-called victimless crimes have identifiable victims.
• Crime Prevention at the Workplace: Employee Theft Considering that any form of employee theft induces substantial harm to the financial performance of companies, the integration of adequate crime prevention procedures in the corporate security system is of great importance.
• Shoe Impression at a Crime Scene It is the transfer of material from the shoe to the surface. The print results from the static charges between the sole of the shoe and the surface.
• Nature of Crime in the UAE The irony of this phenomenon is that most embassies in the UAE advise their citizens to take normal security precautions while in the country, yet they are among the biggest offenders.
• Victims of Crime Act: History and Development The necessary part of the paper is the information about changes to the original policy. The discussion of this act and how necessary it is for the criminal justice system in The United States is […]
• Social Criticism Work in the Scandinavian Crime Fiction Novels The issue of revenge being a better option in the Swedish society is evident when, at the end of the novel, Blomkvists makes efforts to bring down the executive who worn the lawsuit mentioned at […]
• Forensic Psychology Role in the Investigation of Crime The use of the methods majorly depends upon the complexity of the crime, nature of evidence available and level of forensic technology available.
• Canada Crime Victims Foundation The foundation was officially started in 2002 to address the plight of such victims and it aims at providing basic education particularly to those dealing with victims of violence, in addition to undertaking comprehensive research […]
• The Long Way to Confession in Fyodor Dostoevsky’s Crime and Punishment The act of confession is one of the central themes in Crime and Punishment, since it is the climax point of the novel signifying crucial changes in Raskolnikov’s mental and physical state.
• Prohibition and the Rise of Organized Crime In the 1920s, the United States was facing worrying rates of crime that called for the intervention of the Congress to avert the situation.
• Race, Ethnicity and Crime There are a number of opposing issues concerning racism and disparity that has led to complication in the discussion of the issue of racism in the Criminal Justice System. The larger the differences between the […]
• The Major Theories of Crime Causation The survival of any civilization hinges on the establishment of laws and codes of conduct and the subsequent obeying of the same by the members of the society.
• Criminal Justice & Security: Measuring Crime Statistics NIBRS is a part of UCR; it has been in place since 1989, and its aim is to ensure the collection of detailed crime reports from law enforcement agencies.
• Rediscovery of Crime Victims Voicing of problems of crime-affected persons is a good effort in addressing their plights because it brings their troubles to the attention of the public.
• Restoring the Requirement of Mens Rea for All Crimes The reason behind incorporating the two notions was that people had to be responsible for what they do whether intentionally or not; the law also seeks to prevent people with criminal intentions from violating the […]
• White-Collar Crime: The Notorious Case of Ford Pinto Additionally, the representatives of this organization argued that the actions of the company should be judged according to the standards of federal law.
• Neighborhood Watch Programs and Crime Prevention The presence of a service that supports victims of crimes in the area also plays a significant role in the lives of the residents and of the neighborhood watch program.
• The Future of Global Crime: Globalization and Integration The main argument is money, and the pursuit of it particularly among major criminals pushing cocaine and heroin evokes every illegal act that falls within the analytical categories discussed above, with the prevalence of the […]
• Cyber-Bullying Is a Crime: Discussion It is easy to see the effects of cyber-bullying but it is hard to find out who is the bully making it hard for authorities to pin the blame on the perpetrator of a crime […]
• Crimes in Biological, Psychological, Sociological Theories With the course of time, people also started paying attention not to the very commitment of crimes but to the triggers that made a person act in a particular way.
• Raskolnikov’s Crime in Dostoevsky’s “Crime and Punishment” Using the ingenuity of Fyodor Dostoevsky and his eternal masterpiece Crime and Punishment, the paper is going to prove the idea that the actual crime committed by Rodion Raskolnikov was the arrogance he had towards […]
• Impact of Cyber Crime on Internet Banking The paper evaluates a con article on ‘The impact of cybercrime on e-banking’ [1]. H2: Identity theft will have a negative impact on the adoption of electronic banking.
• Crimes, Future Challenges and Issues Law enforcement agencies will have challenges with legal requirements and privacy issues in operating vehicles that demand law enforcement agency compliance.
• The Crime Scene Investigation Effect Theory In this context, the public has come to expect too much from criminologists and the criminal justice system because of the CSI Effect.
• Evidence of a Relationship Between Crime and Economy Many people from low socio-economic backgrounds are tempted to engage in crime because they lack required skills and qualifications to get them employed. In conclusion, there are many factors which motivate people to commit crimes.
• Lipstick Analysis in Crime Detection The modern analytical methods enable the detection team to analyze the constituents of the chemicals in the lipstick and the traces of smear extracted from the victims lips of eyelashes.
• Transnational Crime and International Policing This further aids the level of operation and success of international policing by creating the need for control on transnational crime.
• Does Drug Interdiction Increase or Decrease Drug-Related Crime? Thesis: Drug interdiction helps to reduce drug-related crime by reducing the flow of drugs into the country and by disrupting the flow of funds into the hands of the terrorists.
• Crime Laboratories: Accreditation and Certification S, the four major accrediting bodies include the American Society of Crime Laboratory Directors/Laboratory Accreditation Board, the American Association for Laboratory Accreditation, Forensic Quality Services, and the American Board of Forensic Toxicology, though each body […]
• Freakonomics: What Attributed to the Sharp Drop In Crime? This article focuses on these reasons that were thought to have led to reduction of the rising crime rates experienced in United States in the 1990s and refutes the claims flaunted by the theorists.
• Luka Magnotta and His Crime From the attention that the media has shown and the public outcry it is possible to conclude that the case is one of a kind.
• Corporate Crime – BP Oil Spill The spill contributed to the disruption of the ecosystem and the wildlife, these included both aquatic and terrestrial wildlife. This contributed to the loss of life, environmental pollution and health issues among others.
• Why Hate Crimes Should Carry More Severe Punishments Having looked at the impacts that hate crimes cause to the individual victim and the society it is of the essence that severe punishments are accorded to the hate crime offenders.
• Marijuana Legalization and Crime Rates The possible outcome of this effort will be the safe consumption of the drug, easy monitoring, and creation of awareness to the public on the dangers of excessive use of the drug and lastly the […]
• Crimes and Criminal Law Therefore, facts on crimes and decisions of the judge is referenced from the constitution, which prescribes the nature and extend of the punishment or fine awarded to an individual found guilty of an offense. One […]
• War Crimes During the World War II It is clear that the holocaust was a war crime by the fact that, these were innocent civilians who were targeted specifically because of the hatred that Hitler had for them.
• Crime and Victimization Trends In this way, the UCR can be efficiently used as the primary tool for the analysis of the regional crime rate dynamics while the data collected from the NCVS and the NIBRS can be implemented […]
• Hate Crimes in Modern Society Despite being constantly addressed by different activist groups and getting the response from the legal system, hate crimes are still reported on a regular basis with varying frequency, mostly due to the lack of understanding […]
• Extortion in Organized Crime Groups Blackmailing is a standard tool in organized crime, as it relies on one’s ability to threaten with severe consequences for non-compliance.
• The Crimes of Charles Manson, Serial Killer Even though his people did it himself, he was not involved in this, and the organization of a particular group of people is not in itself an immoral act but is prohibited in some places.
• Guidelines for Responsible Reporting on Hate Crimes The media is responsible for maintaining a balance between their interests and the needs and rights of crime victims, the public, and defendants.
• Water Pollution as a Crime Against the Environment In particular, water pollution is a widespread crime against the environment, even though it is a severe felony that can result in harm to many people and vast territories.
• The Crime of Attempt: Adequate Punishment In this situation, it is necessary to cooperate with a lawyer to prove the absence of intent to harm or to verify the impossibility of committing a crime.
• Hate Crimes from a Biblical Perspective Therefore, hate crimes include immoral conduct and a risk to the wellbeing of the general populace, and the courts are without a doubt vested with the jurisdiction to decide how the perpetrators of these offenses […]
• Categories of Crime in Current Justice System A stable and effective legal system work is one of the fundamental aspects necessary for the evolution of society. The severity of the crime is determined by the damage done to a person and the […]
• Crime Scene Investigation Techniques Digital GPS evidence refers to the location data that is collected and stored on digital devices such as smartphones, laptops, tablets, smart watches, and others.
• The Most Effective Crime Reduction Approaches Therefore, the assessment and monitoring of the community must remain a core strategy for a crime analyst to prevent a rise in crime.
• Mental Health of Crime Offenders The research was created with the idea that women have a significant role in promoting global health because of the importance of their health. According to the findings, life skills training programs improved women’s mental […]
