research paper art styles

• Art Degrees
• Galleries & Exhibits
• Request More Info

Art History Resources

• Guidelines for Analysis of Art
• Formal Analysis Paper Examples

Guidelines for Writing Art History Research Papers

• Oral Report Guidelines
• Annual Arkansas College Art History Symposium

Writing a paper for an art history course is similar to the analytical, research-based papers that you may have written in English literature courses or history courses. Although art historical research and writing does include the analysis of written documents, there are distinctive differences between art history writing and other disciplines because the primary documents are works of art. A key reference guide for researching and analyzing works of art and for writing art history papers is the 10th edition (or later) of Sylvan Barnet’s work, A Short Guide to Writing about Art . Barnet directs students through the steps of thinking about a research topic, collecting information, and then writing and documenting a paper.

A website with helpful tips for writing art history papers is posted by the University of North Carolina.

Wesleyan University Writing Center has a useful guide for finding online writing resources.

The following are basic guidelines that you must use when documenting research papers for any art history class at UA Little Rock. Solid, thoughtful research and correct documentation of the sources used in this research (i.e., footnotes/endnotes, bibliography, and illustrations**) are essential. Additionally, these guidelines remind students about plagiarism, a serious academic offense.

Paper Format

Research papers should be in a 12-point font, double-spaced. Ample margins should be left for the instructor’s comments. All margins should be one inch to allow for comments. Number all pages. The cover sheet for the paper should include the following information: title of paper, your name, course title and number, course instructor, and date paper is submitted. A simple presentation of a paper is sufficient. Staple the pages together at the upper left or put them in a simple three-ring folder or binder. Do not put individual pages in plastic sleeves.

Documentation of Resources

The Chicago Manual of Style (CMS), as described in the most recent edition of Sylvan Barnet’s A Short Guide to Writing about Art is the department standard. Although you may have used MLA style for English papers or other disciplines, the Chicago Style is required for all students taking art history courses at UA Little Rock. There are significant differences between MLA style and Chicago Style. A “Quick Guide” for the Chicago Manual of Style footnote and bibliography format is found http://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/tools_citationguide.html. The footnote examples are numbered and the bibliography example is last. Please note that the place of publication and the publisher are enclosed in parentheses in the footnote, but they are not in parentheses in the bibliography. Examples of CMS for some types of note and bibliography references are given below in this Guideline. Arabic numbers are used for footnotes. Some word processing programs may have Roman numerals as a choice, but the standard is Arabic numbers. The use of super script numbers, as given in examples below, is the standard in UA Little Rock art history papers.

The chapter “Manuscript Form” in the Barnet book (10th edition or later) provides models for the correct forms for footnotes/endnotes and the bibliography. For example, the note form for the FIRST REFERENCE to a book with a single author is:

1 Bruce Cole, Italian Art 1250-1550 (New York: New York University Press, 1971), 134.

But the BIBLIOGRAPHIC FORM for that same book is:

Cole, Bruce. Italian Art 1250-1550. New York: New York University Press. 1971.

The FIRST REFERENCE to a journal article (in a periodical that is paginated by volume) with a single author in a footnote is:

2 Anne H. Van Buren, “Madame Cézanne’s Fashions and the Dates of Her Portraits,” Art Quarterly 29 (1966): 199.

The FIRST REFERENCE to a journal article (in a periodical that is paginated by volume) with a single author in the BIBLIOGRAPHY is:

Van Buren, Anne H. “Madame Cézanne’s Fashions and the Dates of Her Portraits.” Art Quarterly 29 (1966): 185-204.

If you reference an article that you found through an electronic database such as JSTOR, you do not include the url for JSTOR or the date accessed in either the footnote or the bibliography. This is because the article is one that was originally printed in a hard-copy journal; what you located through JSTOR is simply a copy of printed pages. Your citation follows the same format for an article in a bound volume that you may have pulled from the library shelves. If, however, you use an article that originally was in an electronic format and is available only on-line, then follow the “non-print” forms listed below.

B. Non-Print

Citations for Internet sources such as online journals or scholarly web sites should follow the form described in Barnet’s chapter, “Writing a Research Paper.” For example, the footnote or endnote reference given by Barnet for a web site is:

3 Nigel Strudwick, Egyptology Resources , with the assistance of The Isaac Newton Institute for Mathematical Sciences, Cambridge University, 1994, revised 16 June 2008, http://www.newton.ac.uk/egypt/ , 24 July 2008.

If you use microform or microfilm resources, consult the most recent edition of Kate Turabian, A Manual of Term Paper, Theses and Dissertations. A copy of Turabian is available at the reference desk in the main library.

C. Visual Documentation (Illustrations)

Art history papers require visual documentation such as photographs, photocopies, or scanned images of the art works you discuss. In the chapter “Manuscript Form” in A Short Guide to Writing about Art, Barnet explains how to identify illustrations or “figures” in the text of your paper and how to caption the visual material. Each photograph, photocopy, or scanned image should appear on a single sheet of paper unless two images and their captions will fit on a single sheet of paper with one inch margins on all sides. Note also that the title of a work of art is always italicized. Within the text, the reference to the illustration is enclosed in parentheses and placed at the end of the sentence. A period for the sentence comes after the parenthetical reference to the illustration. For UA Little Rcok art history papers, illustrations are placed at the end of the paper, not within the text. Illustration are not supplied as a Powerpoint presentation or as separate .jpgs submitted in an electronic format.

Edvard Munch’s painting The Scream, dated 1893, represents a highly personal, expressive response to an experience the artist had while walking one evening (Figure 1).

The caption that accompanies the illustration at the end of the paper would read:

Figure 1. Edvard Munch, The Scream, 1893. Tempera and casein on cardboard, 36 x 29″ (91.3 x 73.7 cm). Nasjonalgalleriet, Oslo, Norway.

Plagiarism is a form of thievery and is illegal. According to Webster’s New World Dictionary, to plagiarize is to “take and pass off as one’s own the ideas, writings, etc. of another.” Barnet has some useful guidelines for acknowledging sources in his chapter “Manuscript Form;” review them so that you will not be mguilty of theft. Another useful website regarding plagiarism is provided by Cornell University, http://plagiarism.arts.cornell.edu/tutorial/index.cfm

Plagiarism is a serious offense, and students should understand that checking papers for plagiarized content is easy to do with Internet resources. Plagiarism will be reported as academic dishonesty to the Dean of Students; see Section VI of the Student Handbook which cites plagiarism as a specific violation. Take care that you fully and accurately acknowledge the source of another author, whether you are quoting the material verbatim or paraphrasing. Borrowing the idea of another author by merely changing some or even all of your source’s words does not allow you to claim the ideas as your own. You must credit both direct quotes and your paraphrases. Again, Barnet’s chapter “Manuscript Form” sets out clear guidelines for avoiding plagiarism.

VISIT OUR GALLERIES SEE UPCOMING EXHIBITS

• School of Art and Design
• Windgate Center of Art + Design, Room 202 2801 S University Avenue Little Rock , AR 72204
• Phone: 501-916-3182 Fax: 501-683-7022 (fax)
• More contact information

Connect With Us

UA Little Rock is an accredited member of the National Association of Schools of Art and Design.

• University of Texas Libraries

Art and Art History

• How to Write About Art
• Overview Resources
• Find Art & Art History Books
• Find Art and Art History Articles
• Find Images
• Color Resources
• Collecting & Provenance This link opens in a new window
• Art Collections at UT
• Foundry @ FAL Information
• Professional Art Organizations

Write and Cite

• Cite Sources UT Austin Guide Learn more about what citations are and how to manage them. Includes information about citation tools like Noodle Tools and Zotero.
• UT Austin University Writing Center A resource for help with your writing. The Writing Center includes one on one consultations as well as classes.
• OWL Purdue - Chicago Style The OWL Purdue is a great resource for writing and citation help. Chicago Style is the preferred citation format for art history. The OWL also includes citation help for other styles include APA and MLA.

Writing Aids and Publication Manuals

Write about Art

• Last Updated: Oct 20, 2023 7:31 AM
• URL: https://guides.lib.utexas.edu/art

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

• Publications
• Account settings

Preview improvements coming to the PMC website in October 2024. Learn More or Try it out now .

• Advanced Search
• Journal List
• Front Hum Neurosci

Visualizing the Impact of Art: An Update and Comparison of Current Psychological Models of Art Experience

Matthew pelowski.

1 Department of Basic Research and Research Methods, Faculty of Psychology, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria

Patrick S. Markey

Jon o. lauring.

2 BRAINlab, Department of Neuroscience and Pharmacology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark

Helmut Leder

The last decade has witnessed a renaissance of empirical and psychological approaches to art study, especially regarding cognitive models of art processing experience. This new emphasis on modeling has often become the basis for our theoretical understanding of human interaction with art. Models also often define areas of focus and hypotheses for new empirical research, and are increasingly important for connecting psychological theory to discussions of the brain. However, models are often made by different researchers, with quite different emphases or visual styles. Inputs and psychological outcomes may be differently considered, or can be under-reported with regards to key functional components. Thus, we may lose the major theoretical improvements and ability for comparison that can be had with models. To begin addressing this, this paper presents a theoretical assessment, comparison, and new articulation of a selection of key contemporary cognitive or information-processing-based approaches detailing the mechanisms underlying the viewing of art. We review six major models in contemporary psychological aesthetics. We in turn present redesigns of these models using a unified visual form, in some cases making additions or creating new models where none had previously existed. We also frame these approaches in respect to their targeted outputs (e.g., emotion, appraisal, physiological reaction) and their strengths within a more general framework of early, intermediate, and later processing stages. This is used as a basis for general comparison and discussion of implications and future directions for modeling, and for theoretically understanding our engagement with visual art.

Introduction

Today, millions of individuals across the globe regularly encounter works of art. Whether, in the museum, the city-center, or on the web, art is an omnipresent part of human life. Underlying the fascination with art is a uniquely impactful experience. When individuals describe noteworthy art or explain why they go to museums, most often they refer to a complex mix of psychological events (Pelowski and Akiba, 2011 ). Art viewing engenders myriad emotions, evokes evaluations, physiological reactions, and in some cases can mark or alter lives. Reactions can also differ greatly between individuals and settings, or evolve within individual experiences themselves.

Understanding this multifaceted impact of art is key for numerous areas of scholarship—including all humanities, sociology, evolution, museum education, art history—and is especially key for psychology and empirical art research (Leder, 2013 ). The relevance of the topic has only grown in the past decade, which has seen a burgeoning of psychological aesthetics through the emergence of new empirical methods, growing interest in affect and emotion, and new integration between behavioral and neurophysiological analyses.

Perhaps most important, recent approaches have been accompanied by attempts to model the underlying processes of art engagement (Leder, 2013 ). These models build from recent trends in cognitive science, employing a visual approach for highlighting the interconnections and outcomes in our experience. They posit key inputs, and connect these via a flow of processing stages (often utilizing a box-and-arrow design) to outcomes or psychological implications. Thus, by offering a process-driven articulation of psychological elements, models have become the indispensable basis for shaping hypotheses. Even more, by stepping beyond written theory and articulating ideas within a visual frame, models can emphasize processes and important elements that previously might have been merely implicit. Thus, the visual models themselves often become the working theories for art study, and determine empirical research.

However, current modeling also suffers from several limitations, which hamper our ability to fully compare and understand approaches. Models are often made with different emphases and visual grammars. There are often also different arrangements of processing stages or focus on different portions of the processing sequence. Psychological inputs and outcomes are also often differently considered, or can be omitted from the processing sequence. Thus, we often lose the major theoretical benefit—a clear connection between inputs, processes, and outputs—that can be had from placing ideas into a visual form. It is also difficult to consider various models' overlaps or major differences when explaining specific reactions to art, and thus difficult to articulate how they might contribute to our understanding of art experience.

This is the goal of this paper, which represents our attempt to provide a comparison of current key modeling approaches, and involving their translation into a comparable visual format. We do this by reviewing six influential approaches to art experience, as well as supporting literature by the same authors, and place these into a model form. For existing models, we adapt the previous approaches to a unified layout, and also suggest additions or changes based on our literature review. When an author's idea does not yet have a visual form, we newly create models based on their arguments. Through our review, we also give specific consideration to outputs or psychological implications for art experience, as well as general organization around early, intermediate and late processing stages. We end with a synthesis and discussion of avenues for future research. In this review, we have chosen approaches, which, we feel, have come to be bases for the past decade of general empirical art-viewing research, and which employ a cognitive or information processing focus. Although this paper can, admittedly, only address a small selection of models, by providing this analysis, we hope to create one more useful tool for advancing understanding of art processing and modeling research.

Review: key model components and previous approaches to modeling art

Before beginning, it is instructive to briefly review what aspects should be considered in models of viewing art, and which will provide the material for this paper's comparison. Psychological models generally have three main components. These include: (1) inputs that feed into experience. These might include personality of the viewer, social or cultural setting, background affective state, other context (e.g., Jacobsen, 2006 ), as well as the specific artwork body and its history (Bullot and Reber, 2013 ); (2) processing mechanisms, which act on the inputs in specific stages (explained further below); and (3) mental and behavioral consequences (outputs) that arise from processing art. While it is the second stage of actual processing that makes up the bulk of models we will review, it is these outputs that constitute their implicit goal of addressing art interaction, and also the frame for this paper's review.

A literature review suggests multiple output examples. We have given these short labels, which will be used in the following discussions, and which can be divided into four main clusters: First, art has the capability to influence basic aspects of affect or the body. This can come from: (1) Affect , specific emotions/moods evoked by content or derived from the act of viewing; (2) Physiology , such as heart rate, skin conductivity, or other processes of the autonomic nervous system (e.g., Tschacher et al., 2012 ); and (3) Actions , for example gesture, eye movement, or physical movement during art reception.

Art also has been connected to numerous aspects of perception and understanding (e.g., see Leder et al., 2004 ), including: (4) Appraisals or particular judgments (beauty, liking); (5) Meaning-making as well as ability to strengthen conceptions, help us to learn, challenge our ideas, or even lead to insight. (6) Novelty: Art can impact what we see, induce changes in visual or perceptual experience involving new attention to physical aspects.

There are also elements which are more art-specific, or which are particularly salient in reports of art experience: (7) Transcendence : feelings of more sudden change, epiphany, or catharsis (Pelowski and Akiba, 2011 ); (8) Aesthetic mode: “aesthetic” emotions and responses, which might involve a state of being, whereby one detaches or uncouples from concerns or everyday life perceptions, often related to periods of contemplation or harmonious enjoyment, as well as potential positive reaction to negatively-valenced or troubling art (Cupchik et al., 2009 ). (9) Negative affect: Art can also evoke negative reactions such as disgust, queasiness or anger—outcomes that particularly require an explanation in models of experience (Silvia, 2009 ).

Art is also argued to create longitudinal impacts. These include: (10) Self-adjustment , changes in one's personality, worldview, cognitive ability (Lasher et al., 1983 ), or in the relation between art and viewer. This might also include a deepened ability to appreciate art or a more general improvement in visual-spatial ability (Funch et al., 2012 ). (11) Social : Art also may guide social behavior—e.g., in rituals or institutions—or lead to social ends such as indoctrination or social cohesion (Dissayanake, 2008 ). (12) Health : art may even have general impact on health and wellbeing, for example through reduced stress (Cuypers et al., 2012 ).

A brief note on previous art modeling research

The above aspects have been the main focus for attempts to explain interaction with art. Models—as a result of systematic, scientific endeavor—can be traced back to at least the work of Berlyne (e.g., Berlyne, 1960 , 1974 ; see also Funch, 2013 for review), who revived focus on art within empirical aesthetics, integrating a psychophysiological and cognitive perspective. Looking to physiological arousal, he posited opposing reward and aversion systems tied to “collative” art properties. He was followed by Kreitler and Kreitler ( 1972 ), who took a largely cognitive and Gestalt approach, arguing that artwork content and structure make it a carrier of multiple meanings that can stimulate understanding and emotion. Similarly, based on Gestalt perception, (e.g., Arnheim, 1966 ) considered the means whereby structural unity of artworks (balance, grouping) and individual features drive responses. This was followed by, for example, Martindale (Martindale, 1988 ; Martindale et al., 1988 ), who more fully emphasized cognition, focusing on matching of schema and stimulus, and proposing prototypicality as a key determinant for positive appraisal/affective response. These were followed by an even greater expansion of approaches. Notable examples include: Lasher et al. ( 1983 ), who proposed a cognition-based model of profound experience or insight; Ramachandran and Hirstein ( 1999 ), who gave one of the first attempts to posit universal rules for reactions and their underlying biological or neurological connections; and Jacobsen ( 2006 ) as well as Solso ( 1994 ), Vitz ( 1988 ), Zeki and Nash ( 1999 ), who presented an integrative neuro-cognitive theory. Other important approaches, many of which deal with specific aspects of viewing, also include: the fluency-based theory of aesthetic pleasure by Reber et al. ( 2004 ); Graf and Landwehr's ( 2015 ) updated consideration of fluency and visual interest; Van de Cruys and Wagemans ( 2011 ) account of rewarding reactions; Armstrong and Detweiler-Bedell's ( 2008 ) work with beauty; Funch's ( 2007 ) phenomenological model of art experience; Carbon ( 2011 ); Hekkert's ( 2012 ) design-based model; Bullot and Reber's ( 2013 ) integrated model of low-level processes and top-down integration regarding viewer knowledge of artwork history; and Tinio's ( 2013 ) consideration of creating/viewing art.

These approaches, among many others, give a basis for present modeling, notably pointing out the importance of individual elements such as beauty, pleasure. They also represent a research trend from emphasizing single, often simple visual elements to a more complex interplay of factors, which may drive emotion and physiological response. Especially cognitive approaches have also strongly contributed to the basic input-process-output form of the models we consider below.

Current models and cohesive theories of interacting with art

What follows is a review of six models, which we feel, offer a good overview of present approaches to general empirical exploration of art experience. These again are not the only important models, as witnessed from the review above, but were chosen because they offer psychological explanations which are explicit in respect to underlying cognitive processes, and which are presently used in empirical consideration of outputs/inputs when viewing art. The following paragraphs will follow a repeated pattern: First, the background and main elements of each model are presented and put into a unified visual form. When a visual example has been previously produced by the models' authors, we have attempted to reproduce in verbatim the original structure and wording, with only some shifting in the location of elements. At the same time, we have taken the liberty of creating new models or new processing elements when this was deemed to be necessary. To distinguish from our own additions, previously created model components are shown in black, while our contributions are shown in blue. All models will thus have a standardized format, employing five components. Inputs and contextual factors are shown with rounded edges and depicted on the far left, processing stages in the middle, and outputs on the far right (distinguished by a gray band).

