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2.3 Methods of Researching Media Effects

Learning objectives.

• Identify the prominent media research methods.
• Explain the uses of media research methods in a research project.

Media theories provide the framework for approaching questions about media effects ranging from as simple as how 10-year-old boys react to cereal advertisements to as broad as how Internet use affects literacy. Once researchers visualize a project and determine a theoretical framework, they must choose actual research methods. Contemporary research methods are greatly varied and can range from analyzing old newspapers to performing controlled experiments.

Content Analysis

Content analysis is a research technique that involves analyzing the content of various forms of media. Through content analysis, researchers hope to understand both the people who created the content and the people who consumed it. A typical content analysis project does not require elaborate experiments. Instead, it simply requires access to the appropriate media to analyze, making this type of research an easier and inexpensive alternative to other forms of research involving complex surveys or human subjects.

Content analysis studies require researchers to define what types of media to study. For example, researchers studying violence in the media would need to decide which types of media to analyze, such as television, and the types of formats to examine, such as children’s cartoons. The researchers would then need to define the terms used in the study; media violence can be classified according to the characters involved in the violence (strangers, family members, or racial groups), the type of violence (self-inflicted, slapstick, or against others), or the context of the violence (revenge, random, or duty-related). These are just a few of the ways that media violence could be studied with content-analysis techniques (Berger, 1998).

Archival Research

Any study that analyzes older media must employ archival research, which is a type of research that focuses on reviewing historical documents such as old newspapers and past publications. Old local newspapers are often available on microfilm at local libraries or at the newspaper offices. University libraries generally provide access to archives of national publications such as The New York Times or Time ; publications can also increasingly be found in online databases or on websites.

Older radio programs are available for free or by paid download through a number of online sources. Many television programs and films have also been made available for free download, or for rent or sale through online distributors. Performing an online search for a particular title will reveal the options available.

Resources such as the Internet Archive ( www.archive.org ) work to archive a number of media sources. One important role of the Internet Archive is website archiving. Internet archives are invaluable for a study of online media because they store websites that have been deleted or changed. These archives have made it possible for Internet content analyses that would have otherwise been impossible.

Surveys are ubiquitous in modern life. Questionaires record data on anything from political preferences to personal hygiene habits. Media surveys generally take one of the following two forms.

A descriptive survey aims to find the current state of things, such as public opinion or consumer preferences. In media, descriptive surveys establish television and radio ratings by finding the number of people who watch or listen to particular programs. An analytical survey, however, does more than simply document a current situation. Instead, it attempts to find out why a particular situation exists. Researchers pose questions or hypotheses about media, and then conduct analytical surveys to answer these questions. Analytical surveys can determine the relationship between different forms of media consumption and the lifestyles and habits of media consumers.

Surveys can employ either open-ended or closed-ended questions. Open-ended questions require the participant to generate answers in their own words, while closed-ended questions force the participant to select an answer from a list. Although open-ended questions allow for a greater variety of answers, the results of closed-ended questions are easier to tabulate. Although surveys are useful in media studies, effective use requires keeping their limitations in mind.

Social Role Analysis

As part of child rearing, parents teach their children about social roles. When parents prepare children to attend school for example, they explain the basics of school rules and what is expected of a student to help the youngsters understand the role of students. Like the role of a character in a play, this role carries specific expectations that differentiate school from home. Adults often play a number of different roles as they navigate between their responsibilities as parents, employees, friends, and citizens. Any individual may play a number of roles depending on his or her specific life choices.

Social role analysis of the media involves examining various individuals in the media and analyzing the type of role that each plays. Role analysis research can consider the roles of men, women, children, members of a racial minority, or members of any other social group in specific types of media. For example, if the role children play in cartoons is consistently different from the role they play in sitcoms, then certain conclusions might be drawn about both of these formats. Analyzing roles used in media allows researchers to gain a better understanding of the messages that the mass media sends (Berger, 1998).

Depth Interviews

The depth interview is an anthropological research tool that is also useful in media studies. Depth interviews take surveys one step further by allowing researchers to directly ask a study participant specific questions to gain a fuller understanding of the participant’s perceptions and experiences. Depth interviews have been used in research projects that follow newspaper reporters to find out their reasons for reporting certain stories and in projects that attempt to understand the motivations for reading romance novels. Depth interviews can provide a deeper understanding of the media consumption habits of particular groups of people (Priest, 2010).

Rhetorical Analysis

Rhetorical analysis involves examining the styles used in media and attempting to understand the kinds of messages those styles convey. Media styles include form, presentation, composition, use of metaphors, and reasoning structure. Rhetorical analysis reveals the messages not apparent in a strict reading of content. Studies involving rhetorical analysis have focused on media such as advertising to better understand the roles of style and rhetorical devices in media messages (Gunter, 2000).

Focus Groups

Like depth interviews, focus groups allow researchers to better understand public responses to media. Unlike a depth interview, however, a focus group allows the participants to establish a group dynamic that more closely resembles that of normal media consumption. In media studies, researchers can employ focus groups to judge the reactions of a group to specific media styles and to content. This can be a valuable means of understanding the reasons for consuming specific types of media.

Focus groups are effective ways to obtain a group opinion on media.

Wikimedia Commons – CC BY-SA 3.0.

Experiments

Media research studies also sometimes use controlled experiments that expose a test group to an experience involving media and measure the effects of that experience. Researchers then compare these measurements to those of a control group that had key elements of the experience removed. For example, researchers may show one group of children a program with three incidents of cartoon violence and another control group of similar children the same program without the violent incidents. Researchers then ask the children from both groups the same sets of questions, and the results are compared.

Participant Observation

In participant observation , researchers try to become part of the group they are studying. Although this technique is typically associated with anthropological studies in which a researcher lives with members of a particular culture to gain a deeper understanding of their values and lives, it is also used in media research.

Media consumption often takes place in groups. Families or friends gather to watch favorite programs, children may watch Saturday morning cartoons with a group of their peers, and adults may host viewing parties for televised sporting events or awards shows. These groups reveal insights into the role of media in the lives of the public. A researcher might join a group that watches football together and stay with the group for an entire season. By becoming a part of the group, the researcher becomes part of the experiment and can reveal important influences of media on culture (Priest).

Researchers have studied online role-playing games, such as World of Warcraft , in this manner. These games reveal an interesting aspect of group dynamics: Although participants are not in physical proximity, they function as a group within the game. Researchers are able to study these games by playing them. In the book Digital Culture, Play, and Identity: A World of Warcraft Reader , a group of researchers discussed the results of their participant observation studies. The studies reveal the surprising depth of culture and unwritten rules that exist in the World of Warcraft universe and give important interpretations of why players pursue the game with such dedication (Corneliussen & Rettberg, 2008).

Key Takeaways

• Media research methods are the practical procedures for carrying out a research project. These methods include content analysis, surveys, focus groups, experiments, and participant observation.
• Research methods generally involve either test subjects or analysis of media. Methods involving test subjects include surveys, depth interviews, focus groups, and experiments. Analysis of media can include content, style, format, social roles, and archival analysis.

Media research methods offer a variety of procedures for performing a media study. Each of these methods varies in cost; thus, a project with a lower budget would be prohibited from using some of the more costly methods. Consider a project on teen violence and video game use. Then answer the following short-response questions. Each response should be a minimum of one paragraph.

• Which methods would a research organization with a low budget favor for this project? Why?
• How might the results of the project differ from those of one with a higher budget?

Berger, Arthur Asa. Media Research Techniques (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1998), 23–24.

Corneliussen, Hilde and Jill Walker Rettberg, “Introduction: ‘Orc ProfessorLFG,’ or Researching in Azeroth,” in Digital Culture, Play, and Identity: A World of Warcraft Reader , ed. Hilde Corneliussen and Jill Walker Rettberg (Cambridge, MA: Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 2008), 6–7.

Gunter, Barrie. Media Research Methods: Measuring Audiences, Reactions and Impact (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2000), 89.

Priest, Susanna Hornig Doing Media Research: An Introduction (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2010), 16–22.

Priest, Susanna Hornig Doing Media Research , 96–98.

Understanding Media and Culture Copyright © 2016 by University of Minnesota is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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7.3: Methods of Researching Media Effects

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Learning Objectives

• Identify the prominent media research methods.
• Explain the uses of media research methods in a research project.

Media theories provide the framework for approaching questions about media effects ranging from as simple as how 10-year-old boys react to cereal advertisements to as broad as how Internet use affects literacy. Once researchers visualize a project and determine a theoretical framework, they must choose actual research methods. Contemporary research methods are greatly varied and can range from analyzing old newspapers to performing controlled experiments.

Content Analysis

Content analysis is a research technique that involves analyzing the content of various forms of media. Through content analysis, researchers hope to understand both the people who created the content and the people who consumed it. A typical content analysis project does not require elaborate experiments. Instead, it simply requires access to the appropriate media to analyze, making this type of research an easier and inexpensive alternative to other forms of research involving complex surveys or human subjects.

Content analysis studies require researchers to define what types of media to study. For example, researchers studying violence in the media would need to decide which types of media to analyze, such as television, and the types of formats to examine, such as children’s cartoons. The researchers would then need to define the terms used in the study; media violence can be classified according to the characters involved in the violence (strangers, family members, or racial groups), the type of violence (self-inflicted, slapstick, or against others), or the context of the violence (revenge, random, or duty-related). These are just a few of the ways that media violence could be studied with content-analysis techniques.Arthur Asa Berger, Media Research Techniques (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1998), 23–24.

Archival Research

Any study that analyzes older media must employ archival research, which is a type of research that focuses on reviewing historical documents such as old newspapers and past publications. Old local newspapers are often available on microfilm at local libraries or at the newspaper offices. University libraries generally provide access to archives of national publications such as The New York Times or Time ; publications can also increasingly be found in online databases or on websites.

Older radio programs are available for free or by paid download through a number of online sources. Many television programs and films have also been made available for free download, or for rent or sale through online distributors. Performing an online search for a particular title will reveal the options available.

Resources such as the Internet Archive (www.archive.org) work to archive a number of media sources. One important role of the Internet Archive is website archiving. Internet archives are invaluable for a study of online media because they store websites that have been deleted or changed. These archives have made it possible for Internet content analyses that would have otherwise been impossible.

Surveys are ubiquitous in modern life. Questionaires record data on anything from political preferences to personal hygiene habits. Media surveys generally take one of the following two forms.

A descriptive survey aims to find the current state of things, such as public opinion or consumer preferences. In media, descriptive surveys establish television and radio ratings by finding the number of people who watch or listen to particular programs. An analytical survey, however, does more than simply document a current situation. Instead, it attempts to find out why a particular situation exists. Researchers pose questions or hypotheses about media and then conduct analytical surveys to answer these questions. Analytical surveys can determine the relationship between different forms of media consumption and the lifestyles and habits of media consumers.

Surveys can employ either open-ended or closed-ended questions. Open-ended questions require the participant to generate answers in their own words, while closed-ended questions force the participant to select an answer from a list. Although open-ended questions allow for a greater variety of answers, the results of closed-ended questions are easier to tabulate. Although surveys are useful in media studies, effective use requires keeping their limitations in mind.

Social Role Analysis

As part of child rearing, parents teach their children about social roles. When parents prepare children to attend school for example, they explain the basics of school rules and what is expected of a student to help the youngsters understand the role of students. Like the role of a character in a play, this role carries specific expectations that differentiate school from home. Adults often play a number of different roles as they navigate between their responsibilities as parents, employees, friends, and citizens. Any individual may play a number of roles depending on his or her specific life choices.

Social role analysis of the media involves examining various individuals in the media and analyzing the type of role that each plays. Role analysis research can consider the roles of men, women, children, members of a racial minority, or members any other social group in specific types of media. For example, if the role children play in cartoons is consistently different from the role they play in sitcoms, then certain conclusions might be drawn about both of these formats. Analyzing roles used in media allows researchers to gain a better understanding of the messages that the mass media sends.Arthur Asa Berger, Media Research Techniques (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1998), 45–48.

Depth Interviews

The depth interview is an anthropological research tool that is also useful in media studies. Depth interviews take surveys one step further by allowing researchers to directly ask a study participant specific questions to gain a fuller understanding of the participant’s perceptions and experiences. Depth interviews have been used in research projects that follow newspaper reporters to find out their reasons for reporting certain stories and in projects that attempt to understand the motivations for reading romance novels. Depth interviews can provide a deeper understanding of the media consumption habits of particular groups of people.Susanna Hornig Priest, Doing Media Research: An Introduction (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2010), 16–22.

Rhetorical Analysis

Rhetorical analysis involves examining the “styles” used in media and attempting to understand the kinds of messages those styles convey. Media styles refer to form, presentation, composition, use of metaphors, and reasoning structure. Rhetorical analysis reveals the messages not apparent in a strict reading of content. Studies involving rhetorical analysis have focused on media such as advertising to better understand the roles of style and rhetorical devices in media messages.Barrie Gunter, Media Research Methods: Measuring Audiences, Reactions and Impact (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2000), 89.

Focus Groups

Like depth interviews, focus groups allow researchers to better understand public responses to media. Unlike a depth interview, however, a focus group allows the participants to establish a group dynamic that more closely resembles that of normal media consumption. In media studies, researchers can employ focus groups to judge the reactions of a group to specific media styles and to content. This can be a valuable means of understanding the reasons for consuming specific types of media.

Experiments

Media research studies also sometimes use controlled experiments that expose a test group to an experience involving media and measure the effects of that experience. Researchers then compare these measurements to those of a control group that had key elements of the experience removed. For example, reseachers may show one group of children a program with three incidents of cartoon violence and another control group of similar children the same program without the violent incidents. Researchers then ask the children from both groups the same sets of questions, and the results are compared.

Participant Observation

In participant observation, researchers try to become part of the group they are studying. Although this technique is typically associated with anthropological studies in which a researcher lives with members of a particular culture to gain a deeper understanding of their values and lives, it is also used in media research.

Media consumption often takes place in groups. Families or friends gather to watch favorite programs, children may watch Saturday morning cartoons with a group of their peers, and adults may host viewing parties for televised sporting events or awards shows. These groups reveal insights into the role of media in the lives of the public. A researcher might join a group that watches football together and stay with the group for an entire season. By becoming a part of the group, the researcher becomes part of the experiment and can reveal important influences of media on culture.Susanna Hornig Priest, Doing Media Research: An Introduction (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2010), 96–98.

Researchers have studied online role-playing games, such as World of Warcraft , in this manner. These games reveal an interesting aspect of group dynamics: Although participants are not in physical proximity, they function as a group within the game. Researchers are able to study these games by playing them. In the book Digital Culture, Play, and Identity: A World of Warcraft Reader , a group of researchers discussed the results of their participant observation studies. The studies reveal the surprising depth of culture and unwritten rules that exist in the World of Warcraft universe and give important interpretations of why players pursue the game with such dedication.Hilde Corneliussen and Jill Walker Rettberg, “Introduction: ‘Orc ProfessorLFG,’ or Researching in Azeroth,” in Digital Culture, Play, and Identity: A World of Warcraft Reader , ed. Hilde Corneliussen and Jill Walker Rettberg (Cambridge, MA: Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 2008), 6–7.

Key Takeaways

• Media research methods are the practical procedures for carrying out a research project. These methods include content analysis, surveys, focus groups, experiments, and participant observation.
• Research methods generally involve either test subjects or analysis of media. Methods involving test subjects include surveys, depth interviews, focus groups, and experiments. Analysis of media can include content, style, format, social roles, and archival analysis.

Exercise \(\PageIndex{1}\)

Media research methods offer a variety of procedures for performing a media study. Each of these methods varies in cost; thus, a project with a lower budget would be prohibited from using some of the more costly methods. Consider a project on teen violence and video game use. Then answer the following short-response questions. Each response should be a minimum of one paragraph.

• Which methods would a research organization with a low budget favor for this project? Why?
• How might the results of the project differ from those of one with a higher budget?