• A Theoretical Perspective on Crimes
• Cryptocurrency Crimes in Financial Markets
• Discussion on the Role of Crime
• Crime Prevention With Rational Choice Theory
• Research in Criminal Justice: Crime Solvability Factors
• Terrorism and Transnational Organized Crime as Threats to Homeland Security
• Gender Factor of Crime Motivation
• Sexual Crimes and Behavioral Problems Treatment
• State Crimes: Strategies to Resisting Tortures in Prisons
• The Relationship Between Wealth Distribution and Crime Rates
• The Community Policing Impact on Juvenile Crime
• Police Administration Issue: Crime Victim Rights
• Hate Crimes and Biblical Worldview
• Sociology Can Be Applied to Offenders and Crimes
• Crime Problems and Criminal Justice
• Suitability of Electronic Monitoring: Crime Control Perspective
• Low Crime Clearance Rates in the United States
• Crime Control and Prevention Methods
• Crimes and Victimization: Gender Issues
• Transnational Organized Crime in the United States
• Police Corruption: A Crime With Severe Consequences
• Analysis of Crime and Punishment Bill
• Investigating and Reporting White Collar Crimes: The Case of Bernie Madoff
• Curtis Sliwa’s “The Guardian Angels”: Fighting Crime in New York City
• “Time and Crime: Which Cold-Case Investigations Should Be Reheated?”: Key Ideas
• “Hot Spots of Crime…” Article by Weisburd & White
• Crime of Ricin Using or an Easy Way Out
• Current Trends in Globalization of Crime
• Substance Use During Pregnancy as a Crime
• The Crime and Justice Impact on New Media
• Legal Issues Related to Cyber Crime Investigations
• Crime Rates in the United States
• Processing a Physical and Electronic Crime Scene
• Criminalistics: Forensic Science, Crime, and Terrorism
• Crime Trends in the Jurisdiction
• Websites Against Cyber Crimes: Investigating High-Tech Crime
• Juvenile Crime and Human Institutions’ Solutions
• Crime of Extortion and Potential Defense
• Alternative Punishment for Minor Drug-Related Crimes
• The United States Uniform Crime Report’s Aims
• Department of Justice Project on Organized Crime
• Illegal Immigration Policies and Violent Crime
• Major Crimes Committed by Women
• Finding a Crime Series: Murders Committed by John Wayne Gacy
• Review of High Tech Crime Investigation
• Analysis of Crime and Violence Trauma
• Crime Maps of Detroit and Michigan
• Criminologists’ Views on Crime and Justice Issues
• Napoleon Beazley: Analysis of Crime
• Case Study on Tax Crimes: Distributional Implications of Joint Tax
• Aspects of Sexual Crime Myth
• Analysis of the Social Context of Crime
• Document Falsification Crime and Response to It
• Overrepresentation of African Americans in Crime Statistics
• Business-Related Crime and Preventive Measures
• Factors Affecting Losses From Property Crime
• Reasons Why Women Are Often the Victims of Violent Crimes
• Hate Crimes and Implications
• Juvenile Violent Crime and Children Below Poverty
• Mens Rea and Actus Reus of Crime: A Case Study
• Increasing Level of Fear of Crime and Its Cause
• Criminological Theories Explaining Overrepresentation of African Americans in Crime Statistics
• Profiled in Life & Death: Crime Victims’ Compensation and Young People of Color
• Prison Sentence Alternatives for Drug-Related Crimes
• Juvenile Crime of Lionel Tate: Causes and Effects
• View of the Financial Crimes
• Crime Commitment and Punishment
• The Federal Bureau Investigation Crime Statistics
• Crimes Against Humanity – Genocide
• Ordinary vs. Hate Crime Activities: Key Differences
• Public Perceptions of Racial Crimes
• Public Perceptions of Crime Analysis
• Crime and Violence: Modern Social Classification
• The New Perspective in the Management of Crime and Offenders
• Measuring Crime Within Lynfield Estate
• GIS Comparing to Areas in Baltimore in Comparison to Crime
• Comparing the Rate of Crime between the US, Japan, and Mexico
• Who Are the Two Partners in All Crimes?
• State Report: Crime Rates in Wisconsin
• Sentencing Philosophies in Crime
• Victimless Crimes in the United States of America
• Youth Crime Statistics in the US
• Hate Crimes – Bullying
• The Crimes of Sexual Assault in Canada
• Transnational Organized Crime in Port Security Operations
• Social and Cultural Inequalities Impact On Crime Experience: London
• Prison Reforms for Handling Crime Effectively
• The ‘Street Games’ Athletic Intervention to Reduce Youth Crime
• Conspiracies in Society: Power Elite and State Crimes Against Society Theories
• Asian Hate Crimes in the United States
• Disability Hate Crimes in England and Wales
• Close-Circuit Television: Crime Control vs. Privacy
• Victims and Crime Evaluation
• Hate Crime Problem Overview
• “Adventures in Crime” Book by Amanda Archer
• Managing the Hate Crimes and Preparing Officers
• Adaptations to Anomie. Theories of Crime
• Rape Theories and Policies to Minimize Crimes
• “Legend” Crime Drama Directed by Brian Helgeland
• Federal Statutes: White-Collar Crime
• Juvenile Use of Drug and Committing of Crime
• Data-Based Analysis Approach in Preventing Crime at Dallas Police Department
• Researching Hate Crimes in America
• Crimes Against Unborn Children
• Crime in 2020 During COVID-19
• Federal, State, and Local Hate Crime Laws
• The Costs and Benefits of Dealing With Juvenile Crimes in Boot Camps
• Property Crime in Boston and Detroit
• Main Aspects of Organized Crime Models
• Crime Control Perspective & the Due Process Perspective
• History of Crime Measurement vs. Contemporary Situation
• Profiling and Analytical Skills in Crime Detection
• The Difference Between Media Depiction and the Reality of Crime
• The Use of Social Crime Prevention Techniques in the UK
• Effects of Community Policing Upon Fear of Crime
• Homeland Security: Digital Crime and Terrorism Activities
• Problem-Oriented Crime Intervention and Policy Analysis
• Affect of the Organized Crime in Australia
• Crime Challenges in the 21st Century
• Deviance and Deviant Crimes
• Human Consciousness Leading to Hate Crimes
• The Government Solutions of Violent Crimes
• Crime Statistics in United States
• Causes of Committing Crimes
• Sexual Crimes: Criminal Liability
• Crime in Virginia: Nature and Trends
• Crime Prevention Strategies and Quality of Life
• Noble Cause Corruption – A Crime-Fighting Sub-Culture
• Insider Trading Crime and Sentencing
• Criminal Street Gangs as Organized Crime Groups
• Developmental Theories and Crime Prevention Programs
• Race and Culture Factors in Crime
• Analysis of Mental Health in Crime
• Isla Vista Mass Murder as a Hate Crime
• The Genetics of Crime: ‘Criminal Gene’
• The Links Between Gender and Crime
• Crime Prevention Strategies at Walden University
• Louisiana’s Crime Law: Victim Rights
• Crime Prevention, Law Enforcement and Correction Theories
• Applied Crime Prevention in Hollywood 20 Cinema Location
• White-Collar Crime: Importance of Awareness
• Factors Related to Crime and Their Influence
• The Effects of Campus Shootings on Fear of Crime on Campus
• Global Crimes Impact Assessment
• Improving Crime Policy in Canada by Using Criminological Evidence
• Computer Crime in the United Arab Emirates
• Hate Crime Statistics in Los Angeles and New York Metropolitan Areas
• Theories on Crime
• Criminology in Brief: Understanding Crime
• White Collar Crime Characteristics
• Generalisation of Persons Who Commit Crime
• The Wire: A Crime-Drama Television Series
• The Crime of Robbing the Big City Bank
• Social Developmental Crime Prevention Programs
• The Crime Phenomenon: Victimization and Its Theories
• White-Collar Crime: An Overview
• “Thinking About Crime: Sense and Sensibility in American Penal Culture” by Michael Tonry
• Gender Crime Rates: The Role of Division of Labor
• Official Crime Statistics: ‘Criminal Activity’ Measure
• Organized Crimes: Review
• Types of Crime in Cyberspace
• A Research of the Crime in State Nevada
• Marriage and Crime Reduction: Is There a Relationship?
• Medical Crimes in the Health Industry
• Application of CompStat Crime Model in Los Angeles
• Problems Related to Defining and Regulating Crimes in the Home
• Copyright Implications: Crime Punishable by Law
• Natural and Legal Crime Conceptual Distinction
• Crime in America: What We May Learn From Its Causes?
• Reducing Crime Rates by Analyzing Its Causes
• Crime and Family Background Correlation
• White-Collar Crime Conceptual Study
• Impact of Economic Characteristics on Sex Crimes
• Juvenile Crime Statistics
• Factors Contributing to Gender Disparity in White Collar Crimes
• Comparison Between Organized Crime And Terrorism
• Mental Illness Relationship to Crime
• Models of Organized Crime Executive Summary
• White Collar Crime-Enron Corporation
• Actus Reus and Mens Rea Aspects of Crime
• Houston City Demographics and Crime Profile
• Hate Crime Against the Jewish Community
• Anomie, Crime, and Weakened Social Ties in Social Institutions
• State of Crime in California
• The Highest Crime Rate: Metropolitan County of Jefferson
• Identifying Crime Patterns
• Increasing the Rates of Crimes in Modern World
• Crime Analysis Data Sources
• Corporate Regulation and Crime
• Understanding the Causes of Juvenile Crime
• White-Collar Crime Offenders and Legislation
• Strategic, Tactical, and Administrative Crime Analysis
• Methamphetamine Drug Crime Registration
• Crime Analysis Conceptual Study
• Classical and Biological Theories of Crime
• Property and Computer Crimes
• Increasing the Severity of Punishments Imposed for Crime
• Crime in the Suites Effects of Power and Privilege
• Causes of Organized Crime Analysis
• Mr. Charles Dempsey Court Case: Cause and Consequences of the Crime
• The Fears of Reporting a Crime: Why Witnesses Do Not Report Crimes
• Investigation Methods: Terrorism and Cyber Crime
• Impact of Globalization and Neoliberalism on Crime and Criminal Justice
• Routine Activities Theory of Crime by Lawrence Cohen and Marcus Felson
• Electronic Crime Scene Investigation & Good Practice Guide
• Economy and Crime: The Relationship
• White-Collar Crimes: Prevention and Fight
• What Is a Crime? Is It Possible to Prevent Crime?
• Asian Crime: Different Cultures, Different Attitudes
• International White-Collar Crime
• Community Cohesiveness and Incidence of Crime
• Crime Theories: Intimate Partner Violence in the US
• Processing the Crime Scene: Tools and Techniques
• Forensic Serology and Its Key Aspects in Investigating Crimes
• The Relationship of Drugs and Crime
• Detrimental Effects of Gender Influenced Crime and Interventions
• The Prevention of Crime and Community Justice
• Use of the Information Technology to Solve Crimes: DNA Tests and Biometrics
• Using the Internet to Solve a Crime