The middle section also incorporates a timeline (bottom), showing general ordering and designating early, intermediate, and late processing stages. These were included because the specific placement of components within these stages may be key in hypothesis-making, and the relative emphasis also varies greatly between the reviewed models. Although there is as of yet no agreed-upon distinction, generally the early stage refers to immediate, automatic, bottom-up visual processing and attention, while intermediate refers to more specific processes involving object recognition, classification and memory contribution. The late stage refers to more overt cognitive components such as reflection, association, or changes in viewer approach (Leder and Nadal, 2014 ). Thus, this factor provided one more point for comparison and for the ordering of model presentation below. In the time line, we also include designation of automatic or more overtly conscious processing, as this is mentioned in many approaches. Finally, specific outputs, using the above labels (see also Table 2 ), are placed in red circles at their suggested model location. If an output could be posited, yet was not explicitly considered by the authors, it is shown in a lighter shade.

Chatterjee: neurological/cognitive model

We begin with the earliest model from the present group, and one which emphasizes early processing stages. This also makes a nice example of the present box and arrow design. This model was introduced by Chatterjee ( 2004 , 2009 , 2010 ; see Cela-Conde et al., 2011 for review), and has become a central tool for framing empirical assessments. It was designed to address cognitive and neuropsychological aspects, connecting processing stages to brain functioning. Chatterjee ( 2010 ) argues that visual interaction with art has multiple components and that experience emerges from a combination of responses to these elements. It draws its main theoretical emphasis from vision research (Chatterjee, 2004 , 2010 ). Thus, it focuses primarily on three stages which are argued to correspond to the rough functional division of “early,” “intermediate,” and “late” human visual recognition (e.g., Marr, 1982 ).

As shown in Figure ​ Figure1, 1 , where we have reproduced the original model, Chatterjee posits that visual attributes of art are first processed, like any other stimulus, by extracting simple components (location, color, shape, luminance, motion) from the visual environment, and processing these in different brain regions 1 . Early features are subsequently either segregated or, most often, grouped to form larger units in intermediate vision. Here, elements help to define the object and to “process and make sense of what would otherwise be a chaotic and overwhelming” array of information (Chatterjee, 2004 , p. 55). Late vision then involves selecting regions to scrutinize or to give attention, as well as evoking memories, attaching meaning, and assessing foci of specific evolutionary importance (e.g., faces, landscapes) 2 . Following recognition and assessment, evaluations are then evoked as well as emotions.

Chatterjee model adapted from original visual model in Chatterjee ( 2004 ) . Original elements shown in black. Additions not originally included in model shown in blue. If possible, original wording has been retained or adapted from model author's publications.

This model also provides an important basis for empirically approaching the role of the brain, with imaging studies having identified regions tied to its posited stages (Nadal et al., 2008 ). It affords a basis for making observations about how we progress in viewing, and how particular aspects—in relation to the way they are processed by the brain—impact judgments. For example, it suggests that one first perceives formal elements due to their importance in early and intermediate vision, while content is typically assessed in later vision (Chatterjee, 2010 ). Further, the model affords nuanced understanding of how processes may integrate. For example, the process of taking initially diverse perceptions from the first stage and grouping them within the second may explain satisfaction or interest often generated by complex art (Chatterjee, 2004 ), suggesting a “unity in diversity,” which itself is a central idea in aesthetics.

The model also highlights the transition from automatic to self-aware assessment. It is argued that the initial perception of many formal features (e.g., attractiveness, beauty), as well as intermediate grouping, occurs automatically (Chatterjee, 2010 ). This is followed by memory-dependent processing, where the perceiver's knowledge and background experiences are activated, and consequently, objects are identified, leading to experience-defining outcomes that result from often effortful and focused cognition, such as meaning-making and aesthetic judgments (Tinio, 2013 ). Thus, a general progression from bottom-up to top-down processing, and from low-level features to more complex higher-order assessments of art, is illustrated. This approach does not imply a strictly linear “sequence” (Chatterjee, 2004 ). Rather, processes may often run in parallel, and the individual may revisit or jump between stages (Nadal et al., 2008 ).

Model outputs

This model affords opportunity for discussion of several impacts from art (Zaidel et al., 2013 for similar review). First, the model first focuses on reward value, which is connected to numerous brain regions and specifically associated with the generation of pleasant feelings in anticipation and response to art (“ Affect ” in Figure ​ Figure1 1 ) 3 . High-level top-down processes are also involved in forming evaluative judgments and thus represent another vital component of aesthetic experiences ( Appraisal ) 4 . The model proposes a fluency or mastery-based assessment, where success in processing leads to positive responses. Due to its tie to brain function in reward and pleasure areas, the model could potentially also account for Negative responses here, which would presumably be linked to failing to place and group visual aspects, although this had not been described (we have made this addition in the Figure). The processing of objects, extraction of prototypes, connection to memory and final decision would also presumably connect to meaning-making or understanding ( Meaning ). Zaidel et al. ( 2013 , p. 104) also note that “neuroimaging studies have identified an enhancement of cortical sensory processing” 5 during aesthetic experiences. This would involve attention and may be tied to physical Action (eye movements), Physiology (relating to enhanced brain activity in certain regions), and changes in perception (enabling perception of new aspects or Novelty ). This process may also include self-awareness, monitoring of one's affective state or conflict resolution, which may play a role in bringing about final aesthetic emotion and judgment.

The above three aspects are also connected to the possibility for profound/ Aesthetic experience. If intermediate processing involves perceptions of specifically compelling or pleasing qualities of an object (e.g., symmetry, balance, as well as content) these qualities are argued to engage frontal-parietal attention circuits. These networks may continue to modulate processing, as an individual continues looking, within the ventral visual stream. Thus, “a feed forward system,” as might be seen in the arrow connecting early vision to attention, is established “in which the attributes of an aesthetic object engage attention, and attention further enhances the processing of these attributes” (Chatterjee, 2004 , p. 55), leading to heightened engagement and pleasure. This outcome may also be particularly unique for defining aesthetic experiences (Nadal et al., 2008 ). We have suggested this connection in our update to the model.

Chatterjee ( 2011 ) also suggests that the evolutionary or biological basis for human fascination with art may be tied to the interplay of three factors: (1) beauty, potentially linked to the evolutionary aspect of mate selection; (2) aesthetic attitude, or mental processes involved when apprehending objects, and which may connect with the idea of “prototypes” (presumably in early vision) which are preferred and may influence environmental navigation. Finally, (3) he notes cultural or socially-derived concepts of “making special” (e.g., Dissayanake, 2008 ), where ordinary objects are transformed by the artist and whereby the institutional frameworks that promote and display art may tie to adaptive importance in enhancing cooperation and continuity within human groups. This latter might then connect to more longitudinal impacts ( Social ).

Regarding inputs (primarily the blue arrows from the model left side), Tinio ( 2013 ), in his review, notes that the intermediary stage of vision should involve processing that recruits access to memory and processing that involves higher-order cognitions such as the perceiver's knowledge and background experiences, which may also influence the final stage of meaning-making. Chatterjee ( 2004 ), referencing Ramachandran and Hirstein ( 1999 ), also notes the importance of several artwork qualities. He suggests that neural structures that evolved to respond to specific visual stimuli respond more vigorously to primitives. This may be both based on previous experience, while also explaining the specific power of abstract art. In later theoretical work, he explained how other design cues might further impact the viewer. For example, artists might play with certain art-processing elements—violating physics of shadows, reflections, colors, and contours—thereby engendering specific brain responses (Chatterjee, 2010 ). Artists' use of complex interactions between visual components within art may also create a specifically powerful response by causing interplay between the dorsal (“where”) and ventral (“what”) vision systems within the first and second stages. Because the dorsal stream is sensitive to luminance differences, motion, and spatial location, while the ventral stream is sensitive to simple form and color, their interaction may lead to a shimmering quality of water or the sun's glow on the horizon, as in impressionist paintings (see also Livingstone, 2002 ).

Suggested additions

Finally, in regards to possible additions, besides those discussed above, the model is heavily influenced by both beauty and visual research, as well as philosophical ideas of (e.g., Kantian) disinterest (Vartanian and Nadal, 2007 ). While the emphasis on detached reception and visual pleasure may adhere to classical (pre-modern) art examples, it does not touch many aspects of modern art experience. Notably this includes a more robust or differentiated explanation for emotions, and negative evaluations. While the integrated nature of the model does allow for discussion of what brain areas may be tied to changes in perception/emotion, there is no explanation of the driving force that may bring these about. This is especially clear in Chatterjee's ( 2011 ) discussion of the evolutionary role of art. As he explains, focusing on liking or other aesthetic judgment as our sole focus would be maladaptive. If “the most profound …experiences involve a refined liking, often described as awe or feeling the sublime, in which wanting has been tossed aside, […and where] individuals lose themselves in the experience,” the individual would be rendered “vulnerable”—“Entering an aesthetic attitude is dangerous.” However, this does not take into account adaptations in the viewer. Most notably, we would recommend adding longitude changes (see box on far right), relating to making special or Social/Health . We would also suggest adding an indication of the “feed forward loop,” noted in the theoretical writing, and which appears to be placed between decision and attention stages, as well as contextual aspects such as perceiver and art qualities.

Locher et al.: early and intermediate visual processing

Locher et al. ( 2007 , 2010 ) also introduced a model, which deals with early/intermediate processing, primarily driven by empirical approaches to vision research. This model was conceived to describe the relationship between eye movements and scan patterns when processing visual art, 6 and takes a somewhat different approach to the model layout, centering on three overlapping elements. The “person context” relates to both the personality inputs and the internal processes of the viewer. “Artifact context” refers to the physical aspects of the art. The “interaction space” details the physical meeting of viewer and art, mainly pertaining to eye movement and other outputs regarding actions. For the purpose of unification with the other approaches, we have moved these inputs to the model's left side and moved the processing stages to the middle (Figure ​ (Figure2 2 ).

Locher model (adapted from Locher, 1996 ; Locher et al., 2010 ) .

The model involves two processing stages: First, similar to Chatterjee and following previous theory regarding vision (Marr, 1982 ; Rasche and Koch, 2002 ), Locher et al. argue that art viewing, like other perception, begins with a rapid survey of the global content of the pictorial field producing an initial “gist” impression (e.g., Locher, 2015 ) of global structural organization, composition and semantic meaning. This processing alone can activate memories, lead to emotion, and contribute to a first impression/evaluation. The detected gist information and resulting impression then drive the second stage, involving a more focused period of attention on form and functionality. This stage also involves focus on details or specific aspects of pictorial features in order to satisfy cognitive curiosity and to develop aesthetic appreciation. Information is gathered by moving the eyes over art in a sequence of rapid jumps, followed by fixations.

The authors posit that interaction in the second stage is also driven by the “Central Executive” (blue box inside “person context”)—consisting of “effortful control processes that direct voluntary attention” in a top-down, cognitively driven manner (Locher et al., 2010 , p. 71). This also forms the “crucial interface” between perception, memory, attention, and action (depicted in the model's box labeled “spatio-temporal aspects of encoding”), and performs four important executive processes (following Baddeley, 2007 ): focusing, dividing, or switching attention, and providing a link between working and long-term memory. Thus there is argued to be a continuous, dynamic bottom-up/top-down interaction inside the Central Executive, involving assessed properties (form) and functionality of the object, and “viewer sensory-motor-perceptual” (i.e., visual) processes, as well as viewer cognitive structure. “Thus, as an aesthetic experience progresses, the artifact presents continually changing, ‘action driven’ affordances” (Locher et al., 2010 , p. 71). These “influence the timing, rhythm, flow, and feel of the interaction.” Ultimately, “together the top-down and bottom-up component processes underlying thought and action create both meaning and aesthetic quality,” defining art experience. Like many of the other authors, Locher et al. note both automatic and more deliberate processing. Especially in the first phase, many aspects specific to a work—complexity, symmetry, organizational balance—are argued to be detected “automatically or pre-attentively by genetically determined, hard-wired” mechanisms (p. 73).

The model especially involves focus on eye movements ( Action ). The authors' research—using eye tracking, as well as museum based observations and participant descriptions—specifically shows evidence for the initial gist processing, relating to a movement of the eyes over a large visual area and showing attention to elements perceived as compositional units (Locher et al., 2007 ; see also Locher and Nodine, 1987 ; Locher, 1996 ; Nodine and Krupinski, 2003 ). They also showed a later switch to focus on details as well as expressiveness and style/form elements. This also gives new evidence for discussion of Appraisal and Meaning -making, which can result from this sequential looking. They note that the stage of early processing can itself play an important role in these outcomes. Further, within their most recent model discussion, the authors classify three channels of information that one might create. These are composed of functional or conceptual information, inherent information (via affordances communicated in the object), and augmented information, presumably that which is changed or developed through viewing ( Novelty ). These outcomes would most likely come through directed looking in the second stage. The authors also note that emotion ( Affect ) may be evoked throughout the viewing process, however, they do not address how.

The model notably argues for “two driving forces”: the “artifact itself” and a “person context that reflects the user's cognitive structures” (Locher et al., 2010 , p. 72). With respect to the artwork, the authors (2010, p. 73) cite research (e.g., Creusen and Schoormans, 2005 ), which suggests “at least six ways” in which appearance influences evaluation and choice, including conveying aesthetic and symbolic value, providing quality impression, functional characteristics and ease of use, drawing attention via novelty, and communicating “ease of categorization.”

Regarding the viewer, the authors note that this input “contains several types of [acquired] information (semantic, episodic, and strategic),” and is also the “repository of one's personality, motivations, and emotional state,” all of which influence, in a top-down fashion, how viewers “perceive,” and “evaluate” (Locher et al., 2010 , p. 73). They note that this might play a role in the second phase, where memory “spontaneously activates subsets of featural and semantic information in the user's knowledge base,” including the user's level of aesthetic sophistication, experience, tastes, education, culture, and personality. In addition, they note that “individuals are capable of rapidly detecting and categorizing learned properties of a stimulus,” for example characteristics of the artistic style and a composition's pleasantness and interestingness. “These responses occur by a rapid and direct match in activated memory between the structural features of an art object…and a viewer's knowledge” (p. 76). They also suggest that emotion itself may be an input. Locher ( 2015 ) also suggests that expertise of a viewer may play a particularly important role in the initial gist impression as well. For example, experts may give more importance to the initial impression and resulting affective reaction when appraising value or authenticity of artworks.

Locher et al. ( 2010 ) furthermore note importance of context. This includes social-cultural and socio-economic factors related to the object, its historical significance, symbolic associations and social value. These “contribute to a user's self-perception of his or her cultural taste” or aspirations (p. 78). These aspects are also argued to influence art interaction in a cognitively-driven, top-down fashion. However, the actual tie to outcomes is not discussed. Other mentioned factors include the environment, available time for viewing, and previous mood or exposures. For example, they cite studies in which individuals were primed by giving candy, resulting in better mood, which positively influenced evaluations, attention to details, and more balanced patterns of eye movement.

An integration of the discussion of action/eye-movement with emotion or evaluations would be useful. The authors also tend to place most aspects within the second stage and do not explain how possible sequences or patterns might lead to certain outputs within experience, nor how experience changes. This may also be a result of the lack of defined temporal flow in the model design. Interestingly, when Locher et al. ( 2007 ) gave individuals the opportunity to verbalize their initial gist reaction (roughly the first seven seconds), they did not find changes in the way individuals described artworks after this period, raising questions regarding the present delineation between stage one and two. They also do not consider longitudinal aspects. Better explanation of “augmented information”—one of the three channels of information argued to be created from looking in stage two—might give a point of entry for this. Further, in their empirical support for the model and its outputs, they note that their artworks were created by renowned artists “and are, therefore, presumably visually right” (Locher et al., 2007 , p. 74). However, this raises the question of what makes a work “right,” and how less visually-successful art might be processed.

Leder et al.: intermediate stages and aesthetic appreciation and judgments

A model that has its strengths in linking early and late processing, with focus on intermediate stages, is that of Leder and colleagues (Leder et al., 2004 ; updated in Leder, 2013 ; Leder and Nadal, 2014 ). This has also become perhaps the most prominent approach for empirical study (Vartanian and Nadal, 2007 ).

Based largely on the cognitive work of Kreitler, Kreitler, and Berlyne above (Leder et al., 2005 ), their model considers art experience as a series of information-processing stages, focusing largely on perceptual attunement to various formal factors in art. However, it also integrates this sensory information with “conceptual and abstracted” meaning (p. 12) as well as emotion and body responses. As shown in Figure ​ Figure3, 3 , after an initial pre-classification (most presumably regarding situational context), the model proposes five stages (Leder et al., 2004 ), occurring in sequence: (1) “perceptual analysis,” where an object is initially subjected to analysis of low-level visual features (e.g., shape, contrast); followed by (2) “implicit memory integration,” in which art is processed via previous experiences, expertise, and particular schema held by the viewer. This is followed by (3) an “explicit classification,” where one attunes to conceptual or formal/artistic factors, such as content and style, and (4) “cognitive mastering,” in which one creates and/or discovers meaning by making interpretations, associations, and links to existing knowledge. The process ends in (5) a stage of “evaluation,” where processing outcomes combine, culminating in both aesthetic judgment and the potential for “aesthetic emotions.” The model also makes a distinction between “explicit” and “implicit” processing (see timeline), with the first two (or possibly three) stages occurring automatically or with little conscious awareness (Tinio, 2013 ). In latter stages, there is then a component of self-aware or self-referential processing, where the perceiver “evaluates his affective state and uses this information to stop the processing once a satisfactory state is achieved” (Leder et al., 2004 , p. 502).

Leder model (adapted from Leder et al., 2004 ; Leder and Nadal, 2014 ) .

This model offers a number of advancements from previous work. Because all stages feed into a continuously updated state (Leder et al., 2004 ), it affords a more holistic understanding of how one comes to evaluations or responses. In addition it incorporates a number of factors—emotion, viewer experience, and formal aspects of artworks—to these stages, which partially influence final results. Thus, the model can be used for both a top-down, mechanism-based evaluation of the general processing of art, or for bottom-up, experience-based testing of hypotheses for specific sequences that may inform particular varieties of response (Vartanian and Nadal, 2007 ). Because of its emphasis on fundamental cognitive mechanisms, the model has also been used in a number of areas outside art—e.g., design, dance, and music (Leder, 2013 for review).

