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Multicultural education: How schools teach it and where educators say it falls short

Below, we provide a sampling of academic research that looks at how multicultural education has changed in recent decades and inconsistencies in the way today’s teachers teach it.

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by Denise-Marie Ordway, The Journalist's Resource January 25, 2021

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As American public schools have grown more diverse, educators have introduced multicultural education programs to help kids understand and appreciate the differences among them — differences in terms of race, religion, socioeconomic status, sexual identity and other personal characteristics.

Multicultural education, broadly, is a range of strategies educators use to help students “develop a positive self-concept by providing knowledge about the histories, cultures, and contributions of diverse groups,” according to the nonprofit National Association for Multicultural Education .

These programs, which vary by state and even within individual school districts, “should directly address issues of racism, sexism, classism, linguicism, ableism, ageism, heterosexism, religious intolerance, and xenophobia,” the association explains on its website. One goal of multicultural education is developing the attitudes, knowledge and skills students need to function in different cultures and join a global workforce.

Below, we provide a sampling of academic research that looks at how multicultural education has changed in recent decades and inconsistencies in the way today’s teachers teach it. We also included studies that reveal problems in how U.S. colleges and universities train teachers to do this work.

At the bottom of this page, we added a list of resources to help journalists better understand and contextualize the issue, including federal data on how student and teacher demographics have changed over time and links to organizations with expertise in multicultural education.

It’s important to note there are significant differences between multicultural education and anti-racist education — two types of education discussed with greater frequency in recent years. Unlike multicultural education, anti-racism education focuses on race and race-related issues. Anti-racist teachers “create a curriculum with black students in mind” and “view the success of black students as central to the success of their own teaching,” Pirette McKamey, the first Black principal of Mission High School in San Francisco, writes in The Atlantic .

Many educators and researchers argue that schools serving predominantly white communities benefit tremendously from multicultural education. Sheldon Eakins , a former teacher and school principal who founded the Leading Equity Center, writes about this for the Cult of Pedagogy website:

“It’s not uncommon for White people to say, Oh, I’m just White. I don’t have a culture . We need to teach our White students about what their cultural background is and their ethnic backgrounds so they can understand and think about their language and religions going back to their ancestry. Lessons on their culture may help them start to understand how privilege and White supremacy began.”

At the same time, Eakins and others, including education professor Wayne Au of the University of Washington Bothell, have criticized multicultural education for falling short in preparing youth to confront and dismantle racism.

“Yes, multicultural education is important, but in the face of the hateful violence being visited on so many of our students and communities, it is simply not enough,” Au writes in a paper published in Multicultural Perspectives in 2017.

A brief history of multicultural education

Thirty Years of Scholarship in Multicultural Education Thandeka K. Chapman and Carl A. Grant. Gender & Class Journal , 2010.

This paper offers a broad overview of what multicultural education is in the U.S. and how it changed over three decades. The authors rely on academic research to chronicle the trend, beginning in the 1960s, when scholars argued that the histories and contributions of people of color should be part of the public school curriculum.

Thandeka Chapman , a professor of education studies at the University of California, San Diego, and Carl Grant , a professor of curriculum and instruction at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, explain how multicultural education evolved to include discussions about gender, physical disabilities, age and sexual identity and orientation.

The authors also describe how critics of the trend actually helped it.

“Advocates used these attacks to develop more meaningful and appropriate ways to help teachers and students in classrooms,” Chapman and Grant write. “These criticisms of MCE [multicultural education] have further advanced discussions of equity, equality, and social justice in ways that would not be possible if opponents had remained silent.”

Challenges in teaching multicultural education

Multicultural Education and the Protection of Whiteness Angelina E. Castagno. American Journal of Education , November 2013.

In this yearlong study, the author spotlights problems in the way an urban Utah school district teaches multicultural education. She finds that instead of dismantling “whiteness” — she defines this as “structural arrangements and ideologies of racial dominance within the United States” — multicultural education, as offered in this school district, protects it.

Angelina E. Castagno , an associate professor of educational leadership and foundations at Northern Arizona University, writes that her findings should not be surprising considering the teachers she observed and interviewed “were predominantly White, middle-class individuals who, for the most part, have little reason to disrupt the status quo and the current relations of power.”

“Most educators are well intentioned and want what is best for their students, but whiteness is protected despite (and sometimes through) even the best intentions,” Castagno writes. “Part of the problem is that most educators are not aware of whiteness. But in addition to this lack of awareness, most educators are also invested in the status quo of whiteness.”