• Nature of Crime in the State of Virginia
• Crime and Social Learning Theory Concept
• The Parallel Between Crime and Conflicts in Africa, Asia and Latin America
• Globalization and the Internet: Change of Organized Crime
• War on Crime Influence on Power Shift Among Various Groups
• Trends in Police Recorded Crime in Northern Ireland
• Human Factor in Enabling and Facilitating E-Crimes
• Financial Crime and Employment
• Power Elite: Deviance and Crime Discussion
• The Crime of Sexual Violence Committed by Men
• Screening in Aviation: Prevention of Crime
• Seligman & Perspective on the Drop in Crime Rates
• Human Trafficking as a Global Crime Industry: Labor, Slavery, Sexual Slavery, Prostitution, and Organ Harvesting
• Salem Witchcraft Hysteria: Crime Against Women
• Depiction of White-Collar Crime: Toxic Chemicals and Effects of the Pollutions
• History of Crime in America Since the Early 1800s
• US Attorney’s Office Press Release on Birmingham Crimes
• Cyber Technology: Organized Crimes and Law Enforcement
• Crime Myths and Domestic Terrorism
• State or Federal Crime: Texas Kidnapping Study
• Recidivism Rates for Sex Crimes
• Prevention of Sex Offenders From Committing Crimes
• Impacts of the Society’s Response to Crime
• Policing Operations: Application of New Technologies to Combat Crime
• Drugs, Crime, and Violence: Effects of Drug Use on Behavior
• The Three Strikes Law in Countering Crime
• Hate Crimes in the United States: Bias Toward the Victim’s Identity
• The Nature of Crime: Underlying Drivers Making People Criminals
• Theoretical Impact on Sex Crimes Investigations
• Searching and Recording the Crime Scene
• Social Pressure and Black Clothing Impact on Crime Judgments
• Personal vs. Collective Responsibility in War Crimes and Crimes Against Humanity
• Without a Trace: Crime Scene Field Notes
• Economic Recession and Crime Rates
• The Self Control Theory of Crime
• Criminal Justice System: Crime Scene Investigation
• Philosophical Theory of Law and Justice and Problem of Crime and Justice
• Urban Relationship Between Poverty and Crime
• Community Policing as a Tool Against Crime
• Ornament and Crime: Economic Aspects
• Does Crime Make Economic Sense?
• Women’s Crime: Gendered Criminology Theory
• Crimes Against the State: Terrorist Attacks and Death Penalty
• Crime Rates in UK: Quantitative Methods
• Gang-Related Crimes in Irish Cities
• Minor Disorders and Serious Crimes
• Social Program for Management of Crimes Against Women
• Do Drug Enforcement Laws Help to Reduce Other Crimes?
• Organized Crime Investigation in Different Countries
• Crime, Criminality, and Prisons in the USA
• Cutting-Off Hand Keeps Off Crimes in the Country
• Organized Crime in the United States
• Crime Mysteries of Jack the Ripper
• China’s Legal System: Crime and Punishment
• Criminal Investigations: Nature of Crime Investigators
• NGOs and the Fight Against Crime
• Sociology and Representation of Crime in the Media
• Crime Punishment: Humane Treatment of Prisoners Today
• Probing Crime Based on Conduct Report
• Criminal Justice for Physically Injured Crime Victims
• Major Theories of Crime Causation
• Elements of Crime and Intentional Tort
• Future of Crime Corrections
• Prostitution as a Victimless Crime
• Hate Crime as a Core Subject of Criminology
• Youth Crime and Punishment
• Policy Recommendations for Controlling Crime
• City Violence, Crimes and Disruption
• Responsibility for the Most Horrific Crimes Issue
• Crime Prevention Programs in America
• Rape: The Misunderstood Crime
• Sex Crimes and Burglary: Patterns, Benefits, and Risk
• Alcohol and Crime in the U.K., the United States, and Australia
• Prostitution as a “Victimless” Crime
• Enron Scandal and Business Crime
• Crime and Punishment in Texas
• Crime Policy and Practices: Trying Juveniles as Adults
• White-Collar and Political Crimes
• Three Perspective of One Crime
• Financial Cost of Crime to Society
• The History of Cyber Crimes and the Most Popular Forms of Cyber Crimes
• Violence and Society: Multiple Perceptions of Crime
• Law Enforcement: White-Collar and Corporate Crimes
• Crime in High Schools
• White Collar Crime: When Looks Can Be Deceiving
• Nazi’s Crimes Against Jews During World War II
• Crime Victimization in America: Data Statistics
• Prevention & Control Of Crime
• Crime and Subcultures in the Urban Area
• Crime in Inner City Neighborhoods
• Date Rape Is Not a Crime: Discussion
• Effective Physical Security and Crime Prevention
• Criminology: Drugs, Crime and Control
• Youth Crime. Prejudice: Is It Justified?
• New York City Community Policing and Crime Reduction
• Crime, Justice and the Media Relations
• State Corporate Crime and Criminological Inquiry
• Strain Theory: Sociological Explanation of Crime
• Granite City Building Inspectors: Service Crime
• Torts and Crimes. Liability for Traffic Accidents
• The General Theory of Crime
• Situational Crime Prevention Strategy
• Policing Crime and Disorder Hot Spots
• Crime of Genocide: Justice and Ethical Issues
• White-Collar Crimes and Deferred Prosecution
• The Uniform Crime Statistics Over 5 Years
• Cyber Crime in the U.S. and Nigeria
• Forensic Biology in Crime Scene Investigations
• The Concept of Uniform Crime Reporting Program
• Property Crime and Typologies
• Greater Surveillance Is Not a Desirable Answer to the Problem of Crime
• CCTV Cameras: Surveillance and the Reduction of Crime
• The Key Types of Crimes
• Crime Scene Investigation and Evidence Classification
• Crime Prevention in the United States
• Crimes That Teenagers Do Not Commit
• Crime Investigation With Global Positioning System
• National Crime Victimization Survey and Analysis
• Surveillance as the Answer to the Crime Issue
• The Crime of Innocence
• Computer Crimes: Viewing the Future
• Important Crime Scene Responsibilities
• Computer Forensics and Cyber Crime
• Crimes Against Small Businesses and Prevention Strategies
• Computer Forensics: Identity Theft
• Computer Crime Investigation Processes and Analyses
• Crime Prevention and Juvenile Delinquency
• Longford: British Biographical Crime Drama Film
• Immigration and Crime Rates in the United States
• Organized Crime in New York and Chicago
• Gender and Crime in Campus: Correlation Analysis
• Conflict & Crime Control vs. Consensus & Due Process Model
• Capturing Crime, Criminals and the Public’s Imagination
• National Missing and Unidentified Persons System
• “Broken Windows” and Situational Crime Prevention Theories
• NGO Analysis of Canadian Crime Victim Foundation
• Crime and Criminal Justice News
• Deterrence: Discouraging Offenders from Re-Committing Crimes
• General Trends of Crime Over the Past Twenty Years
• Religion Role in Crime Definition
• Transnational Organized Crime: Counterstrategy
• Serial Killers, Their Crimes, and Stereotypes
• Crime Analysis Writing and Alert Website Content
• Economics of Organized Crime and Drug Trafficking
• Achieving Total Security in the Community
• Organized Crime Series Analysis
• International Law: War Crimes and Crimes Against Humanity
• Fear from Media Reporting of Crimes
• Crime Theories Differentiating Criminal Behavior
• Tactical Crime Analysis and Statistical Cases
• Comparing Different Indexes of Crimes
• Anomie and Strain Crime Theories
• Crime Theories: Shooting in Northwest Washington
• White-Collar Crime Theories and Their Development
• Robert Courtney’s Crime as Input to Business Regulation
• Three-Strikes Law Ineffective in Crime Reduction
• Violence, Security and Crime Prevention at School
• Electronic Crimes and Federal Guidance in Regulation
• Phoenix Park: Community-Based Crime Prevention
• Forensic Science: Examining Crime Evidence
• Human and Drug Trafficking as Transnational Organised Crimes
• Alleged Crimes: Aggravated Assault and Drug Dealing
• Offenders’ Age and Anti-Black Hate Crimes
• The Role of Location in Crime Fiction
• Crimes Against Persons: Theory and Doctrine
• Prohibition as a Cause of Increased Crimes Illegal Activity
• Crime Prevention Approaches
• Crime Scene Investigation: Types of Analysis
• White-Collar Crimes Causes
• Differences of Crime Perception in North Jersey
• Children as Victims of Crime
• Crime Data: Collection and Analysis Tools
• Crime Rates of Sex Crimes and Firearm Violence
• Organized Crime in the Balkans
• Compliance Impact on Financial Crimes
• Fascination With Crime Through the Art of Photography
• Closed-Circuit Television Cameras in Crime Reduction
• Marijuana Crime in California State and Federal Courts
• Internet Crimes and Digital Terrorism Prevention
• Deterrence Theory and Adolescent Sex Crimes
• Immigration Services Against Crime and Terrorism
• Digital Crime Causes and Theories
• Pink-Collar Criminal: Gender in White-Collar Crime
• Nanjing Massacre as Japan’s Denied War Crime
• Gender and Crime Correlation in Strain Theory
• Police Patrol Presence in Crime “Hot Spots”
• National Impact on Organized Crime
• Organized Crime and Current Laws
• Civic Virtue in Crime Commitment and Revelation
• ”Crime and Justice in the United States” by Bohm & Haley
• Computer Crimes and Internet Security
• Crime Television Series: “Al Fin Cayó!”
• War Crimes in “Zambak/Muslims” by S. Mehmedinovic
• Internet Crime Prevention by Law and E-Business
• Hate Crimes and Anti-Discrimination Laws
• Crime Prevention and Control Effectiveness
• Crime Scene Investigation Stages and Protocols
• Race, Ethnicity and Crime in America
• White Collar Crimes Focus
• Terrorism, Hate Crimes and Racial Profiling
• Hate Crime Charge in Attack on Sikh Professor
• Los Angeles: Housing, Homelessness, Drugs, Crimes
• Death Penalty: Mistrial, Racial Bias, Crime Ranking
• Can Genetics Cause Crime?
• Are the Laws Propagating Crime?
• When Was the First True Crime?
• Does Capital Punishment Deter Crime?
• Does Crime and Violence Affect the Tourism Industry?
• Does Drug Use Cause Crime or Does Crime Cause Drug Use?
• Does Marriage Reduce Crime?
• What’s the Origin of Crime?
• Does Social Deprivation Relate to Crime?
• Why People Commit Crime?
• Why Crime Rates Will Drop?
• What Are the Social Causes of Youth Crime?
• What Causes High Crime Rate?
• What Are the Proper Steps in a Crime Investigation?
• What Are the Psychological Causes of Crime?
• What Are the Causes of Youth Crime in the UK?
• What Are the Major Problems with Regard to the Collection of Crime Statistics?
• How Accurate Are Official Crime Statistics?
• What Is the First: Crime or Law?
• How Did American White Collar Crime Transform?
• What Are the Seven Elements of a Crime?
• How Does Globalization Impact on Crime and Victimisation?
• How Can Crime Best Be Measured?
• Why Does Crime Change over Time?
• How Crime and Deviance Can Be Seen as Functional for Society?
• Chicago (A-D)
• Chicago (N-B)