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• Communication Research Methods II: A Sourcebook An updated version of the "bible" of how to do research in communication and media studies.
• Handbook of Media and Communication Research: Qualitative and Quantitative Methodologies A great overview of both qualitative and quantitative approaches to content analysis and media studies research.
• Qualitative Media Analysis The authors of this work show readers how to obtain, categorize, and analyze different media documents. They look at traditional primary documents such as newspapers and magazines but also at more recent forms–television newscasts and cyberspace.
• Mass Communications Research Methods Originally published in 1988. Step-by-step, this book leads students from problem identification, through the mazes of surveys, experimentation, historical/qualitative studies, statistical analysis, and computer data processing to the final submission and publication in scientific or popular publications.
• Communication Research Methods in Postmodern Culture: A Revisionist Approach The second edition of Communication Research Methods in Postmodern Culture continues to explore research from a postmodern perspective. Typical qualitative and quantitative research methods are adjusted to fit the needs of contemporary culture.
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Media Studies

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Media studies is an interdisciplinary field that examines the role of media in society, culture, and politics. It involves the critical analysis of various forms of media such as television, film, social media, newspapers, and radio. This is a relatively new field, having emerged in the 1960s and 1970s. This was in response to the growing influence of mass media on society.

Media studies typically explores topics such as media production, representation, reception, and the impact of media on society. It examines how media messages are constructed and how they are interpreted by audiences. Also, how it affects social norms and values. The field also considers the economic and political factors that influence media production and distribution.

Media studies is an interdisciplinary field that draws on a range of theoretical perspectives. These include cultural studies, sociology, anthropology, psychology, and political science. It uses both qualitative and quantitative research methods to examine media content, audiences, and effects.

Media studies is an important field because it helps us to understand the media’s role in shaping public opinion. It allows us to critically analyse media messages and to become more media literate. By studying media, we can better understand how media industries operate and how they influence our lives.

Some of the key issues that media studies explore include media ownership and concentration. Also considered are representations and stereotyping, as well as the impact of media on democracy. Media’s increasing integration into our daily lives ensures the continued importance of this area of study.

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Social Cognitive Theory | Observing Human Behavior

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Albert Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) examines how individuals learn and behave, emphasising the interplay between personal factors, environmental influences, and actions. Focused on its observational learning, SCT offers us valuable insights into human behavior across various contexts and applications.

Media Bias | Balancing Ethics in Journalism & Reporting

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Media, a powerful influencer of public opinion, sparks questions about objectivity due to Media Bias; systematic favouritism or prejudice in information dissemination. This article explores the implications of Media Bias, emphasising the importance of critical engagement with information for consumers.

Political Economy Theory | The Interplay of Politics & Media

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Political Economy Theory is integral in understanding the intricate connections among politics, economics, and media in the Media and Communications field. It explores its core concepts, historical origins, and vital significance within the contemporary media landscape, offering a comprehensive perspective.

Postmodernism Theory | The Complex Nature of Modern Media

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Postmodernism Theory holds considerable significance in Media and Communications. The theory challenges conventional perspectives, ushering in a new way of understanding the world. This article delves into the intricacies of Postmodernism Theory and explores its impact on Media and Communication.

Two-Step Flow of Communication | Decoding Media Influence

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In Media and Communications, a crucial focus lies in comprehending the mechanisms of information propagation. The Two-Step Flow of Communication, termed by Paul Lazarsfeld in the mid-20th century, challenges traditional notions of direct media impact, offering insights into nuanced dissemination.

Media Dependency Theory | Understanding Webs of Influence

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Media Dependency Theory suggest that individuals rely on media for information, entertainment, and social interaction, creating a symbiotic connection. It explores media’s role as a primary information source, impacting public opinion and shaping perceptions. This article further explores this theory.

Third Person Effect Theory | The Media’s Impact on Beliefs

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The Third Person Effect Theory explores how individuals believe media affects others more than themselves. In the digital age, understanding media’s impact on this is crucial. This article delves into the theory’s origins, principles, and implications in Media and Communications.

Priming Theory | How Media Shapes Perception & Behavior

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Priming Theory is a key and important concept in psychology, and also has significant relevance in Media and Communications. The theory explains how prior exposure to stimuli can subtly impact subsequent perceptions and behaviors by pre-activating mental constructs or biases.

Framing Theory | Unveiling the Power of Media Perception

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Framing is a important concept in Media. It moulds our perception and understanding of the world. Beyond visuals and words, Framing Theory encompasses their presentation, highlighting some elements while diminishing others. This article explores Framing and its importance in media.

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MRA Guide to the Top 16 Social Media Research Questions

MRA and IMRO published this  simple guide to Social Media Research  (SMR) in 2010 in order to help researchers identify and find answers to the most important questions to SMR techniques.

Introduction Social networks engulf everyday life. They represent a place to share news, ideas, and information of all kinds. The connections made among people in these networks, and the resulting information shared, can have a profound effect on the thoughts, attitudes, and beliefs of individuals. Moreover, even the flow of information itself can be a powerful predictor of key business and program outcomes.

Recognizing the power of social networks, opinion researchers have increasingly begun to take advantage of social media to answer critical business questions. In doing so, the research profession has invented new tools and methods to supplement an already impressive array of techniques. The Marketing Research Association (MRA) has developed this guide in order to describe the current landscape of social media research as well as to facilitate and advance further development of the technique. Ultimately, it is the goal of the Association and its members to foster universally accepted and practiced standards and best practices for these and other research methods.

What is Social Media?

There are many definitions of social media but, at its core, social media uses Internet-based technologies that facilitate the creation and exchange of user-generated content. Social media refers to Web sites that permit people to interact with the site and with each other using simple interfaces. At the time of publication, Facebook, qq.com, Twitter and YouTube are among the most popular social media sites.

Social media refers to the information that people share on those sites, including status updates, image and video comments, responses to blogs and forums, and any other individual contributions to the online space. This information reflects naturally occurring conversations among people who may or may not personally know each other.

What is Social Media Research?

Though evolving rapidly, social media research (SMR) is the application of marketing and opinion research methods to social media data for the purposes of conducting research (e.g., usage and attitude studies, social media research tracking studies, custom research, etc.). Similar to other types of marketing research usage and attitude studies, tracking studies, research goals and objectives are developed, methodologies are prepared, and social media data are analyzed quantitatively and/or qualitatively depending on the goals of the project.

SMR is distinct from other forms of marketing research in that it uses social media as its data source as opposed to surveys, focus groups and other data collection modes and techniques. SMR can be a complementary or stand-alone analytical tool for researchers, providing them with a unique opportunity to listen and measure the opinions of potentionally vast numbers of people who communicate online, some of whom may not normally or easily be accessible through non-observational forms of research.

About the Authors MRA is grateful to the following for their contributions to this Guide to the Top 16 Social Media Research Questions: Jim Longo, PRC, Itracks, Committee Chair; Janet Savoie, PRC, Online Survey Solution; Annie Pettit, Conversition Strategies; Ray Poynter, The Future Place; Ellie Schwartz; Ed Sugar, PRC, OLC Global; Tamara Barber, Forrester Research; Tamara Kenworthy, PRC, On Point Strategies; Steven Runfeldt, Schwartz Consulting; Benjamin Smithee, Spych Market Analytics; Aaron Hill, PRC, Sawtooth Software; Susan Saurage-Altenloh, PRC; Steffen Hück, HVYE; and Patrick Glaser, MRA.

THE ROLE OF SOCIAL MEDIA RESEARCH

#1. what are the advantages and disadvantages of smr.

From a capacity standpoint, SMR provides the ability to collect and analyze information from the past as well as in real-time, as it is generated. Moreover, the richness of data available on social media networks is conducive to both qualitative designs (e.g., digital ethnographies) as well as quantitative designs, including numerical aggregation of large quantities of data.

In terms of methodological considerations, SMR utilizes an observational form of data collection. Information is collected from Web sites as posted by individuals who may not be specifically aware of the research role. As such, social media communications are thought to be free of, or less subject to, response biases that occurs in interviewer-administered, and even self-administered, forms of opinion surveys and focus groups. However, social media is inherently a public form of communication, with varying degrees of privacy which may affect some social media users’ willingness to reveal information, particularly sensitive or potentially embarrassing personal details.

From an ethical standpoint, SMR has the additional advantage of eliminating the burden that would otherwise be placed on a research participant. Social media users do not participate in “active” data collection (e.g., survey, focus group). They generate data simply by engaging in their natural online communications. However, SMR presents unique ethical considerations of which researchers must be aware (see “Ethical and Legal Issues”).

SMR offers researchers a host of benefits, a few of which include:

• Ease of adjusting research criteria throughout the study
• Potential cost savings and reduced logistical burden
• Ease of application across locations
• Access to hard-to-reach research participants
• Benchmarking (e.g., reported vs. observed opinions)

Likewise, researchers should be aware of various challenges associated with SMR. For example, researchers who are new to SMR methods will need to familiarize themselves with both the characteristics of social media users as well as specific SM sites in order to properly draw conclusions about research findings. Additional considerations include the need to learn and become proficient with:

• SM tools and techniques including sentiment and content analysis
• Indicators of SMR validity and reliability at each stage of the process
• Relevant types of biases, particularly those arising from unique SMR tools
• The types of brands and categories that are more likely to be successful carrying out SMR, e.g., due to volume of data or consumer importance

#2. What data sources are typically used in SMR?

Millions of Web sites (small and large) currently facilitate the practice of social media research. However, online sites, which currently facilitate social media communications come and go, and change very rapidly. Researchers involved in SMR need to stay abreast of changes in social media communication patterns and trends, including the rise of mobile access, and popular SM vehicles. Current examples of SM Web sites that generate data suitable for SMR include:

• Social Networking Sites:Social News: e.g., Digg, Reddit, Mashable, Technorati  Facebook: Search, Community Pages, Fan Pages, Groups, Chat, Facebook-based  Apps

        Twitter: Location-based Application, Real-time Search, Advanced Search                             (search.twitter.com)

        LinkedIn: Search, Groups, Q&A

• Photo/Video Sharing: e.g., YouTube, Flickr
• Online Communities: Industry, Topic-related, Branded or Unbranded
• Blogs: e.g., Blogger, Posterous, Wordpress
• Forums: Industry or Topic-related
• Questions and Answers: e.g., Yahoo Answers, Linkedin Answers, Yedda
• Commenting: e.g., Disqus, Backtype
• Traditional News: e.g., CNN, BusinessWeek

#3. How does SMR interact with other forms of traditional and non-traditional research, including online, offline, in-person, and qualitative and quantitative?

SMR can effectively stand on its own, but may also be integrated with traditional research methods to create a holistic research solution. In fact, SMR may sometimes springboard or support other forms of traditional research. Examples of SMR integration with other research methods include:

• Observing the flow of conversation in real time, thus prompting the most effective methodology for further research
• Accessing user supplied media such as photos and video
• Measuring trending topics for further “traditional” research
• Assisting in the preparation of discussion guides or surveys
• Identifying key influencers in an industry or on a topic
• Reaching a segment of the population that may not otherwise be reachable
• Comparing community-based insights to natural observational social media insights
• Establishing trust between researcher and participant, potentially for further recruitment into another form of research
• Exploring, and discovering “unknowns” via observations

#4. How reliable are SMR results?

Validity refers to the degree to which results reflect truth or reality while reliability reflects the degree to which results can be replicated if someone else were to conduct a similar study. Because research suppliers have different methods, standards of quality, and processing rules, research consumers must conduct their own validity and reliability analysis of any potential supplier to ensure the quality of work is sufficient. As with all types of marketing research, the validity and reliability of social media research varies greatly:

What is the validity and reliability of the sentiment and/or content analysis processes? If manual coders are used, reliability might be lower. If automated coders are used, validity might be lower.

• Given that sentiment differs by Web site (e.g., Twitter is more negative while blogs are more positive), what is the range of social media venues that are measured and what percentage of the Internet population do they represent? Do any of the sites overwhelm the data collection strategy in a proportion that does not reflect the Internet space? Does the vendor know how and why to sample and weight data?
• To what extent is the intended target group reflected by the social media venues being used?
• Is the intention to measure and generalize to the general Internet population or to a particular segment of the Internet?
• How is geographic and demographic information being measured in order to assess the validity of generalizing outside of the sample?
• What timeframe is appropriate for the research objectives? Though small samples may be acceptable for long-term research, shorter time frames must use larger sample sizes.

#5. Within businesses and organizations, how will SMR activities be tracked and aggregated, and whose responsibility is it to handle each of those functions?

Social media research may be executed in multiple ways. For example, numerous departments within a single company may be involved in SMR, including internal research departments, and cross-functional teams from marketing, customer relationship management, public relations, public affairs, and other departments. SMR may also be outsourced to vendors who may or may not specialize in research. Regardless, the skill set of the user must be appropriate for the function.

#6. What additional knowledge, skills, and abilities will a corporate researcher need to learn in order to improve their level of competency with SMR?

SMR may involve several different methods and analytical approaches. As such, corporate researchers may find it most advantageous to learn a wide breadth of relevant techniques while continually honing their skills and knowledge in the areas that are most relevant to their organization. Commonly used techniques include both sentiment analysis and content analysis. Additionally, researchers will need to learn about, and become comfortable with, important explanatory variables beyond traditional “respondent” demographics, such as how different types of Web sites (e.g., blogs, forums, media, etc.) generate and facilitate different types of data (e.g., whether data is more positive versus negative, descriptive versus condensed, etc.).

#7. Are the participants aware that their usergenerated content is under observation?

Research contributors have demonstrated the occasional tendency to provide sub-optimal information when they are aware that others are studying or observing them. Oftentimes, this is attributable to concerns over the privacy of sensitive information or feelings of being compelled to give a socially-desirable response to a question. In SMR, though it commonly is understood that conversations are generally public and open to viewing by almost anyone, the individual under observation may or may not be aware of the presence of a researcher.

At the same time, participation in the social media space offers varying degrees of privacy. Users may participate for personal and/or professional reasons and they may or not seek relationships with other users. Researchers should be aware of the potential and likelihood for “social observational bias” and the effect it will have on the type, candor and direction of the user’s comments.

Ethical and Legal Issues

#8. how are sources cited in research reports and on research web portals are the citations different based on the source, e.g., twitter, blogger, forums.

As in traditional forms of research, it is important to protect the privacy of contributors. As such, without prior express consent, data transmitted from vendor to client should not include direct references or citations to individuals that would reveal their identity.

However, sources may be recorded for validation purposes as well as for potential data quality checks. Any data or reporting intended for transfer to an outside entity should be purged of personally identifiable information (PII) prior to changing-hands. This includes IP addresses, usernames, user id numbers, user photos, e-mail addresses, and other types of commonly available online data.

Where detailed information must be shared for the purposes of data quality or validation, the data should include source citations using the current link of the information (e.g., http:// twitter.com/xxxx/xxxx/). Notably, links should be expected to expire or become “broken” overtime. Researchers should plan to record any pertinent administrative or relevant source data (e.g., date/time, source identifier, query details, etc.) to be used in validation at the time of data collection.

#9. What are the controversies and legal issues regarding the rights of the people whose data is being used?

Social media is a relatively new form of communication and individuals from every stakeholder group, including the public, researchers and governments, are participating in an on-going conversation about the nature of its privacy and ethics. For this reason, it’s critical for researchers to understand that they have a responsibility to respect social media user’s privacy and that the definition and expectations for social media user’s privacy can and will change over time. Some brief areas of consideration are described below.

Privacy: Individuals and their social media privacy expectations should be respected. If an individual has posted information on a public Web site under a public “privacy” setting, they may be considered to have a very low or no expectation of privacy for the information they reveal. Even so, researchers who collect and analyze this information should take care to protect it from becoming identifiable to an individual.

Conversations should not be copied verbatim into reports as those direct quotes can be searched and identities discovered. A small number of relevant conversations can be summarized, without losing their flavor, in reports. Moreover, full quotations can be used with permission.

Interacting with individuals: Clients must never use information collected during or for social media research for the purpose of direct marketing or otherwise influencing the opinions and behaviors of the data subject. Marketing may only occur in places like branded and client communities where contributors would naturally expect those types of conversations to take place.

Combining data from multiple sources where privacy policies differ: In general, the policy provisions that tend to favor the rights and needs of the contributors should be given weight. Best practices call for researchers to respect the coded crawling terms of every Web site they visit. Where Web sites are coded to indicate that crawling is not permitted, those Web sites should not be crawled even if it is technically possible. Researchers must not join Web sites under the pretense of being a member so that they then have access to crawl a Web site that prohibits such crawling otherwise – this condition holds for both automated and manual crawling. Where researchers do join groups, they must immediately make it explicit that they are there for the purposes of marketing research. Notably, issues concerning access to data sources are paramount to the conduct of social media research and can be expected to be a major focus of the opinion research industry moving forward, both in terms of how to ethically gain access to the widest net of sources as well as appropriate ways to handle and adjust for cases where this is not possible.