She notes the importance of getting a better understanding of how teachers are teaching the topic.

“All teachers, administrators, multicultural education scholars, and teacher/administrator educators need a better understanding and awareness of how multicultural education is understood by teachers in schools across the country,” Castagno writes. “While there is much research highlighting the efforts of some teachers who seem to have embraced more critical forms of multicultural education, these teachers probably do not represent the majority of teachers in most schools.”

Problems in how colleges train teachers

Supporting Critical Multicultural Teacher Educators: Transformative Teaching, Social Justice Education, and Perceptions of Institutional Support Paul C. Gorski and Gillian Parekh. Intercultural Education , 2020.

This study looks at how college instructors teach multicultural education to students in the U.S. and Canada who are studying to become schoolteachers. It finds that college instructors who teach a more conservative version of multicultural education perceive their higher education institution to be more supportive of their work.

The researchers analyze data collected from a survey of 186 people who teach multicultural education to future teachers, conducted in 2015 and 2016. Researchers recruited participants by reaching out to instructors individually and by posting invitations on social media platforms used by instructors. About 90% of survey participants taught at institutions in the U.S.

Instructors answered questions related to the ideological approach they took in their multicultural teacher education courses — whether they took a conservative, liberal and critical approach.

The authors explain that the conservative form of multicultural teacher education, or MTE, “is assimilationist; it prepares teachers to help marginalized students conform to ‘mainstream culture and its attending values, mores, and norms.’” Meanwhile, liberal MTE “prepares teachers to celebrate diversity but, like conservative MTE, fails to prepare them to understand or respond to ways power and inequity are wielded in schools,” write Paul Gorski , founder of the Equity Literacy Institute, and Gillian Parekh , an assistant professor of education at York University. “Critical MTE prepares teachers to participate in the reconstruction of schools by advocating equity, confronting issues of power and privilege, and disrupting oppressive policies and practices.”

Gorski and Parekh find that multicultural teacher education classes “tend to have a conservative or liberal orientation, focused on appreciating diversity or cultural competence, rather than a critical orientation, focused on preparing teachers to address inequity.” That might be because instructors believe their institutions are less supportive of courses that take a critical approach, the researchers write.

“Our results indicate that multicultural teacher educators’ perceptions regarding whether the values they teach in their MTE courses are supported by their institutions is correlated with the criticality with which they design and teach those courses,” Gorski and Parekh write.

Instructors who take a conservative approach “pose no real threat to the injustices MTE ought to disrupt, perceive significantly greater institutional support for the values they teach in their MTE courses,” according to the authors. “Contrarily, those who employ a critical approach perceive significantly less institutional support.”

What We’re Teaching Teachers: An Analysis of Multicultural Teacher Education Coursework Syllabi Paul C. Gorski. Teaching and Teacher Education , 2008.

This study, which Gorski also authored, looks at course syllabi to see how U.S. colleges were teaching multicultural education to future teachers. Even though it is an older study, it offers insights into how colleges approached the issue at the time. The gist of Gorski’s findings: “The analysis revealed that most of the courses were designed to prepare teachers with pragmatic skills and personal awareness, but not to prepare them in accordance with the key principles of multicultural education, such as critical consciousness and a commitment to educational equity.”

Gorski analyzed 45 class syllabi from college courses designed to train teachers in multicultural education. Of them, 30 were undergraduate courses and 15 were graduate courses. Gorski finds that “only twelve syllabi (26.7%) seemed designed to prepare teachers to be what might be called authentic multicultural educators.”

Social Foundations and Multicultural Education Course Requirements in Teacher Preparation Programs in the United States Richard Neumann. Educational Foundations , Summer-Fall 2010.

In this study, Richard Neumann , a professor of education at San Diego State University, looks at whether teacher colleges in the U.S. require students to complete coursework in multicultural education. The key takeaway: At the time, fewer than half of the 302 universities studied required students wanting to become teachers to take a course in multicultural education.

Among programs that train students to work as elementary school teachers, 45% required at least one course in multicultural education. For programs that train secondary school teachers, 45% required students to complete at least one multicultural education course. Neumann learned that a larger percentage of public university programs required a multicultural education course than did programs offered at private universities.

Self-Efficacy and Multicultural Teacher Education in the United States: The Factors That Influence Who Feels Qualified to be a Multicultural Teacher Educator Paul C. Gorski, Shannon N. Davis and Abigail Reiter. Multicultural Perspectives , 2012.