Primarily, this model proposes two outputs—aesthetic Appraisal and Affect . These are mainly explained as a result of successful visual/cognitive processing. The authors claim that part of the pleasure derived from looking is the feeling of having grasped the meaning, thus understanding an artwork results in reward-related brain activation. Looking at Figure ​ Figure3, 3 , emotion or assessment come about by moving through each stage, especially “cognitive mastery,” to a successful end. This argument is in keeping with a number of approaches—most notably Berlyne's concept of curiosity/interest and Bartlett's ( 1932 ) ( 1932 ; see Belke et al., 2010 ) “effort after meaning”—which stress importance of intellectual engagement or understanding as core dimensions of positive response. The model also notes meaning-making (Meaning) , suggesting that this comes through classification and implicit memory integration in which one connects a specific work to an interpretation. Finally, the model accounts for profound or Aesthetic experience. This is argued to derive from the natural extrapolation of the cognitive mastery process, whereby the more completely one can master a work, the more harmonious and pleasurable the outcome, occasionally to the extent that one experiences a pleasurable, “flow”-type experience (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990 ; Leder et al., 2004 ).

The model also mentions several inputs (left side, Figure ​ Figure1). 1 ). Primarily, the stages of implicit memory integration and explicit classification are argued to be influenced by previous art experience—determining whether one first sees, for example, a “post-impressionist work,” a “sunflower,” or a “Van Gogh” (Belke et al., 2010 ). Previous experience or expertise also impact assessments of prototypicality and fluency within the second stage—which influence positive/negative emotions and evaluations (Leder et al., 2004 , 2005 ). Explicit classification also involves processing of style and content, driven by personal viewer characteristics such as knowledge and taste (Leder et al., 2005 ; also Hager et al., 2012 ) and understanding of art historical context (e.g., see Bullot and Reber, 2013 ). More recently, an updated discussion of the model in regards to emotion (Leder et al., 2015 ) suggested that the switch between aesthetic or more pragmatic approaches in “explicit classification” may be driven by a check of one's desires for emotion or mood state. In cognitive mastering, where meaning is extracted, lay persons may also be more likely to draw on self-related interpretations like feelings, personal memories, or experience, while experts may rely more on art-specific style or concepts (Augustin and Leder, 2006 ; Hager et al., 2012 , p. 321). Leder ( 2013 ) extends this even to classifying objects as “Art.” He notes that top-down classification before the actual episode, may affect experience by engaging an aesthetic mode, regulating hedonic expectations, and thus modulating intensity of emotion or interest.

In regards to the actual outcome of viewing art, the exact relation of specific emotions or evaluations to certain given inputs largely remains unclear. As also noted by Leder ( 2013 ), there is need of a more integrated explanation of how emotion or other physiological responses might tie to processing experience. While the model notes the role of personality and experience as a driver of outcomes, and the specific stages where self components may have an impact, it does not consider how these aspects are actually integrated or acted upon within psychological experience (see also Silvia below) 7 . There is also need for more explanation of how art-viewing can alter perceptions or understanding within experience (Novelty, Transcendence, Self Adjustment). While acknowledging potential for such results, it remains unclear what must happen within specific encounters for a change of the next viewing moment or the next experience. Presumably, the process might follow our additions (far right: Figure ​ Figure3), 3 ), where specific mastery in one encounter (or even within one stage), mediated by positive feedback or emotion/evaluation, would allow one to add to memories/experiences, which would then modify the self. A related output might also be posited for art's longitudinal impacts (Social, Health).

Another issue involves disruptions. Recent work by Leder's group (Jakesch and Leder, 2009 ) has shown the importance of ambiguity or breakdowns in the mastery process. This is displayed in the “evaluation” stage, and may create a more intense experience by causing one to undergo another loop of the model. However, the specifics of how these arise and create intense vs., for example, negative reactions could be more fully addressed. As it stands, the model appears to afford only a one-way mechanism for improving mastery, which leads to pleasurable experience. This raises the question of how one overcomes difficulty or finds new interpretations (Leder, 2013 ). The model has also not been connected to specific negative outcomes or physical action. These could presumably be placed as one more component of affective state (bottom).

The late stages: Silvia et al.: appraisal theory and emotion with art

Several approaches also expand past the models above to consider in more detail later processing elements. First, the work of Silvia (e.g., Silvia, 2005a , b ) specifically builds on the ideas of Leder, emphasizing information processing and visual art. However, Silvia's approach focuses on the mechanisms for arriving at specific emotions and artwork assessments, while it simultaneously questions previous psychobiological, prototypicality, and processing fluency approaches.

Silvia (Silvia and Brown, 2007 ) argues that past processing theories had two major limitations: First, their use of fluency or typicality as a main determinate of positive or negative reactions leads to difficulties in explaining why specific emotions would arise beyond this basic affect. Specifically, previous theories could not discriminate between emotions. At best, they proposed an undifferentiated feeling of aversion or interest. Second, reactions to works could be both positive or negative, but this would depend on other contextual factors such as personality rather than just ability to fluently process. Further, it is especially “hard to derive” what feelings arise from not-fluent or non-prototypical interactions with art (Reber et al., 2004 ). In response, Silvia proposed an approach based in appraisal theory (e.g., Scherer et al., 2006 ) that connects reactions with the personal relationship between viewer and art. He argues that each emotion has a distinct appraisal structure or set of evaluations that evoke the response. These evaluations are inherently contextual and subjective, with the central assumption being that evaluations, not the object, are the local cause of experience.

As shown in Figure ​ Figure4, 4 , where we have produced a model based on his arguments, Silvia proposes that responses can be broken into two main components: (1) There is a “novelty check” (Silvia, 2005a , p. 122), which is connected to processing of “collative” factors (following Berlyne)—referring to the relative understandability, interestingness or uniqueness of art. This is also tied to the matching of object to the existing schema or expectations of the viewer, and might be further divided into both basic “congruence” and the relevance that the object or the act of matching has to one's goals or self (Silvia and Brown, 2007 ), with the output being a feeling of relative ease and understanding. (2) There is also “coping potential,” or estimate of relative control or efficacy within the situation itself (Silvia, 2005a ). Throughout his writing, he also includes a third factor, relating to (3) relative importance of the object/situation to the self.

Silvia model (created by the authors for this paper) .

For example, in the case of interest (Silvia, 2005a , 2006 ), the appraisal structure would consist of: (1) a judgment of high novelty/complexity (i.e., low schema congruence), combined with (2) high coping potential, and (3) low self relevance or little importance for one's goals or expectations and thus low perceived threat. In contrast, anger (Cooper and Silvia, 2009 ) would combine appraising an event as (1) inconsistent with one's schema (low schema congruence), but also (2) with low coping potential (e.g., as action beyond one's control) and (3) closely tied to one's goals/self. Because of this structure, Silvia concludes that in any situation, different people will have different responses to these processing checks, and thus different emotions to the same stimulus, or the same person may even have different emotions depending on context (Silvia, 2005a ). Like Leder, Silvia also emphasizes that responses need not require overt awareness.

This model also makes an important contribution, especially regarding art impact. The two main outcomes, as in the above models, are Affect and Appraisal . Silvia however adds to the previous models by proposing pathways for specific reactions (Silvia and Warburton, 2006 ), giving a frame for empirical assessment of experience. By assessing the processing checks noted above, typically via Likert-type assessments, 8 the model can explain why people have different emotions to the same event, and why different personality traits, skills, and values can predict responses (Silvia and Brown, 2007 ). This also enables movement beyond simple pleasure and preference, to surprise, confusion (Silvia and Nusbaum, 2011 ) as well as Negative responses such as anger, disgust, contempt (Silvia, 2009 ). As shown in Figure ​ Figure5, 5 , these are specifically explained as arising from low congruency and differences in relative coping and self relevance. Beyond emotion, Silvia also groups outputs into clusters (Cooper and Silvia, 2009 , p. 111), noting that appraisal theories “are componential theories,” which include facial, vocal, postural expressions or other Actions , as well as Physiological response.

Pelowski model (adapted from Pelowski and Akiba, 2011 ) .

The model also posits categories of responses that specifically tie to different self-art relations. He notes “knowledge emotions” (interest, confusion, surprise), which are tied to intellectual matching of stimuli to schema, typically in high coping contexts. “Hostile emotions” (anger, disgust, contempt), hinge on threat to goals/self. “Self-conscious” emotions (pride, shame, embarrassment) tie to appraising events as congruent or incongruent with one's goals, and are also viewed as being caused by oneself rather than external events (Silvia, 2009 ). In the knowledge emotion category, Silvia (2009, p. 49) also notes the role of meta-cognitive reflection on the self. These emotions “stem from people's appraisals of what they know, what they expect to happen, and what they think they can learn and understand.” With self-conscious emotions, “to experience feelings like pride, shame, guilt, regret…[we] must have a sense of self and the ability to reflect upon what the self has done” (p. 50). In both cases this reflection might act as a conduit to Adjustment /learning and/or creation of Meaning . Especially knowledge emotions may “motivate learning, thinking, and exploring, actions that foster the growth of knowledge” (Silvia, 2006 , p. 140), and would come about as an output of one model cycle. It is also presumably through the earlier matching of schema to art—or rather in mismatches, paired with acceptable levels of coping/relevance—that one encounters Novelty or changed perception.

In the discussion of hostile emotional responses, the role of the self relates to attack on identity or schema. Responses stem from a “deliberate trespass” (Silvia, 2009 , p. 49) against one's goals/values. These responses are tied to action that is often given as a means of maintaining or protecting the self, motivating aggression and self-assertion (Silvia, 2009 ). Finally, he notes potential longitudinal impact ( Self Adj .), claiming “a consistent finding …is that training in art affects people's emotional responses…[and] changes people's emotional responses by changing how they think about art” (Silvia, 2006 , p. 140). He links this especially to knowledge emotions experienced in the art processing experience.

Silvia also explicitly connects responses with inputs, specifically personality. He notes that perhaps the most important aspect is how events relate to important goals or values (Silvia and Brown, 2007 ). This was empirically considered, for example, in his finding of changes in correlation between complexity/coping and interest depending on other individual personality factors (Silvia, 2005a ). Elsewhere, in a study on chills and absorption, Silvia found that people high in “openness to experience” as well as art expertise reported more such responses (Silvia and Nusbaum, 2011 , p. 208).

Adjustments

Questions remain, especially regarding the ordering of the three assessment checks. Specifically, while previous writing tends to present them with only a rough order, one could argue that this would most likely not be the case. One might question whether there is a primacy of assessment for either schema congruence or self relevance. It could be argued that with low relevance, the outcome of the congruence check has little meaning. On the other hand, individuals may be predisposed to constant checks of congruence, relating to basic processing or self-preservation, and thus this assessment may often come first. Another question regards when and how we reflect on our experience. While Silvia does explain reactions in terms of self-related assessments, he does not detail exactly what kind of mechanism this would require. This is most clear in discussion of hostile reactions. Arguing against prior fluency or prototypicality approaches, Cooper and Silvia (2009, p. 113) claim “it seems unlikely” that people have hostile reactions to art “because they find it insufficiently pleasing, prototypical, meaningful.” Instead, “people appraise art in ways that evoke hostile emotions, …in short, some art makes some people mad.” However, this argument is rather circular. Therefore, it would be useful to go one step further, and visually articulate—within a model— why this might be so at the individual level. Similar discussions could also be made of specific actions or body responses. His approach also does not divide between automatic and more reflective experience. This question, he notes is “an intriguing, cutting-edge area of appraisal research” (Silvia, 2005b , p. 6). While noting that we might be changed from our experience and that emotional responses may change throughout art exposure, there is no explanation of how this might develop within experience itself (Silvia, 2006 ).

Pelowski et al.: discrepant and transformative reactions to art

The model of Pelowski (Pelowski and Akiba, 2009 , 2011 ) was also conceived as an extension of the Leder approach, with the addition of some appraisal theory elements, and attempts to refocus on the specific discussion of changes or evolutions in responses within the art interaction experience.

Pelowski et al. argue against a typical emphasis on harmony, fluency, or immediate understanding, and instead advocate a more labored process of discrepancy and subsequent adjustment. Pelowski and Akiba ( 2011 ) note that many past discussions of art experience—both theoretical and anecdotal—involve some means of disruption or break from the flow of everyday life experience. It is these untypical reactions that are argued to actually constitute the impact and importance of art, acting to disrupt a viewer's pre-expectations and forcing upon them a new means of perception or insight (see also Pelowski et al., 2012 ; Muth et al., 2015 for similar argument). Yet, these very qualities are often eliminated from the study of art perception. They further argue that models have come to “equate art perception to either an emotional/empathic alignment of viewer to artist or artwork” or to a cognitive “assessment of an artwork's …information” via matching of schema to the object of perception, leaving models “without a means of accounting for fundamental change within art experience” (Pelowski and Akiba, 2011 , p. 82). Like Silvia, they also argue that current approaches cannot describe how individuals arrive at specific reactions, limiting researchers' ability to unite cognitive, emotional, and evaluative reactions within experience.

Their model (Figure ​ (Figure5) 5 ) posits five stages, beginning with a specific conception of expectations or viewer identity. Pelowski and Akiba ( 2011 , p. 87) argues that viewers carry “fundamental meanings regarding themselves, other persons, objects, or behaviors—‘Who am I?’ ‘What is art?’ ‘How does art relate to me?”’ which collectively combine to form what they refer to as the “ideal self image.” Updating previous work by Carver ( 1996 ), Pelowski and Akiba ( 2011 ) specifically posit a theoretical construction for this self, which can be considered as a hierarchical pyramid with core traits (“be goals”) at the top, and branching down to expectations for general actions (“do goals”), and further subdivided into more specific schema. Through connection of low-level schema to core ideas of the self, all action (such as viewing art) then involves application of this structure. This occurs in tandem with human drives to protect the self image, through cognitive filters that lead attention away from potentially damaging information. Thus “success or failure in perception, as well as what individuals can [initially] perceive or understand, are a result of this postulate system” (pp. 85–87), and provide the mechanism for understanding reaction to art.

The authors then propose three main outcomes. First, individuals attempt to successfully match schema to art by classifying and understanding, coinciding with the “cognitive mastery” in the Leder model. They also acknowledge that this outcome is a general goal of most experience, and may induce pleasure, harmony, or even flow-type states. However, because this outcome marks a matching of schema to perception, mastery also would coincide with a “facile” reaction to art, reinforcing previous expectations and cutting off possibility for new perception or insight. Moving past this point, they argue, requires some “discrepancy” within experience. This can involve any number of aspects—e.g., between expectations for perception and art, between meaning and prior concepts, between bodily reactions and expectations for how one should act. In each case discrepancy acts to “bump” an individual out of their preconceived frame (Pelowski et al., 2014 , p. 4), forcing response or adjustment.

Upon discrepancy, the model then posits that individuals move to a “secondary control” stage in which they try to diminish or escape from the discrepant element. This is accompanied by actions—e.g., re-classifying art as bad or meaningless, diminishing importance of the encounter, or physically moving away—which avoid a questioning of higher-order aspects of the self image, and also explain the negative emotional or evaluative experiences sometimes had with art. On the other hand, if viewers persist, they may instead eventually alter their own schema in order to better approach the art. This is argued to be most likely when art-viewing has a fundamental tie to the self (representing a higher order goal) and one cannot easily escape (Pelowski and Akiba, 2011 ). This change also coincides with a shift from direct perception to a more meta-cognitive perspective, in which viewers give up previous attempts at control, acknowledge discrepancy, and eventually create new schema for viewing the art. They conclude that it is this process whereby one “transforms” the self, that can be connected to change, novelty, or insight, and coincides with highly positive emotion, and deepened or harmonious engagement.

This model is especially important for explaining both highly positive ( Aesthetic ), and Negative , as well as insightful or Novel and Transcendent reactions. The model also unites these within one progressive experience. It is argued that in order to arrive at the final outcome a viewer moves through all antecedent stages (Pelowski et al., 2012 ). In this vein, one of the model's key benefits is its division into specific stages, tied to application, protection or adjustment of the self. Thus the authors can attach general theory regarding various reactions noted for each of these events (see also Leder, 2013 ). Notably, they suggest emotion or Affect , which, following Silvia, would arise in specific clusters depending on the positive or negative experience of applying the self. They argue that empirical analysis of viewing art would be expected to show a progression from no emotion in the facile stage, to confusion, anxiety, and tension, followed by anger in secondary control, and finally self-awareness, epiphany, or happiness in the aesthetic stage. This division has also been supported by recent empirical evidence (Pelowski et al., 2012 ; Pelowski, 2015 ). Similar results are also tied to Physiology , specifically heart rate and skin conductance. They argue that the first stage should show little physiological response, while secondary control would lead to sympathetic (fight or flight), schema change to both parasympathetic and sympathetic, and the final stage to parasympathetic return to homeostasis. This final outcome was also recently tied to crying (Pelowski, 2015 ). They also suggest specific Action (need to leave) in the “secondary control” stage.

Regarding Appraisal , they also argue that evaluation ending in cognitive mastery may reveal appraisals that aid in ignoring or assimilating discrepancy (Pelowski and Akiba, 2011 ). On the other hand, in secondary control, self-protectionary strategies would manifest in negative hedonic appraisals, as well as lower “potency or activity” (e.g., Osgood et al., 1957 ). They further consider Meaning , dividing outcomes into three modes: (1) initial assessment for surface or mimetic qualities in cognitive mastery, (2) meaninglessness in secondary control, and (3) “a fundamental change in viewer-stimuli relation” in the last stages, where art meaning is tied to metacognitive reflection on its impact and the preceding psychological experience (Pelowski et al., 2012 , p. 249).

The model is also particularly unique in its explanation of changes or transformation with art. Recently, Pelowski et al. ( 2014 ) connected this outcome to goals of museum/art education, and pointed out its equivalence to discussions of insight or creativity. By breaking from the mastery process through the introduction of meta-cognitive assessment and schema-change, followed by re-engaging in final mastery with a new set of schema, they argue, “we introduce a means of explaining the transcendental quality of art” and of “connecting the existing conception of mastery to …novelty and personal growth” (Pelowski and Akiba, 2011 , p. 90). They also posit longitudinal impact, tied to changes in schema or the “hierarchical self.” Especially the aesthetic outcome may manifest in re-evaluation of a viewer's own self image, which may be detectible in paired self-evaluations before and after viewing ( Self Adj .). They also argue that both the abortive or transformative outcome may cause change in individual's relationship with the class of art or artists, involving hedonic and potency evaluations ( Social ), and may spur individuals to seek out/avoid other encounters.