SM Research Processes & Providers

#10. what is the level of expertise and industry qualifications of social media researchers and/or smr companies.

Anyone selecting a social media research vendor must be aware that the technique is relatively new. They must be careful to select a research partner with the appropriate level of expertise and skill in the practice of SMR. Some relevant questions to ask include:

• Is the company primarily an IT or social media company that expanded into research, or a research company that expanded into social media? While IT and social media companies may have expertise in social media, crawling and data collection techniques, research companies have expertise in data analysis techniques.
• Does the company focus on research exclusively or do they maintain other functions as well? For example, companies that conduct SMR may specialize in buzz monitoring, customer relationship management, public relations, research, or some other social media function.
• Does the company specialize in qualitative methods, quantitative methods, or a combination of both?
• Is the provider aware of traditional research practices such as sampling and weighting and, if so, how and when do they apply those practices?
• For the practice of ethics and standards of quality, does the provider classify themselves as a researcher or as some other profession?

#11. What are the standard data and/or research outputs?

Since SMR is relatively new, industry standards for outputs have not yet been developed. It is important to understand the vendor’s policies and capacities for standard and custom reporting. Relevant questions include:

• Does the company offer a full-service model of data collection, analysis and presentation or do they offer a self-service tool such as a portal?
• In cases where the vendor offers full-service reporting and presentation, what substantive outputs may be expected? What technical explanation and reporting may be expected (e.g., a technical appendix)?
• Are the SMR analyses incorporated with traditional types of marketing research and does the company have expertise doing so?
• Does the provider offer standardized or customized tools?
• How often are outputs updated and/or delivered?

#12. What is the process for gathering data?

Like other forms of opinion research, a wide variety of approaches exist for the implementation of SMR. It is important to understand the company policies undertaken. Relevant questions include:

• Does the company gather its own data or is a data collection vendor used?
• How many Web sites are crawled and how are those Web sites selected?
• Does the company seek out permission-based relationships with the sites they crawl?
• Does the company honor the electronic privacy notifications of individual Web sites?

#13. What data quality processes are implemented in each stage of the SMR?

What quality and validation protocols have been adopted and implemented to safeguard the quality of the research at each stage of the process? Are there validation processes in place for initial data collection, scoring and coding, etc.? Does the organization collect and retain information at the initial stages for validation purposes while removing/anonymizing data for reporting purposes?

#14. Does the company provide sentiment scoring?

Sentiment scoring is a process of assigning a positive or negative emotion to a conversation. Some vendors may provide strictly positive or negative emotions, while others may assign a continuum ranging from positive to neutral, to negative. If the vendor provides sentiment scoring, is the process an internal proprietary method, a third party purchased product, or some combination of the two? How is the sentiment scored (e.g., dictionary, bayesian, manually)?

#15. If sentiment scoring is provided, what is the process for validating results?

Simple and commonly-used systems of sentiment validation may prove to be inadequate. More rigorous approaches should be used, specifically blinded methods. For example:

For automated systems, researchers should receive a list of uncoded conversations and then code them manually. The manual codes should then be matched back and compared to the automated codes to derive a percentage match (i.e., validation coefficient).

For manual systems, two unique raters should independently code conversations. A validation coefficient may be derived from a comparison of the two outputs.

The above processes are two relatively simple examples of validation systems. More complicated calculations are available, but their use should be weighed according to the capacity of stakeholders to understand the meaning and method of the technique.

Language constantly changes and evolves due to new and lapsed slang, terminology, and speech patterns. As such, simple systems of sentiment validation may prove to be inadequate. When conducting SMR, rigorous and constantly monitored approaches to sentiment analysis are most appropriate.

#16. What, if any, methods are used for determining the geography associated with the data?

Demographic and geographic information can often be an important and meaningful element for research and validation purposes. When considering SMR, what geographic information is available and how precise is the information (e.g., city or town, region, country, unknown)? What types of demographic data are available (e.g., age, gender, income, education)?

Researchers must take care to specify the methodology and sample size associated with the information. Inferred methods (based on Web site sources or language) may be associated with large sample sizes but have low validity. On the other hand, precise information is currently only available for an extremely tiny percentage of conversations and therefore often has insufficient generalizability.

The “Top 16 Questions” presented in this guide represent the core matters of importance to the research field with respect to social media research. They include issues of reliability, execution, interaction with other kinds of research, ethics and legal compliance, data quality, process, and outputs.

Importantly, the 16 questions in this document do not stand as the only ones the opinion research profession needs to address, nor do they take the place of standards of practice. Instead, they provide a starting point for experts and professionals to debate and discuss development toward this goal. As in any profession, a reasonable consensus should be reached in order to validly define and represent an industry standard of best practice. It is the goal of the Marketing Research Association that this document be widely distributed and contribute as such.

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Home » Blog » Dissertation » Topics » Studies » 80 Media Studies Research Topics

80 Media Studies Research Topics

FacebookXEmailWhatsAppRedditPinterestLinkedInAre you a student embarking on the exciting journey of selecting research topics for your Media Studies thesis or dissertation? Look no further; we’re here to guide you through the maze of possibilities in this dynamic field. Media Studies is a multifaceted discipline that explores the ever-evolving landscape of communication, technology, and culture. In this […]

Are you a student embarking on the exciting journey of selecting research topics for your Media Studies thesis or dissertation? Look no further; we’re here to guide you through the maze of possibilities in this dynamic field. Media Studies is a multifaceted discipline that explores the ever-evolving landscape of communication, technology, and culture. In this blog post, we will delve into a diverse range of research topics tailored to undergraduate, master’s, and doctoral levels, ensuring that you find the perfect subject to spark your academic curiosity and contribute to the ever-expanding body of media research.

Media Studies, also called “Communication Studies” and “Mass Communication,” is the academic discipline that critically examines the production, distribution, and impact of various media forms, such as television, film, print, and digital media, on society and culture.

A List Of Potential Research Topics In Media Studies:

• Exploring the impact of virtual influencers on the fashion industry.
• Analyzing the representation of disability in mainstream media and its societal impact.
• Investigating the portrayal of mental health in graphic novels and comics.
• Analyzing the ethics of personalized advertising and data collection.
• Assessing the role of virtual influencers in contemporary marketing strategies.
• Assessing the impact of pandemic-induced disruptions on media production and distribution processes.
• Investigating the portrayal of minority groups in UK media and its implications for social cohesion post-COVID.
• Analyzing the representation of race and ethnicity in video games and its implications.
• Analyzing the representation of indigenous cultures in film and television.
• Assessing the influence of media framing on public perception of immigration issues.
• Analyzing the evolution of online fan communities and their impact on media content.
• Exploring the influence of digital media on European identity in the 21st century.
• Analyzing the impact of digital media consumption patterns on mental health during the post-COVID era.
• Studying the representation of healthcare workers and essential service providers in UK media post-pandemic.
• Investigating the role of misinformation in shaping public perceptions and behaviors during the COVID-19 pandemic.
• Analyzing the representation of gender in video game character design.
• Exploring the intersection of media and surveillance in the digital era.
• Examining the effects of mobile advertising on consumer purchasing behavior.
• Examining the ethics of data privacy in online advertising and user tracking.
• Investigating the representation of indigenous cultures in advertising campaigns.
• Assessing the impact of augmented reality on advertising strategies.
• Exploring the ethical implications of deepfake technology in media production.
• Studying the long-term effects of COVID-19-related media coverage on public trust in journalism and news outlets.
• Examining the emergence of new media platforms and their influence on news consumption after the pandemic.
• Exploring the impact of virtual reality on tourism marketing.
• Investigating the influence of deepfake technology on celebrity culture.
• Assessing the evolving landscape of remote learning through digital media in the aftermath of COVID-19.
• Examining the effects of virtual reality on documentary filmmaking.
• Analyzing the role of the BBC in providing accurate information and countering misinformation during the pandemic.
• Examining the influence of streaming platforms on traditional cable television viewership.
• Examining the portrayal of disability in online storytelling platforms.
• Analyzing the ethics of sponsored content and influencer marketing.
• Assessing the influence of social media on travel and tourism trends.
• Exploring the impact of fake news and misinformation on public perception.
• Exploring the role of online gaming communities in shaping identity and social interactions.
• Assessing the influence of social media activism on corporate responsibility.
• Evaluating the role of social media influencers in disseminating public health information during and after the pandemic.
• Analyzing the impact of podcasting on traditional radio broadcasting.
• Examining the role of citizen journalism in shaping public opinion and news dissemination.
• Analyzing the role of British tabloid media in public opinion formation and policy decisions in the wake of COVID-19.
• Investigating the role of user-generated content in online brand reputation.
• Analyzing the influence of online dating apps on modern romance and relationships.
• Exploring the changes in media consumption habits and content preferences among different demographic groups post-COVID.
• Investigating the portrayal of artificial intelligence in science fiction films.
• Assessing the effectiveness of virtual reality in immersive journalism experiences.
• Exploring the impact of mobile technology on news consumption habits.
• A comparative analysis of media regulation policies across different countries.
• Assessing the influence of celebrity endorsements on consumer behavior.
• Assessing the role of nostalgia in music marketing and music videos.
• Investigating the influence of British media on public compliance with public health guidelines during COVID-19.
• Assessing the influence of nostalgia marketing on consumer purchasing decisions.
• Assessing the impact of Brexit on the UK media landscape and its global representation during COVID-19.
• Investigating the portrayal of immigration and refugees in media narratives.
• Exploring the impact of live streaming on the gaming industry.
• Analyzing the economic impact of cultural productions in media studies.
• A historical review of the evolution of media technology and its impact on society.
• Investigating the role of algorithmic recommendation systems in shaping online user behavior.
• Assessing the role of media in shaping perceptions of law enforcement.
• Examining the effects of cultural appropriation in media content.
• Analyzing the role of satire in political commentary and media influence.
• Evaluating the role of British media in shaping public perceptions and government responses during the COVID-19 crisis.
• Investigating the influence of social media influencers on consumer behavior.
• Investigating the effects of binge-watching on mental health and well-being.
• Investigating the use of augmented reality (AR) and virtual reality (VR) technologies in media storytelling post-COVID.
• Examining the effectiveness of government communication strategies through UK media channels during the pandemic.
• Assessing the economic challenges faced by UK media outlets and their sustainability strategies post-COVID.
• Investigating the influence of digital media on body image and self-esteem.
• Investigating the portrayal of mental health in popular films and its societal effects.
• Investigating the portrayal of climate change in documentary filmmaking.
• Analyzing the role of media in shaping public perception of public health crises.
• Assessing the role of humor and satire in late-night talk shows.
• Analyzing the challenges and opportunities for independent media outlets in a post-COVID media ecosystem.
• Analyzing the impact of social media on political discourse and polarization in the digital age.
• Assessing the role of media in shaping public attitudes towards climate change.
• Analyzing the influence of UK media ownership structures on news content and diversity in the post-pandemic era.
• Investigating the role of nostalgia in marketing and media content.
• Analyzing the representation of disability in advertising campaigns.
• Investigating the portrayal of aging and elderly individuals in the media.
• Examining the effects of live-streamed events on audience engagement.
• Investigating the effects of nostalgia-driven marketing on consumer loyalty.

In conclusion, Media Studies offers an expansive canvas for academic exploration, and we’ve provided you with a treasure trove of research topics for your undergraduate, master’s, or doctoral dissertations. From analyzing the influence of social media on political discourse to examining the role of traditional media in shaping public opinion, these topics span the spectrum of media-related inquiries. As you embark on your research journey, remember that the field of Media Studies is ever-evolving, and your contribution to the research landscape is invaluable. So, choose a topic that resonates with your passion and curiosity, and embark on the path to becoming a pioneer in media research.

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• A Research Guide
• Research Paper Topics

40 Media and Communications Research Paper Topics

• What is communication? The birth of the media as we know it
• Media, Censorship and Propaganda
• The freedom of speech and its impact on the media
• The main aspects of communication
• The triggering topics. What do you need to start an instant “holywar” in media?
• The phenomenon of hype and its usage of the media
• Single bloggers versus media companies
• Communication and media psychology
• The history of advertising and its important in the modern business
• The popular culture in the media
• Video games. Can they be considered a media now?
• Violence and controversial topics. Shall the media censor it out?
• The peculiarities of children media
• Are the videoblogs the new diaries?
• Mainstream media versus arthouse
• What is the age of post-truth in the media?
• Social networks as the main way of communication in the modern world
• Why exclusive material is so important in the media?
• Fandom and fanfiction in the media
• Mass Communication Laws in different countries
• Media and disasters: enhancing panic or preventing it?
• Terrorism in the media
• Changes in the media during the wartime
• Journalism ethics: what is it?
• International journalism
• Journalists on the battlefield
• Media policy and regulation in different countries
• How did the Internet influence media development?
• Media: reacting to the events or creating them?
• Virtual reality: may it be the future of the media?
• Media downshifting: why do people revert to newspapers again?
• Social media marketing campaigns
• Media, politics and public relations
• The styles and types of media. How they differ depending on the audience they are aiming for?
• The phenomenon of Disney. Media or the new mythology?
• Scientific journalism: shall science be popular?
• Media for educational purpose
• Radio media: why radio is still popular?
• Hidden messages in the media made for entertainment
• Media images of the representatives of different countries

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100 Best Media Topics For Research Writing

We know you need the best media topics for your next papers. Otherwise, why would you be reading this blog post? The good news is that you have picked the best place to look for topics. Our experienced writers have put together a list of the best media topics for high school and college students. Furthermore, we work hard to keep the list fresh. This means that these ideas will be most likely original. They will work great in 2023 because the list of media essay topics is updated periodically.

The Importance of Great Media Topics

You are probably wondering why we are putting so much emphasis on getting you the best media topics to write about. There are several reasons for it, but we will only tell you about 3 of them:

• Your professor will greatly appreciate your willingness to dedicate the time and effort to finding excellent topics . Trust us, professors know how to make the difference between students based solely on the topics they choose for their papers.
• It is much easier to write essays if you choose good media essays topics . A topic you know something about is the best choice. Also, a good topic enables you to quickly find plenty of information on the Internet. Following this advice you’ll easily write your literature review and the following components of your paper.
• By choosing a great topic, your essay will immediately stand out from all the rest . Your professor is surely bored of reading papers written about the same things over and over again. An interesting idea will entice him to award you at least some bonus points.