This paper looks at which educators feel most qualified to teach multicultural education to students studying to become teachers. The analysis, based on a survey of 75 college instructors, indicates that Black educators tend to feel less qualified to teach multicultural teacher education courses than their counterparts of other races and ethnicities.

Heterosexual educators felt more qualified to teach multicultural teacher education courses than their LGBTQ counterparts, according to the paper, of which Gorski is the lead author. The other two authors are Shannon N. Davis , director of the PhD program in sociology at George Mason University, and Abigail Reiter , an assistant professor in the sociology and criminal justice department of the University of North Carolina at Pembroke.

The study also indicates that instructors’ experience working in schools — as elementary, middle or high school teachers — or their work as education activists “had no significant influence on their feelings of being qualified to teach MTE [multicultural teacher education] courses.”

Key resources

• This May 2020 report from the National Center for Education Statistics shows how student demographics have changed over time and are predicted to change by 2029.
• This February 2019 report from NCES finds that in fall 2015, the majority of white public school students were enrolled at schools where minority students comprised 25% or less of the student population.
• This September 2020 report from NCES examines public school teacher demographics. More than three-fourths of teachers working in U.S. public schools — 79% — were white as of 2017-18, the most recent academic year for which the federal government has complete data.
• Here is a list of the country’s top education schools , ranked by U.S. News & World Report .
• Kansas State University’s Tilford Group is a research organization that focuses on multicultural education.
• The National Education Association , one of the nation’s largest teacher unions, offers educators various types of training through its Center for Social Justice .
• The nonprofit National Association for Multicultural Education provides a range of relevant resources. The organization’s president is Lisa Zagumny , who also is the dean and director of doctoral studies at Tennessee Technological University’s College of Education.

About The Author

Denise-Marie Ordway

James Banks: Preeminent Scholar of Multicultural Civic Education

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• First Online: 18 July 2023
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For over a half century, James Banks has been central to the creation of accessible theories and practices that have accrued him international recognition as the preeminent scholar of multicultural civic education, often referred to as “the father of multicultural education.” Banks grew up in the racially segregated South of the United States on a cotton farm in the Arkansas Delta and learned as Black child to navigate the racism of Jim Crow practices. Banks’s entire career must be contextualized within historical struggles for full citizenship rights under ever-present threats of vigilantism and sanctioned police violence.

During the 1960s, James Banks moved to Chicago, completed an undergraduate degree, and went on to teach elementary school in Illinois. After completing his Ph.D. at Michigan State University in 1969, Banks became the first African American hired in the College of Education at the University of Washington in Seattle where he worked for 50 years until his retirement in 2019.

James Banks is past-president of both the National Council of Social Studies and the American Educational Research Association. Among his hundreds of publications, Banks’s major scholarship includes the Handbook of Research on Multicultural Education ; Teaching Strategies for Ethnic Studies; Cultural Diversity and Education: Foundations, Curriculum, and Teaching ; the four-volume Encyclopedia of Diversity in Education ; and initiating and editing 80 books for the Multicultural Education Series for Columbia University’s Teachers College Press. For those who worked in any capacity with James Banks, he is also known for his generosity and inclusiveness.

• Multicultural education
• Citizenship education
• Ethnic studies
• Social studies
• White supremacy
• Canon debate

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Further Reading

Crocco, M. S. (2020). Diversity, transformative knowledge, and civic education: Selected essays by James A. Banks. Schools, 17 (2), 332–339. https://doi.org/10.1086/710951

Mosaic Nation. (2012). Dr. James A. Banks – Founder of multicultural education. [Video interview]. https://vimeo.com/32916535

Teachers College Press. (2023). Multicultural education series. Author. https://www.tcpress.com/search?search_term=multicultural+education+series

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Vavrus, M. (2023). James Banks: Preeminent Scholar of Multicultural Civic Education. In: Geier, B.A. (eds) The Palgrave Handbook of Educational Thinkers . Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-81037-5_123-1

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What We Can Learn from Multicultural Education Research

Beliefs about students matter, content and materials matter, instructional approaches matter, educational settings matter, teacher education matters, does the race and ethnicity of teachers matter.

I hate [African-American students'] ethnic attitude and their lingo. I hate to categorize it but ... I am more comfortable with black students who act white (Birrell 1993).

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Banks, J. A. (1993a). “Multicultural Education for Young Children: Racial and Ethnic Attitudes and Their Modification.” In Handbook of Research on the Education of Young Children , edited by B. Spodek. New York: Macmillan.