Regarding inputs, the model considers the role of specific expectations or personality, and goes further to place these within a theory of the self. The authors note that “those who have a strong relationship to a stimulus, or high expectations for success…are [more] likely to find themselves in the intractable position” leading to aesthetic experience (Pelowski et al., 2012 , pp. 246–247). This might be tied to training in the arts, or might affect those who identify as art lovers, who have a high need to find meaning in artworks, or who have the general need for control. More recently, the authors have also taken into account the physical and social situation, noting that the environment, especially when one is among others who one considers more knowledgeable, may be likely to evoke facile or negative experience, tying to a need for protecting the self (Pelowski et al., 2014 ).

At the same time, the model has a conceptual focus, laying emphasis on schema and overlooking much of the way individuals might often respond to art (basic perceptions, mimetic evaluations, or pre-reflective experience). A recent review (Leder, 2013 ) also noted that it is “more descriptive than formalized,” requiring transformation into “more operative versions with process-based rules,” quantifying what feature of a representation at one stage affects latter stages.

Cupchik: detached/aesthetic and pragmatic approaches to art

Finally, the theories of Cupchik have also not yet been placed into a unified model, but have individually been instrumental in empirical art research. These also involve several themes which can be connected to form an understanding of art experience, 9 and thus were deemed an ideal target for this paper (Figure ​ (Figure6 6 ).

Cupchik model (created by the authors for this paper) .

Similar to other cognitive approaches, Cupchik views art experience as a meeting of object, environment, and personality factors (Cupchik and Gignac, 2007 ). In order to understand their interaction, a main theme regards two modes of responses (Cupchik, 2011 , p. 321): “everyday pragmatic” and “aesthetic.” The way that these modes are integrated, and often which of the two the viewer employs, determine the outcomes of experience. The pragmatic involves a predominantly cognitive, schema-based assessment, in which one assesses meaning and significance. The “aesthetic,” on the other hand, involves integrating context, memory, and physical/sensory qualities “associated with style and symbolic information” (p. 321). This involves a more reactive or “holistic” appraisal “in which specific codes for interpreting are bound with affective responses that map onto dimensions of pleasure or arousal.” Cupchik ( 2006 , 2013 ) also posits an alternative naming for this division, suggesting a contrast between “subjective engagement” and “objective detachment.” While subjective engagement is based on intense personal responses, objective detachment reflects a more intellectual treatment 10 .

In engaging art, one may switch between modes in response to different information or one's processing experience. Cupchik ( 2011 , 2013 ) notes that the two modes' “extreme conditions” can also lead to unwanted experience. This would involve either “underdistancing,” in which subject matter reminds us of troubling aspects of our personal lives, or causes unwanted emotion, or “overdistancing,” when design aspects push one too far away (as in some avant-garde art), with little emotional involvement (Kemp and Cupchik, 2007 ). The most pleasant responses may occur when individuals find an “aesthetic middle” (Fechner, 1978 ) between absorption and detachment—“utmost decrease of distance without its disappearance” (Cupchik, 2006 , p. 217). Cupchik ( 2013 ) also argued that one appeal of art is the opportunity at reconciliation between modes. While he argues that it is not possible to be in both modes at the same time, we can “shift rapidly between the two” (2011, p. 321). Thus, it is “the capacity of a work of art to be grasped, elaborated, and experienced in several systems” that makes it compelling (p. 294).

The model can further be articulated through its discussion of outputs. First is its discussion of Appraisal , which it connects to the aesthetic or reactive mode. Cupchik notes potential for Meaning making , via reflective and/or pragmatic processing. Affect is also noted. In an earlier publication, Cupchik ( 1993 , p. 179) suggested that two kinds of emotional processes might in fact be distinguished, which would coincide with either the analytical/schema-based or holistic/experiential processing modes. These can be termed “dimensional” and “category” reactions. The former are closely tied to bodily states of pleasure/arousal caused by a particular stimulus. The latter pertain “to primary emotions,” such as happiness, interest, surprise, fear, anger, and emphasizing spontaneity or empathic reaction to art. More recently, Cupchik ( 2011 , p. 321) suggested that the former affect type may accompany aesthetic experiences “from the first moment of perception,” giving as evidence studies involving displaying artworks of differing complexities or affective contents for very short durations, and where participants would avoid a second viewing based on their ability to detect lack of order or unwanted emotional valence 11 . In turn, the primary emotions are associated with longer exposure durations “that enable a person to situate the work in the context of life experiences” (Cupchik and Gignac, 2007 ). He also notes that this often touches the reflective mode of appraising, which is more closely related to emotions linked to the self (Cupchik, 2011 ). He suggests that both cases may lead to Negative affect. This would come from either: (1) difficulty in initially processing art, leading to hedonic aversion through the reactive/aesthetic mode, (2) “under-distancing,” where the work is too close to one's self and/or a troubling situation, or (3) negatively perceived content in art as processed in the reflective mode.

Cupchik ( 2011 , p. 321) also argues for adaptive impact from emotional art response ( Self Adj .), noting especially “primary emotions” have adaptive value, “because they link the person to meaningful situations.” In turn, the reflective mode (Cupchik, 2011 , p. 321) can be related to the principle of “emotional elaboration,” which implies that a person searches for underlying layers of meaning, in part due to the prompting from their affective experience, and might be connected to growth/self-adjustment (Kemp and Cupchik, 2007 ). Especially when individuals are able to find the proper emotional distance, they may enter a state in which they break from a “normal outlook” and achieve new points of view or approaches (Cupchik, 2006 , p. 216). He also suggests that this can lead to a state of consciousness involving “suspension in the experience of time—a frozen moment in which the person and the work become one” (Cupchik, 2013 , p. 85). This event then might be connected to Aesthetic experiences, as well as Novelty and Transformation . His idea of aesthetic engagement has the posited impact of returning an individual to homeostasis or harmonious interaction with the environment, which might serve as an avenue to longitudinal impact ( Health ).

At the same time, Cupchik and Wroblewski-Raya ( 1998 , p. 65) note that while art can be used for wish fulfillment or revelation, it can also evoke “ego-defense.” “The subject matter …might also resonate with unresolved issues and needs.” This might lead to a “defensive intellectualizing response” in which the individual escapes or avoids processing, by, for example, focusing on its style or other benign elements. This could also lead to an adaptive moment. “The artwork …mirrors the person's life and externalizes what has been a private concern,” thereby providing “tension release.” This may involve ability to adopt some distance, which “permits the person to experience the emotion without having to address its consequences.” 12 This too might connect to a change in perception ( Novelty ) or insight, while the former outcome may lead to Negative emotion/responses. Cupchik ( 2006 ) also notes that while one can of course employ a pragmatic approach, in order to appreciate art as “Art,” one must shift to an aesthetic frame.

Regarding inputs, Cupchik primarily notes personality. For example, in an empirical study (see Cupchik and Gignac, 2007 ) he showed the impact of previous experience when determining what aspects a viewer might attend to, concluding that art-naive viewers generally focus on subject matter because it is easier to discern than style. The latter is more likely to be attended to by experts, which he connects with a reflective mode and desire for challenge 13 . On the other hand, much like Leder, he discusses the importance of previous experience when adopting an “aesthetic” mode. Individuals “bring appropriate codes of interpretation and engagement. [One takes] this for granted until encountering a new form of artistic expression,” which individuals do not know how to respond to (Cupchik, 2013 , p. 73). Cupchik ( 2006 , p. 214) also notes the present and/or desired affective state may play a role in art selection and attention. “People can intentionally modulate their states of pleasure or arousal by selecting stimuli that possess a needed quality.” This “wish fulfillment” (Cupchik and Wroblewski-Raya, 1998 , p. 65) might itself be largely involved when we take a “reactive” mode of appraising art, allowing return to homeostasis (Cupchik, 2011 ). Finally, Cupchik ( 2013 , p. 85) notes the implicit role of personality in discussion of more profound or harmonious experiences. He suggests that proper distancing may come through cases where “a work expressively embodies a person's sense of identity.” One may alter the mode of appraisal to escape from implications raised by art. He showed this by confronting viewers, who identified as lonely, with paintings depicting lonely scenes, and who were more likely to focus on style than content (Cupchik and Wroblewski-Raya, 1998 ).

Unclear aspects regard the two modes of appraisal. Much of Cupchik's discussion implies that these modes might occur roughly in parallel, or that individuals can actively select which mode to employ. However, his research on short and long time sequences seems to imply that we immediately take a reactive approach to assess the basic object. This would seem to fit to the work of Leder, Chatterjee etc. This raises the question of whether one mode might influence the other or how this might occur. Even more, his discussion of under-distancing and its ability to lead to ego defense or learning and growth, might imply a switch between an initial reactive to a reflective mode, at a late stage of experience. It may be useful to parse what would be these outcomes' differences.

Discussion and conclusion

This paper had the goal of taking existing theoretical explanations of the psychological processing of art, and placing these into a unified visual basis for the purpose of articulating how, and if , they address specific outcomes from our art experience. These outcomes were also tied to inputs or contextual factors, and general processing stages. Through this review, we hoped to both provide a new tool for discussing the modeling of art, displaying how models may differ or overlap, and providing a more general window into the present state of art psychology research. We conclude with a short discussion of these models' synthesis, and suggestions or implications for future research.

The state of art modeling: some agreement on outputs; many paths for how they are achieved; many avenues for empirical investigation

First, concerning outputs or psychological implications, as noted in the introduction, these factors might be said to drive art's psychological interest, and are thus the prime targets for modeling itself. This was also a main contribution of our paper, which sought to identify a range of potential outputs and label these when they were considered in the specific models. For the purpose of quick comparison, all outputs are summarized in Table ​ Table1, 1 , which denotes whether or not they are explicitly or implicitly included in each of the reviewed models, or omitted. This table also provides a similar review for inputs. For more extensive comparison, we have also provided a brief synopsis of each model's specific explanations for outputs in Table ​ Table2 2 (Parts 1 and 2) .

Overview of explicitly mentioned inputs and outputs in models of art experience .

Circle (○) signifies explicit mention and discussion of Input/Output factor by author(s). Dot (•) signifies implicit mention. Dash (–) signifies no mention .

Models of art experience and noted Outputs .

Output descriptions based on authors' published models and related publications. Factors preceded by a question mark (?) were not specifically mentioned by the authors, but were proposed by the present paper.

Looking at this comparison, it is interesting to note that all models share some common factors. Notably, almost all authors consider emotion and evaluations as main outputs, and also make an explicit connection to meaning making. This itself may tell us something about current modeling, and the present state of understanding and focus in art research. While this review obviously could not consider all approaches important to art, it does suggest that these common outputs may constitute what investigators feel to be important for defining art interaction. These outputs also mark major factors in present empirical assessment. This probably stems from the present information processing focus. Most models also consider several basic inputs, which might be roughly divided into social, contextual, experiential, and personality-derived elements.

At the same time, the models also differ greatly in their explanations for how one arrives at these outputs, and connects these elements to different processing components. For example in the case of appraisal, as Table ​ Table2 2 Part 1 shows, descriptions range from: an emphasis on visual object identification (Chatterjee), integration of vision with memory (Locher), emphasis on intellectual processing experience and understanding of art (Leder), relative matching of schema and self (Silvia, Pelowski), to taking a pragmatic vs. aesthetic mode (Cupchik). This diversity highlights the presently undetermined nature of current art psychological approaches, and the need for more comprehensive and comparative analyses.

Importantly, this also highlights the potential contribution of this paper, and of visual modeling. As noted above, one of the benefits of a visual model approach is that it forces an author to make an explicit connection between processes and outputs, articulating connections where they might be otherwise obscured in written theory. By placing these same outputs in the visual models, tracing back through their processing descriptions, and comparing between approaches, we may create grounds for future empirical research. We have set up this paper to facilitate this approach. We suggest that the reader might use this review as a means of considering the pathways to the various outputs, and thus the underlying factors and processing sequences. These could then be considered in empirical approaches. This review may also contribute to a better understanding of the theories of these individual researchers.

It should also be noted that this review does not imply that one model is “better” in describing outcomes than others. Rather these models are all presumably describing different aspects of the art processing sequence. This also shows in the models' relative emphasis on different general stages (early, intermediate, and late), which lead to different answers regarding outputs. Future studies might use these different models to consider the differential contribution of the posited sequences for determining their relative impact on output factors.

Missing elements: physiology, health, negative and profound reactions to art

This comparison also highlights factors that appear to be largely missing in present modeling, and by extension psychological art research. When placed side-by-side, it becomes clear that present approaches largely avoid several outputs. Notably, there is a dearth of discussion of negative factors as well as of novelty, change, or transformation. Beyond the immediate processing components, there are other, long-term outputs that appear under-represented—notably art's role in general well-being or health. As noted by Stevenson-Taylor and Mansell ( 2012 , p. 105), “seldom is a rigorous exploration given to ascertaining the effects of psychological change in the long-term. When and how these changes occur is rarely addressed.” This does certainly seem to be the case here. Longitudinal aspects were not directly mentioned by any author. Similarly, social aspects and socio-cultural adjustments also appear under-represented, with the latter only directly mentioned by Silvia. Similarly under-explored are insight, changed perception, and—somewhat surprisingly—harmonious or aesthetic experience. While several authors theoretically note how this might occur (for example Leder argues that it would involve an act of cognitive mastery approaching perfectly fluent matching of schema to work), it occurs nowhere as a specific model output. This raises the question of how these outcomes might actually have a lasting impact. Only Pelowski and Akiba ( 2011 ) specifically note how this might occur.

This general omission of factors as well is quite illuminating, and can be traced into present empirical study, as well as needed targets for future research. It has been recently noted that especially the above negative or transformative factors are often overlooked (Silvia and Brown, 2007 ; Leder, 2013 ; Pelowski, 2015 ), and remain prime candidates for future empirical approaches. As well, there have been calls for assessments of art's health or positive benefits on the viewer (e.g., Cuypers et al., 2012 ). By extrapolating from these missing outputs, we might say that present models and theoretical discussion appear to be missing a large number of consequences that might define the importance of art for society or individuals, and thus why art should, for example, be supported by public resources. Models also appear to omit what might be called “second order outputs” or executive behavior consequences of viewing, such as when anger leads to iconoclasm, vandalism, or violence (c.f. Freedberg, 1989 ). It is also interesting to note that most of the models do not account for the viewer's body, movement, or physiological responses, which might also be considered (Tschacher et al., 2012 ). These aspects, we would argue, remain key targets for future modeling, which may then allow for better empirical assessments. Interestingly, as we have tried to show in the suggested additions and updated model figures, many outputs might actually be connected to present model approaches, raising again an avenue for future research and what we hope can be a contribution of this paper.

Regarding inputs, there are also areas for future development. Specific artwork-related aspects such as style are not included in several models (Chatterjee, Silvia, Pelowski). The same can be said for the artwork's historical context, which was also recently argued to be a key processing input (Bullot and Reber, 2013 ), but in the present review only operationalized as one aspect of the background knowledge of viewers (e.g., by Locher and Leder, but see Pelowski and Akiba, 2011 ). It also appears that only the models put forward by Leder and Cupchik account for the current psychophysiological and affective state of the viewer. These aspects should be incorporated into the other models and systematically included when setting up experiments. In addition, while most authors specifically note the importance of memory components for processing, and often mention this in their written theory, it is often omitted in the models. This begs for integration and elaboration.

The models' differing discussion of factors, and many of their omissions, are also probably a result of present emphasis on early and intermediate processing stages, and tied to the importance of vision and early neurological components of object recognition. This too suggests a potential fruitful target for future theoretical research. Those models that do focus on late processing (Pelowski, Silvia) are more likely to consider the omitted outputs. This again does not imply that certain models are more or less important: the models that focus on earlier processes may, for example, involve a more detailed consideration of the bottom-up processing of artwork qualities, whereas models with a later focus may concern primarily top-down contributions of the viewer. This speaks to a need for combining these discussions into one processing sequence. Future researchers might consider how the visual processes (e.g., as described by Locher and Chatterjee) feed into the cognitive processes described by Leder, and then lead to the top-down consequences described by the remaining authors. It may also be fruitful to look at the described processing sequences for each output and consider a best solution, given these, and other model's descriptions. While such a synthesis is beyond the aim of the present manuscript, we argue that this is a necessary next step for future research.

Box and arrow models: limitations and future developments

Finally, a few words should also be given regarding the nature of above models themselves. As noted, they are all box and arrow designs. This represents an important fact in cognitive psychology and discussion of art, because they specifically require theoretical links between inputs, outputs, and processes. At the same time, this method has several general limitations, which future researchers might consider.

It should be clear from this review that while the simple act of connecting inputs to processes to outputs is an important theoretical step for a better understanding of psychological events, the simple arrows that make up many aspects of the above models often do not sufficiently explain how this might actually be accomplished. Many models, especially when visualized, also reveal gaps or confusions in their design. More detail and consideration of individual and contextual factors is often warranted. Many approaches might benefit from more careful consideration of both specific decisions or factors, which can determine specific model sequences, and placement of outputs. While we did attempt to take the step of systematizing the broad components of each approach, we also made the decision to maintain fidelity to the original model interior organization, which in many cases only highlights such suboptimal arrangements. From this review, we would be the first to argue that the field of modeling in aesthetics itself could benefit from more attention to such aspects of visual communication. We hope that future research might consider this.

The linear nature of these models can also lead to a myopic, “false” and often one-dimensional understanding of psychological processes themselves. In reality, these might often occur in concert as complex networks of activation (Cela-Conde et al., 2013 ), or with individuals cycling back and forth between stages, constantly adjusting and updating expectations, which influences perception and experience. While these aspects were at least addressed in some of the reviewed models (e.g., Pelowski, Silvia, and the discussion by Leder), such complex approaches, require further emphasis, and become even more necessary when taking the next step of connecting sequences to activity in the brain. Further, it may be that future research should even move past the box and arrow design, considering for example novel paradigms such as Bayesian flow models, or predictive processing theory (Clark, 2013 , 2015 ) which posits that the brain operates based on comparisons with automatic predictions of the environment; both result in more complex probabilistic models of outputs or experience.

To conclude, we hope that this review may contribute to such future modeling, and serve as a useful basis for needed future comparative and hypothesis-driven research.

Author contributions

All authors listed, have made substantial, direct and intellectual contribution to the work, and approved it for publication.

Conflict of interest statement

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank Esben Gröndal for his helpful comments and suggestions. The writing of this manuscript was supported by a grant to MP and HL by Marie Skłodowska-Curie (MSCA-IF-2014-EF: Individual Fellowships, 655379).