Mass Media Topics

Mass media is something of great importance in modern times, so why not write your papers on some mass media topics? Here are some great examples:

• The effect of mass media on psychological health
• Mass media and emotional health
• Mass media addiction in the US
• The role of mass media in politics
• The First Amendment in mass media
• Promoting sexuality in mass media

Media Research Topics

Did your professor ask of you to write a research paper? No problem, we have some excellent media research topics in our list. Check them out below:

• Discuss children media
• Violence in mass media in the US
• Video games in the media
• Controversial topics in the media in Europe
• Discuss post-truth in the media
• Media regulations in China

Media Analysis Essay Topics for Presentation

Would you like to write a media analysis paper for a presentation? It’s not difficult to do, if you pick the right media analysis essay topics for presentation. Here are some excellent ideas:

• Is the media creating events or reacting to them?
• Media and public relations links
• Discuss 3 major types of media
• The use of media in education (one of the most interesting mass media research paper topics)
• Influence of virtual reality on the media (one of the best media analysis essay topics)
• Discuss journalism ethics

Media Research Paper Topics for High School

Are you a high school student looking for some awesome topic for his next research paper on media? Here are some excellent examples of media research paper topics for high school:

• Major innovations in 21st century media
• Compare mainstream media in India and China
• What makes an outlet a reliable source?
• Advertisements in media
• Benefits of mass media for society
• Compare traditional media with mass media

Mass Media Research Topics

If you need to write a research paper and want to talk about something in mass media, we have some very nice ideas right here. Check out our mass media research topics:

• The right of expression in mass media
• Journalism in mass media
• Compare TV, film and radio
• Mass media in democracy
• The war against terror in mass media
• Discuss the rise of mobile media

Media Research Topics for College Students

College students who are looking to research topics about media should choose something that can bring them a top grade. Here are our best media research topics for college students:

• Influences of technology on media
• Latest innovations in media
• Discuss media censorship in China (a recommended media related topic)
• What is media propaganda?
• Mass media and its preemptive effects

Complex Media Related Research Topics

Do you want to try your hand at some difficult topics? If you want to impress your professor, we advise you to select one of these complex media related research topics:

• Mass media violating civil rights
• Does media benefit the economy of the US?
• Define media addition and discuss its effects
• Perform a qualitative analysis of 3 media outlets
• Media’s scare strategies: a case study
• Media influencing a rise in violence in the UK

Controversial Media Topics

Why should you be frightened by controversial topics? You are free to write about them, of course. Here are our best and most controversial media topics:

• Exercising the First Amendment in media in the US
• Promoting gun violence in mass media
• Mass media effects on terrorism
• Digital media is destroying traditional media
• Artificial intelligence in mass media
• Media effects on the death penalty in China

Digital Media Topics

Discussing digital media is a very good way to impress your professor. Let’s face it; the digital realm is extremely popular these days. Here are some brand new digital media topics:

• Define and discuss digital media
• Climate change in digital media
• What is mobile media?
• The fate of journalism in the 21st century (one of the best digital media research topics)
• Effects of digital media on politics

Media Analysis Topics

Writing a media analysis essay can be a very difficult task, especially if you don’t have much academic writing experience. Here are some media analysis topics that should make things easier:

• How Trump lost the media war
• Biden’s coverage in mass media in the United States
• Advertising revenue in media outlets
• Analyze screen time
• What are deepfakes and how to spot one?
• The crisis of journalism in the 21st century

Easy Media Related Topics

The perfect choice for times when you simply cannot afford to spend too much time writing your essay, our list easy media related topics is right here:

• Define mass media in the United Kingdom
• Should children watch the news?
• Promoting violence in mass media
• Spreading awareness via media
• Are newspapers still relevant today?
• The very first occurrence of mass media

Research Topics in Media and Communication

Would you like to talk about media and communication? It is not an easy subject to write about, but we can make things easier. Here are the easiest research topics in media and communication:

• Discuss body image in media
• Analyze children’s advertising tactics
• Freedom of speech in the media
• Copyright law in the media
• Define symmetrical dialogue in the media

Media Debate Topics

Are you interested in a media debate? Getting the best topics for 2023 should be your primary concern in this case. We have some very interesting media debate topics right here:

• The impact of public relations on communities
• Location-based advertising in modern media
• Analyze the concept of yellow journalism
• Good news vs bad news in the media
• Discuss the concept of proportionality in media

Brand New Media Topics

Just like you, our writers are interested in writing about the latest topics. Why don’t you pick one of our brand new media topics?

• Is radio still an important part of media?
• Newspapers going bankrupt in 2023
• Sexual content on TV shows
• Politicians’ love for the media
• Is the backing of the media important for a president?

Media Ethics Topics

Discussing ethics in relation to media is a very interesting choice. It can also get you an A+ on your next paper. Here are some exceptional media ethics topics:

• Including graphic images in media
• Depicting terrorism on TV
• Regulating newspapers in Europe
• Celebrity gossip in the media
• The influence of large media corporations

Media Law Topics

Yes, there is such a thing as media law. Would you like to write an essay about it? Here are some great ideas for media law topics:

• Discuss the First Amendment and media
• The responsibilities of journalists
• Journalists in war zones
• Fake news in the media
• Showing unsuitable content to children

Research Topics in Communication and Media Studies

Writing about communication and media studies has the potential to help you get a top grade. Here are our best research topics in communication and media studies:

• Analyze media bias in the United States
• Is digital media addictive?
• Influence of media on religion

Interesting Media Topics

We know, you want the most interesting media topics to write about. Pick one of these and write a paper that will impress your professor:

• State-controlled media in China
• Effects of media coverage on criminal trials
• The power of mass media in 2023

Trending Media Topics

You may not know which topics are trending when it comes to media, but our writers do. Here are the latest trending media topics:

• The war in Afghanistan
• Joe Biden’s rise to power
• The fall of Donald Trump
• Climate change problems
• Global warming in the media

But what if you need more topics or professional help with thesis ? What if you didn’t find the media research topic you were looking for in the list above? While this is highly unlikely, we are prepared to help you. Would you like to talk about media literacy? In case you do, our ENL writers can create a list of the most interesting (and new) media literacy topics you can find. For anything you need, just get in touch with us.

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Social Media Use and Its Connection to Mental Health: A Systematic Review

Fazida karim.

1 Psychology, California Institute of Behavioral Neurosciences and Psychology, Fairfield, USA

2 Business & Management, University Sultan Zainal Abidin, Terengganu, MYS

Azeezat A Oyewande

3 Family Medicine, California Institute of Behavioral Neurosciences and Psychology, Fairfield, USA

4 Family Medicine, Lagos State Health Service Commission/Alimosho General Hospital, Lagos, NGA

Lamis F Abdalla

5 Internal Medicine, California Institute of Behavioral Neurosciences and Psychology, Fairfield, USA

Reem Chaudhry Ehsanullah

Safeera khan.

Social media are responsible for aggravating mental health problems. This systematic study summarizes the effects of social network usage on mental health. Fifty papers were shortlisted from google scholar databases, and after the application of various inclusion and exclusion criteria, 16 papers were chosen and all papers were evaluated for quality. Eight papers were cross-sectional studies, three were longitudinal studies, two were qualitative studies, and others were systematic reviews. Findings were classified into two outcomes of mental health: anxiety and depression. Social media activity such as time spent to have a positive effect on the mental health domain. However, due to the cross-sectional design and methodological limitations of sampling, there are considerable differences. The structure of social media influences on mental health needs to be further analyzed through qualitative research and vertical cohort studies.

Introduction and background

Human beings are social creatures that require the companionship of others to make progress in life. Thus, being socially connected with other people can relieve stress, anxiety, and sadness, but lack of social connection can pose serious risks to mental health [ 1 ].

Social media

Social media has recently become part of people's daily activities; many of them spend hours each day on Messenger, Instagram, Facebook, and other popular social media. Thus, many researchers and scholars study the impact of social media and applications on various aspects of people’s lives [ 2 ]. Moreover, the number of social media users worldwide in 2019 is 3.484 billion, up 9% year-on-year [ 3 - 5 ]. A statistic in Figure  1  shows the gender distribution of social media audiences worldwide as of January 2020, sorted by platform. It was found that only 38% of Twitter users were male but 61% were using Snapchat. In contrast, females were more likely to use LinkedIn and Facebook. There is no denying that social media has now become an important part of many people's lives. Social media has many positive and enjoyable benefits, but it can also lead to mental health problems. Previous research found that age did not have an effect but gender did; females were much more likely to experience mental health than males [ 6 , 7 ].

Impact on mental health

Mental health is defined as a state of well-being in which people understand their abilities, solve everyday life problems, work well, and make a significant contribution to the lives of their communities [ 8 ]. There is debated presently going on regarding the benefits and negative impacts of social media on mental health [ 9 , 10 ]. Social networking is a crucial element in protecting our mental health. Both the quantity and quality of social relationships affect mental health, health behavior, physical health, and mortality risk [ 9 ]. The Displaced Behavior Theory may help explain why social media shows a connection with mental health. According to the theory, people who spend more time in sedentary behaviors such as social media use have less time for face-to-face social interaction, both of which have been proven to be protective against mental disorders [ 11 , 12 ]. On the other hand, social theories found how social media use affects mental health by influencing how people view, maintain, and interact with their social network [ 13 ]. A number of studies have been conducted on the impacts of social media, and it has been indicated that the prolonged use of social media platforms such as Facebook may be related to negative signs and symptoms of depression, anxiety, and stress [ 10 - 15 ]. Furthermore, social media can create a lot of pressure to create the stereotype that others want to see and also being as popular as others.

The need for a systematic review

Systematic studies can quantitatively and qualitatively identify, aggregate, and evaluate all accessible data to generate a warm and accurate response to the research questions involved [ 4 ]. In addition, many existing systematic studies related to mental health studies have been conducted worldwide. However, only a limited number of studies are integrated with social media and conducted in the context of social science because the available literature heavily focused on medical science [ 6 ]. Because social media is a relatively new phenomenon, the potential links between their use and mental health have not been widely investigated.

This paper attempt to systematically review all the relevant literature with the aim of filling the gap by examining social media impact on mental health, which is sedentary behavior, which, if in excess, raises the risk of health problems [ 7 , 9 , 12 ]. This study is important because it provides information on the extent of the focus of peer review literature, which can assist the researchers in delivering a prospect with the aim of understanding the future attention related to climate change strategies that require scholarly attention. This study is very useful because it provides information on the extent to which peer review literature can assist researchers in presenting prospects with a view to understanding future concerns related to mental health strategies that require scientific attention. The development of the current systematic review is based on the main research question: how does social media affect mental health?

Research strategy

The research was conducted to identify studies analyzing the role of social media on mental health. Google Scholar was used as our main database to find the relevant articles. Keywords that were used for the search were: (1) “social media”, (2) “mental health”, (3) “social media” AND “mental health”, (4) “social networking” AND “mental health”, and (5) “social networking” OR “social media” AND “mental health” (Table  1 ).

Out of the results in Table  1 , a total of 50 articles relevant to the research question were selected. After applying the inclusion and exclusion criteria, duplicate papers were removed, and, finally, a total of 28 articles were selected for review (Figure  2 ).

PRISMA, Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses

Inclusion and exclusion criteria

Peer-reviewed, full-text research papers from the past five years were included in the review. All selected articles were in English language and any non-peer-reviewed and duplicate papers were excluded from finally selected articles.

Of the 16 selected research papers, there were a research focus on adults, gender, and preadolescents [ 10 - 19 ]. In the design, there were qualitative and quantitative studies [ 15 , 16 ]. There were three systematic reviews and one thematic analysis that explored the better or worse of using social media among adolescents [ 20 - 23 ]. In addition, eight were cross-sectional studies and only three were longitudinal studies [ 24 - 29 ].The meta-analyses included studies published beyond the last five years in this population. Table  2  presents a selection of studies from the review.

IGU, internet gaming disorder; PSMU, problematic social media use

This study has attempted to systematically analyze the existing literature on the effect of social media use on mental health. Although the results of the study were not completely consistent, this review found a general association between social media use and mental health issues. Although there is positive evidence for a link between social media and mental health, the opposite has been reported.

For example, a previous study found no relationship between the amount of time spent on social media and depression or between social media-related activities, such as the number of online friends and the number of “selfies”, and depression [ 29 ]. Similarly, Neira and Barber found that while higher investment in social media (e.g. active social media use) predicted adolescents’ depressive symptoms, no relationship was found between the frequency of social media use and depressed mood [ 28 ].

In the 16 studies, anxiety and depression were the most commonly measured outcome. The prominent risk factors for anxiety and depression emerging from this study comprised time spent, activity, and addiction to social media. In today's world, anxiety is one of the basic mental health problems. People liked and commented on their uploaded photos and videos. In today's age, everyone is immune to the social media context. Some teens experience anxiety from social media related to fear of loss, which causes teens to try to respond and check all their friends' messages and messages on a regular basis.

On the contrary, depression is one of the unintended significances of unnecessary use of social media. In detail, depression is limited not only to Facebooks but also to other social networking sites, which causes psychological problems. A new study found that individuals who are involved in social media, games, texts, mobile phones, etc. are more likely to experience depression.

The previous study found a 70% increase in self-reported depressive symptoms among the group using social media. The other social media influence that causes depression is sexual fun [ 12 ]. The intimacy fun happens when social media promotes putting on a facade that highlights the fun and excitement but does not tell us much about where we are struggling in our daily lives at a deeper level [ 28 ]. Another study revealed that depression and time spent on Facebook by adolescents are positively correlated [ 22 ]. More importantly, symptoms of major depression have been found among the individuals who spent most of their time in online activities and performing image management on social networking sites [ 14 ].

Another study assessed gender differences in associations between social media use and mental health. Females were found to be more addicted to social media as compared with males [ 26 ]. Passive activity in social media use such as reading posts is more strongly associated with depression than doing active use like making posts [ 23 ]. Other important findings of this review suggest that other factors such as interpersonal trust and family functioning may have a greater influence on the symptoms of depression than the frequency of social media use [ 28 , 29 ].

Limitation and suggestion

The limitations and suggestions were identified by the evidence involved in the study and review process. Previously, 7 of the 16 studies were cross-sectional and slightly failed to determine the causal relationship between the variables of interest. Given the evidence from cross-sectional studies, it is not possible to conclude that the use of social networks causes mental health problems. Only three longitudinal studies examined the causal relationship between social media and mental health, which is hard to examine if the mental health problem appeared more pronounced in those who use social media more compared with those who use it less or do not use at all [ 19 , 20 , 24 ]. Next, despite the fact that the proposed relationship between social media and mental health is complex, a few studies investigated mediating factors that may contribute or exacerbate this relationship. Further investigations are required to clarify the underlying factors that help examine why social media has a negative impact on some peoples’ mental health, whereas it has no or positive effect on others’ mental health.

Conclusions

Social media is a new study that is rapidly growing and gaining popularity. Thus, there are many unexplored and unexpected constructive answers associated with it. Lately, studies have found that using social media platforms can have a detrimental effect on the psychological health of its users. However, the extent to which the use of social media impacts the public is yet to be determined. This systematic review has found that social media envy can affect the level of anxiety and depression in individuals. In addition, other potential causes of anxiety and depression have been identified, which require further exploration.

The importance of such findings is to facilitate further research on social media and mental health. In addition, the information obtained from this study can be helpful not only to medical professionals but also to social science research. The findings of this study suggest that potential causal factors from social media can be considered when cooperating with patients who have been diagnosed with anxiety or depression. Also, if the results from this study were used to explore more relationships with another construct, this could potentially enhance the findings to reduce anxiety and depression rates and prevent suicide rates from occurring.

The content published in Cureus is the result of clinical experience and/or research by independent individuals or organizations. Cureus is not responsible for the scientific accuracy or reliability of data or conclusions published herein. All content published within Cureus is intended only for educational, research and reference purposes. Additionally, articles published within Cureus should not be deemed a suitable substitute for the advice of a qualified health care professional. Do not disregard or avoid professional medical advice due to content published within Cureus.

The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

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180 Media Research Paper Topics You Can Use To Make an Excellent Paperwork

Media paper topics are important for students as they are a basic component of mass communication. The digital space encompasses many aspects to write about. That is why research work is a very important stage for a student. Besides the fact that you need to adhere to strict rules, you need to be well versed in the chosen topic. It will be the stage in assessing the competence of each student.

Media research topics is a good stage for those who want to understand mass communications and provide expert material that will be well appreciated. Research papers like these are supposed to adhere to technical requirements for presentation, presentation of information, and facts presentation. Any media research topic should be based on reliable data. If you give statistics or any statements, then this must be supported by facts.

All media studies topics require detailed data collection. You need to focus on the main postulates in your work and adhere to the created plan. Each of your statements should be supported by real facts and statistics where necessary. It is best if the topic you choose will correspond to the level of your knowledge and competence. Let's take a look at media research topics that might be of interest to you.

History of Media

Such media research topics for college students are especially popular, as they allow you to choose any period during preparation. You can touch upon the period of formation of journalism and information space in a particular country or worldwide. You can also focus on the differences in the media space of different countries.

• History of media culture in the late fifties in the United States.
• How did the media space develop in the early 18th century in England?
• History of the Chinese media industry.
• The process of the emergence of media culture as the main factor in the delivery of information.
• The media culture of Israel in the context of opposition to Palestine.
• Historical aspects of the development of media culture in Yugoslavia.
• The historical context as a symbol of the development of media culture.
• The main bases of the historical development of media.
• History of the North Korean media industry.
• The media industry of the Netherlands.
• Historical prerequisites for the creation of mass media.
• The role of contemporary mass media in American history.
• The major failures in the history of mass media.
• Political information as the main institution of historical mass media.

Media Psychology

Such research topics in mass media are also popular because they offer many opportunities for exploring the psychological aspects and nuances of influence on the world community. You can focus on certain aspects of mass management or the techniques that news sites practice to retain audiences.

• Influence of media psychology on the development of consciousness.
• Managing the masses using media psychology.
• What is propaganda, and how is it related to Media Psychology?
• Nuances of manipulation using psychological factors.
• How does the media industry influence modern trends in psychology?
• The crowd power and media industry.
• How does media psychology affect the manipulation of consciousness?
• New trends in media psychology.
• Psychological aspects when creating news on TV channels.
• Methods of manipulating psychological factors.
• Psychological aspects of interviews for mass media.
• The influence of the media space.
• The nuances of the modern media channels.
• The analysis of psychological activity on the example of mass media.
• Modern psychological challenges in the context of mass media.