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Sociology of Deviance Research Paper Topics

In sociology deviance is defined as the violation of a social norm which is likely to result in censure or punishment for the violator. Behind this seemingly simple and clear cut definition, however, lurks a swarming host of controversies. A perusal of course curricula verifies that most sociologists who teach a course on deviance divide the field into two distinctly different perspectives: constructionist approaches and explanatory theories. The constructionist approach sees deviance as ‘‘subjectively problematic,’’ that is, ‘‘in the eye of the beholder,’’ and takes as its primary task an understanding of how judgments of deviance are put together, and with what consequences. Explanatory theories regard deviance as ‘‘objectively given,’’ that is, a syndrome like entity with more or less clear cut, identifiable proper ties whose causal etiology can be explicated by the social scientist. Each perspective has its own mission, agenda, enterprise, and methodology. And though these two approaches define deviance in superficially similar ways, their definitions point to sharply divergent universes of meaning. The enterprises in which these perspectives are engaged are in fact linked only by the objectively similar nature of their subject matter; conceptually and theoretically, they are worlds apart.

45 Sociology of Deviance Research Paper Topics

• Abominations of the body
• Absolutist definitions of deviance
• Addiction and dependency
• Alcoholism and alcohol abuse
• Body modification
• Collective Deviance
• Constructionist perspectives on deviance
• Crime and deviance
• Criminalization of deviance
• Death of the sociology of deviance?
• Deinstitutionalization
• Deviance processing agencies
• Deviance research methods
• Deviance theories
• Deviant Accounts
• Deviant beliefs/cognitive deviance
• Deviant careers
• Deviant identity
• Deviant subcultures
• Explanatory theories of deviance
• Female sex work as deviance
• Medicalization of deviance
• Mental disorder
• Moral boundaries and deviance
• Moral entrepreneur
• Moral panics
• New left realism
• Normative definitions of deviance
• Organizational deviance
• Peacemaking
• Positive deviance
• Positivist theories of deviance
• Poverty and disrepute
• Reactivist definitions of deviance
• Sexual deviance
• Social control
• Transgression
• What is deviance?

Theories of Deviance

Since its inception as a discipline, sociology has studied the causes of deviant behavior, examining why some persons conform to social rules and expectations and why others do not. Typically, sociological theories of deviance reason that aspects of individuals’ social relationships and the social areas in which they live and work assist in explaining the commission of deviant acts. This emphasis on social experiences, and how they contribute to deviant behavior, contrasts with the focus on the internal states of individuals taken by disciplines such as psychology and psychiatry.

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Sociological theories are important in understanding the roots of social problems such as crime, violence, and mental illness and in explaining how these problems may be remedied. By specifying the causes of deviance, the theories reveal how aspects of the social environment influence the behavior of individuals and groups. Further, the theories suggest how changes in these influences may yield changes in levels of deviant behaviors. If a theory specifies that a particular set of factors cause deviant behavior, then it also implies that eliminating or altering those factors in the environment will change levels of deviance. By developing policies or measures that are informed by sociological theories, government agencies or programs focused on problems like crime or violence are more likely to yield meaningful reductions in criminal or violent behavior.

Despite their importance, deviance theories disagree about the precise causes of deviant acts. Some look to the structure of society and groups or geographic areas within society, explaining deviance in terms of broad social conditions in which deviance is most likely to flourish. Others explain deviant behavior using the characteristics of individuals, focusing on those characteristics that are most highly associated with learning deviant acts. Other theories view deviance as a social status conferred by one group or person on others, a status that is imposed by persons or groups in power in order to protect their positions of power. These theories explain deviance in terms of differentials in power between individuals or groups.

This topic reviews the major sociological theories of deviance. It offers an overview of each major theory, summarizing its explanation of deviant behavior. Before reviewing the theories, however, it may prove useful to describe two different dimensions of theory that will structure our discussion. The first of these, the level of explanation, refers to the scope of the theory and whether it focuses on the behavior and characteristics of individuals or on the characteristics of social aggregates such as neighborhoods, cities, or other social areas. Micro-level theories stress the individual, typically explaining deviant acts in terms of personal characteristics of individuals or the immediate social context in which deviant acts occur. In contrast, macro-level theories focus on social aggregates or groups, looking to the structural characteristics of areas in explaining the origins of deviance, particularly rates of deviance among those groups.

Theories of deviance also vary in relation to a second dimension, causal focus. This dimension divides theories into two groups, those that explain the social origins of norm violations and those explaining societal reactions to deviance. Social origin theories focus on the causes of norm violations. Typically, these theories identify aspects of the social environment that trigger norm violations; social conditions in which the violations are most likely to occur. In contrast, social reaction theories argue that deviance is often a matter of social construction, a status imposed by one person or group on others and a status that ultimately may influence the subsequent behavior of the designated deviant. Social reaction theories argue that some individuals and groups may be designated or labeled as deviant and that the process of labeling may trap or engulf those individuals or groups in a deviant social role.

These two dimensions offer a four-fold scheme for classifying types of deviance theories. The first, macro-level origin theories, focus on the causes of norm violations associated with broad structural conditions in the society. These theories typically examine the influences of such structural characteristics of populations or communities like the concentration of poverty, levels of community integration, or the density and age distribution of the population on areal rates of deviance. The theories have clear implications for public policies to reduce levels of deviance. Most often, the theories highlight the need for altering structural characteristics of society, such as levels of poverty, that foster deviant behavior.

The second, micro-level origin theories focus on the characteristics of the deviant and his or her immediate social environment. These theories typically examine the relationship between a person’s involvement in deviance and such characteristics as the influence of peers and significant others, persons’ emotional stakes in conformity, their beliefs about the propriety of deviance and conformity, and their perceptions of the threat of punishments for deviant acts. In terms of their implications for public policy, micro-level origin theories emphasize the importance of assisting individuals in resisting negative peer influences while also increasing their attachment to conforming lifestyles and activities.

A third type of theories may be termed micro-level reaction theories. These accord importance to those aspects of interpersonal reactions that may seriously stigmatize or label the deviant and thereby reinforce her or his deviant social status. According to these theories, reactions to deviance may have the unintended effect of increasing the likelihood of subsequent deviant behavior. Because labeling may increase levels of deviance, micro-level reaction theories argue that agencies of social control (e.g. police, courts, correctional systems) should adopt policies of ”nonintervention.”

Finally, macro-level reaction theories emphasize broad structural conditions in society that are associated with the designation of entire groups or segments of the society as deviant. These theories tend to stress the importance of structural characteristics of populations, groups, or geographic areas, such as degrees of economic inequality or concentration of political power within communities or the larger society. According to macro-level reaction theories, powerful groups impose the status of deviant as a mechanism for controlling those groups that represent the greatest political, economic, or social threat to their position of power. The theories also imply that society can only achieve reduced levels of deviance by reducing the levels of economic and political inequality in society.