1 For example, for early vision, Chatterjee ( 2004 ) argues that occipital cortex and frontal-parietal attentional circuits play the most emphasis.

2 Noted regions for late vision include: orbitofrontal cortex, insula, temporal pole, ventromedial prefrontal cortex. These are connected to the interaction between cognitive and emotional processes and monitoring of one's own affective state.

3 This impact is interpreted empirically from the involvement of subcortical components of the reward circuit in aesthetic experiences, notably anterior cingulate cortex.

4 The model connected emotion to the anterior medial temporal lobe, medial and orbitofrontal cortices, and subcortical structures which mediate emotion and reward systems. Chatterjee ( 2010 ) connected appraisal to a widely distributed network, most importantly the dorsolateral frontal and medial frontal cortices.

5 In bilateral fusiform gyri, angular gyrus, and the superior parietal cortex.

6 More recently, Locher et al. ( 2010 ) integrated this model with consideration of the tactile and sensual aspects of the handling of object and assessment of its use, geared toward discussion of commercial, design products. However, the present discussion will focus only on visual aspects.

7 Locher et al. ( 2007 , p. 76) also question some of this model's arguments regarding location of processing aspects within its stages. In a study where participants were asked to view paintings and give a running oral report of their processing, Locher et al. noted that some participants' “initial reactions to the artworks would be classified as occurring in stage 4 …involve[ing] deliberate (top-down) self-related interpretations.” Locher et al. argued that their findings suggest that reactions “may occur much more rapidly and automatically than predicted.…suggesting that [individuals] are able to make a rapid evaluation of a picture's content and aesthetic appeal.”

8 Silvia specifically identified a set of key evaluations for identifying congruency, coping, and self-relevance (preference, uncertainty, level of disruption, novelty, complexity, interest).

9 Cupchik himself made this acknowledgment and suggestion that his work might be fit into a cohesive model in a recent retrospective address concerning his body of research (2011, p. 320).

10 See also Cupchik ( 1995 ) in which he also uses the terms “reactive” and “reflective” approaches.

11 He goes on to argue that this “clearly showed that the interaction of cognitive and affective processes in aesthetic perception take place holistically within the first glance” and thus contradicts Zajonc's (e.g., Zajonc, 2000 ) assumption that preferences are often unmediated by cognitive processing (Cupchik, 2006 , p. 212–213). This is a debate for another paper.

12 Shown empirically by Kemp and Cupchik ( 2007 ) who presented viewers in a negative state with a range of positive and negative paintings, and who found that viewers wanted to see the paintings with negative themes a second time, primarily however, “because they evoked thoughts rather than feelings.”

13 He was specifically referring to literary experiences, however this would presumably also apply to visual art.

• Armstrong T., Detweiler-Bedell B. (2008). Beauty as an emotion: the exhilarating prospect of mastering a challenging world . Rev. Gen. Psychol. 12 , 305–329. 10.1037/a0012558 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Arnheim R. (1966). Toward a Psychology of Art . Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. [ Google Scholar ]
• Augustin D., Leder H. (2006). Art expertise: a study of concepts and conceptual spaces . Psychol. Sci. 48 , 135–156. [ Google Scholar ]
• Baddeley A. (2007). Working Memory, Thought, and Action. Oxford: Oxford University Press. [ Google Scholar ]
• Bartlett F. C. (1932). Remembering: A Study in Experimental and Social Psychology . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. [ Google Scholar ]
• Belke B., Leder H., Strobach T., Carbon C. (2010). Cognitive fluency: high-level processing dynamics in art appreciation . Psychol. Aesthet. Creat. Arts 4 , 214–222. 10.1037/a0019648 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Berlyne D. E. (1960). Conflict, Arousal, and Curiosity . New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. [ Google Scholar ]
• Berlyne D. E. (1974). Studies in the New Experimental Aesthetics: Steps Toward an Objective Psychology of Aesthetic Appreciation . Oxford: Hemisphere. [ Google Scholar ]
• Bullot N. J., Reber R. (2013). The artful mind meets art history: toward a psycho-historical framework for the science of art appreciation . Behav. Brain Sci. 36 , 123–137. 10.1017/S0140525X12000489 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Carbon C. C. (2011). Cognitive mechanisms for explaining dynamics of aesthetic appreciation . Iperception 2 , 708–719. 10.1068/i0463aap [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Carver C. S. (1996). Cognitive interference and the structure of behavior, in Cognitive Interference; Theories, Methods, and Findings , eds Sarason I. G., Pierce G. R., Sarason B. R. (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates; ), 25–46. [ Google Scholar ]
• Cela-Conde C. J., Agnati L., Huston J. P., Mora F., Nadal M. (2011). The neural foundations of aesthetic appreciation . Prog. Neurobiol. 94 , 39–48. 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2011.03.003 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Cela-Conde C. J., García-Prieto J., Ramasco J. J., Mirasso C. R., Bajo R., Munar E., et al.. (2013). Dynamics of brain networks in the aesthetic appreciation . Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 110 , 10454–10461. 10.1073/pnas.1302855110 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Chatterjee A. (2004). Prospects for a cognitive neuroscience of visual aesthetics . Bull. Psychol. Art 4 , 55–60. [ Google Scholar ]
• Chatterjee A. (2009). Prospects for a neuropsychology of art, in Neuroaesthetics , eds Skov M., Vartanian O. (Amityville, NY: Baywood Publishing; ), 131–143. [ Google Scholar ]
• Chatterjee A. (2010). Neuroaesthetics: a coming of age story . J. Cogn. Neurosci. 23 , 53–62. 10.1162/jocn.2010.21457 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Chatterjee A. (2011). Visual art, in Neurobiology of Sensation and Reward , ed Gottfried J. A. (Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press; ), 391–404. [ Google Scholar ]
• Clark A. (2013). Whatever next? Predictive brains, situated agents, and the future of cognitive science . Behav. Brain Sci. 36 , 181–204. 10.1017/S0140525X12000477 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Clark A. (2015). Radical predictive processing . South. J. Philos. 53 , 3–27. 10.1111/sjp.12120 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Cooper J. M., Silvia P. J. (2009). Opposing art: rejection as an action tendency of hostile aesthetic emotions . Emp. Stud. Arts 27 , 109–126. 10.2190/EM.27.1.f [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Creusen M., Schoormans J. (2005). The different roles of product appearance in consumer choice . J. Prod. Innov. Manage. 22 , 63–81. 10.1111/j.0737-6782.2005.00103.x [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Csikszentmihalyi M. (1990). Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Performance . New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. [ Google Scholar ]
• Cupchik G. C. (1993). Component and relational processing in aesthetics . Poetics 22 , 171–183. 10.1016/0304-422X(93)90027-E [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Cupchik G. C. (1995). Emotion in aesthetics: reactive and reflective models . Poetics 23 , 177–188. 10.1016/0304-422X(94)00014-W [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Cupchik G. C. (2006). Emotion in aesthetics and the aesthetics of emotion, in New Directions in Aesthetics, Creativity and the Arts , eds Locher P., Martindale C., Dorfman L. (Amityville, NY: Baywood; ), 209–224. [ Google Scholar ]
• Cupchik G. C. (2011). The digitized self in the internet age . Psychol. Aesthet. Creat. Arts 5 , 318–328. 10.1037/a0024820 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Cupchik G. C. (2013). I am, therefore I think, act, and express both in life and in art, in Art and Identity: Essays on the Aesthetic Creation of Mind. Consciousness, Literature & the Arts , eds Roald T., Lang J. (Amsterdam: Rodolpi; ), 67–92. [ Google Scholar ]
• Cupchik G. C., Gignac A. (2007). Layering in art and in aesthetic experience . Vis. Arts Res. 33 , 56–71. [ Google Scholar ]
• Cupchik G. C., Vartanian O., Crawley A., Mikulis D. J. (2009). Viewing artworks: contributions of cognitive control and perceptual facilitation to aesthetic experience . Brain Cogn. 70 , 84–91. 10.1016/j.bandc.2009.01.003 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Cupchik G. C., Wroblewski-Raya V. (1998). Loneliness as a theme in painting . Vis. Arts Res. 24 , 65–71. [ Google Scholar ]
• Cuypers K., Krokstad S., Holmen T. L., Skjei Knudtsen M., Bygren L. O., Holmen J. (2012). Patterns of receptive and creative cultural activities and their association with perceived health, anxiety, depression and satisfaction with life among adults: the HUNT study, Norway . J. Epidemiol. Community Health 66 , 698–703. 10.1136/jech.2010.113571 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Dissayanake E. (2008). The arts after Darwin: does art have an origin and adaptive function, in World Art Studies: Exploring Concepts and Approaches , eds Zijlmans K., van Damme W. (Amsterdam: Valmiz; ), 241–263. [ Google Scholar ]
• Fechner G. (1978). Die Vorschule der Aesthetik . Hildesheim: Georg Holms (Originally published in 1876). [ Google Scholar ]
• Freedberg D. (1989). The Power of Images . Chicago, IL: University of Chicago press. [ Google Scholar ]
• Funch B. S. (2007). A psychological theory of the aesthetic experience, in Aesthetics and Innovation , eds Dorfman L., Martindale C., Petrov V. (Newcastle: Cambridge Scholars Publishing; ), 3–19. [ Google Scholar ]
• Funch B. S. (2013). The beauty of life in art, in The Many Faces of Beauty , ed Hösle V. (South Bend, IN: University of Notre Dame Press; ), 210–239. [ Google Scholar ]
• Funch B. S., Krøyer L. L., Roald T., Wildt E. (2012). Long-term effect of aesthetic education on visual awareness . J. Aesthet. Educ. 46 , 96–108. 10.5406/jaesteduc.46.4.0096 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Graf L. K., Landwehr J. R. (2015). A dual-process perspective on fluency-based aesthetics: the pleasure-interest model of aesthetic liking . Pers. Soc. Psychol. Rev. 19 , 395–410. 10.1177/1088868315574978 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Hager M., Hagemann D., Danner D., Schankin A. (2012). Assessing aesthetic appreciation of visual artworks—the construction of the Art Reception Survey (ARS) . Psychol. Aesthet. Creat. Arts 6 , 320–333. 10.1037/a0028776 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Hekkert P. (2012). Project UMA: towards a unified model of aesthetics, in Paper Presented at the 22nd Biennial Congress of the International Association of Empirical Aesthetics , 22–25, August, Taipei. [ Google Scholar ]
• Jacobsen T. (2006). Bridging the arts and sciences: a framework for the psychology of aesthetics . Leonardo 39 , 155–162. 10.1162/leon.2006.39.2.155 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Jakesch M., Leder H. (2009). Finding meaning in art: preferred levels of ambiguity in art appreciation . Q. J. Exp. Psychol. 62 , 2105–2112. 10.1080/17470210903038974 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Kemp S. W., Cupchik G. C. (2007). The emotionally evocative effects of paintings . Vis. Arts Res. 33 , 72–82. [ Google Scholar ]
• Kreitler H., Kreitler S. (1972). The model of cognitive orientation: towards a theory of human behaviour . Br. J. Psychol. 63 , 9–30. 10.1111/j.2044-8295.1972.tb02079.x [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Lasher M. D., Carroll J. M., Bever T. G. (1983). The cognitive basis of aesthetic experience . Leonardo 16 , 196–199. 10.2307/1574913 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Leder H. (2013). Next steps in neuroaesthetics: which processes and processing stages to study? Psychol. Aesthet. Creat. Arts 7 , 27–37. 10.1037/a0031585 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Leder H., Augustin D., Belke B. (2005). Art and cognition! Consequences for experimental aesthetics . Bull. Psychol. Art 5 , 11–20. [ Google Scholar ]
• Leder H., Belke B., Oeberst A., Augustin D. (2004). A model of aesthetic appreciation and aesthetic judgments . Br. J. Psychol. 95 , 489–508. 10.1348/0007126042369811 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Leder H., Markey P. S., Pelowski M. (2015). Aesthetic emotions to art – what they are and what makes them special. Comment on “the quartet theory of human emotions: an integrative and neurofunctional model” by Koelsch et al . Phys. Life Rev. 13 , 67–70. 10.1016/j.plrev.2015.04.037 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Leder H., Nadal M. (2014). Ten years of a model of aesthetic appreciation and aesthetic judgments: the aesthetic episode–developments and challenges in empirical aesthetics . Br. J. Psychol. 105 , 443–464. 10.1111/bjop.12084 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Livingstone M. (2002). Vision and Art: The Biology of Seeing . New York, NY: Abrams. [ Google Scholar ]
• Locher P. J. (1996). The contribution of eye-movement research to an understanding of the nature of pictorial balance perception: a review of the literature . Emp. Stud. Art 14 , 143–163. 10.2190/d77m-3nu4-dq88-h1qg [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Locher P. J. (2015). The aesthetic experience with visual art ‘at first glance’, in Investigations into the Phenomenology and the Ontology of the Work of Art: What are Artworks and How do we Experience Them? , eds Bundgaard P. F., Stjernfelt F. (New York, NY: Springer; ), 75–88. [ Google Scholar ]
• Locher P., Krupinski E. A., Mello-Thoms C., Nodine C. F. (2007). Visual interest in pictorial art during an aesthetic experience . Spat. Vis. 21 , 55–77. 10.1163/156856807782753868 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Locher P., Nodine C. (1987). Symmetry catches the eye, in Eye Movements: From Physiology to Cognition , eds O'Regan J. K., Levy-Schoen A. (Amsterdam: North Holland Press; ), 353–361. [ Google Scholar ]
• Locher P., Overbeeke K., Wensveen S. (2010). Aesthetic interaction: a framework . Des. Issues 26 , 70–79. 10.1162/DESI_a_00017 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Marr D. (1982). Vision. A Computational Investigation into the Human Representation and Processing of Visual Information . New York, NY: WH Freeman and Company. [ Google Scholar ]
• Martindale C. (1988). Aesthetics, psychobiology, and cognition, in The Foundations of Aesthetics, Art, and Art Education , eds Farley F. H., Neperud R. W. (New York, NY: Praeger; ), 117–160. [ Google Scholar ]
• Martindale C., Moore K., West A. (1988). Relationship of preference judgments to typicality, novelty, and mere exposure . Emp. Stud. Arts 6 , 79–96. 10.2190/mcaj-0gqt-djtl-lnqd [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Muth C., Hesslinger V., Carbon C. C. (2015). The appeal of challenge in the perception of art: how ambiguity, solvability of ambiguity and the opportunity for insight affect appreciation . Psychol. Aesthet. Creat. Arts 9 , 206–216. 10.1037/a0038814 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Nadal M., Munar E., Capó M. A., Rosselló J., Cela-Conde C. J. (2008). Towards a framework for the study of the neural correlates of aesthetic preference . Spat. Vis. 21 , 379–396. 10.1163/156856808784532653 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Nodine C., Krupinski E. (2003). How do viewers look at artworks? Bull. Psychol. Arts 4 , 65–68. [ Google Scholar ]
• Osgood C. E., Suci G. J., Tannenbaum P. (1957). The Measurement of Meaning . Champaign, IL: University of Illinois press. [ Google Scholar ]
• Pelowski M. (2015). Tears and transformation: feeling Like crying as an indicator of insightful or ‘aesthetic’ experience in empirical study of art . Front. Psychol. 6 : 1006 . 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01006 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Pelowski M., Akiba F. (2009). Failure and success in the perception of art: a case for a failure-based model . Hum. Environ. Stud. 7 , 95–102. 10.4189/shes.7.95 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Pelowski M., Akiba F. (2011). A model of art perception, evaluation and emotion in transformative aesthetic experience . New Ideas Psychol. 29 , 80–97. 10.1016/j.newideapsych.2010.04.001 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Pelowski M., Akiba F., Palacios V. (2012). Satori, koan and aesthetic experience: exploring the “realization of emptiness” in Buddhist enlightenment via empirical study of modern art . Psyke Logos 33 , 236–268. [ Google Scholar ]
• Pelowski M., Liu T., Palacios V., Akiba F. (2014). When a body meets a body: an exploration of the negative impact of social interactions on museum experience . Int. J. Educ. Arts 15 , 1–47. Available online at: http://www.ijea.org/v15n14/ [ Google Scholar ]
• Ramachandran V. S., Hirstein W. (1999). The science of art: a neurological theory of aesthetic experience . J. Conscious. Stud. 6 , 15–51. [ Google Scholar ]
• Rasche C., Koch C. (2002). Recognizing the gist of a visual scene: possible perceptual and neural mechanisms . Neurocomputing 44 , 979–984. 10.1016/S0925-2312(02)00500-3 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Reber R., Schwarz N., Winkielman P. (2004). Processing fluency and aesthetic pleasure: is beauty in the perceiver's processing experience? Pers. Soc. Psychol. Rev. 8 , 364–382. 10.1207/s15327957pspr0804_3 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Scherer K., Dan E., Flykt A. (2006). What determines a feeling's position in affective space? A case for appraisal. Cogn. Emot. 20 , 92–113. 10.1080/02699930500305016 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Silvia P. J. (2005a). Cognitive appraisals and interest in visual art: exploring an appraisal theory of aesthetic emotions . Emp. Stud. Arts 23 , 119–133. 10.2190/12AV-AH2P-MCEH- [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Silvia P. J. (2005b). Emotional responses to art: from collation and arousal to cognition and emotion . Rev. Gen. Psychol. 9 , 342–357. 10.1037/1089-2680.9.4.342 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Silvia P. J. (2006). Artistic training and interest in visual art: applying the appraisal model of aesthetic emotions . Emp. Stud. Arts 24 , 139–161. 10.2190/DX8K-6WEA-6WPA-FM84 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Silvia P. J. (2009). Looking past pleasure: anger, confusion, disgust, pride, surprise, and other unusual aesthetic emotions . Psychol. Aesthet. Creat. Arts 3 , 48–51. 10.1037/a0014632 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Silvia P. J., Brown E. M. (2007). Anger, disgust, and the negative aesthetic emotions: expanding an appraisal model of aesthetic experience . Psychol. Aesthet. Creat. Arts 1 , 100–106. 10.1037/1931-3896.1.2.100 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Silvia P. J., Nusbaum E. C. (2011). On personality and piloerection: individual differences in aesthetic chills and other unusual aesthetic experiences . Psychol. Aesthet. Creat. Arts 5 , 208–214. 10.1037/a0021914 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Silvia P. J., Warburton J. B. (2006). Positive and negative affect: bridging states and traits . Compr. Handbook Pers. Psychopathol. 1 , 268–284. [ Google Scholar ]
• Solso R. L. (1994). Cognition and the Visual Arts . Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. [ Google Scholar ]
• Stevenson-Taylor A., Mansell W. (2012). Exploring the role of art-making in recovery, change, and self-understanding: an interpretative phenomenological analysis of interviews with everyday creative people . Int. J. Psychol. Stud. 4 , 104–130. 10.5539/ijps.v4n3p104 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Tinio P. P. (2013). From artistic creation to aesthetic reception: the mirror model of art . Psychol. Aesthet. Creat. Arts 7 , 265–275. 10.1037/a0030872 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Tschacher W., Greenwood S., Kirchberg V., Wintzerith S., van den Berg K., Tröndle M. (2012). Physiological correlates of aesthetic perception of artworks in a museum . Psychol. Aesthet. Creat. Arts 6 , 96–103. 10.1037/a0023845 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Van de Cruys S., Wagemans J. (2011). Putting reward in art: a tentative prediction error account of visual art . Iperception 2 , 1035–1062. 10.1068/i0466aap [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Vartanian O., Nadal M. (2007). A biological approach to a model of aesthetic experience, in Aesthetics and Innovation , eds Dorfman L., Martindale C., Petrov V. (Newcastle: Cambridge Scholars Publishing; ), 429–444. [ Google Scholar ]
• Vitz P. (1988). Analog art and digital art: a brain-hemisphere critique of modern painting, in The Foundations of Aesthetics, Art & Art Education , eds Farley F., Neperud R. (New York, NY: Praeger; ), 43–86. [ Google Scholar ]
• Zaidel D. W., Nadal M., Flexas A., Munar E. (2013). An evolutionary approach to art and aesthetic experience . Psychol. Aesthet. Creat. Arts 7 , 100–109. 10.1037/a0028797 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Zajonc R. B. (2000). Feeling and thinking: closing the debate over the independence of affect, in Feeling and Thinking , ed Forgas J. P. (New York, NY: Cambridge University Press; ), 31–58. [ Google Scholar ]
• Zeki S., Nash J. (1999). Inner Vision: An Exploration of Art and the Brain , Vol. 415 Oxford: Oxford university press. [ Google Scholar ]