Politics and Mass Media

Such research topics in media and communication allow you to choose a niche related to politics and even individuals. For example, you can focus on collecting information about politicians and their impact on the digital information field. A research paper on contemporary dictators and media manipulation techniques can be especially interesting.

• Mass media as a subject of political speculation.
• Why is political debate a way to influence the masses?
• Disadvantages of mass media during political elections.
• New trends in propaganda in the political environment.
• The popularization of politicians through the mass media.
• Political change through the lens of news channels.
• Does the mass media influence the rating of politicians?
• The importance of mass media in the lives of voters.
• The role of mass media in the formation of the political image.
• The ethereal debate of politicians.

Entertainment and Education

This section of mass media research topics will allow you to focus on educational and entertainment topics. For example, you can create your paperwork based on a show. Any media project with an educational or entertainment bias is suitable for this. You can also focus on what impact a particular digital product has had on the public.

• The impact of National Geographic on the education of an entire generation.
• Entertainment programs as a method of attracting an audience.
• Basic methods of education through mass media.
• The influence of entertainment shows on the formation of TV channel ratings.
• Main factors of popularization of entertainment shows on TV.
• Modern talk shows and their impact on social culture to new trends in educational television programs.
• How has television changed in the context of educational programs?
• New trends in entertainment channels during the quarantine period.
• The main entertainment show of the last decade.
• The secret to the success of the Oprah show.
• Entertainment aspects of modern TV channels.
• The role of mass media in modern entertainment trends.
• Analysis of information and entertainment TV programs.
• The means and modern trends and TV shows with educational content.
• The role of education in modern mass media.

Teenagers and The Media

Media essay topics like these are especially relevant as they show the relationship between teenagers and the digital space. For example, you can choose modern information resources or social networks in the context of influencing a young audience. Research like this can reveal trends and patterns that are especially relevant to teenagers.

• Children bloggers and the media space.
• The impact of social culture on teenagers.
• Modern music trends in the media space.
• Analysis of teenagers' dependence on media popularity.
• New Instagram trends and stages of mass media promotion.
• Media culture and its impact on teenage preferences.
• Teenage preference in media culture.
• Does mass media influence the development of modern children?
• Nuances of Media broadcasts for teenagers.
• The daily media marathons for teenagers.
• The impact of adolescent culture on social media.
• New journalistic staff among teenagers.
• Main factors of using teenagers in mass media.
• The nuances of creating a positive image of teenagers in the mass media.
• Analysis of modern youth TV channels.

Mass Communications Law

When choosing media research paper topics, you must be prepared to rely on legal facts and legislation. The fact is that mass communications law allows us to consider any aspect of journalism and telecommunications through the prism of legislation. You can choose a narrow topic to cover all aspects and details in your research work.

• Legislative aspects of cigarette advertising regulation.
• The influence of advertising on the popularization of products.
• Legislative loopholes and their application in the media.
• Legal formalities in the context of mass media.
• Influence of mass media on amendments to the constitution.
• Journalistic ethics and law.
• Legal aspects of television censorship.
• Legal opportunities to create exclusive news.
• Freedom and journalistic ethics.
• Legal collection of information.
• Legislative aspects of communication technologies.
• The impact of social media on the US legislative framework.
• The main reasons for the modern divergence in journalism.
• Legitimate aspects of the existence of a journalistic agency.
• Formalities and legal norms of mass media.
• Major aspects of legal news channels.
• The selection of legal topics for informational publications.
• The analysis of the legal framework in journalistic investigations.

Media Bias Research Paper

These media research paper topics are especially relevant because bias is very common in news sources worldwide. You can choose any information precedent that relates to bias towards a certain topic or event in the world. A lot of news outlets have published false or biased facts so that you can concentrate on that.

• The BBC's role in shaping public opinion about certain news.
• The impact of American representation in contemporary culture.
• The provocation and shock content in modern mass media.
• The responsibility of the media for bias on the air.
• The reputation he had for her loss of TV channels during political elections.
• Ecology and events as a major factor in misinformation.
• The media and their impact on public opinion about migrants.
• Political bias as an element of political struggle in the mass media.
• The philosophy of television news.
• The major social warnings during terrorist attacks.
• The bias as the main problem of modern TV channels.
• The role of politics in media bias.
• Analysis of bias and aggressiveness of modern TV channels.
• Sociological polls as a method of prejudice against certain political persons.

Media Violence Research Paper

These media research paper topics are very relevant, as you can find many examples of violence in today's information space. One of the areas for your research may be the media's attitude to the violence and a specific approach to public awareness. There are many examples when the media space deliberately promoted the topic of violence, so it should not be difficult for you to find it.

• Violence as the main topic in the mass media.
• Cultivating violence in the context of contemporary news.
• The role of TV news channels in the influence of social intolerance and.
• Racism and preconditions of information bias and.
• How do TV channels influence the formation of social opinion?
• The main aspects of disinformation in the social space.
• The main nuances of creating a wrong opinion about certain aspects.
• Modern trends of media violence in the context of the epidemic.
• Nuances of social movements in the mass media.
• Reasons for increased cruelty in the media.
• The main reasons we carried in the information environment.
• Investigative reporting of violence and press releases.
• The main factors of increasing violence in news stories.
• The street violence as a source for news publications.

Journalism and News Research Topics

These digital media research topics are suitable for those who want to focus on journalism and news agency research. You can compare approaches to shaping media news or on the nuances of journalism. There are many TV channels, web resources, or radio stations with news, so choosing a topic will not be difficult.

• The influence of journalists on the news coverage of the event.
• The main trends of the modern information space.
• Research on the influence of journalists on news bias.
• Information blocks in modern TV channels.
• Reasons and popularization of disinformation in the mass media.
• Journalists and their influence on many factors of the social environment in the mass media.
• Technical nuances and main features of the profession of a journalist.
• Relevant news in the context of journalistic ethics.
• The main nuances of the study of journalistic disinformation.
• The main factors of journalistic ethics and news sources.
• Analysis of news in the context of modern trends.
• The main norms of journalistic ethics point research structure of the interview.
• Journalism as a factor in the development of society.
• Correct aspects of social media interviews.

Social Media Research Topic

Media analysis essay topics like these allow you to delve deeper into the digital space's social nuances. For example, you can write about social media and its impact on modern life. This can be especially relevant in the context of modern media search.

• Stages of creating news stories.
• Social media and their role in modern society.
• The nuances of the development of information channels.
• The main factors for the identification of social media.
• Nuances of methodical work in the media sphere.
• The main parameters of social activity for creating informational reasons.
• Social media research methodology.
• Data analysis and formation of news publications.
• Social media as the main tuning fork of modern society.
• Nuances of analytical aspects of social media.
• The influence of social trends on the specifics of the information space.
• The main trends in social inequality.
• Social news analysis and terminology.

Social Media Marketing

Such media studies research topics allow you to write about modern marketing gimmicks and their impact on society. You can choose a specific topic related to a specific site, TV channel, or general media space. Be sure to include real examples detailing your overall media marketing strategy.

• The role of marketing in the modern information space.
• Social media, as the main economic factor in the United States.
• Stages in the evolution of television marketing campaigns.
• Modern advertising as an engine of mass culture.
• Mass media and technical aspects of marketing.
• Analysis of social media in the context of advertising campaigns.
• Identification of mass media as a source of information.
• Marketing prerequisites for the development of social media.
• Analysis of the overall popularity of mass media in the context of marketing campaigns.
• Nuances of modern marketing using the example of mass media.
• Marketing realities of modern information stands.
• The role of the information space on the formation of social activity.

Journalism Ethics

Very often, the media forget about moral norms and publish false information. Journalistic ethics can be a good topic for your research paper. There are many examples of deliberately false information and examples of substitution of facts. This can be extremely interesting for detailed research.

• The importance of journalistic ethics in modern society.
• The basic aspects of honest media.
• What are journalistic ethics and honest research?
• Basic tenets of journalistic ethics in modern media
• The need to create an institution of journalistic ethics
• Disinformation as the main problem of journalistic investigations.
• Honest news and journalistic ethics.
• Foundations of social equality and ethical standards of journalism.
• The main nuances of the ethics of journalistic interviews.
• The main advantage of journalistic ethics in local news sites.

Other Media Topics

Many interesting topics cannot be unambiguously attributed to any section. However, you can find quite a few options for your research paper. This list will help you choose a neutral option if the previous topics are not quite right for you, or you cannot find the right amount of data.

• Media ethics course reflection.
• Media challenges of leadership and followership.
• Ethical issues in forensic media.
• Media correctional officer code of ethics.
• Promoting ethics in the media sector.
• Ethical issues due to the process of street justice.
• Ethical principles health maximization.
• Ethical issues in the world of journalism.
• Organizational media code of ethics.
• History of slavery & media impact.
• The nuances of modern news resources.
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How to Write a Research Paper on Media Topics?

Any research paper should start by choosing a topic that is relevant to you. You should choose the media area where your competence can manifest itself the most. You have to create a complex paper with statistical data and concrete confirmation of your statements. This is especially true when you choose a biased research paper.

The second aspect is the technical requirements for the design and structuring of data. You should adhere to the general guidelines, provide links to information sources, and confirm all your statements. Then your research paper will have weight and will bring you high marks.

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General Submissions Open - Storyworlds: A Journal of Narrative Studies

Call for submissions in all areas of narrative theory and studies

Storyworlds   is an interdisciplinary journal of narrative studies. We publish cutting-edge research on storytelling practices across times, cultures, and media. The journal foregrounds research questions that cut across established disciplines and seeks to promote the understanding of narrative and storytelling as worldmaking—and worldbreaking—practices. 

Our general issues support the publication of research in all areas relating to narrative studies, including, but not limited to:

• postcolonial and anticolonial narratives
• ecological and environmental narratives
• film and non-text media
• world literatures
• queer theory
• narratology
• education and pedagogy
• face-to-face interaction
• theory and literatures past, present, and future
• image and graphic novels
• sound, voice, and music
• digital and virtual narratives
• reviews of recent book publications

This list is not exhaustive and we are interested in all topics related to narrative research. 

Submissions must be original work. Manuscripts should be between 6,000 and 8,000 words in length and follow the journal’s  submission guidelines . Submissions are subject to in-house review by the editors followed by external peer review by at least two anonymous reviewers. 

Although Storyworlds primarily publishes original scholarly research articles, we will consider all engagements with narrative and storytelling, including, but not limited to:

• interviews with scholars and practitioners of storytelling
• review essays of books, conferences, films, exhibitions, etc.
• commentaries on the state-of-the-art, particularly beyond the Global North
• overviews, in English, of narrative concepts and practices in non-anglophone research 
• creative writing, provided it is justified and contextualized within the framework of scholarly research
• translations of previously published work on narrative (permission must be granted by the original author; author and translator must not be the same)

We accept submissions for general issues on a rolling basis and encourage submissions from authors at all stages of their careers. 

To submit, or for more information, please contact the journal’s editors, Avril Tynan ( [email protected] ) and Ben Williams ( [email protected] ) 

Storyworlds is indexed in ArticleFirst, Electronic Collections Online, Linguistics and Language Behaviour Abstracts, and MLA International Bibliography. 

Please note. Storyworlds is currently running with a publication delay. The publication date may precede the copyright date by up to two years. 

Avril Tynan 

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Q&A: How – and why – we’re changing the way we study tech adoption

What share of U.S. adults have high-speed internet at home ? Own a smartphone? Use social media ?

Pew Research Center has long studied tech adoption by interviewing Americans over the phone. But starting with the publications released today, we’ll be reporting on these topics using our National Public Opinion Reference Survey (NPORS) instead. The biggest difference: NPORS participants are invited by postal mail and can respond to the survey via a paper questionnaire or online, rather than by phone.

To explain the thinking behind this change and its implications for our future work, here’s a conversation with Managing Director of Internet and Technology Research Monica Anderson and Research Associate Colleen McClain. This interview has been condensed and edited for clarity.

Pew Research Center has been tracking tech adoption in the United States for decades. Why is this area of study so important?

Anderson: We see this research as foundational to understanding the broader impact that the internet, mobile technology and social media have on our society.

Americans have an array of digital tools that help them with everything from getting news to shopping to finding jobs. Studying how people are going online, which devices they own and which social media sites they use is crucial for understanding how they experience the world around them.

This research also anchors our ongoing work on the digital divide : the gap between those who have access to certain technologies and those who don’t. It shows us where demographic differences exist, if they’ve changed over time, and how factors like age, race and income may contribute.

Our surveys are an important reminder that some technologies, like high-speed internet, remain out of reach for some Americans, particularly those who are less affluent. In fact, our latest survey shows that about four-in-ten Americans living in lower-income households do not subscribe to home broadband.

Why is your team making the switch from phone surveys to the National Public Opinion Reference Survey (NPORS)?

McClain: The internet hasn’t just transformed Americans’ everyday lives – it’s also transformed the way researchers study its impact. The changes we’ve made this year set us up to continue studying tech adoption long into the future.

We began tracking Americans’ tech use back in 2000. At that point, about half of Americans were online, and just 1% had broadband at home. Like much of the survey research world, we relied on telephone polling for these studies, and this approach served us well for decades.

But in more recent years, the share of people who respond to phone polls has plummeted , and these types of polls have become more costly. At the same time, online surveys have become more popular and pollsters’ methods have become more diverse . This transformation in polling is reflected in our online American Trends Panel , which works well for the vast majority of the Center’s U.S. survey work.

But there’s a caveat: Online-only surveys aren’t always the best approach when it comes to measuring certain types of data points. That includes measuring how many people don’t use technology in the first place.

Enter the National Public Opinion Reference Survey, which the Center launched in 2020 to meet these kinds of challenges. By giving people the choice to take our survey on paper or online, it is especially well-suited for hearing from Americans who don’t use the internet, aren’t comfortable with technology or just don’t want to respond online. That makes it a good fit for studying the digital divide. And NPORS achieves a higher response rate than phone polls .  

Shifting our tech adoption studies to NPORS ensures we’re keeping up with the latest advances in the Center’s methods toolkit, with quality at the forefront of this important work.

The internet hasn’t just transformed Americans’ everyday lives – it’s also transformed the way researchers study its impact. The changes we’ve made this year set us up to continue studying tech adoption long into the future. Colleen McClain

Are the old and new approaches comparable?

McClain: We took several steps to make our NPORS findings as comparable as possible with our earlier phone surveys. We knew that it can be tricky, and sometimes impossible, to directly compare the results of surveys that use different modes – that is, methods of interviewing. How a survey is conducted can affect how people answer questions and who responds in the first place. These are known as “mode effects.”

To try to minimize the impact of this change, we started by doing what we do best: gathering data.

Around the same time that we fielded our phone polls about tech adoption in 2019 and 2021, we also fielded some surveys using alternate approaches. We didn’t want to change the mode right away, but rather understand how any changes in our approach might affect the data we were collecting about how Americans use technology.

These test runs helped narrow our options and tweak the NPORS design. Using the 2019 and 2021 phone data we collected as a comparison point, we worked over the next few years to make the respondent experience as similar as possible across modes.

What does your new approach mean for your ability to talk about changes over time?

McClain: We carefully considered the potential for mode effects as we decided how to talk about the changes we saw in our findings this year. Even with all the work we did to make the approaches as comparable as possible, we wanted to be cautious.

For instance, we paid close attention to the size of any changes we observed. In some cases, the figures were fairly similar between 2021 and 2023, and even without the mode shift, we wouldn’t make too much of them.

We gave a thorough look at more striking differences. For example, 21% of Americans said they used TikTok in our 2021 phone survey, and that’s risen to 33% now in our paper/online survey. Going back to our test runs from earlier years helped us conclude it’s unlikely this change was all due to mode. We believe it also reflects real change over time.

While the mode shift makes it trickier than usual to talk about trends, we believe the change in approach is a net positive for the quality of our work. NPORS sets us up well for the future.

How are you communicating this mode shift in your published work?

McClain: It’s important to us that readers can quickly and easily understand the shift and when it took place.

In some cases, we’ll be displaying the findings from our paper/online survey side by side with the data points from prior phone surveys. Trend charts in our reports signal the mode shift with a dotted line to draw attention to the change in approach. In our fact sheets , a vertical line conveys the same thing. In both cases, we also provide information in the footnotes below the chart itself.

In other places in our publications, we’re taking an even more cautious approach and focusing on the new data rather than on trends.

Did you have to change the way you asked survey questions?