The rest of this article is divided into sections corresponding to each of these four ”types” of deviance theory. The article concludes with a discussion of new directions for theory—the development of explanations that cut across and integrate different theory types and the elaboration of existing theories through greater specification of the conditions under which those theories apply.

Macro-Level Origins of Deviance

Theories of the macro-level origins of deviance look to the broad, structural characteristics of society, and groups within society, to explain deviant behavior. Typically, these theories examine one of three aspects of social structure. The first is the pervasiveness and consequences of poverty in modern American society. Robert Merton’s (1938) writing on American social structure and Richard Cloward and Lloyd Ohlin’s (1960) subsequent work on urban gangs laid the theoretical foundation for this perspective. Reasoning that pervasive materialism in American culture creates unattainable aspirations for many segments of the population, Merton (1964) and others argue that there exists an environmental state of ”strain” among the poor. The limited availability of legitimate opportunities for attaining material wealth forces the poor to adapt through deviance, either by achieving wealth through illegitimate means or by rejecting materialistic aspirations and withdrawing from society altogether.

According to this reasoning, deviance is a byproduct of poverty and a mechanism through which the poor may attain wealth, albeit illegitimately. Thus, ”strain” theories of deviance interpret behaviors such as illegal drug selling, prostitution, and armed robbery as innovative adaptations to blocked opportunities for legitimate economic or occupational success. Similarly, the theories interpret violent crimes in terms of the frustrations of poverty, as acts of aggression triggered by those frustrations (Blau and Blau 1982). Much of the current research in this tradition is examining the exact mechanisms by which poverty and economic inequality influence rates of deviant behavior.

Although once considered a leading theory of deviance, strain theory has come under criticism for its narrow focus on poverty as the primary cause of deviant behavior. Recent efforts have sought to revise and extend the basic principles of the theory by expanding and reformulating ideas about strain. Robert Agnew (1992) has made the most notable revisions to the theory. His reformulation emphasizes social psychological, rather than structural, sources of strain. Agnew also broadens the concept of strain, arguing that poverty may be a source of strain, but it is not the only source. Three sources of strain are important: failure to achieve positively valued goals, removal of positively valued stimuli, and confrontation with negative stimuli. The first type of strain, failure to achieve positively valued goals, may be the result of a failure to live up to one’s expectations or aspirations. Strain may also result if an individual feels that he or she is not being treated in a fair or just manner. The removal of a positively valued stimulus, such as the death of a family member or the loss of a boyfriend or girlfriend, can also result in strain. Finally, strain can also be produced by the presentation of negative stimuli, such as unpleasant school experiences. Thus, although this reformulation of strain theory retains the notion that deviance is often the result of strain, the concept of strain is broadened to include multiple sources of strain.

The second set of macro-level origin theories examine the role of culture in deviant behavior. Although not ignoring structural forces such as poverty in shaping deviance, this class of theories reasons that there may exist cultures within the larger culture that endorse or reinforce deviant values; deviant subcultures that produce higher rates of deviance among those segments of the population sharing subcultural values.

Subcultural explanations have their origin in two distinct sociological traditions. The first is writing on the properties of delinquent gangs that identifies a distinct lower-class culture of gang members that encourages aggression, thrill seeking, and antisocial behavior (e.g., Miller 1958). The second is writing on cultural conflict that recognizes that within complex societies there will occur contradictions between the conduct norms of different groups. Thorsten Sellin (1938) suggests that in heterogeneous societies several different subcultures may emerge, each with its own set of conduct norms. According to Sellin, the laws and norms applied to the entire society do not necessarily reflect cultural consensus but rather the values and beliefs of the dominant social groups.

Subcultural theories emerging from these two traditions argue that deviance is the product of a cohesive set of values and norms that favors deviant behavior and is endorsed by a segment of the general population. Perhaps most prominent among the theories is Marvin Wolfgang and Franco Ferracuti’s (1967) writing on subcultures of criminal violence. Wolfgang and Ferracuti reason that there may exist a distinct set of beliefs and expectations within the society; a subculture that promotes and encourages violent interactions. According to Wolfgang and Ferracuti, this violent subculture is pervasive among blacks in the United States and may explain extremely high rates of criminal homicide among young black males.

Although Wolfgang and Ferracuti offer little material specifying the subculture’s precise causes, or empirical evidence demonstrating the pervasiveness of subcultural beliefs, other writers have extended the theory by exploring the relationship between beliefs favoring violence and such factors as the structure of poverty in the United States (Curtis 1975; Messner 1983), the history of racial oppression of blacks (Silberman 1980), and ties to the rural South and a southern subculture of violence (Gastil 1971; Erlanger 1974). Even these writers, however, offer little empirical evidence of violent subcultures within U.S. society.

A third class of theories about the macro-level origins of deviance began with the work of sociologists at the University of Chicago in the 1920s. Unlike strain and subcultural theories, these stress the importance of the social integration of neighborhoods and communities—the degree to which neighborhoods are stable and are characterized by a homogenous set of beliefs and values—as a force influencing rates of deviant behavior. As levels of integration increase, rates of deviance decrease. Based in the early work of sociologists such as Clifford Shaw and Henry McKay, the theories point to the structure of social controls in neighborhoods, arguing that neighborhoods lacking in social controls are ”disorganized,” that is, areas in which there is a virtual vacuum of social norms. It is in this normative vacuum that deviance flourishes. Therefore, these theories view deviance as a property of areas or locations rather than specific groups of people.

Early writers in the ”disorganization” tradition identified industrialization and urbanization as the causes of disorganized communities and neighborhoods. Witnessing immense growth in eastern cities such as Chicago, these writers argued that industrial and urban expansion create zones of disorganization within cities. Property owners move from the residential pockets on the edge of business and industrial areas and allow buildings to deteriorate in anticipation of the expansion of business and industry. This process of natural succession and change in cities disrupts traditional mechanisms of social control in neighborhoods. As property owners leave transitional areas, more mobile and diverse groups enter. But the added mobility and diversity of these groups translate into fewer primary relationships—families and extended kinship and friendship networks. And as the number of primary relationships decline, so will informal social controls in neighborhoods. Hence, rates of deviance will rise.

Recent writing from this perspective focuses on the mechanisms by which specific places in urban areas become the spawning grounds for deviant acts (Bursik and Webb 1982; Bursik 1984; and others). For example, Rodney Stark (1987) argues that high levels of population density are associated with particularly low levels of supervision of children. With little supervision, children perform poorly in school and are much less likely to develop ”stakes in conformity”—that is, emotional and psychological investments in academic achievement and other conforming behaviors. Without such stakes, children and adolescents are much more likely to turn to deviant alternatives. Thus, according to Stark, rates of deviance will be high in densely populated areas because social controls in the form of parental supervision are either weak or entirely absent.

Similarly, Robert Crutchfield (1989) argues that the structure of work opportunities in areas may have the same effect. Areas characterized primarily by secondary-sector work opportunities— low pay, few career opportunities, and high employee turnover—may tend to attract and retain persons with few stakes in conventional behavior—a ”situation of company” in which deviance is likely to flourish.

Recent writing from the disorganization perspective has also taken the form of ethnographies; qualitative studies of urban areas and the deviance producing dynamics of communities. As Sullivan (1989, p. 9) states, ethnographies describe the community ”as a locus of interaction, intermediate between the individual and the larger society, where the many constraints and opportunities of the total society are narrowed to a subset within which local individuals choose.” At the heart of Sullivan’s argument is the idea that social networks in neighborhoods are important in understanding whether individuals are capable of finding meaningful opportunities for work. For example, youth were less likely to turn to crime in those neighborhoods where they could take advantage of family and neighborhood connections to blue collar jobs. Because of the greater employment opportunities in these neighborhoods, even youth who become involved in crime were less likely to persist in high-risk criminal behaviors.

Similarly, Jay MacLeod (1995) attempts to explain how the aspirations of youth living in urban areas have been ”leveled,” or reduced to the point where the youths have little hope for a better future. In an analysis of two urban gangs, MacLeod argues that the youths’ family and work experiences, along with their relationships with their peers, help explain why a predominantly white gang had lower aspirations and engaged in more delinquent and antisocial behavior than the other gang, predominantly comprised of African Americans. According to MacLeod, the parents of white youth were much less likely to discipline their children or to encourage them to achieve and do well in school. Also, white youth had more experience on the job market than the African American youth. This contributed to a more pessimistic outlook and a lowering of their future aspirations.

Finally, MacLeod argues that the white youths’ immersion in a subculture, which emphasized rejecting the authority of the school, reinforced their negative attitudes to a much greater extent than the African American peer group.

In sum, theories of the macro-level origins of deviance argue that many of the causes of deviance may be found in the characteristics of groups within society, or in the characteristics of geographic areas and communities. They offer explanations of group and areal differences in deviance—for example, why some cities have relatively higher rates of crime than other cities or why blacks have higher rates of serious interpersonal violence than other ethnic groups. These theories make no attempt to explain the behavior of individuals or the occurrence of individual deviant acts. Indeed, they reason that deviance is best understood as a property of an area, community, or group, regardless of the individuals living in the area or community, or the individuals comprising the group.

The theories’ implications for public policy focus on the characteristics of geographic areas and communities that lead to deviance. The impact of change on neighborhoods, for example, can be reduced if the boundaries of residential areas are preserved. By preserving such boundaries, communities are less likely to become transitional neighborhoods that foster deviance and crime. Also, by maintaining residential properties people become invested in their own community, which helps foster the mechanisms of informal social control that make deviance less likely. Strengthening schools and other stabilizing institutions in neighborhoods, such as churches and community centers, can also contribute to a reduction in deviance. Finally, establishing networks for jobs and job placement in disadvantaged areas may increase the opportunities of employment among youth. If they succeed in increasing employment, the networks should decrease the chances that youth will turn to careers in crime.