Ask Yale Library

My Library Accounts

Find, Request, and Use

Help and Research Support

Visit and Study

Explore Collections

Art History Research at Yale: How to Research Art

• How to Research Art
• Primary Sources
• Biographical Information
• Dissertations & Theses
• Image & Video Resources
• How to Cite Your Sources
• Copyright and Fair Use
• Collecting and Provenance Research This link opens in a new window
• How to Find Images

Books about Writing

Starting Your Research

Before you begin conducting research, it’s important to ask yourself a few questions:

1. What’s my topic? Review your assignment closely and choose an appropriate topic. Is this topic about a single artist or an art movement? Is it a study of one work or a body of works? How long is the paper—will you need a basic overview, or detailed analysis? Guiding questions such as these can help you determine what the best approach to your research will be. If you aren’t sure where to start, you can ask your professor for guidance, and you can always contact an Arts Librarian using their contact information on this page.

2. Which sources are best for my topic? With infinite time, you would want to read everything available, but there are often resources that are more applicable depending on your research topic. How to Find Art Resources provides more detailed information about choosing helpful sources based on general topics. Watch this video for brief instructions on how to find information on a work of art at the Yale University Art Gallery.

3. How will I manage and cite my sources? When you turn in your paper or presentation, you will need to provide citations in keeping with the preferred citation style. Keeping on top of your citations as you work through your research will save time and stress when you are finishing your project. All Yale students have access to tools to keep citations organized, generate a bibliography, and create footnotes/endnotes. For a quick guide, see How to Cite Your Sources , and more guidance is available on the Citation Management guide .

Related Guides for Art History Research at Yale

• Religion and the Arts
• History of British Art

Arts Librarian

• << Previous: Home
• Next: How to Find Art Resources >>
• Last Updated: Aug 17, 2023 11:33 AM
• URL: https://guides.library.yale.edu/arthistoryresearch

Site Navigation

P.O. BOX 208240 New Haven, CT 06250-8240 (203) 432-1775

Yale's Libraries

Bass Library

Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library

Classics Library

Cushing/Whitney Medical Library

Divinity Library

East Asia Library

Gilmore Music Library

Haas Family Arts Library

Lewis Walpole Library

Lillian Goldman Law Library

Marx Science and Social Science Library

Sterling Memorial Library

Yale Center for British Art

SUBSCRIBE TO OUR NEWSLETTER

@YALELIBRARY

Yale Library Instagram

Accessibility       Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion      Giving       Privacy and Data Use      Contact Our Web Team    

© 2022 Yale University Library • All Rights Reserved

Art Styles Explained — A Complete Guide to 40+ Art Movements

• Art Styles Explained
• Art History Timeline
• Renaissance
• Neoclassicism
• Naturalism vs Realism
• Romanticism
• Art Nouveau
• Kinetic Art
• Post Impressionism
• Primitivism
• Abstract Expressionism
• Avant Garde
• Conceptual Art
• Constructivism Art
• Expressionism
• Harlem Renaissance
• Magical Realism
• Suprematism
• Contemporary Art
• Installation Art
• Photorealism
• Performance Art

O ver the millennia, the world has seen a vast array of art styles. But what are they? We’re going to break down art styles from abstract expressionism ukiyo-e. We’re also going to embed links to dedicated articles on many of the art styles discussed. By the end, you’ll have a cursory knowledge of many different art styles; as well as an opportunity to learn more.

TYPES OF ART STYLES

Art styles explained & art history timeline.

• Avant-Garde
• Post-Impressionism

Types of Art Styles

Abstract expressionism.

Art Styles List  •  Abstract Expressionism, Explained by The Museum of Contemporary Art

Abstract expressionism is an American abstract art style that was developed in the 1940s/50s in New York City.

Notable artists of the movement: Jackson Pollock, Mark Rothko, and Willem de Kooning.

Learn more about Abstract Expressionism →

Art Styles Examples

Art Style Names  •  Art Deco, Explained by Curious Muse

Art Deco is a grandiose art style that pervaded architectural and aesthetic design in the 1920s. 

Notable products of the movement: The Chrysler Building, Grauman’s Egyptian Theatre, Théâtre des Champs-Élysées.

Art Movements List

Different Art Styles  •  Art Nouveau, Explained by Vox

Art Nouveau was a reactionary art movement that sought to juxtapose the industrial aesthetic of late 18th-century Europe. Over time, Art Nouveau – which literally translates to “new art” – became known as an art style around the globe.

Other names for Art Nouveau: Modern Style, Liberty Style, and Tiffany Style.

Learn more about Art Nouveau →

What are the Types of Art? 

All Types of Art  •  Avant-Garde, Explained by National Galleries

Avant-garde is an art style that rejects the cultural, structural, and or stylistic “norm” and builds something new in its stead.

Learn more about Avant-Garde →

Did You Know?

“Avant-garde” is a French term that describes a military group that scouts enemy forces. Over time, the term “avant-garde” has come to mean “anything outside the norm.”

All Art Styles

Art Styles List  •  Baroque Art, Explained by SmartHistory

Baroque is a European art style that influenced music, theater, architecture, painting, sculptures, and more from the early 17th-century to the mid 18th-century. Baroque art is defined by expressiveness; audacious displays of character, elements of musical/ visual composition, and exorbitant physical production. 

Artists of the Baroque period: Bernini, Caravaggio, Rembrandt, Bach, Vivaldi, and more.

Learn more about Baroque  →

Art Styles Examples  •  Bauhaus Art, Explained by Curious Muse

Bauhaus is an art style that was founded in Germany in 1919 at the Staatliches Bauhaus art school. Bauhaus is meant to combine a pleasing-aesthetic with consumer utility.

Art of the Bauhaus period: Red Balloon by Paul Klee, The Wassily Chair by Marcel Breuer, Bauhaus building in Dessau, Germany.

Learn more about Bauhaus →

List of Art Movements 

Art Style Names  •  Classicism Art, Explained by Scott Lawrie Gallery

Classicism is an art perspective that seeks to replicate the style of the “classical” period, particularly in Ancient Greece and Rome.

Art movements rooted in classicism: Italian Renaissance and Neoclassicism.

Learn more about Classicism →

How Many Art Styles Are There?

All Types of Art  •  Conceptual Art, Explained by The Art Assignment

Conceptual is an art style that places emphasis on “concept” rather than form.

Conceptual artists: Marcel Duchamp, John Baldessari, and Damien Hirst.

Learn more about Conceptual Art →

J Cut & L Cut Explained

Constructivism art is an abstract, propaganda-fueled art style that was popularized in Russia during the leadup to the Russian Revolution.

Constructivist artists: Vladimir Tatlin, Alexander Rodchenko, and El Lissitzky.

Learn more about Constructivism Art →

Contemporary Art Styles

Art Genres List  •  Contemporary Art, Examined by The Art Assignment

Contemporary art is art of the current era. Contemporary art is often referred to as Modern art; which detracts from the denotation of the latter’s movement.

Contemporary artists: Banksy, Jeff Koons, and Takashi Murakami.

Learn more about Contemporary Art →

Different Art Styles  •  Cubism Art, Explained by Tate Kids

Cubism is an art style that was popularized in early 20th-century Europe. Cubist artists seek to depict cubic subjects from a variety of angles, thus often making their works abstract in nature.

Cubist artists: Pablo Picasso, Georges Braque, and Jean Metzinger.

Learn more about Cubism →

Different Art Styles

Art Styles List  •  Dadaism Art, Explained by CrashCourse

Dadaism is a surrealist art style that was popularized in Zurich, Switzerland and New York City, United States in the early 20th-century. Dadaism rejects social uniformity and promotes lunacy.

Dadaist artists: Marcel Duchamp, Tristan Tzara, and Hans Arp.

Learn more about Dadaism →

Every Art Style Explained  •  De Stijl, Explained by Sotheby’s

De Stijl was a Dutch art movement that loosely refers to a style of abstract art from 1917 to 1931. De Stijl art is dictated by simple geometry and use of black, white, red, yellow, and blue.

De Stijl artists: Piet Mondrian, Theo van Doesburg, and Bart van der Leck.

Learn more about De Stijl Art →

Different Art Styles  •  Expressionism Art, Explained by National Galleries

Expressionism is a subjective art style that was founded Western/Northern Europe in the late 19th-century to early 20th-century.

Expressionist art: The Scream (1893) by Edvard Munch and Blue Horses (1911) by Franz Marc.

Learn more about Expressionism Art →

Art Styles List  •  Fauvism Art, Explained by Philinthecircle

Fauvism is an avant-garde art style that was founded in France in the early 20th-century. Fauvism places emphasis on substantive use of color over form.

Fauvist artists: Henri Mattise, André Derain, and Maurice de Vlaminck.

Different Art Styles  •  Fluxus, Examined by kinolorber

Fluxus was an experimental art movement that took place primarily in the 1960s and 1970s. George Maciunas is credited with writing the “Fluxus Manifesto” which outlines the tenets of the movement.

Fluxus artists: George Maciunas, Yoko Ono, and Joseph Beuys.

Learn more about Fluxus →

Art Styles List  •  Folk Art, Examined by Financial Times

Folk art is art that relates to folklore; including tales, legends, and proverbs.

Folk art examples: Old Bright, The Postman (~1830s) by George Smart and Grandma Moses Goes to the Big City (1946) by Anna Mary Robertson Moses.

Art Styles Examples  •  Futurism, Explained by Curious Muse

Futurism is an art movement that was founded in Italy in the early 20th-century, and perpetuated throughout the world in the 20th-century. Futurism is defined by a focus on future technologies and their associated representation(s); particularly in motion.  

Futurist artists: Filippo Tommaso Marinetti, Umberto Boccioni, and Luigi Russolo.

Learn more about Futurism →

Art Genres List  •  Gothic Art, Explained by Art History 101

Gothic art refers to art produced during the late dark ages (circa 12th-century to 16th-century); defined by imposing tone and form. Dark, or muted colors dominate much of gothic art.

Gothic artists: Giotto, Duccio, and Ambrogio Lorenzetti.

Learn more about Gothic Art  →

Different Art Styles  •  The Harlem Renaissance, Explained by CrashCourse

The Harlem Renaissance was an American art movement that took place in Harlem, New York City during the 1920s and 1930s. The Harlem Renaissance sought to authentically depict the Black experience in America.

Harlem Renaissance artists: Langston Hughes, Zora Neale Huston, and Countee Cullen.

Learn more about Harlem Renaissance →  

Impressionism

Art Style Names  •  Impressionism, Explained by The Art Assignment

Impressionism is an art movement that was developed in France in the late 19th-century. The subject matter of visual impressionist works are often unremarkable in nature.

Impressionist artists: Claude Monet, Pierre-Auguste Renoir, and Camille Pissaro.

All Types of Art  •  Unusual Art Installations, Explained by Top Fives

Installation art is an art form that utilizes an “installation” of objects in a specific space. 

Installation art examples: The Weather Project (2003) by Olafur Eliasson, Sunflower Seeds (2010) by Ai Weiwei, and Electronic Superhighway; Continental U.S., Alaska, Hawaii (1995) by Nam June Paik.

Learn more about Installation Art →

Different Art Styles  •  Kinetic Art, Examined by Wired

Kinetic art is art in motion. Kinetic art is created through a variety of mediums; perhaps most notably in sculpture.

Kinetic art: Kinetic Construction ( Standing Wave ) (1919-1920) by Naum Gabo and Monument to The Third International (1919-1920), by Vladimir Tatlin.

Learn more about Kinetic Art →

Art Styles Examples  •  Land Art, Explained by Heni Talks

Land art is an art movement that was founded in the 1960s in the United States. Land art is simply art that uses land as a canvas. 

Land art examples: Spiral Jetty (1970) by Robert Smithson, Niagara Gorge Path Relocated (1975) by Michelle Stuart, and Stellar Axis: Antarctica (2006) by Lita Albuquerque.

Learn more about Land Art →

Art Style Names

Different Art Styles  •  Magical Realism, Explained by Curious Muse

Magical realism is an art style that is rooted in German, Colombian, and Italian theory. Magical Realism inserts magical elements into a realistic setting; thus creating an oxymoron-esque world. 

Where Magical Realism is used: literature, movies, games, paintings, sculptures, etc.

Learn more about Magical Realism →

Art Styles Examples  •  Minimalism Art, Explained by The Art Assignment

Minimalism art is an art style that was popularized globally after World War II. Minimalism art is inherently simple in nature and form.

Minimalist artists: Robert Morris, Sol LeWitt, and Ellsworth Kelly.

Contemporary Art Styles  •  Modern Art, Examined by Business Insider

Modern Art refers to temporally modern art, and the Western art movement of the same name, from 1860 to 1970. The Modern Art movement included impressionist, cubist, fauvist, surrealist, and other sub-movements.

Modern Art movement artists: Pablo Picasso, Frida Kahlo, and Jackson Pollock.

Learn more about Modern Art →

Art Styles Examples  •  Neoclassicism, Explained by Art History With Alder

Neoclassicism – which translates to “new classicism” – was a Western art movement that sprouted in the wake of the rediscovery of Pompeii and Herculaneum. Neoclassicism reintroduced (renovated) artistic characteristics of the Classical era: particularly that of Greece and Rome.

Neoclassical artists: Jacques-Louis David, Antonio Canova, and Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres.

Art Styles Examples  •  Op Art, Examined by The Richest

Op art is an art style that uses optical illusions. Op art is a popular component of installation art and surrealist art.

Op artists: Marina Apollonio, Richard Anuszkiewicz, and Bridget Riley.

Different Art Styles  •  Performance Art, Explained by TateShots

Performance art is an art style that is predominantly defined by its performative elements. Performance art is generally presented to a live audience. 

Performance artists: Marina Abramović, Nick Cave, and Adrien Piper. Learn more about Performance Art →

Art Styles Examples  •  Photorealism, Examined by GamingBolt

Photorealism is an art movement that seeks to replicate the look of real-life photographs through another medium. In the 21st century, new technology has made photorealism nearly indistinguishable from photographs.

Mediums of photorealism: painting, illustration, and game design. 

Learn more about Photorealism →

Art Styles List  •  Pop Art, Explained by Art Gallery of NSW

Pop art was a Western art movement that was popularized in The United States and Great Britain in the 1950s. Pop art – known for its bright, attention-catching colors – was used in advertising, merchandising, and graphic design during an era of rapid consumer growth.

Pop artists: Andy Warhol, Roy Lichtenstein, and Richard Hamilton.

Learn more about Pop Art →

Art Styles Examples  •  Post-Impressionism, Explained by Philinthecircle

Post-impression was a French art movement that took place at the end of the 19th-century. Post-impression was an exaggerated extension of the Impressionist movement; defined by artist interpretation of a moment in time.

Post-Impressionist art: The Starry Night (1889) by Vincent van Gogh, The Centenary of Independence (1892) by Henri Rousseau, and Where Do We Come From? What Are We? Where Are We Going? (1897-98) by Paul Gauguin.

Learn more about Post-Impressionism →

Precisionism

Different Art Styles  •  Precisionism, Explained by Art History 101

Precisionism was an American art movement that was founded in the 1920s. Precisionist art is characterized by sharp lines; sometimes referred to as cubist-realism.

Post-Impressionist artists: Charles Delmuth, Charles Sheeler, and George Ault.

Different Art Styles  •  Primitivism, Explained by Open College of the Arts

Primitivism is an art style that seeks to depict elements of primitive life. Primitivism is largely viewed as a Western art movement.

Primitivist art: Les  Demoiselles d'Avignon (1907) by Pablo Picasso, Bathers in a Room (1909) by Ernst Ludwig Kirchner, and The Seed of the Areoi (1892) by Paul Gauguin.

Learn more about Primitivism →

Renaissance Art

Art Styles Examples  •  The Renaissance, Explained by Crash Course World History

Renaissance art refers to art produced during the Renaissance period (late 14th to early 17th century), primarily in Italy. Renaissance translates to “rebirth” – which is apt as Renaissance art is considered a rebirth of style and form.

Renaissance artists: Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, and Raphael.

Learn more about Renaissance  →  

Different Art Styles  •  Rococo, Explained by April Goeke

Rococo was an art style that dominated European art after the reign of King Louis XIV ended in 1715. Rococo art – sometimes referred to as Late-Baroque art – is playful in nature; focusing on idealized subject matters; depicted with bright, pastel characters. 

Rococo artists: Francisco Goya, Jean-Honoré Fragonard, and François Boucher.