McClain: Writing questions that keep up with the ever-changing nature of technology is always a challenge, and the mode shift complicated this further. For example, our previous phone surveys were conducted by interviewers, but taking surveys online or on paper doesn’t involve talking to someone. We needed to adapt our questions to keep the experience as consistent as possible on the new paper and online surveys.

Take who subscribes to home broadband, for example. Knowing we wouldn’t have an interviewer to probe and confirm someone’s response in the new modes, we tested out different options in advance to help us ensure we were collecting quality data.

In this case, we gave people a chance to say they were “not sure” or to write in a different type of internet connection, if the ones we offered didn’t quite fit their situation. We also updated the examples of internet connections in the question to be consistent with evolving technology.

Which findings from your latest survey stand out to you?

Anderson: There are several exciting things in our latest work, but two findings related to social media really stand out.

The first is the rise of TikTok. A third of U.S. adults – including about six-in-ten adults under 30 – use this video-based platform. These figures have significantly jumped since we last asked these questions in 2021. And separate surveys from the Center have found that TikTok is increasingly becoming a news source for Americans , especially young adults.

The second is how dominant Facebook remains. While its use has sharply declined among teens in the U.S. , most adults – about two-thirds – say they use the site. And this share has remained relatively stable over the past decade or so. YouTube is the only platform we asked about in our current survey that is more widely used than Facebook.

These findings reinforce why consistently tracking the use of technology, especially specific sites and apps, is so important. The online landscape can evolve quickly. As researchers who study these platforms, a forward-looking mindset is key. We’ll continue looking for new and emerging platforms while tracking longer-standing sites to see how use changes – or doesn’t – over time.

To learn more about the National Public Opinion Reference Survey, read our NPORS fact sheet . For more on Americans’ use of technology, read our new reports:

• Americans’ Use of Mobile Technology and Home Broadband
• Americans’ Social Media Use
• Internet & Technology
• Research Explainers
• Survey Methods
• Technology Adoption

6 facts about Americans and TikTok

Many americans think generative ai programs should credit the sources they rely on, americans’ use of chatgpt is ticking up, but few trust its election information, whatsapp and facebook dominate the social media landscape in middle-income nations, 5 facts about americans and sports, most popular.

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Two key brain systems are central to psychosis, Stanford Medicine-led study finds

When the brain has trouble filtering incoming information and predicting what’s likely to happen, psychosis can result, Stanford Medicine-led research shows.

April 11, 2024 - By Erin Digitale

People with psychosis have trouble filtering relevant information (mesh funnel) and predicting rewarding events (broken crystal ball), creating a complex inner world. Emily Moskal

Inside the brains of people with psychosis, two key systems are malfunctioning: a “filter” that directs attention toward important external events and internal thoughts, and a “predictor” composed of pathways that anticipate rewards.

Dysfunction of these systems makes it difficult to know what’s real, manifesting as hallucinations and delusions. 

The findings come from a Stanford Medicine-led study , published April 11 in  Molecular Psychiatry , that used brain scan data from children, teens and young adults with psychosis. The results confirm an existing theory of how breaks with reality occur.

“This work provides a good model for understanding the development and progression of schizophrenia, which is a challenging problem,” said lead author  Kaustubh Supekar , PhD, clinical associate professor of psychiatry and behavioral sciences.

The findings, observed in individuals with a rare genetic disease called 22q11.2 deletion syndrome who experience psychosis as well as in those with psychosis of unknown origin, advance scientists’ understanding of the underlying brain mechanisms and theoretical frameworks related to psychosis.

During psychosis, patients experience hallucinations, such as hearing voices, and hold delusional beliefs, such as thinking that people who are not real exist. Psychosis can occur on its own and isa hallmark of certain serious mental illnesses, including bipolar disorder and schizophrenia. Schizophrenia is also characterized by social withdrawal, disorganized thinking and speech, and a reduction in energy and motivation.

It is challenging to study how schizophrenia begins in the brain. The condition usually emerges in teens or young adults, most of whom soon begin taking antipsychotic medications to ease their symptoms. When researchers analyze brain scans from people with established schizophrenia, they cannot distinguish the effects of the disease from the effects of the medications. They also do not know how schizophrenia changes the brain as the disease progresses. 

To get an early view of the disease process, the Stanford Medicine team studied young people aged 6 to 39 with 22q11.2 deletion syndrome, a genetic condition with a 30% risk for psychosis, schizophrenia or both. 

Kaustubh Supekar

Brain function in 22q11.2 patients who have psychosis is similar to that in people with psychosis of unknown origin, they found. And these brain patterns matched what the researchers had previously theorized was generating psychosis symptoms.

“The brain patterns we identified support our theoretical models of how cognitive control systems malfunction in psychosis,” said senior study author  Vinod Menon , PhD, the Rachael L. and Walter F. Nichols, MD, Professor; a professor of psychiatry and behavioral sciences; and director of the  Stanford Cognitive and Systems Neuroscience Laboratory .

Thoughts that are not linked to reality can capture the brain’s cognitive control networks, he said. “This process derails the normal functioning of cognitive control, allowing intrusive thoughts to dominate, culminating in symptoms we recognize as psychosis.”

Cerebral sorting  

Normally, the brain’s cognitive filtering system — aka the salience network — works behind the scenes to selectively direct our attention to important internal thoughts and external events. With its help, we can dismiss irrational thoughts and unimportant events and focus on what’s real and meaningful to us, such as paying attention to traffic so we avoid a collision.

The ventral striatum, a small brain region, and associated brain pathways driven by dopamine, play an important role in predicting what will be rewarding or important. 

For the study, the researchers assembled as much functional MRI brain-scan data as possible from young people with 22q11.2 deletion syndrome, totaling 101 individuals scanned at three different universities. (The study also included brain scans from several comparison groups without 22q11.2 deletion syndrome: 120 people with early idiopathic psychosis, 101 people with autism, 123 with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder and 411 healthy controls.) 

The genetic condition, characterized by deletion of part of the 22nd chromosome, affects 1 in every 2,000 to 4,000 people. In addition to the 30% risk of schizophrenia or psychosis, people with the syndrome can also have autism or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, which is why these conditions were included in the comparison groups.

The researchers used a type of machine learning algorithm called a spatiotemporal deep neural network to characterize patterns of brain function in all patients with 22q11.2 deletion syndrome compared with healthy subjects. With a cohort of patients whose brains were scanned at the University of California, Los Angeles, they developed an algorithmic model that distinguished brain scans from people with 22q11.2 deletion syndrome versus those without it. The model predicted the syndrome with greater than 94% accuracy. They validated the model in additional groups of people with or without the genetic syndrome who had received brain scans at UC Davis and Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, showing that in these independent groups, the model sorted brain scans with 84% to 90% accuracy.

The researchers then used the model to investigate which brain features play the biggest role in psychosis. Prior studies of psychosis had not given consistent results, likely because their sample sizes were too small. 

Vinod Menon

Comparing brain scans from 22q11.2 deletion syndrome patients who had and did not have psychosis, the researchers showed that the brain areas contributing most to psychosis are the anterior insula (a key part of the salience network or “filter”) and the ventral striatum (the “reward predictor”); this was true for different cohorts of patients.

In comparing the brain features of people with 22q11.2 deletion syndrome and psychosis against people with psychosis of unknown origin, the model found significant overlap, indicating that these brain features are characteristic of psychosis in general.

A second mathematical model, trained to distinguish all subjects with 22q11.2 deletion syndrome and psychosis from those who have the genetic syndrome but without psychosis, selected brain scans from people with idiopathic psychosis with 77.5% accuracy, again supporting the idea that the brain’s filtering and predicting centers are key to psychosis.

Furthermore, this model was specific to psychosis: It could not classify people with idiopathic autism or ADHD.

“It was quite exciting to trace our steps back to our initial question — ‘What are the dysfunctional brain systems in schizophrenia?’ — and to discover similar patterns in this context,” Menon said. “At the neural level, the characteristics differentiating individuals with psychosis in 22q11.2 deletion syndrome are mirroring the pathways we’ve pinpointed in schizophrenia. This parallel reinforces our understanding of psychosis as a condition with identifiable and consistent brain signatures.” However, these brain signatures were not seen in people with the genetic syndrome but no psychosis, holding clues to future directions for research, he added.

Applications for treatment or prevention

In addition to supporting the scientists’ theory about how psychosis occurs, the findings have implications for understanding the condition — and possibly preventing it.

“One of my goals is to prevent or delay development of schizophrenia,” Supekar said. The fact that the new findings are consistent with the team’s prior research on which brain centers contribute most to schizophrenia in adults suggests there may be a way to prevent it, he said. “In schizophrenia, by the time of diagnosis, a lot of damage has already occurred in the brain, and it can be very difficult to change the course of the disease.”

“What we saw is that, early on, functional interactions among brain regions within the same brain systems are abnormal,” he added. “The abnormalities do not start when you are in your 20s; they are evident even when you are 7 or 8.”

Our discoveries underscore the importance of approaching people with psychosis with compassion.

The researchers plan to use existing treatments, such as transcranial magnetic stimulation or focused ultrasound, targeted at these brain centers in young people at risk of psychosis, such as those with 22q11.2 deletion syndrome or with two parents who have schizophrenia, to see if they prevent or delay the onset of the condition or lessen symptoms once they appear. 

The results also suggest that using functional MRI to monitor brain activity at the key centers could help scientists investigate how existing antipsychotic medications are working. 

Although it’s still puzzling why someone becomes untethered from reality — given how risky it seems for one’s well-being — the “how” is now understandable, Supekar said. “From a mechanistic point of view, it makes sense,” he said.

“Our discoveries underscore the importance of approaching people with psychosis with compassion,” Menon said, adding that his team hopes their work not only advances scientific understanding but also inspires a cultural shift toward empathy and support for those experiencing psychosis. 

“I recently had the privilege of engaging with individuals from our department’s early psychosis treatment group,” he said. “Their message was a clear and powerful: ‘We share more similarities than differences. Like anyone, we experience our own highs and lows.’ Their words were a heartfelt appeal for greater empathy and understanding toward those living with this condition. It was a call to view psychosis through a lens of empathy and solidarity.”

Researchers contributed to the study from UCLA, Clinica Alemana Universidad del Desarrollo, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, the University of Oxford and UC Davis.

The study was funded by the Stanford Maternal and Child Health Research Institute’s Uytengsu-Hamilton 22q11 Neuropsychiatry Research Program, FONDEYCT (the National Fund for Scientific and Technological Development of the government of Chile), ANID-Chile (the Chilean National Agency for Research and Development) and the U.S. National Institutes of Health (grants AG072114, MH121069, MH085953 and MH101779).

About Stanford Medicine

Stanford Medicine is an integrated academic health system comprising the Stanford School of Medicine and adult and pediatric health care delivery systems. Together, they harness the full potential of biomedicine through collaborative research, education and clinical care for patients. For more information, please visit med.stanford.edu .

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Introduction

The amount of information we have access to is overwhelming, and determining whether that information is reliable isn't always straightforward. The resources here have been curated to help you do the necessary and critical work of evaluating the sources you find in your research and as you move through complex information ecosystems (especially online).

Source Review & Media Timescales

Sources go through various levels of review depending on the nature and type of source. The following graphic helps illustrate the speed at which media is published:

To learn more about the level of scrutiny and review different kinds of media sources undergo, use this overview resource:  https://www.pcc.edu/library/scripts/know-your-sources/index.html

Sources covered: Social media, magazines and newspapers, trade journals, academic journals, and encyclopedias 

Scholarly vs. Popular vs. Trade

There are three main types of sources:

• Scholarly sources  are intended for academic use with a specialized vocabulary and extensive citations; they  are often peer-reviewed. Scholarly sources help answer the "so what?" questions and make connections between variables (or issues).
• Popular sources  are intended for the general public and are typically written to entertain, inform or persuade. Popular sources help you answer "who, what, where, and when" questions. Popular sources range from research-oriented to propaganda-focused.
• Trade publications  share general news, trends, and opinions in a certain industry; they are not considered scholarly, because, although generally written by experts, they do not focus on advanced research and are not peer-reviewed.

Remember, any kind of resource can be appropriate and useful for your research, as long as you understand the particularities of each source type, as well as the perspectives and biases of any given source.

This chart provides a more in-depth analysis of these different publication types, with information to keep in mind:

Other helpful guides:

What are their advantages and disadvantages? (Loyola Marymount University)

Benefits and drawbacks (Seminole State College)

Video Tutorial

[Adapted from the University of Southern California Libraries Research Guides ]

Evaluating Popular and Media Sources

There are a number of evaluative models you can use to assess and better understand a source you have found. A number of these are outlined below.

To better understand the context and potential function of a source, you can use the BEAM model:

Source: Source: Joseph Bizup's BEAM model, referenced from UC Merced Library's Source Functions guide

When locating and evaluating resources, you can ask yourself the following questions to help determine if they are appropriate to use, reliable, and relevant (SCAAN test):

• Source type:  Does this source answer your research question? Is it an appropriate type (scholarly or popular, for instance) for your question? Does this contain the information you need to support your argument?
• Currency:  Is this source up-to-date? Do I need a resource that contains historical information?
• Accuracy:  Is this source accurate? Does its logic make sense to me? Are there any internal contradictions? Does it link or refer to its sources? Does more current data affect the accuracy of the content?
• Authority:  Who created or authored this source? Could the author or creator bring any biases to the information presented? Is the author or creator a reputable or well-respected agent in the subject area?
• Neutrality:  Is this source intended to educate, inform, or sell? What is the purpose of this source?

Other evaluative heuristics (in acronym form) include:

• CARBS : Currency, Authority, Relevancy, Biased or Factual, Scholarly or Popular
• CARS:  Credibility (authority), Accuracy, Reasonableness, Support
• CRAAP:  Currency, Relevance (source), Accuracy, Authority, Purpose (neutrality)
• DUPED : Dated, Unambiguous, Purpose, Expertise, Determine (source)
• IMVAIN:  Independent, Multiple sources quoted, Verified with evidence, Authoritative, Informed, Named sources
• RADAR : Rationale, Authority, Date, Accuracy, Relevance

Finally, consider your own biases when reviewing your information. If the source had the opposite position or result, how would that affect your opinion of its validity? 

[Adapted from the  University of Southern California Libraries Research Guides ]

Scholarly vs Popular Articles

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This paper is in the following e-collection/theme issue:

Published on 19.4.2024 in Vol 8 (2024)

Professional Social Media Use Among Orthopedic and Trauma Surgeons in Germany: Cross-Sectional Questionnaire-Based Study

Authors of this article:

Original Paper

• Yasmin Youssef 1 *   ; 
• Tobias Gehlen 2 * , Dr med   ; 
• Jörg Ansorg 3 , Dr med   ; 
• David Alexander Back 2, 4 , Prof Dr Med   ; 
• Julian Scherer 5, 6 , Dr med  

1 Department of Orthopaedics, Trauma and Reconstructive Surgery, University Hospital Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany

2 Center for Musculoskeletal Surgery, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany

3 Akademie Deutscher Orthopäden, Berufsverband für Orthopädie und Unfallchirurgie e.V., Berlin, Germany

4 Dieter Scheffner Center for Medical Education and Educational Research, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany

5 Department of Traumatology, University Hospital of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland

6 Orthopaedic Research Unit, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa

*these authors contributed equally

Corresponding Author:

Julian Scherer, Dr med

Department of Traumatology

University Hospital of Zurich

Raemistrasse 100

Zurich, 8091

Switzerland

Phone: 41 762030775

Email: [email protected]

Background: Social media (SM) has been recognized as a professional communication tool in the field of orthopedic and trauma surgery that can enhance communication with patients and peers, and increase the visibility of research and offered services. The specific purposes of professional SM use and the benefits and concerns among orthopedic and trauma surgeons, however, remain unexplored.

Objective: This study aims to demonstrate the specific uses of different SM platforms among orthopedic and trauma surgeons in Germany as well as the advantages and concerns.

Methods: A web-based questionnaire was developed on the use of SM in a professional context by considering the current literature and the authors’ topics of interest. The final questionnaire consisted of 33 questions and was distributed among German orthopedic and trauma surgeons via the mail distributor of the Berufsverband für Orthopädie und Unfallchirurgie (Professional Association of Orthopaedic Surgeons in Germany). The study was conducted between June and July 2022. A subgroup analysis was performed for sex (male vs female), age (<60 years vs ≥60 years), and type of workplace (practice vs hospital).