Micro-Level Origins of Deviance

Many explanations of deviance argue that its causes are rooted in the background or personal circumstances of the individual. Micro-level origin theories have developed over the past fifty years, identifying mechanisms by which ordinarily conforming individuals may become deviant. These theories assume the existence of a homogeneous, pervasive set of norms in society and proceed to explain why persons or entire groups of persons violate the norms. There exist two important traditions within this category of theories. The first tradition involves ”social learning theories”—explanations that focus on the mechanisms through which people learn the techniques and attitudes favorable to committing deviant acts. The second tradition involves ”social control theories”—explanations that emphasize factors in the social environment that regulate the behavior of individuals, thereby preventing the occurrence of deviant acts.

Edwin Sutherland’s (1947) theory of differential association laid the foundation for learning theories. At the heart of this theory is the assumption that deviant behavior, like all other behaviors, is learned. Further, this learning occurs within intimate personal groups—networks of family members and close friends. Thus, according to these theories individuals learn deviance from persons closest to them. Sutherland specified a process of differential association, reasoning that persons become deviant in association with deviant others. Persons learn from others the techniques of committing deviant acts and attitudes favorable to the commission of those acts. Further, Sutherland reasoned that persons vary in their degree of association with deviant others; persons regularly exposed to close friends and family members who held beliefs favoring deviance and who committed deviant acts would be much more likely than others to develop those same beliefs and commit deviant acts.

Sutherland’s ideas about learning processes have played a lasting role in micro-level deviance theories. Central to his perspective is the view that beliefs and values favoring deviance are a primary cause of deviant behavior. Robert Burgess and Ronald Akers (1966) and subsequently Akers (1985) extended Sutherland’s ideas, integrating them with principles of operant conditioning. Reasoning that learning processes may best be understood in terms of the concrete rewards and punishments given for behavior, Burgess and Akers argue that deviance is learned through associations with others and through a system of rewards and punishments, imposed by close friends and relatives, for participation in deviant acts. Subsequent empirical studies offer compelling support for elements of learning theory (Matsueda 1982; Akers et al. 1979; Matsueda and Heimer 1987).

Some examples may be useful at this point. According to the theory of differential association, juveniles develop beliefs favorable to the commission of delinquent acts and knowledge about the techniques of committing deviant acts from their closest friends, typically their peers. Thus, sufficient exposure to peers endorsing beliefs favoring deviance who also have knowledge about the commission of deviant acts will cause the otherwise conforming juvenile to commit deviant acts. Thus, if adolescent peer influences encourage smoking, drinking alcohol, and other forms of drug abuse— and exposure to these influences occurs frequently, over a long period of time, and involves relationships that are important to the conforming adolescent—then he or she is likely to develop beliefs and values favorable to committing these acts. Once those beliefs and values develop, he or she is likely to commit the acts.

The second class of micro-level origin theories, control theories, explores the causes of deviance from an altogether different perspective. Control theories take for granted the existence of a cohesive set of norms shared by most persons in the society and reason that most persons want to and will typically conform to these prevailing social norms. The emphasis in these theories, unlike learning theories, is on the factors that bond individuals to conforming lifestyles. The bonds act as social and psychological constraints on the individual, binding persons to normative conformity (Toby 1957; Hirschi 1969). People deviate from norms when these bonds to conventional lifestyles are weak, and hence, when they have little restraining influence over the individual. Among control theorists, Travis Hirschi (1969) has made the greatest contributions to our knowledge about bonding processes and deviant behavior. Writing on the causes of delinquency, he argued that four aspects of bonding are especially relevant to control theory: emotional attachments to conforming others, psychological commitments to conformity, involvements in conventional activities, and beliefs consistent with conformity to prevailing norms.

Among the most important of the bonding elements are emotional attachments individuals may have to conforming others and commitments to conformity—psychological investments or stakes people hold in a conforming lifestyle. Those having weak attachments—that is, people who are insensitive to the opinions of conforming others— and who have few stakes in conformity, in the form of commitments to occupation or career and education, are more likely than others to deviate (see, e.g., Paternoster et al. 1983; Thornberry and Christenson 1984; Liska and Reed 1985). In effect, these individuals are ”free” from the constraints that ordinarily bond people to normative conformity. Conversely, individuals concerned about the opinions of conforming others and who have heavy psychological investments in work or school will see the potential consequences of deviant acts—rejection by friends or loss of a job—as threatening or costly, and consequently will refrain from those acts.

A related concern is the role of sanctions in preventing deviant acts. Control theorists like Hirschi reason that most people are utilitarian in theirjudgments about deviant acts, and thus evaluate carefully the risks associated with each act. Control theories typically maintain that the threat of sanctions actually prevents deviant acts when the risks outweigh the gains. Much of the most recent writing on sanctions and their effects has stressed the importance of perceptual processes in decisions to commit deviant acts (Gibbs 1975, 1977; Tittle 1980; Paternoster et al. 1982, 1987; Piliavin et al. 1986; Matsueda, Piliavin, and Gartner 1988). At the heart of this perspective is the reasoning that individuals perceiving the threat of sanctions as high are much more likely to refrain from deviance than those perceiving the threat as low, regardless of the actual level of sanction threat.

Writing from the social control perspective attempts to build on and extend the basic assumptions and propositions of control theory. Michael Gottfredson, in conjunction with Hirschi, has developed a general theory of crime that identifies ”low self-control,” as opposed to diminished social control, as the primary cause of deviant behavior (Hirschi and Gottfredson 1987; Gottfredson and Hirschi 1990). Arguing that all people are inherently self-interested, pursuing enhancement of personal pleasure and avoiding pain, Gottfredson and Hirschi suggest that most crimes, and for that matter most deviant acts, are the result of choices to maximize pleasure, minimize pain, or both.

Crimes occur when opportunities to maximize personal pleasure are high and when the certainty of painful consequences is low. Further, people who pursue short-term gratification with little consideration for the long-term consequences of their actions are most prone to criminal behavior. In terms of classical control theory, these are individuals who have weak bonds to conformity or who disregard or ignore the potentially painful consequences of their actions. They are ”relatively unable or unwilling to delay gratification; they are indifferent to punishment and the interests of others” (Hirschi and Gottfredson 1987, pp. 959-960).

Building on traditional control theory, Charles Tittle (1995) reasons that it helps explain why individuals conform, but it also helps to explain why they engage in deviant behavior. Tittle (1995, p. 135) argues that ”the amount of control to which an individual is subject, relative to the amount of control he or she can exercise, determines the probability of deviance occurring as well as the type of deviance likely to occur.” Conformity results when individuals are subjected to and exert roughly equal amounts of control—there is ”control balance.” According to Tittle, however, individuals who are subjected to more control than they exert will be motivated to engage in deviance in order to escape being controlled by others.

Robert Sampson and John Laub (1993) have also expanded on the basic propositions of control theory. In their research, Sampson and Laub focus on stability and change in the antisocial behavior of individuals as they grow from juveniles to adults. Sampson and Laub argue that family, school, and peer relationships influence the likelihood of deviant behavior among juveniles. In particular, Sampson and Laub argue that the structure of the family (e.g., residential mobility, family size) affects family context or process (e.g., parental supervision, discipline), which, in turn, makes deviance among children more or less likely. Many adolescent delinquents grow up to become adult criminals because their juvenile delinquency makes the formation of adult social bonds to work and family less likely. Despite this continuity in antisocial behavior from adolescence to adulthood, however, Sampson and Laub argue that many juvenile delinquents do not commit deviant acts as adults because they develop adult social bonds, such as attachment to a spouse or commitment to a job.

In sum, micro-level origin theories look to those aspects of the individual’s social environment that influence her or his likelihood of deviance. Learning theories stress the importance of deviant peers and other significant individuals, and their impact on attitudes and behaviors favorable to the commission of deviant acts. These theories assume that the social environment acts as an agent of change, transforming otherwise conforming individuals into deviants through peer influences. People exposed to deviant others frequently and sufficiently, like persons exposed to a contagious disease who become ill, will become deviant themselves. Control theories avoid this ”contagion” model, viewing the social environment as a composite of controls and restraints cementing the individual to a conforming lifestyle. Deviance occurs when elements of the bond— aspects of social control—are weak or broken, thereby freeing the individual to violate social norms. Sanctions and the threat of sanctions are particularly important to control theories, a central part of the calculus that rational actors use in choosing to commit or refrain from committing deviant acts.

The policy implications of micro-level origin theories are obvious. If, as learning theories argue, deviance is learned through association with deviant peers, then the way to eliminate deviance is to assist youths in resisting deviant peer influences and helping them to develop attitudes that disapprove of deviant behavior. Control theories, on the other hand, suggest that deviance can be reduced with programs that help families develop stronger bonds between parents and children. Control theory also implies that programs that help youths develop stronger commitments to conventional lines of activity and to evaluate the costs and benefits of deviant acts will also result in a reduction of problematic behavior.