Learn more about Rococo →

Different Art Styles  •  Romanticism, Explained by The School of Life

Romanticism was an art movement that sprouted in the late 18th-century in Europe. Romantic art is perhaps best viewed as the antithesis to industrialization.

Romantic art examples: Wanderer Above the Sea (1818) by Caspar David Friedrich, The Raft of the Medusa (1819) by Théodore Géricault, and Liberty Leading the People (1830) by Eugène Delacroix.

Learn more about Romanticism →

Different Art Styles  •  Street Art, Examined by Ted-Ed

Street art is art made on public streets, walls, and objects. For example, graffiti is a famous example of street art.

Street art examples: We the Youth (1987) by Keith Haring, My God, Help Me to Survive This Deadly Love (1990) by Dmitri Vrubel, and Girl With Balloon (2017) by Banksy.

Learn more about Street Art →

Different Art Styles  •  Suprematism, Explained by Jackson Kliewer

Suprematism was an abstract art movement that was founded by Polish-Ukrainian Russian avant-garde artist Kazimir Malevich in 1913. Suprematism is meant to communicate “feeling” through geometry. 

Suprematist art: Black Square (1915) by Kazimir Malevich, Suprematist Composition (1916) by Kazimir Malevich, and Composition 8 by Wassily Kandinsky (1923). 

Learn more about Suprematism →

Art Styles List  •  Ukiyo-e, Explained by Jackson Kliewer

Ukiyo-e is a Japanese art style that was especially popular from the 17th-20th century. Classical Ukiyo-e, which translates to “pictures from the floating world,” sought to show Japanese life and history.

Ukiyo-e art examples: The Great Wave off Kanagawa (1830-1833) by Hokusai, Fine Wind, Clear Morning (1830-1832) by Hokusai, and No . 57, Grounds of Kameido Tenjin Shrine (from One Hundred Famous Views of Edo) (1856) by Hiroshige.

Learn more about Ukiyo-e Art →

Explore More Styles and Movements

This was just one of many fascinating segments of art history. There are many eras, styles, artists, and movements to discover. Let's continue our study by choosing the next stop on your way to becoming an art aficionado. Below you can visit our  Art Styles Index , our  Art History Timeline , or choose an individual movement.

Showcase your vision with elegant shot lists and storyboards.

Create robust and customizable shot lists. Upload images to make storyboards and slideshows.

Learn More ➜

• Pricing & Plans
• Product Updates
• Featured On
• StudioBinder Partners
• The Ultimate Guide to Call Sheets (with FREE Call Sheet Template)
• How to Break Down a Script (with FREE Script Breakdown Sheet)
• The Only Shot List Template You Need — with Free Download
• Managing Your Film Budget Cashflow & PO Log (Free Template)
• A Better Film Crew List Template Booking Sheet
• Best Storyboard Softwares (with free Storyboard Templates)
• Movie Magic Scheduling
• Gorilla Software
• Storyboard That

A visual medium requires visual methods. Master the art of visual storytelling with our FREE video series on directing and filmmaking techniques.

We’re in a golden age of TV writing and development. More and more people are flocking to the small screen to find daily entertainment. So how can you break put from the pack and get your idea onto the small screen? We’re here to help.

• Making It: From Pre-Production to Screen
• What is Poor Things About — Plot and Themes Explained
• Best Free TV Scripts Online (with PDF Downloads)
• What is an Anagram — The Art of Writing Word Puzzles
• What is a Color Palette — How to Use Them in Visual Arts
• What Was the First Movie With Sound — Film History 101
• 13 Pinterest

Learning · By Artland Editors

The Most Famous Art Movements and Styles

Throughout history, artists have produced art in a variety of media and styles following different philosophies and ideals. Although labelling may often result in being reductive, different artistic tendencies or styles can be grouped in collective titles known as art movements. If speaking art seems like a discipline in itself to you, here we provide you with the top terms of art movements and styles, from Classicism to Futurism, from Baroque to Avant-garde.

Essential Art Movements and Styles

• Abstract Expressionism

Art Nouveau

Avant-garde, color field painting.

• Conceptual Art

Constructivism

Dada / dadaism, digital art, expressionism, harlem renaissance, impressionism, installation art, neo-impressionism, neoclassicism, performance art, post-impressionism, precisionism, suprematism.

Abstract Expressionism

The designation ‘Abstract Expressionism’ encompasses a wide variety of American 20th-century art movements in abstract art. Also known as The New York School, this movement includes large painted canvases, sculptures and other media as well. The term ‘action painting’ is associated with Abstract Expressionism, describing a highly dynamic and spontaneous application of vigorous brushstrokes and the effects of dripping and spilling paint onto the canvas.

Read more about Abstract Expressionism .

Emerging in France before the First World War, Art Deco exploded in 1925 on the occasion of the Exposition des Arts Décoratifs (Exhibition of Decorative Arts). Blurring the line between different mediums and fields, from architecture and furniture to clothing and jewelry, Art Deco merged modern aesthetic with skillful craftsmanship, advanced technology, and elegant materials.

Read more about Art Deco .

A decorative style that flourished between 1890 and 1910 throughout Europe and the U.S. Art Nouveau, also called Jugendstil (Germany) and Sezessionstil (Austria), is characterized by sinuous, asymmetrical lines based on organic forms. Although it influenced painting and sculpture, its chief manifestations were in architecture and the decorative and graphic arts, aiming to create a new style, free of the imitative historicism that dominated much of 19th-century art movements and design.

Read more about Art Nouveau .

In French, avant-garde means “advanced guard” and refers to innovative or experimental concepts, works or the group or people producing them, particularly in the realms of culture, politics, and the arts.

Read more about Avant-garde .

The term Baroque, derived from the Portuguese ‘barocco’ meaning ‘irregular pearl or stone’,  is a movement in art and architecture developed in Europe from the early seventeenth to mid-eighteenth century. Baroque emphasizes dramatic, exaggerated motion and clear, easily interpreted, detail, which is a far cry from Surrealism, to produce drama, tension, exuberance, and grandeur.

Read more about Baroque .

The school of art and design was founded in Germany by Walter Gropius in 1919 and shut down by the Nazis in 1933. The faculty brought together artists, architects, and designers, and developed an experimental pedagogy that focused on materials and functions rather than traditional art school methodologies. In its successive incarnations in Weimar, Dessau, and Berlin, it became the site of influential conversations about the role of modern art and design in society.

Read more about Bauhaus .

The principles embodied in the styles, theories, or philosophies of the different types of art from ancient Greece and Rome, concentrating on traditional forms with a focus on elegance and symmetry.

Founded in 1948 in Paris, CoBrA was a short-lived yet ground-breaking post-war group gathering international artists who advocated spontaneity as a means to create a new society. The name ‘CoBrA’ is an acronym for the home cities of its founders, respectively Copenhagen, Brussels and Amsterdam.

Read more about CoBrA .

Often associated with Abstract Expressionism, the Colour Field painters were concerned with the use of pure abstraction but rejected the active gestures typical of Action Painting in favor of expressing the sublime through large and flat surfaces of contemplative colour and open compositions.

Read more about Color Field Painting .

Conceptual art

Conceptual art, sometimes simply called conceptualism, was one of several 20th-century art movements that arose during the 1960s, emphasizing ideas and theoretical practices rather than the creation of visual forms. The term was coined in 1967 by the artist Sol LeWitt, who gave the new genre its name in his essay “Paragraphs on Conceptual Art,” in which he wrote, “The idea itself, even if not made visual, is as much a work of art as any finished product.”

Read more about Conceptual Art .

Developed by the Russian avant-garde around 1915, constructivism is a branch of abstract art, rejecting the idea of “art for art’s sake” in favour of art as a practice directed towards social purposes. The movement’s work was mostly geometric and accurately composed, sometimes through mathematics and measuring tools.

Read more about Constructivism art .

An artistic movement began in 1907 by artists Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque who developed a visual language whose geometric planes challenged the conventions of representation in different types of art, by reinventing traditional subjects such as nudes, landscapes, and still lifes as increasingly fragmented compositions.

Read more about Cubism .

An artistic and literary movement in art formed during the First World War as a negative response to the traditional social values and conventional artistic practices of the different types of art at the time. Dada artists represented a protest movement with an anti-establishment manifesto, sought to expose accepted and often repressive conventions of order and logic by shocking people into self-awareness.

Read more about Dadaism .

Digital Art broadly covers a variety of creative practices that employ different electronic technologies and result in a final product that is also digital. From computer graphics to virtual reality, from artificial Intelligence to NFT technology, the Digital Art spectrum is wide, innovative, and under the spotlight of the contemporary art market.

Read more about Digital Art .

Expressionism is an international artistic movement in art, architecture, literature, and performance that flourished between 1905 and 1920, especially in Germany and Austria, that sought to express the meaning of emotional experience rather than physical reality. Conventions of the expressionist style include distortion, exaggeration, fantasy, and vivid, jarring, violent, or dynamic application of color in order to express the artist’s inner feelings or ideas.

Read more about Expressionism .

Coined by the critic Louis Vauxcelles, Fauvism (French for “wild beasts”) is one of the early 20th-century art movements. Fauvism is associated especially with Henri Matisse and André Derain, whose works are characterized by strong, vibrant colour and bold brushstrokes over realistic or representational qualities.

Read more about Fauvism .

Fairly unique among different types of art movements, it is an Italian development in abstract art and literature, founded in 1909 by Filippo Tommaso Marinetti, aiming to capture the dynamism, speed and energy of the modern mechanical world.

Read more about Futurism .

Emerged after the First World War in the predominantly African-American neighbourhood Harlem in New York, the Harlem Renaissance was an influential movement of African-American art spanning visual arts, literature, music, and theatre. The artists associated with the movement rejected stereotypical representations and expressed pride in black life and identity.

Read more about Harlem Renaissance .

Impressionism is a 19th-century art movement, associated especially with French artists such as Claude Monet, Pierre Auguste Renoir, Camille Pissarro and Alfred Sisley, who attempted to accurately and objectively record visual ‘impressions’ by using small, thin, visible brushstrokes that coalesce to form a single scene and emphasize movement and the changing qualities of light.

Read more about Impressionism .

Installation art is a movement developed at the same time as pop art in the late 1950s, which is characterized by large-scale, mixed-media constructions, often designed for a specific place or for a temporary period of time. Often, installation art involves the creation of an enveloping aesthetic or sensory experience in a particular environment, often inviting active engagement or immersion by the spectator.

Read more about Installation Art .

Land art, also known as Earth art, Environmental art and Earthworks, is a simple art movement that emerged in the 1960s and 1970s, characterized by works made directly in the landscape, sculpting the land itself into earthworks or making structures in the landscape using natural materials such as rocks or twigs. It could be seen as a natural version of installation art. Land art is largely associated with Great Britain and the United States but includes examples from many countries.

Read more about Land Art .

Another one of the art movements from the 1960s, and typified by works composed of simple art, such as geometric shapes devoid of representational content. The minimal vocabulary of forms made from humble industrial materials challenged traditional notions of craftsmanship, the illusion of spatial depth in painting, and the idea that a work of abstract art must be one of a kind.

Read more about Minimalism .

A term applied to an avant-garde art movement that flourished principally in France from 1886 to 1906. Led by the example of Georges Seurat and Paul Signac, Neo-Impressionists renounced the spontaneity of Impressionism in favour of a measured and systematic painting technique known as pointillism, grounded in science and the study of optics.

Almost the opposite of pop art in terms of inspiration, this style is one that arose in the second half of the eighteenth century in Europe, drawing inspiration from the classical art and culture of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome, which is not uncommon for art movements.

In the 1960s, Neon Art turned a commercial medium employed for advertising into an innovative artistic medium. Neon lighting allowed artists to explore the relationship between light, colour, and space while tapping into pop culture imagery and consumerism mechanisms.

Read more about Neon Art .

Op Art is an abbreviation of optical art, a form of geometric abstract art that explores optical sensations through the use of visual effects such as repetition of simple forms, vibrating colour-combinations, moiré patterns, foreground-background confusion, and an exaggerated sense of depth. Op Art paintings and works employ tricks of visual perception like manipulating rules of perspective to give the illusion of three-dimensional space.

Read more about Op Art .

A term that emerged in the 1960s to describe different types of art that are created through actions performed by the artist or other participants, which may be live or recorded, spontaneous or scripted. Performance challenges the conventions of traditional forms of visual art such as painting and sculpture by embracing a variety of styles such as happenings, body art, actions, and events.

Read more about Performance Art .

Pop Art emerged in the 1950s and was composed of British and American artists who draw inspiration from ‘popular’ imagery and products from commercial culture as opposed to ‘elitist’ fine art. Pop art reached its peak of activity in the 1960s, emphasizing the banal or kitschy elements of everyday life in such forms as mechanically reproduced silkscreens, large-scale facsimiles, and soft pop art sculptures.

Read more about Pop Art .

Coined in 1910, the term ‘Post-Impressionism’ describes the reaction against the Impressionists’ naturalistic depiction of light and colour. Artists like Paul Cézanne, Paul Gauguin, and Vincent van Gogh developed personal styles unified by their interest in expressing their emotional and psychological responses to the world through bold colours and often symbolic images.

Read more about Post-Impressionism .

Precisionism was the first real indigenous modern art movement in the United States and contributed to the rise of American Modernism. Taking its cues from Cubism and Futurism , Precisionism was driven by a desire to bring structure back to art and celebrated the new American landscape of skyscrapers, bridges and factories.

Read more about Precisionism .

Rococo is a movement in art, particularly in architecture and decorative art, that originated in France in the early 1700s.  Rococo art characteristics consist of elaborate ornamentation and a light, sensuous style, including scrollwork, foliage, and animal forms.

Evolving from early forms of graffiti, Street Art is a thought-provoking art movement that emerged in the 1960s and peaked with the spray-painted New York subway train murals of the 1980s. Street artists use urban spaces as their canvas, turning cities around the globe into open sky museums and have often found their way into the mainstream art world.

Read more about Street Art .

Founded by the poet André Breton in Paris in 1924, Surrealism was an artistic and literary movement that was active through World War II. The main goal of Surrealism painting and Surrealism artworks was to liberate thought, language, and human experience from the oppressive boundaries of rationalism by championing the irrational, the poetic and the revolutionary.

Read more about Surrealism .

Found to be a relatively unknown member of the different types of abstract art movements, outside of the art world that is. A term coined by Russian artist Kazimir Malevich in 1915 to describe an abstract style of painting that conforms to his belief that art expressed in the simplest geometric forms and dynamic compositions was superior to earlier forms of representational art, leading to the “supremacy of pure feeling or perception in the pictorial arts.”

Read more about Suprematism .

Symbolism emerged in the second half of the 19 th century, mainly in Catholic European countries where industrialisation had developed to a great degree. Starting as a literary movement, Symbolism was soon identified with a young generation of painters who wanted art to reflect emotions and ideas rather than to represent the natural world in an objective way, united by a shared pessimism and weariness of the decadence in modern society.

Read more about Symbolism .

Emerged in Germany and spread to other countries in the 1950s, Zero Group was a group of artists united by the desire to move away from the subjectivity of post-war movements, focusing instead on the materiality, color, vibration, light, and movement of pure abstract art. The main protagonists of the group were Heinz Mack, Otto Piene, and Günther Uecker.

Read more about Zero Group .

Learn more art terminology with: MoMA – Glossary of Art Terms Tate – Art Terms

• Privacy Policy

Buy Me a Coffee

Home » Research Paper Format – Types, Examples and Templates

Research Paper Format – Types, Examples and Templates

Table of Contents

Research paper format is an essential aspect of academic writing that plays a crucial role in the communication of research findings . The format of a research paper depends on various factors such as the discipline, style guide, and purpose of the research. It includes guidelines for the structure, citation style, referencing , and other elements of the paper that contribute to its overall presentation and coherence. Adhering to the appropriate research paper format is vital for ensuring that the research is accurately and effectively communicated to the intended audience. In this era of information, it is essential to understand the different research paper formats and their guidelines to communicate research effectively, accurately, and with the required level of detail. This post aims to provide an overview of some of the common research paper formats used in academic writing.

Research Paper Formats

Research Paper Formats are as follows:

• APA (American Psychological Association) format
• MLA (Modern Language Association) format
• Chicago/Turabian style
• IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) format
• AMA (American Medical Association) style
• Harvard style
• Vancouver style
• ACS (American Chemical Society) style
• ASA (American Sociological Association) style
• APSA (American Political Science Association) style

APA (American Psychological Association) Format

Here is a general APA format for a research paper:

• Title Page: The title page should include the title of your paper, your name, and your institutional affiliation. It should also include a running head, which is a shortened version of the title, and a page number in the upper right-hand corner.
• Abstract : The abstract is a brief summary of your paper, typically 150-250 words. It should include the purpose of your research, the main findings, and any implications or conclusions that can be drawn.
• Introduction: The introduction should provide background information on your topic, state the purpose of your research, and present your research question or hypothesis. It should also include a brief literature review that discusses previous research on your topic.
• Methods: The methods section should describe the procedures you used to collect and analyze your data. It should include information on the participants, the materials and instruments used, and the statistical analyses performed.
• Results: The results section should present the findings of your research in a clear and concise manner. Use tables and figures to help illustrate your results.
• Discussion : The discussion section should interpret your results and relate them back to your research question or hypothesis. It should also discuss the implications of your findings and any limitations of your study.
• References : The references section should include a list of all sources cited in your paper. Follow APA formatting guidelines for your citations and references.

Some additional tips for formatting your APA research paper:

• Use 12-point Times New Roman font throughout the paper.
• Double-space all text, including the references.
• Use 1-inch margins on all sides of the page.
• Indent the first line of each paragraph by 0.5 inches.
• Use a hanging indent for the references (the first line should be flush with the left margin, and all subsequent lines should be indented).
• Number all pages, including the title page and references page, in the upper right-hand corner.

APA Research Paper Format Template

APA Research Paper Format Template is as follows:

Title Page:

• Title of the paper
• Author’s name
• Institutional affiliation
• A brief summary of the main points of the paper, including the research question, methods, findings, and conclusions. The abstract should be no more than 250 words.