Results: A total of 208 participants answered the questionnaire (male: n=166, 79.8%; younger than 60 years: n=146, 70.2%). In total, all of the participants stated that they use SM for professional purposes. In contrast, the stated specific uses of SM were low. Overall, the most used platforms were employment-oriented SM, messenger apps, and Facebook. Instagram emerged as a popular choice among female participants and participants working in hospital settings. The highest specific use of SM was for professional networking, followed by receiving and sharing health-related information. The lowest specific use was for education and the acquisition of patients. Conventional websites occupied a dominating position, exceeding the use of SM across all specific uses. The key benefit of SM was professional networking. Under 50% of the participants stated that SM could be used to enhance communication with their patients, keep up-to-date, or increase their professional visibility. In total, 65.5% (112/171) of participants stated that SM use was time-consuming, 43.9% (76/173) stated that they lacked application knowledge, and 45.1% (78/173) stated that they did not know what content to post. Additionally, 52.9% (91/172) mentioned medicolegal concerns.

Conclusions: Overall, SM did not seem to be used actively in the professional context among orthopedic and trauma surgeons in Germany. The stated advantages were low, while the stated concerns were high. Adequate education and information material are needed to elucidate the possible professional applications of SM and to address legal concerns.

Introduction

In the last decades, social media (SM) use has become increasingly popular among all age groups and affects almost all areas of daily life [ 1 - 3 ]. In 2024, the most popular SM platforms worldwide were Facebook, YouTube, WhatsApp, and Instagram [ 4 ].

SM has also gained popularity and importance in the health care sector. Regular SM use among health care providers is as high as 88% [ 5 ]. In the health care sector, SM can be used by individual physicians as well as health care institutions (hospitals, journals, societies, etc) to facilitate web-based representation as well as communication with patients, potential patients, and the public [ 6 - 9 ]. One advantage of SM is the low barrier for interactions between users and the fast distribution of information and media from almost anywhere at any time. SM can enhance communication with patients and foster professional development, and has the potential to contribute to the spread of (public) health information [ 10 , 11 ]. In the field of surgery, SM has been shown to serve as a tool for research dissemination and surgical education [ 12 , 13 ]. In particular, it could be demonstrated that there is a correlation between the number of SM posts and academic citations of recent research [ 14 , 15 ]. However, while acknowledging those potential advantages of professional SM use, it must be also noted that there are certain dangers, which include violations of patient privacy and medicolegal, confidentiality, and liability issues [ 7 - 9 , 16 ]. Furthermore, SM incorporates the risk of spreading health-related misinformation [ 17 , 18 ].

Recent studies have shown that the rate of SM use among orthopedic and trauma surgeons lies between 37% to 100% [ 19 - 25 ]. However, the specific uses of SM in a professional context and the barriers toward comprehensive use within the field of orthopedics and trauma surgery remain unknown. In addition to that, data on the appreciated advantages and concerns of professional SM use in the field of orthopedic and trauma surgery is lacking.

Thus, this study aimed to assess the appreciated advantages and concerns of professional SM use among orthopedic and trauma surgeons in Germany. Further, we aimed to present the current professional use of different SM platforms used by orthopedic and trauma surgeons in Germany.

Study Design

A web-based questionnaire was created to assess the current use of SM among orthopedic and trauma surgeons in Germany. We used SurveyMonkey (SurveyMonkey Inc), web-based software for creating questionnaires. The link to the questionnaire was shared via the mail distributor of the Berufsverband für Orthopädie und Unfallchirurgie (Professional Association of Orthopaedic Surgeons in Germany). The study was conducted between June and July 2022.

Ethical Considerations

Participation in the web-based questionnaire was voluntary and anonymous, with no identifying data collected, except for age, gender, and occupation. Anonymous questionnaires, by definition, do not collect personal data that can directly or indirectly identify an individual. This means that such surveys do not fall under the scope of the European General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR), as the GDPR only applies to the processing of personal data (Article 5) [ 26 ]. Additionally, the presented survey does not require a Data Protection Impact Assessment according to Article 35 of the GDPR [ 26 ]. No formal ethical approval by an ethics committee was needed for the study conduction as general waivers apply for surveys with anonymous data in Germany. All participants received written information about the aim and scope of the study as well as how data is collected, processed, and analyzed in the form of a disclaimer before starting the questionnaire ( Multimedia Appendix 1 ). Patients were informed that by answering the questionnaire, they consented to data collection, processing, and use for publication. No incentives were offered for the completion of the questionnaire.

Questionnaire

The development of the questionnaire was described in a preceding publication [ 25 ]. The questionnaire was developed by the study team based on a review of the current literature [ 19 , 20 , 22 , 24 , 27 - 29 ] and was complemented with further areas of interest. The preliminary and digitalized questionnaire was pretested among 5 orthopedic and trauma surgeons. The questionnaire was finalized considering the feedback from the pilot group. The questionnaire ( Multimedia Appendix 1 ) consisted of 33 variables and included two separate sections. A 5-point Likert scale (where 1 was “I strongly disagree” and 5 was “I strongly agree”) was used to assess the advantages and concerns stated regarding professional SM use.

The first publication highlighted the types of SM platforms used for private and professional purposes, the use behavior, and content management of orthopedic and trauma surgeons in Germany [ 25 ]. The second section of this study, which includes questions on the specific uses of different SM platforms as well as the appreciated benefits and concerns, will be analyzed.

Data Processing and Statistical Analysis

Statistical analysis was performed using SPSS for Mac (version 26.0; IBM Corp). Both complete and incomplete questionnaires were considered in the final data analysis. Categorical data were presented in frequencies and percentages. Subgroup analysis was performed for sex (male vs female), age (<60 years vs ≥60 years), and type of workplace (practice vs hospital). To assess differences between groups, the chi-square test was used for categorical data. Likert scales were compared using a nonparametrical median test. The level of statistical significance was set at a 2-sided P value <.05.

Demographics

The sample is identical to that previously published [ 25 ]. In total, 208 participants took part in this survey (male: n=166, 79.8%), of which 70.2% (n=146) were aged <60 years. Most of the participants (n=161, 77.4%) worked in a practice. More female participants were younger than 60 years (<60 years: 39/42, 92.9% vs ≥60 years: 3/42 4.8%; P <.001), and younger participants were more likely to be working in a hospital rather than in a practice (<60 years: 39/47, 83% vs ≥60 years: 8/47, 17%; P =.03). Significantly more male participants were in a practice (male: 138/161, 85.7% vs female: 23/161, 14.3%; P <.001). As shown in the preceding study, all participants (200/200, 100%) stated that they used SM for professional purposes [ 25 ].

SM for Professional Networking

For professional networking (communication with colleagues), the most used platforms were messenger apps (58/173, 33.5%), employment-oriented SM (47/173, 27.2%), and Facebook (12/173, 6.9%). In addition to that, 39 (22.5%) participants stated that they used conventional websites for communication with colleagues. Female participants were more likely to use Facebook (male: 7/142, 4.9% vs female: 5/31, 16%; P =.03) and Instagram (male: 2/142, 2.8% vs female: 4/31, 13%; P =.02). Participants working in hospital were more likely to use Facebook (hospital: 6/34, 18% vs practice: 6/139, 4.3%; P =.006), Instagram (hospital: 4/34, 12% vs practice: 4/139, 2.9%; P =.03), and employment-oriented SM (hospital: 16/34, 47% vs practice: 31/139, 22.3%; P =.004).

SM for Receiving and Sharing Health-Related Information

The platforms used most frequently for receiving health-related information were YouTube (46/174, 26.4%), employment-oriented SM (28/174, 16.1%), and messenger apps (23/174, 13.2%). More than half of the participants (113/174, 64.9%) used conventional websites. Instagram was used more by female participants (male: 4/143, 2.8% vs female: 5/31, 16%; P =.002). Participants working in a hospital were more likely to use TikTok (hospital: 1/34, 3% vs practice: 0/0, 0%; P =.04). The most often used platforms for sharing health-related information were messenger apps (45/172, 26.2%), employment-oriented SM (23/172, 13.4%), Facebook (10/172, 5.8%), and Instagram (10/172, 5.8%). Conventional websites were only used by a minority of participants (39/172, 22.7%). More female participants used Instagram (male: 5/141, 3.5% vs female: 5/31, 16%; P =.007) and TikTok ( male: 0/142, 0% vs female: 1/31, 3%; P =.03). Participants working in the hospital were more likely to use Facebook (hospital: 5/34, 15% vs practice: 5/138, 3.6%; P =.01) and TikTok (hospital: 1/34, 3% vs practice: 0/138, 0%; P =.04).

SM for Sharing Clinical Expertise

Messenger apps were used by 21.8% (37/170) of the participants for sharing clinical expertise and professional skills. Employment-oriented SM was used by 12% (22/170) and Instagram by 4.7% (8/170) of participants. In total, 24.7% (42/170) used conventional websites. Female participants were more likely to use Facebook (male: 3/139, 2.2% vs female: 3/31, 10%; P =.04) and Instagram (male: 4/139, 2.9% vs female: 4/31, 13%; P =.02). Instagram was also used more by younger participants (<60 years: 8/116, 6.9% vs ≥60 years: 0/54, 0%; P =.048). In total, 5.3% (9/169) of participants used Facebook, 4.1% (7/169) used employment-oriented SM, and 4.1% (7/169) used messenger apps for producing content on diseases and treatment methods. Overall, 26.6% (45/169) used conventional websites for sharing content on diseases and treatment methods.

SM for Educational Purposes

The SM platforms used mostly for educational purposes were employment-oriented platforms (eg, LinkedIn; 26/171, 15.2%), YouTube (20/171, 11.7%), and messenger apps (19/171, 11.1%). Conventional websites were used by 60.8% (104/171) of participants. Older participants were significantly more likely to use messenger apps (<60 years: 8/117, 6.8% vs ≥60 years: 11/54, 20%; P =.009).

SM for the Acquisition of and Communication With (Potential) Patients

Only a minority of the participants stated that they use SM to acquire new patients. In total, 8.3% (14/168) of participants used Facebook, 5.4% (9/168) used messenger apps, and 4.2% (7/168) used Instagram. In contrast, 42.9% (72/168) used conventional websites. Overall, messenger apps were significantly used more often by older participants (aged <60 years: 13/118, 11% vs aged ≥60 years: 16/53, 30%; P =.002). A further 5.3% (9/171) of participants used Facebook and 4.1% (7/171) used Instagram. Websites were used by 34.5% (59/171) of participants.

Stated Advantages

In total, 26.6% (47/177) of participants agreed or strongly agreed that professional SM use could help them in the acquisition of new patients. In contrast, 28.8% (51/177) of participants adopted a neutral position, and 44.6% (79/177) disagreed or disagreed strongly. Similarly, only 24.3% (43/177) of participants agreed or strongly agreed that professional SM use could improve their communication with patients, while 53.1% (94/177) disagreed or strongly disagreed with this statement. Additionally, 42.4% (75/177) of participants agreed or strongly agreed that SM could help them stay up-to-date professionally, and 40.1% (71/177) agreed that SM could help them to increase their visibility. There were no significant differences found for age, gender, and type of workplace. The median values are presented in Table 1 .

a Likert scale where 1 is “I fully disagree” and 5 is “I fully agree.”

Stated Concerns

In total, 65.5% (112/171) of participants agreed or strongly agreed that the professional use of SM was time-consuming. Only 8.8% (15/171) of participants disagreed or strongly disagreed with this statement. Overall, 45.1% (78/173) of participants agreed or strongly agreed that they have difficulties assessing what content would interest patients on SM. Furthermore, 52.9% (91/172) of participants agreed or strongly agreed that they were insecure with the medicolegal and data protection regulations concerning SM, while only 25.6% (44/172) disagreed or strongly disagreed.

In addition, 43.9% (76/173) of participants agreed or strongly agreed that they lacked knowledge on the use of SM. In total, 31.2% (54/173) of participants stated that they disagreed or strongly disagreed with this statement. Older participants stated more often that they lack knowledge of SM implementation and use (P =.006). The median values are presented in Table 2 .

Principal Findings

In the health care system, SM is shaping the ways and dimensions of communication and the dissemination and consumption of (health) information [ 7 , 30 ]. The active use and popularity of SM in the professional context was particularly accelerated by the COVID-19 pandemic [ 31 , 32 ]. Several benefits of professional SM use have been previously identified. SM can enable fast and location-independent sharing of health-related information, which makes it more accessible to health care professionals, patients, and the public [ 6 - 8 , 30 , 33 - 35 ]. Furthermore, SM can improve communication within the health care system and increase the visibility of individual physicians, institutions, or publishing companies [ 14 , 15 ].

SM is also shaping the field of orthopedic and trauma surgery [ 29 , 36 ]. Several studies have investigated the prevalence of professional SM use among orthopedic and trauma surgeons and have reported rates of professional SM use between 37% to 65.7% among the assessed populations [ 19 - 24 ]. In Germany, a recent study showed that 100% of participants used SM for professional purposes. A structured implementation into daily professional work routines, however, seemed to be lacking [ 25 ]. Overall, employment-oriented SM like LinkedIn, Facebook, and YouTube are among the most used platforms [ 19 , 20 , 22 , 24 , 27 , 36 ]. There is, however, limited data concerning the specific use and application of SM and the appreciated benefits and concerns of SM among orthopedic and trauma surgeons.

Overall, the most prevalent use of SM in the professional context of the presented cohort was for professional networking. Almost one-third of the participants used messenger apps and employment-oriented SM for professional networking. Other SM like Facebook, Instagram, and Twitter on the other hand seemed to play a minor role. This low use of SM for professional networking was not expected, as a previous study by Grossman et al [ 12 ] highlighted that SM use by surgeons plays an increasingly important role in the dissemination and communication of research results and professional information with colleagues and the public. The sharing of information can, in turn, increase the visibility of a particular surgeon or their research field [ 14 , 15 ]. Furthermore, a study by Justiana et al [ 37 ] among 165 Saudi Arabian orthopedic surgeons showed that most of the assessed surgeons used SM for sharing medical knowledge (79.03%), discussing cases with colleagues (72.4%), and sharing work experiences (66.7%). In contrast to this study, Justiana et al [ 37 ] did not differentiate between different SM platforms. Analyzing different aspects of professional networking, we found that the most used platforms for receiving health-related information were YouTube, employment-oriented SM, and messenger apps. On the other hand, the most frequently used platforms for sharing health-related information were messenger apps, employment-oriented SM, Facebook, and Instagram. Similarly, messenger apps, employment-oriented SM, and Instagram were the platforms used the most for sharing clinical expertise and professional skills. For the above specific uses, Instagram seemed to be used more by female participants, and TikTok was used more often by participants working in a hospital.

The use of SM for both receiving and sharing health-related information and clinical expertise as well as professional skills was low within the presented study population. In contrast, conventional websites occupied a predominant role for those uses.

The presented results, therefore, suggest that the maximum potential of SM in the dissemination of health-related and clinical information and expertise is currently not being reached.

The use of SM for educational purposes also seemed subsidiary in the presented cohort, while conventional websites were used by more than 60% of the participants for this purpose. In this study, employment-oriented SM, YouTube, and messenger apps, which were the SM platforms used the most for educational purposes, were each used by less than 25% of the participants. In contrast, a study by Schneider et al [ 31 ] found among a group of 312 orthopedic residents and medical students that the majority showed a high interest in accessing educational information via SM [ 31 ]. This difference may be explained by the fact that the presented study included participants from all age groups and experience levels, and not only residents or medical students who might show a higher affinity to SM due to their younger age. No significant difference could be found for the type and prevalence of SM platforms used for educational purposes. The results suggest that there might still be potential for both providers and consumers of educational offers to actively use and develop educational offers via SM. Previous studies have highlighted that the benefits include the connection of learners independently of time and location, and the opportunity to share and actively react to medical information [ 38 - 40 ].