Micro-Level Reactions to Deviance

Unlike micro-level origin theories, micro-level reaction theories make no assumptions about the existence of a homogeneous, pervasive set of norms in society. These theories take an altogether different approach to explaining deviant behavior, viewing deviance as a matter of definition; a social status imposed by individuals or groups on others. Most argue that there exists no single pervasive set of norms in society and that deviant behavior may best be understood in terms of norms and their enforcement. These theories typically stress the importance of labeling processes—the mechanisms by which acts become defined or labeled as ”deviant—and the consequences of labeling for the person so labeled. Many of these theories are concerned with the development of deviant lifestyles or careers; long-term commitments to deviant action.

One of the most important writers in this tradition is Howard Becker (1963). Becker argues that deviance is not a property inherent in any particular form of behavior but rather a property conferred on those behaviors by audiences witnessing them. Becker (1963, p. 9) notes that ”. . . deviance is not a quality of the act the person commits, but rather a consequence of the application by others of rules and sanctions to an ‘offender.’ The deviant is one to whom that label has been successfully applied; deviant behavior is behavior that people so label.” Thus, Becker and others in this tradition orient the study of deviance on rules and sanctions, and the application of labels. Their primary concern is the social construction of deviance—that is, how some behaviors and classes of people come to be defined as ”deviant” by others observing and judging the behavior.

Building on the idea that deviance is a property conferred on behavior that is witnessed by a social audience, Becker (1963) also developed a simple typology of deviant behavior. The dimensions upon which the typology is based are whether or not the individual is perceived as deviant and whether or not the behavior violates any rule. Conforming behavior is behavior that does not violate any rules and is not perceived as deviant. Individuals in the opposite scenario, in which the person both violates rules and is perceived by others as deviant, Becker labeled pure deviants. Some individuals, according to Becker, may be perceived as deviant, even though they have not violated any rules. Becker identified these individuals as the falsely accused. Finally, the secret deviant is one who has violated the rules, but, nonetheless, is not perceived by others as being deviant.

Equally important is the work of Edwin Lemert (1951). Stressing the importance of labeling to subsequent deviant behavior, he argues that repetitive deviance may arise from social reactions to initial deviant acts. According to Lemert (1951, p. 287), deviance may often involve instances where ”a person begins to employ his deviant behavior. . . as a means of defense, attack or adjustment to the. . . problems created by the consequent social reactions to him.” Therefore, a cause of deviant careers is negative social labeling; instances where reactions to initial deviant acts are harsh and reinforce a ”deviant” self-definition. Such labeling forces the individual into a deviant social role, organizing his or her identity around a pattern of deviance that structures a way of life and perpetuates deviant behavior (Becker 1963; Schur 1971, 1985).

Perhaps the most significant developments in this tradition have contributed to knowledge about the causes of mental illness. Proponents of micro-level reaction theories argue that the label ”mental illness” can be so stigmatizing to those labeled, especially when mental-health professionals impose the label, that they experience difficulty returning to nondeviant social roles. As a result, the labeling process may actually exacerbate mental disorders. Former mental patients may find themselves victims of discrimination at work, in personal relationships, or in other social spheres (Scheff 1966). This discrimination, and the widespread belief that others devalue and discriminate against mental patients, may lead to self-devaluation and fear of social rejection by others (Link 1982, 1987). In some instances, this devaluation and fear may be associated with demoralization of the patient, loss of employment and personal income, and the persistence of mental disorders following treatment (Link 1987).

Hence, micro-level reaction theories reason that deviant behavior is rooted in the process by which persons define and label the behavior of others as deviant. The theories offer explanations of individual differences in deviance, stressing the importance of audience reactions to initial deviant acts. However, these theories make no attempt to explain the origins of the initial acts (Scheff 1966). Rather, they are concerned primarily with the development and persistence of deviant careers.

Micro-level reaction theories have very different implications for public policy than macro- and micro-level origins theories. Micro-level reaction theories argue that unwarranted labeling can lead to deviant careers. In effect, the reaction to deviance can cause deviant behavior to escalate. Thus, in order to reduce deviance, agencies of social control must adopt policies of nonintervention. Rather than being formally sanctioned and labeled as deviant, nonintervention policies must encourage diversion and deinstitutionalization. Formal sanctioning must be highly selective, focusing only on the most serious and threatening deviant acts.

Macro-Level Reactions to Deviance

The final class of theories looks to the structure of economic and political power in society as a cause of deviant behavior. Macro-level reaction theories—either Marxist or other conflict theories— view deviance as a status imposed by dominant social classes to control and regulate populations that threaten political and economic hegemony. Like micro-level reaction theories, these theories view deviance as a social construction and accord greatest importance to the mechanisms by which society defines and controls entire classes of behavior and people as deviant in order to mediate the threat. However, these theories reason that the institutional control of deviants has integral ties to economic and political order in society.

Marxist theories stress the importance of the economic structure of society and begin with the assumption that the dominant norms in capitalist societies reflect the interests of the powerful economic class; the owners of business. But contemporary Marxist writers (Quinney 1970, 1974, 1980; Spitzer 1975; Young 1983) also argue that modern capitalist societies are characterized by large ”problem populations”—people who have become displaced from the workforce and alienated from the society. Generally, the problem populations include racial and ethnic minorities, the chronically unemployed, and the extremely impoverished. They are a burden to the society and particularly to the capitalist class because they create a form of social expense that must be carefully controlled if the economic order is to be preserved.

Marxist theories reason that economic elites use institutions such as the legal, mental-health, and welfare systems to control and manage society’s problem populations. In effect, these institutions define and process society’s problem populations as deviant in order to ensure effective management and control. In societies or communities characterized by rigid economic stratification, elites are likely to impose formal social control in order to preserve the prevailing economic order.

Conflict theories stress the importance of the political structure of society and focus on the degree of threat to the hegemony of political elites, arguing that elites employ formal social controls to regulate threats to political and social order (Turk 1976; Chambliss 1978; Chambliss and Mankoff 1976). According to these theories, threat varies in relation to the size of the problem population, with large problem populations substantially more threatening to political elites than small populations. Thus, elites in societies and communities in which those problem populations are large and perceived as especially threatening are more likely to process members of the problem populations as deviants than in areas where such problems are small.

Much of the writing in this tradition has addressed the differential processing of people defined as deviant. Typically, this writing has taken two forms. The first involves revisionist histories linking the development of prisons, mental asylums, and other institutions of social control to structural changes in U.S. and European societies. These histories demonstrate that those institutions often target the poor and chronically unemployed independent of their involvement in crime and other deviant acts, and thereby protect and serve the interests of dominant economic and political groups (Scull 1978; Rafter 1985).

A second and more extensive literature includes empirical studies of racial and ethnic disparities in criminal punishments. Among the most important of these studies is Martha Myers and Suzette Talarico’s (1987) analysis of the social and structural contexts that foster racial and ethnic disparities in the sentencing of criminal offenders. Myers and Talarico’s research, and other studies examining the linkages between community social structure and differential processing (Myers 1987, 1990; Peterson and Hagan 1984; Bridges, Crutchfield, and Simpson 1987; Bridges and Crutchfield 1988), demonstrate the vulnerability of minorities to differential processing during historical periods and in areas in which they are perceived by whites as serious threats to political and social order. In effect, minorities accused of crimes during these periods and in these geographic areas are perceived as threats to white hegemony, and therefore become legitimate targets for social control.

In addition to studying the connections between community social structure and the differential processing of racial and ethnic minorities, researchers have also begun to examine how court officials’ perceptions of offenders can influence disparities in punishments. Bridges and Steen (1998), for example, show how court officials’ perceptions of white and minority youths differ, and how these different perceptions contribute to different recommendations for sentencing. Probation officers often attribute the offenses of minority youths to internal characteristics of the youths (i.e., aspects of their personality), while attributing the offenses of white youths to external characteristics (i.e., aspects of their environments). As a result of these differential attributions, minority youths are perceived as more threatening, more at risk for re-offending than whites and more likely to receive severe recommendations for sentences.

Thus, macro-level reaction theories view deviance as a by-product of inequality in modern society, a social status imposed by powerful groups on those who are less powerful. Unlike micro-level reaction theories, these theories focus on the forms of inequality in society and how entire groups within the society are managed and controlled as deviants by apparatuses of the state. Like those theories, however, macro-level reaction theories make little or no attempt to explain the origins of deviant acts, claiming instead that the status of ”deviant” is, in large part, a social construction designed primarily to protect the interests of the most powerful social groups. The primary concern of these theories is explicating the linkages between inequality in society and inequality in the labeling and processing of deviants.

Since macro-level reaction theories view deviance as a status imposed by powerful groups on those with less power, the most immediate policy implication of these theories is that imbalances in power and inequality must be reduced in order to reduce levels of deviance and levels of inequality in the sanctioning of deviance. More effective monitoring of government agencies that are used to control problem populations, such as the criminal justice system, can also help to reduce the disproportionate processing of less powerful groups, such as racial minorities, as deviant.

New Theoretical Directions

A recurring issue in the study of deviance is the contradictory nature of many deviance theories. The theories often begin with significantly different assumptions about the nature of human behavior and end with significantly different conclusions about the causes of deviant acts. Some scholars maintain that the oppositional nature of these theories—the theories are developed and based on systematic rejection of other theories (Hirschi 1989)—tends toward clarity and internal consistency in reasoning about the causes of deviance. However, other scholars argue that this oppositional nature is intellectually divisive—acceptance of one theory precludes acceptance of another—and ”has made the field seem fragmented, if not in disarray” (Liska, Krohn, and Messner 1989, p. 1).