Banks, J. A. (1993b). “Multicultural Education: Development, Dimensions, and Challenges.” Phi Delta Kappan 75: 22–28.

Birrell, J. (February 1993). “A Case Study of the Influence of Ethnic Encapsulation on a Beginning Secondary School Teacher.” Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Association of Teacher Educators, Los Angeles.

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Multicultural education : Journals

• Bilingual research journal "The Bilingual Research Journal is the National Association for Bilingual Education’s premier scholarly, peer-reviewed research publication. Bilingual Research Journal delivers in-depth coverage of education theory and practice, dealing with bilingual education, bilingualism, and language policies in education."
• International journal of multicultural education "International Journal of Multicultural Education (IJME) is a peer-reviewed open-access journal for scholars, practitioners, and students of multicultural education. Committed to promoting educational equity for all, cross-cultural understanding, and global awareness in all levels of education including leadership and policies, IJME publishes (1) reports of empirical research typically in qualitative research orientation (some special issues may publish quantiative studies); (2) literature-based conceptual articles that advance theories and scholarship of multicultural education; and (3) praxis articles that discuss successful multicultural education practices grounded on sound theories."
• Journal for multicultural education
• Journal of diversity in higher education "Journal of Diversity in Higher Education largely publishes empirical research focused on issues related to issues of diversity, equity, and inclusion in post-secondary environments."
• Journal of educational controversy "Welcome to the Journal of Educational Controversy — an interdisciplinary electronic journal of ideas. The purpose of this peer reviewed journal is to provide a national and international forum for examining the dilemmas and controversies that arise in the education of citizens in a pluralistic, democratic society."
• Journal of language, identity, and education The Journal of Language, Identity, and Education is an international forum for original research on the intersections of language, identity, and education in global and local contexts. We are interested in interdisciplinary studies that examine how issues of language impact individual and community identities and intersect with educational practices and policies.
• Journal of multicultural counseling and development "Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development (JMCD) is concerned with research, theory, and program applications pertinent to multicultural and ethnic minority interests in all areas of counseling and human development."
• Journal of multilingual and multicultural development "The Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development is a cross-disciplinary journal for researchers from diverse scholarly and geographical backgrounds. It is concerned with macro-level coverage of topics in the sociology and social psychology of language, and in language and cultural politics, policy, planning and practice."
• Language culture and curriculum " Language, Culture and Curriculum is a well-established journal that seeks to enhance the understanding of the relations between the three dimensions of its title. It welcomes work dealing with a wide range of languages (mother tongues, global English, foreign, minority, immigrant, heritage, or endangered languages) in the context of bilingual and multilingual education and first, second or additional language learning. It focuses on research into cultural content, literacy or intercultural and transnational studies, usually related to curriculum development, organisation or implementation."
• Multicultural education (San Francisco, Calif.) "Provides articles, interviews, promising practices & resources in multicultural education."
• Multicultural learning and teaching "Explores the education of people from diverse multicultural backgrounds in a variety of learning environments, inside and outside the classroom. The journal focuses on the broad implications of multicultural learning and teaching practices around the world, going beyond traditional education journals to offer analysis and practical recommendations of interest to teachers, counseling and community-service providers, school administrators, urban program specialists, education policymakers, and any professionals who grapple with questions of multicultural communication."
• Multicultural perspectives "Promotes the philosophy of social justices, equity and inclusion. It celebrates cultural and ethnic diversity as a national strength that enriches society."
• Multiple voices for ethnically diverse exceptional learners : a publication of the Division for Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Exceptional Learners :Multiple Voices - Disability, Race, and Language Intersections in Special Education is the official, peer-reviewed journal of the Council for Exceptional Children's Division for Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Exceptional Learners (DDEL). Multiple Voices is published twice a year and welcomes original research articles, conceptual or theoretical pieces, and book reviews that explores equitable educations for youth at the intersection of disability, race, ethnicity, and language."
• Race, ethnicity and education "Race Ethnicity and Education is the leading peer-reviewed journal on racism and race inequality in education. The journal provides a focal point for international scholarship, research and debate by publishing original and challenging research that explores the dynamics of race, racism and ethnicity in education policy, theory and practice. "
• Learning for Justice "Our work has evolved in the last 30 years, from reducing prejudice to tackling systemic injustice."
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• Last Updated: Jun 8, 2023 4:15 PM
• URL: https://guides.library.stanford.edu/multicultural_ed