In this study, SM also seemed to play a subordinate role in the communication and acquisition of patients. The most used platforms for these purposes were messenger apps, Facebook, and Instagram. Overall, 17% stated that they use messenger apps for communication with their patients. All other platforms were used by less than 9% of the participants for acquisition of and communication with patients. On the other hand, conventional websites were used by 34.5% and 42.9%, respectively, for those purposes. While comparable data from the field of orthopedic and trauma surgery is missing, a study among 500 US plastic surgeons showed that almost 50% used SM for marketing purposes and 28% acquired patients via SM [ 41 ]. However, it must be noted that the study was published in 2013, and plastic surgeons might rely more on SM as they provide private services in most cases. Similarly, in a survey by Brown et al [ 42 ] among Australian doctors, only 1 of 187 respondents used SM to communicate with patients and only 21.2% believed it would be appropriate to do so. Of note, the study was published in 2014 and did not clearly distinguish between private and professional SM profiles, so the comparability is limited. A more recent study by Justiana et al [ 37 ] showed a higher use of SM for interacting with patients; it was not differentiated between different SM platforms. Duymus et al [ 43 ] reported that 61.6% had concerns about communication with patients through SM. Nonetheless, these results suggest that the use of SM for acquisition of and communication with patients is still not yet implemented among orthopedic surgeons. This could be due to the continuing uncertainty concerning medicolegal issues. Further studies are needed to quantify the impact of SM use on patient acquisition.

Furthermore, these results showed that the stated advantages of professional SM use were low. Only the minority agreed that SM could help them in the acquisition of and communication with patients. No clear trend was seen for the stated benefit regarding increased visibility. However, most participants believed that SM could help them stay up-to-date professionally. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study that evaluated the attitudes of German orthopedic surgeons toward professional SM use. Comparative data in the field of orthopedics and trauma surgery is missing.

Lastly, most participants had concerns about the professional use of SM. This included expenditure of time and an unawareness of what content is of interest to patients. In addition to that, more than half of the respondents had concerns about medicolegal and data protection issues. Similarly, in a study by Brown et al [ 42 ], more than 65% of the participants stated that they had concerns about engaging more on SM due to public access and legal concerns. This might be explained by the fact that there is only limited informative and educational material and tools for the professional use of SM. Additionally, there are no clear regulations for the professional use of SM in Germany. For example, whether a patient’s fully anonymized x-ray can be posted online without the patient’s written approval is still a gray area. In the study by Justiana et al [ 37 ], over 50% of the respondents had concerns about legal issues related to interaction with patients, and only 42.5% agreed that it was ethically acceptable to anonymously discuss a patient’s case on SM [ 37 ]. The appreciated concerns of the presented cohort correspond to the risks and dangers described in the literature—high time requirement, violation of patients’ anonymity, decrease of professionalism, and legal issues [ 8 , 44 ]. Supporting information material and courses provided by political or health institutions or orthopedic and trauma societies could help orthopedic and trauma surgeons understand how they can safely exploit the full advantages of SM in a professional and legal context.

Overall, these results suggest that SM use among German orthopedic and trauma surgeons is predominantly passive. While all participants stated that they use SM for professional purposes, only a minority indicated concrete uses. In a professional context, websites still play an important role. Professional networking was identified as the key benefit of SM. Overall, the most used platforms were employment-oriented SM, messenger apps, and Facebook. This corresponds to previously presented literature that has shown that employment-oriented SM, Facebook, and YouTube are the most used platforms among orthopedic surgeons [ 19 , 20 , 22 , 24 , 27 , 36 ].

Limitations

This study has certain limitations. First, surveys have minor levels of evidence in general, and their outcome can be affected by the participants’ understanding of the questions. Further, the number of participants cannot be taken as representative of all orthopedic and trauma surgeons in Germany. Hence, these results must be treated with caution. Additionally, there were considerable differences in the subgroup sizes that could have impaired the statistical analysis. Furthermore, due to the voluntary nature of participation, orthopedic and trauma surgeons with a more critical attitude toward SM use for professional purposes might be underrepresented, posing a potential bias. Further, the questionnaire itself did not undergo probabilistic theory testing, which might represent further bias.

Conclusions

The professional use of SM among the assessed participants of German orthopedic and trauma surgeons is predominantly passive. Only a minority produce their own content. Additionally, the stated advantages of professional SM use were low, while the stated concerns were high. The use of SM for professional purposes seems to play a minor role among orthopedic and trauma surgeons. Adequate education and information material on the professional use of SM is needed to potentially elucidate its applications and benefits, and to address legal concerns. Further studies are needed to validate the described trends.

Data Availability

The data sets generated or analyzed during this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

Authors' Contributions

YY is the guarantor of this study. YY, TG, and DAB created the questionnaire. YY and JA recruited the participants. JS and YY performed the statistics and data analysis. YY and TG drafted the manuscript. JS supervised the study. All authors reviewed and edited the manuscript.

Conflicts of Interest

None declared.

Questionnaire (English translation).

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• Latif MZ, Hussain I, Saeed R, Qureshi MA, Maqsood U. Use of smart phones and social media in medical education: trends, advantages, challenges and barriers. Acta Inform Med. Jun 2019;27(2):133-138. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Vardanian AJ, Kusnezov N, Im DD, Lee JC, Jarrahy R. Social media use and impact on plastic surgery practice. Plast Reconstr Surg. May 2013;131(5):1184-1193. [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Brown J, Ryan C, Harris A. How doctors view and use social media: a national survey. J Med Internet Res. Dec 02, 2014;16(12):e267. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
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Abbreviations

Edited by A Mavragani; submitted 03.10.23; peer-reviewed by S Meister; comments to author 01.02.24; revised version received 21.02.24; accepted 13.03.24; published 19.04.24.

©Yasmin Youssef, Tobias Gehlen, Jörg Ansorg, David Alexander Back, Julian Scherer. Originally published in JMIR Formative Research (https://formative.jmir.org), 19.04.2024.

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work, first published in JMIR Formative Research, is properly cited. The complete bibliographic information, a link to the original publication on https://formative.jmir.org, as well as this copyright and license information must be included.

Calorie restriction study reveals complexities in how diet impacts aging

Penn State researchers may have uncovered another layer of complexity in the mystery of how diet impacts aging. A new study led by researchers in the Penn State College of Health and Human Development examined how a person's telomeres -- sections of genetic bases that function like protective caps at the ends of chromosomes -- were affected by caloric restriction.

The team published their results in Aging Cell . Analyzing data from a two-year study of caloric restriction in humans, the researchers found that people who restricted their calories lost telomeres at different rates than the control group -- even though both groups ended the study with telomeres of roughly the same length. Restricting calories by 20% to 60% has been shown to promote longer life in many animals, according to previous research.

Over the course of human life, every time a person's cells replicate, some telomeres are lost when chromosomes are copied to the new cell. When this happens, the overall length of the cell's telomeres becomes shorter. After cells replicate enough times, the protective cap of telomeres completely dissipates. Then, the genetic information in the chromosome can become damaged, preventing future reproduction or proper function of the cell. A cell with longer telomeres is functionally younger than a cell with short telomeres, meaning that two people with the same chronological age could have different biological ages depending on the length of their telomeres.

Typical aging, stress, illness, genetics, diet and more can all influence how often cells replicate and how much length the telomeres retain, according to Idan Shalev, associate professor of biobehavioral health at Penn State. Shalev led the researchers who analyzed genetic samples from the national CALERIE study -- the first randomized clinical trial of calorie restriction in humans. Shalev and his team sought to understand the effect of caloric restriction on telomere length in people. Because telomere length reflects how quickly or slowly a person's cells are aging, examining telomere length could allow scientists to identify one way in which caloric restriction may slow aging in humans.

"There are many reasons why caloric restriction may extend human lifespans, and the topic is still being studied," said Waylon Hastings, who earned his doctorate in biobehavioral health at Penn State in 2020 and was lead author of this study. "One primary mechanism through which life is extended relates to metabolism in a cell. When energy is consumed within a cell, waste products from that process cause oxidative stress that can damage DNA and otherwise break down the cell. When a person's cells consume less energy due to caloric restriction, however, there are fewer waste products, and the cell does not break down as quickly."

The researchers tested the telomere length of 175 research participants using data from the start of the CALERIE study, one year into the study and the end of the study after 24 months of caloric restriction. Approximately two-thirds of study participants participated in caloric restriction, while one-third served as a control group.

During the study, results showed that telomere loss changed trajectories. Over the first year, participants who were restricting caloric intake lost weight, and they lost telomeres more rapidly than the control group. After a year, the weight of participants on caloric restriction was stabilized, and caloric restriction continued for another year. During the second year of the study, participants on caloric restriction lost telomeres more slowly than the control group. At the end of two years, the two groups had converged, and the telomere lengths of the two groups was not statistically different.

"This research shows the complexity of how caloric restriction affects telomere loss," Shalev said. "We hypothesized that telomere loss would be slower among people on caloric restriction. Instead, we found that people on caloric restriction lost telomeres more rapidly at first and then more slowly after their weight stabilized."

Shalev said the results raised a lot of important questions. For example, what would have happened to telomere length if data had been collected for another year? Study participants are scheduled for data collection at a 10-year follow-up, and Shalev said that he was eager to analyze those data when they become available.

Despite the ambiguity of the results, Shalev said there is promise for the potential health benefits of caloric restriction in humans. Previous research on the CALERIE data has demonstrated that caloric restriction may help reduce harmful cholesterol and lower blood pressure. For telomeres, the two-year timeline was not sufficient to show benefits, but those may still be revealed, according to Shalev and Hastings.

Three of Shalev's trainees, Hastings, current graduate student Qiaofeng Ye and former postdoctoral scholar Sarah Wolf, led the research under Shalev's guidance.

Hastings said the opportunity to lead this study was critical to his career.

"I was recently hired as an assistant professor in the Department of Nutrition at Texas A&M University, and I will begin that work in the fall semester," Hastings said. "Prior to this project, I had limited experience in nutrition. This project literally set the course of my career, and I am grateful to Dr. Shalev for trusting me with that responsibility."

Calen Ryan and Daniel Belsky of Columbia University Mailman School of Public Health, Sai Krupa Das of Tufts University, Kim Huffman and William Kraus of Duke University School of Medicine, Michael Kobor and Julia MacIsaac of University of British Columbia, Corby Martin and Leanne Redman of Pennington Biomedical Research Center and Susan Racette of Arizona State University College of Health Solutions all contributed to this research.

The National Institute on Aging funded this research.

• Healthy Aging
• Diet and Weight Loss
• Human Biology
• Diseases and Conditions
• Epigenetics Research
• Cell Biology
• Chemical synapse
• Baldness treatments
• Insulin-like growth factor
• Double blind
• Immune system
• Biological tissue
• Endangered species
• Domestication

Story Source:

Materials provided by Penn State . Original written by Aaron Wagner. Note: Content may be edited for style and length.

Journal Reference :

• Waylon J. Hastings, Qiaofeng Ye, Sarah E. Wolf, Calen P. Ryan, Sai Krupa Das, Kim M. Huffman, Michael S. Kobor, William E. Kraus, Julia L. MacIsaac, Corby K. Martin, Susan B. Racette, Leanne M. Redman, Daniel W. Belsky, Idan Shalev. Effect of long‐term caloric restriction on telomere length in healthy adults: CALERIE™ 2 trial analysis . Aging Cell , 2024; DOI: 10.1111/acel.14149

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Perspective

Which scientists get mentioned in the news mostly ones with anglo names, says study.

When the media covers scientific research, not all scientists are equally likely to be mentioned. A new study finds scientists with Asian or African names were 15% less likely to be named in a story. shironosov/Getty Images hide caption

When the media covers scientific research, not all scientists are equally likely to be mentioned. A new study finds scientists with Asian or African names were 15% less likely to be named in a story.

When one Chinese national recently petitioned the U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services to become a permanent resident, he thought his chances were pretty good. As an accomplished biologist, he figured that news articles in top media outlets, including The New York Times , covering his research would demonstrate his "extraordinary ability" in the sciences, as called for by the EB-1A visa .

But when the immigration officers rejected his petition, they noted that his name did not appear anywhere in the news articles. News coverage of a paper he co-authored did not directly demonstrate his major contribution to the work.

As this biologist's close friend, I felt bad for him because I knew how much he had dedicated to the project. He even started the idea as one of his Ph.D. dissertation chapters. But as a scientist who studies topics related to scientific innovation , I understand the immigration officers' perspective: Research is increasingly done through teamwork , so it's hard to know individual contributions if a news article reports only the study findings.

This anecdote made me and my colleagues Misha Teplitskiy and David Jurgens curious about what affects journalists' decisions about which researchers to feature in their news stories.

There's a lot at stake for a scientist whose name is or isn't mentioned in journalistic coverage of their work. News media play a key role in disseminating new scientific findings to the public . The coverage of a particular study brings prestige to its research team and their institutions. The depth and quality of coverage then shapes public perception of who is doing good science . In some cases, as my friend's story suggests, the coverage can affect individual careers.

Do scientists' social identities, such as ethnicity or race, play a role in who gets named?

This question is not straightforward to answer. On the one hand, racial bias may exist, given the profound underrepresentation of minorities in U.S. mainstream media . On the other, science journalism is known for its high standard of objective reporting . We decided to investigate this question in a systematic fashion using large-scale observational data.

The least coverage? Chinese and African names

My colleagues and I analyzed 223,587 news stories from 288 U.S. media outlets, sourced from Altmetric.com, a website that monitors online posts about research papers . The news stories, published from 2011-2019, covered 100,486 scientific papers. For each paper, we focused on authors with the highest chance of being mentioned: the first author, last author and other designated corresponding authors. We calculated how often the authors were mentioned in the news articles reporting their research.

We used an algorithm to infer perceived ethnicity from authors' names . We figured that journalists may rely on such cues in the absence of scientists' self-reported information. We considered authors with Anglo names – like John Brown or Emily Taylor – as the majority group and then compared the average mention rates across nine broad ethnic groups.

Our methodology does not distinguish Black from white names because many African Americans have Anglo names, such as Michael Jackson. But since we focus on perceived identity across nine different groups based on names, the study's design is still meaningful.

We found that for the subset of first, last and corresponding authors on research papers, the overall chance of being credited by name in a news story was 40%. Authors with minority ethnicity names, however, were significantly less likely to be mentioned compared with authors with Anglo names. The disparity was most pronounced for authors with East Asian and African names; they were on average mentioned or quoted about 15% less in U.S. science media relative to those with Anglo names.

This association is consistent even after accounting for factors such as geographical location, corresponding author status, authorship position, affiliation rank, author prestige, research topics, journal impact and story length.

And the disparity held across different types of outlets, including publishers of press releases, general interest news and those with content focused on science and technology.

Pragmatic factors and language choices

Our results don't directly imply media bias. So what's going on?

First and foremost, the underrepresentation of scientists with East Asian and African names may be due to pragmatic challenges faced by U.S.-based journalists in interviewing them. Factors like time zone differences for researchers based overseas and actual or perceived English fluency could be at play as a journalist works under deadline to produce the story.

We isolated these factors by focusing on researchers affiliated with American institutions. Among U.S.-based researchers, pragmatic difficulties should be minimized because they're in the same geographic region as the journalists and they're likely to be proficient in English, at least in writing. In addition, these scientists would presumably be equally likely to respond to journalists' interview requests, given that media attention is increasingly valued by U.S. institutions .

Even when we looked just at U.S. institutions, we found significant disparities in mentions and quotations for non-Anglo-named authors, albeit slightly reduced. In particular, East Asian- and African-named authors experience a 4 to 5 percentage-point drop in mention rates compared with their Anglo-named counterparts. This result suggests that while pragmatic considerations can explain some disparities, they don't account for all of them.

We found that journalists were also more likely to substitute institutional affiliations for scientists with African and East Asian names – for instance, writing about "researchers from the University of Michigan." This institution-substitution effect underscores a potential bias in media representation, where scholars with minority ethnicity names may be perceived as less authoritative or deserving of formal recognition.

Why equity matters in the discourse on science

Part of the depth of science news coverage depends on how thoroughly and accurately researchers are portrayed in stories, including whether scientists are mentioned by name and the extent to which their contributions are highlighted via quotes. As science becomes increasingly globalized, with English as its primary language, our study highlights the importance of equitable representation in shaping public discourse and fostering diversity in the scientific community.

We suspect that disparities are even larger at an earlier point in science dissemination, when journalists are selecting which research papers to report. Understanding these disparities is complicated by decades or even centuries of bias ingrained in the whole science production pipeline, including whose research gets funded , who gets to publish in top journals and who is represented in the scientific workforce itself .

Journalists are picking from a later stage of a process that has a number of inequities built in. Thus, addressing disparities in scientists' media representation is only one way to foster inclusivity and equality in science. But it's a step toward sharing scientific knowledge with the public in a more equitable way.

Hao Peng is a postdoctoral fellow at the Kellogg School of Management, Northwestern University.

This story comes from The Conversation, a nonprofit, independent news organization dedicated to unlocking the knowledge of experts for the public good.

• racial disparities
• science journalism