A related and equally troublesome problem is the contradictory nature of much of the scientific evidence supporting deviance theories. For each theory, there exists a literature of studies that supports and a literature that refutes major arguments of the theory. And although nearly every theory of deviance may receive empirical confirmation at some level, virtually no theory of deviance is sufficiently comprehensive to withstand empirical falsification at some other level. The difficult task for sociologists is discerning whether and under what circumstances negative findings should be treated as negating a particular theory (Walker and Cohen 1985).

In recent years, these two problems have renewed sociologists’ interest in deviance theory and, at the same time, suggested new directions for the development of theory. The oppositonal nature of theories has spawned interest in theoretical integration. Many scholars are dissatisfied with classical theories, arguing that their predictive power is exceedingly low (see Elliott 1985; Liska, Krohn, and Messner 1989). Limited to a few key explanatory variables, any one theory can explain only a limited range and amount of deviant behavior. And because most scholars reason that the causes of deviance are multiple and quite complex, most also contend that it may be ”necessary to combine different theories to capture the entire range of causal variables” (Liska, Krohn, and Messner 1989, p. 4).

Because it combines the elements of different theories, the new theory will have greater explanatory power than theories from which it was derived. However, meaningful integration of deviance theories will require much more than the simple combination of variables. Scholars must first reconcile the oppositional aspects of theories, including many of their underlying assumptions about society, the motivations of human behavior, and the causes of deviant acts. For example, learning theories focus heavily on the motivations for deviance, stressing the importance of beliefs and values that ”turn” the individual to deviant acts. In contrast, control theories accord little importance to such motivations, examining instead those aspects of the social environment that constrain people from committing deviant acts. Reconciling such differences is never an easy task, and in some instances may be impossible (Hirschi 1979).

The problem of contradictory evidence suggests a related but different direction for deviance theory. Theories may vary significantly in the conditions—termed scope conditions—under which they apply (Walker and Cohen 1985; Tittle 1975; Tittle and Curran 1988). Under some scope conditions, theories may find extensive empirical support, and under others virtually none. For instance, macro-level origin theories concerned with the frustrating effects of poverty on deviance may have greater applicability to people living in densely populated urban areas than those living in rural areas. The frustration of urban poverty may be much more extreme than in rural areas, even though the actual levels of poverty may be the same. As a result, the frustrations of urban poverty may be more likely to cause deviant adaptations in the form of violent crime, drug abuse, and vice than those of rural poverty. In this instance, ”urbanness” may constitute a condition that activates strain theories linking poverty to deviance. Obviously, the same theories simply may not apply in rural areas or under other conditions.

Effective development of deviance theory will require much greater attention to the specification of such scope conditions. Rather than combining causal variables from different theories as integrationists would recommend, this approach to theory development encourages scholars to explore more fully the strengths and limitations of their own theories. This approach will require more complete elaboration of extant theory, explicitly specifying those circumstances under which each theory may be meaningfully tested and thus falsified. The result will be a greater specification of each theory’s contribution to explanations of deviant behavior.

These two directions have clear and very different implications for the development of deviance theory. Theoretical integration offers overarching models of deviant behavior that cut across classical theories, combining different levels of explanation and causal focuses. If fundamental differences between theories can be reconciled, integration is promising. The specification of scope conditions offers greater clarification of existing theories, identifying those conditions under which each theory most effectively applies. Although this direction promises no general theories of deviance, it offers the hope of more meaningful and useful explanations of deviant behavior.

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• Thornberry, Terence P, and R. L. Christenson 1984 ‘‘Unemployment and Criminal Involvement: An Investigation of Reciprocal Causal Structures.’’ American Sociological Review 49:398–411.
• Tittle, Charles R. 1975 ‘‘Deterrents or Labeling?’’ Social Forces 53:399–410.
• Tittle, Charles R. 1980 Sanctions and Social Deviance. New York: Praeger.
• Tittle, Charles R. 1995 Control Balance: Toward a General Theory of Deviance. Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press.
• Tittle, Charles R., and Barbara A. Curran 1988 ‘‘Contingencies for Dispositional Disparities in Juvenile Justice.’’ Social Forces 67:23–58.
• Toby, Jackson 1957 ‘‘Social Disorganization and Stakes in Conformity: Complimentary Factors in the Predatory Behavior of Hoodlums.’’ Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology and Police Science 48:12–17.
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How to get an A* in A-level Sociology (Crime and Deviance)

Drawing on marked exemplars from the AQA exam board this post unpicks what you need to do to get and A* in the the AQA’s Crime and Deviance with Theory and Methods Paper (Sociology – 7192/3)

Table of Contents

Last Updated on January 10, 2019 by Karl Thompson

This post draws on marked examples from the AQA exam board’s A-level sociology papers 7192/3: Crime and Deviance with demonstrate what you need to do to get an A* grade in sociology A-level.

NB – The later links below will only become operational later this week! (Everything by Weds!)

According to the AQA’s 2017 A-level grade boundaries  you need an average of 60 raw marks out of a total of 80 get an A* in paper 1. This means you can ‘drop’ 20 marks and still get into the A* category.

However, let’s play it safe and say that the easiest way to ‘guarantee’ your A* is to max out the short answer (4-6) mark questions, and then sneak into the top mark bands for every other question. If you did that you’d end up with a total score of 67/80, made up of the marks as below

• Q01 – 4/4 marks
• Q02 – 6/6 marks
• Q03 – 8/10 marks
• Q04 – 25/30 marks
• Q05 – 17/20 marks
• Q06 – 8/10 marks

= Total marks of 68/70 , which is still COMFORTABLY into the A* category!

The remainder of this post explains how to get full marks in the first two short answer ‘outline and explain’ (4 and 6 mark) questions and then examines the ‘top band’s of the mark schemes for the other 10 mark and essay questions, drawing on specific examples from a the AQA’s specimen papers and some model marked scripts from last year’s 2017 A-level sociology examination series.

For more details on how these exams are assessed, please see the AQA’s we site .

Strategies to get an A* in A Level sociology (focusing on paper 7192/3)

Questions 01 and 02: the four and six mark questions .

• Outline two reasons for ethnic differences in rates of offending (4) which shows a marked 2/4 answer showing you one clear ‘1+1’ point and explanation, but it also contains the mark scheme, which shows you other points and explanations you could have included to get 4/4. STANDARD
• Outline three functions of crime deviance (6) – shows you two marked exemplars, one of which got 6/6!

Q03: Applying material from item A ‘Analyse Something’

This is my summary of the the AQA’s guidance on the two types of 10 mark question (the second type is question 06 below).

To summarise the key points from the top band of the mark scheme for this type of question, you need:

• Good knowledge and understanding of relevant material
• Two reasons/ ways/ effects (whatever the action word is)
• Two developed applications from the item
• analysis and/ or evaluation of these effects.

So far, so abstract: the question below is a full mark answer taken from the AQA’s 2017 A-level paper 7192/3.

• Analyse two ways in which deviant subcultures may respond to the difficulties of achieving mainstream goals (10)

Question 04: the big, 30 mark, pure education essay question

This question will ask you to evaluate something using an item.

To get into the top mark band, you basically need to demonstrate excellent knowledge and understanding, analysis and evaluation, AND use the item, and conclude!

Below is a link to a response taken from the AQA’s 2015 specimen material which achieved 25/30 – so just into the top band!

• Evaluate the usefulness of functionalist approaches in understanding crime and deviance (30)

Q05: The Methods in Context Question

This question can ask you about any method, or any theory (perspective) or any combination of both! Below is an example of a full mark response to the 2017 paper:

• Applying material from Item C and your knowledge, evaluate the view that conflict approaches are more useful than consensus approaches to our understanding of society (20)

Q06: Outline and Explain Two…(10)

This final question will ask you to outline and explain two reasons, arguments, ways, criticisms etc…. there is no item, and unlike the other 10 mark question, there are no marks for evaluation!

Below are links to two marked exemplars, both of which achieved 10/10.

• Outline and explain two arguments against the view that sociology is a science (10)
• Outline and explain two advantages of choosing overt participant observation as a source of data compared with covert participant observation (10)

Remember that this exact question could appear on either paper 1, or paper 3!

Theory and Methods A Level Sociology Revision Bundle 

Contents include:

• 74 pages of revision notes
• 15 mind maps on various topics within theory and methods
• Five theory and methods essays
• ‘How to write methods in context essays’.

Crime and Deviance Revision Notes for Sale 

• Consensus based theories part 1 – Functionalism; Social control’ theory; Strain theory
• Consensus based theories part 2 – Sub cultural theories
• The Traditional Marxist and Neo-Marxist perspective on crime
• Labeling Theory
• Left- Realist and Right-Realist Criminology (including situational, environmental and community crime prevention)
• Post-Modernism, Late-Modernism and Crime (Social change and crime)
• Sociological Perspectives on  controlling crime – the role of the community and policing in preventing crime
• Sociological Perspectives on Surveillance
• Sociological Perspectives on Punishment
• Social Class and Crime
• Ethnicity and Crime
• Gender and crime  (including Girl gangs and Rape and domestic violence)
• Victimology – Why are some people more likely to be criminals than others
• Global crime, State crime and Environmental crime (Green crime)
• The Media and Crime, including moral panics
• The AQA’s 2015 A level specimen paper and commentaries.
• A-level SOCIOLOGY: Feedback on the Examinations Student responses and commentaries: Paper 1 7192/1 Education with Theory and Methods. Published: Autumn 2017
• A-level SOCIOLOGY: Feedback on the Examinations Student responses and commentaries: Paper 1 7192/3: Crime and Deviance with Theory and Methods. Published: Autumn 2017

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