Introduction:

• Background information on the topic of the research paper
• Research question or hypothesis
• Significance of the study
• Overview of the research methods and design
• Brief summary of the main findings
• Participants: description of the sample population, including the number of participants and their characteristics (age, gender, ethnicity, etc.)
• Materials: description of any materials used in the study (e.g., survey questions, experimental apparatus)
• Procedure: detailed description of the steps taken to conduct the study
• Presentation of the findings of the study, including statistical analyses if applicable
• Tables and figures may be included to illustrate the results

Discussion:

• Interpretation of the results in light of the research question and hypothesis
• Implications of the study for the field
• Limitations of the study
• Suggestions for future research

References:

• A list of all sources cited in the paper, in APA format

Formatting guidelines:

• Double-spaced
• 12-point font (Times New Roman or Arial)
• 1-inch margins on all sides
• Page numbers in the top right corner
• Headings and subheadings should be used to organize the paper
• The first line of each paragraph should be indented
• Quotations of 40 or more words should be set off in a block quote with no quotation marks
• In-text citations should include the author’s last name and year of publication (e.g., Smith, 2019)

APA Research Paper Format Example

APA Research Paper Format Example is as follows:

The Effects of Social Media on Mental Health

University of XYZ

This study examines the relationship between social media use and mental health among college students. Data was collected through a survey of 500 students at the University of XYZ. Results suggest that social media use is significantly related to symptoms of depression and anxiety, and that the negative effects of social media are greater among frequent users.

Social media has become an increasingly important aspect of modern life, especially among young adults. While social media can have many positive effects, such as connecting people across distances and sharing information, there is growing concern about its impact on mental health. This study aims to examine the relationship between social media use and mental health among college students.

Participants: Participants were 500 college students at the University of XYZ, recruited through online advertisements and flyers posted on campus. Participants ranged in age from 18 to 25, with a mean age of 20.5 years. The sample was 60% female, 40% male, and 5% identified as non-binary or gender non-conforming.

Data was collected through an online survey administered through Qualtrics. The survey consisted of several measures, including the Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9) for depression symptoms, the Generalized Anxiety Disorder-7 (GAD-7) for anxiety symptoms, and questions about social media use.

Procedure :

Participants were asked to complete the online survey at their convenience. The survey took approximately 20-30 minutes to complete. Data was analyzed using descriptive statistics, correlations, and multiple regression analysis.

Results indicated that social media use was significantly related to symptoms of depression (r = .32, p < .001) and anxiety (r = .29, p < .001). Regression analysis indicated that frequency of social media use was a significant predictor of both depression symptoms (β = .24, p < .001) and anxiety symptoms (β = .20, p < .001), even when controlling for age, gender, and other relevant factors.

The results of this study suggest that social media use is associated with symptoms of depression and anxiety among college students. The negative effects of social media are greater among frequent users. These findings have important implications for mental health professionals and educators, who should consider addressing the potential negative effects of social media use in their work with young adults.

References :

References should be listed in alphabetical order according to the author’s last name. For example:

• Chou, H. T. G., & Edge, N. (2012). “They are happier and having better lives than I am”: The impact of using Facebook on perceptions of others’ lives. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 15(2), 117-121.
• Twenge, J. M., Joiner, T. E., Rogers, M. L., & Martin, G. N. (2018). Increases in depressive symptoms, suicide-related outcomes, and suicide rates among U.S. adolescents after 2010 and links to increased new media screen time. Clinical Psychological Science, 6(1), 3-17.

Note: This is just a sample Example do not use this in your assignment.

MLA (Modern Language Association) Format

MLA (Modern Language Association) Format is as follows:

• Page Layout : Use 8.5 x 11-inch white paper, with 1-inch margins on all sides. The font should be 12-point Times New Roman or a similar serif font.
• Heading and Title : The first page of your research paper should include a heading and a title. The heading should include your name, your instructor’s name, the course title, and the date. The title should be centered and in title case (capitalizing the first letter of each important word).
• In-Text Citations : Use parenthetical citations to indicate the source of your information. The citation should include the author’s last name and the page number(s) of the source. For example: (Smith 23).
• Works Cited Page : At the end of your paper, include a Works Cited page that lists all the sources you used in your research. Each entry should include the author’s name, the title of the work, the publication information, and the medium of publication.
• Formatting Quotations : Use double quotation marks for short quotations and block quotations for longer quotations. Indent the entire quotation five spaces from the left margin.
• Formatting the Body : Use a clear and readable font and double-space your text throughout. The first line of each paragraph should be indented one-half inch from the left margin.

MLA Research Paper Template

MLA Research Paper Format Template is as follows:

• Use 8.5 x 11 inch white paper.
• Use a 12-point font, such as Times New Roman.
• Use double-spacing throughout the entire paper, including the title page and works cited page.
• Set the margins to 1 inch on all sides.
• Use page numbers in the upper right corner, beginning with the first page of text.
• Include a centered title for the research paper, using title case (capitalizing the first letter of each important word).
• Include your name, instructor’s name, course name, and date in the upper left corner, double-spaced.

In-Text Citations

• When quoting or paraphrasing information from sources, include an in-text citation within the text of your paper.
• Use the author’s last name and the page number in parentheses at the end of the sentence, before the punctuation mark.
• If the author’s name is mentioned in the sentence, only include the page number in parentheses.

Works Cited Page

• List all sources cited in alphabetical order by the author’s last name.
• Each entry should include the author’s name, title of the work, publication information, and medium of publication.
• Use italics for book and journal titles, and quotation marks for article and chapter titles.
• For online sources, include the date of access and the URL.

Here is an example of how the first page of a research paper in MLA format should look:

Headings and Subheadings

• Use headings and subheadings to organize your paper and make it easier to read.
• Use numerals to number your headings and subheadings (e.g. 1, 2, 3), and capitalize the first letter of each word.
• The main heading should be centered and in boldface type, while subheadings should be left-aligned and in italics.
• Use only one space after each period or punctuation mark.
• Use quotation marks to indicate direct quotes from a source.
• If the quote is more than four lines, format it as a block quote, indented one inch from the left margin and without quotation marks.
• Use ellipses (…) to indicate omitted words from a quote, and brackets ([…]) to indicate added words.

Works Cited Examples

• Book: Last Name, First Name. Title of Book. Publisher, Publication Year.
• Journal Article: Last Name, First Name. “Title of Article.” Title of Journal, volume number, issue number, publication date, page numbers.
• Website: Last Name, First Name. “Title of Webpage.” Title of Website, publication date, URL. Accessed date.

Here is an example of how a works cited entry for a book should look:

Smith, John. The Art of Writing Research Papers. Penguin, 2021.

MLA Research Paper Example

MLA Research Paper Format Example is as follows:

Your Professor’s Name

Course Name and Number

Date (in Day Month Year format)

Word Count (not including title page or Works Cited)

Title: The Impact of Video Games on Aggression Levels

Video games have become a popular form of entertainment among people of all ages. However, the impact of video games on aggression levels has been a subject of debate among scholars and researchers. While some argue that video games promote aggression and violent behavior, others argue that there is no clear link between video games and aggression levels. This research paper aims to explore the impact of video games on aggression levels among young adults.

Background:

The debate on the impact of video games on aggression levels has been ongoing for several years. According to the American Psychological Association, exposure to violent media, including video games, can increase aggression levels in children and adolescents. However, some researchers argue that there is no clear evidence to support this claim. Several studies have been conducted to examine the impact of video games on aggression levels, but the results have been mixed.

Methodology:

This research paper used a quantitative research approach to examine the impact of video games on aggression levels among young adults. A sample of 100 young adults between the ages of 18 and 25 was selected for the study. The participants were asked to complete a questionnaire that measured their aggression levels and their video game habits.

The results of the study showed that there was a significant correlation between video game habits and aggression levels among young adults. The participants who reported playing violent video games for more than 5 hours per week had higher aggression levels than those who played less than 5 hours per week. The study also found that male participants were more likely to play violent video games and had higher aggression levels than female participants.

The findings of this study support the claim that video games can increase aggression levels among young adults. However, it is important to note that the study only examined the impact of video games on aggression levels and did not take into account other factors that may contribute to aggressive behavior. It is also important to note that not all video games promote violence and aggression, and some games may have a positive impact on cognitive and social skills.

Conclusion :

In conclusion, this research paper provides evidence to support the claim that video games can increase aggression levels among young adults. However, it is important to conduct further research to examine the impact of video games on other aspects of behavior and to explore the potential benefits of video games. Parents and educators should be aware of the potential impact of video games on aggression levels and should encourage young adults to engage in a variety of activities that promote cognitive and social skills.

Works Cited:

• American Psychological Association. (2017). Violent Video Games: Myths, Facts, and Unanswered Questions. Retrieved from https://www.apa.org/news/press/releases/2017/08/violent-video-games
• Ferguson, C. J. (2015). Do Angry Birds make for angry children? A meta-analysis of video game influences on children’s and adolescents’ aggression, mental health, prosocial behavior, and academic performance. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 10(5), 646-666.
• Gentile, D. A., Swing, E. L., Lim, C. G., & Khoo, A. (2012). Video game playing, attention problems, and impulsiveness: Evidence of bidirectional causality. Psychology of Popular Media Culture, 1(1), 62-70.
• Greitemeyer, T. (2014). Effects of prosocial video games on prosocial behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 106(4), 530-548.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Chicago/Turabian Formate is as follows:

• Margins : Use 1-inch margins on all sides of the paper.
• Font : Use a readable font such as Times New Roman or Arial, and use a 12-point font size.
• Page numbering : Number all pages in the upper right-hand corner, beginning with the first page of text. Use Arabic numerals.
• Title page: Include a title page with the title of the paper, your name, course title and number, instructor’s name, and the date. The title should be centered on the page and in title case (capitalize the first letter of each word).
• Headings: Use headings to organize your paper. The first level of headings should be centered and in boldface or italics. The second level of headings should be left-aligned and in boldface or italics. Use as many levels of headings as necessary to organize your paper.
• In-text citations : Use footnotes or endnotes to cite sources within the text of your paper. The first citation for each source should be a full citation, and subsequent citations can be shortened. Use superscript numbers to indicate footnotes or endnotes.
• Bibliography : Include a bibliography at the end of your paper, listing all sources cited in your paper. The bibliography should be in alphabetical order by the author’s last name, and each entry should include the author’s name, title of the work, publication information, and date of publication.
• Formatting of quotations: Use block quotations for quotations that are longer than four lines. Indent the entire quotation one inch from the left margin, and do not use quotation marks. Single-space the quotation, and double-space between paragraphs.
• Tables and figures: Use tables and figures to present data and illustrations. Number each table and figure sequentially, and provide a brief title for each. Place tables and figures as close as possible to the text that refers to them.
• Spelling and grammar : Use correct spelling and grammar throughout your paper. Proofread carefully for errors.

Chicago/Turabian Research Paper Template

Chicago/Turabian Research Paper Template is as folows:

Title of Paper

Name of Student

Professor’s Name

I. Introduction

A. Background Information

B. Research Question

C. Thesis Statement

II. Literature Review

A. Overview of Existing Literature

B. Analysis of Key Literature

C. Identification of Gaps in Literature

III. Methodology

A. Research Design

B. Data Collection

C. Data Analysis

IV. Results

A. Presentation of Findings

B. Analysis of Findings

C. Discussion of Implications

V. Conclusion

A. Summary of Findings

B. Implications for Future Research

C. Conclusion

VI. References

A. Bibliography

B. In-Text Citations

VII. Appendices (if necessary)

A. Data Tables

C. Additional Supporting Materials

Chicago/Turabian Research Paper Example

Title: The Impact of Social Media on Political Engagement

Name: John Smith

Class: POLS 101

Professor: Dr. Jane Doe

Date: April 8, 2023

I. Introduction:

Social media has become an integral part of our daily lives. People use social media platforms like Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram to connect with friends and family, share their opinions, and stay informed about current events. With the rise of social media, there has been a growing interest in understanding its impact on various aspects of society, including political engagement. In this paper, I will examine the relationship between social media use and political engagement, specifically focusing on how social media influences political participation and political attitudes.

II. Literature Review:

There is a growing body of literature on the impact of social media on political engagement. Some scholars argue that social media has a positive effect on political participation by providing new channels for political communication and mobilization (Delli Carpini & Keeter, 1996; Putnam, 2000). Others, however, suggest that social media can have a negative impact on political engagement by creating filter bubbles that reinforce existing beliefs and discourage political dialogue (Pariser, 2011; Sunstein, 2001).

III. Methodology:

To examine the relationship between social media use and political engagement, I conducted a survey of 500 college students. The survey included questions about social media use, political participation, and political attitudes. The data was analyzed using descriptive statistics and regression analysis.

Iv. Results:

The results of the survey indicate that social media use is positively associated with political participation. Specifically, respondents who reported using social media to discuss politics were more likely to have participated in a political campaign, attended a political rally, or contacted a political representative. Additionally, social media use was found to be associated with more positive attitudes towards political engagement, such as increased trust in government and belief in the effectiveness of political action.

V. Conclusion:

The findings of this study suggest that social media has a positive impact on political engagement, by providing new opportunities for political communication and mobilization. However, there is also a need for caution, as social media can also create filter bubbles that reinforce existing beliefs and discourage political dialogue. Future research should continue to explore the complex relationship between social media and political engagement, and develop strategies to harness the potential benefits of social media while mitigating its potential negative effects.

Vii. References:

• Delli Carpini, M. X., & Keeter, S. (1996). What Americans know about politics and why it matters. Yale University Press.
• Pariser, E. (2011). The filter bubble: What the Internet is hiding from you. Penguin.
• Putnam, R. D. (2000). Bowling alone: The collapse and revival of American community. Simon & Schuster.
• Sunstein, C. R. (2001). Republic.com. Princeton University Press.

IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) Format

IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) Research Paper Format is as follows:

• Title : A concise and informative title that accurately reflects the content of the paper.
• Abstract : A brief summary of the paper, typically no more than 250 words, that includes the purpose of the study, the methods used, the key findings, and the main conclusions.
• Introduction : An overview of the background, context, and motivation for the research, including a clear statement of the problem being addressed and the objectives of the study.
• Literature review: A critical analysis of the relevant research and scholarship on the topic, including a discussion of any gaps or limitations in the existing literature.
• Methodology : A detailed description of the methods used to collect and analyze data, including any experiments or simulations, data collection instruments or procedures, and statistical analyses.
• Results : A clear and concise presentation of the findings, including any relevant tables, graphs, or figures.
• Discussion : A detailed interpretation of the results, including a comparison of the findings with previous research, a discussion of the implications of the results, and any recommendations for future research.
• Conclusion : A summary of the key findings and main conclusions of the study.
• References : A list of all sources cited in the paper, formatted according to IEEE guidelines.

In addition to these elements, an IEEE research paper should also follow certain formatting guidelines, including using 12-point font, double-spaced text, and numbered headings and subheadings. Additionally, any tables, figures, or equations should be clearly labeled and referenced in the text.

AMA (American Medical Association) Style

AMA (American Medical Association) Style Research Paper Format:

• Title Page: This page includes the title of the paper, the author’s name, institutional affiliation, and any acknowledgments or disclaimers.
• Abstract: The abstract is a brief summary of the paper that outlines the purpose, methods, results, and conclusions of the study. It is typically limited to 250 words or less.
• Introduction: The introduction provides a background of the research problem, defines the research question, and outlines the objectives and hypotheses of the study.
• Methods: The methods section describes the research design, participants, procedures, and instruments used to collect and analyze data.
• Results: The results section presents the findings of the study in a clear and concise manner, using graphs, tables, and charts where appropriate.
• Discussion: The discussion section interprets the results, explains their significance, and relates them to previous research in the field.
• Conclusion: The conclusion summarizes the main points of the paper, discusses the implications of the findings, and suggests future research directions.
• References: The reference list includes all sources cited in the paper, listed in alphabetical order by author’s last name.

In addition to these sections, the AMA format requires that authors follow specific guidelines for citing sources in the text and formatting their references. The AMA style uses a superscript number system for in-text citations and provides specific formats for different types of sources, such as books, journal articles, and websites.

Harvard Style

Harvard Style Research Paper format is as follows:

• Title page: This should include the title of your paper, your name, the name of your institution, and the date of submission.
• Abstract : This is a brief summary of your paper, usually no more than 250 words. It should outline the main points of your research and highlight your findings.
• Introduction : This section should introduce your research topic, provide background information, and outline your research question or thesis statement.
• Literature review: This section should review the relevant literature on your topic, including previous research studies, academic articles, and other sources.
• Methodology : This section should describe the methods you used to conduct your research, including any data collection methods, research instruments, and sampling techniques.
• Results : This section should present your findings in a clear and concise manner, using tables, graphs, and other visual aids if necessary.
• Discussion : This section should interpret your findings and relate them to the broader research question or thesis statement. You should also discuss the implications of your research and suggest areas for future study.
• Conclusion : This section should summarize your main findings and provide a final statement on the significance of your research.
• References : This is a list of all the sources you cited in your paper, presented in alphabetical order by author name. Each citation should include the author’s name, the title of the source, the publication date, and other relevant information.

In addition to these sections, a Harvard Style research paper may also include a table of contents, appendices, and other supplementary materials as needed. It is important to follow the specific formatting guidelines provided by your instructor or academic institution when preparing your research paper in Harvard Style.

Vancouver Style

Vancouver Style Research Paper format is as follows:

The Vancouver citation style is commonly used in the biomedical sciences and is known for its use of numbered references. Here is a basic format for a research paper using the Vancouver citation style:

• Title page: Include the title of your paper, your name, the name of your institution, and the date.
• Abstract : This is a brief summary of your research paper, usually no more than 250 words.
• Introduction : Provide some background information on your topic and state the purpose of your research.
• Methods : Describe the methods you used to conduct your research, including the study design, data collection, and statistical analysis.
• Results : Present your findings in a clear and concise manner, using tables and figures as needed.
• Discussion : Interpret your results and explain their significance. Also, discuss any limitations of your study and suggest directions for future research.
• References : List all of the sources you cited in your paper in numerical order. Each reference should include the author’s name, the title of the article or book, the name of the journal or publisher, the year of publication, and the page numbers.

ACS (American Chemical Society) Style

ACS (American Chemical Society) Style Research Paper format is as follows:

The American Chemical Society (ACS) Style is a citation style commonly used in chemistry and related fields. When formatting a research paper in ACS Style, here are some guidelines to follow:

• Paper Size and Margins : Use standard 8.5″ x 11″ paper with 1-inch margins on all sides.
• Font: Use a 12-point serif font (such as Times New Roman) for the main text. The title should be in bold and a larger font size.
• Title Page : The title page should include the title of the paper, the authors’ names and affiliations, and the date of submission. The title should be centered on the page and written in bold font. The authors’ names should be centered below the title, followed by their affiliations and the date.
• Abstract : The abstract should be a brief summary of the paper, no more than 250 words. It should be on a separate page and include the title of the paper, the authors’ names and affiliations, and the text of the abstract.
• Main Text : The main text should be organized into sections with headings that clearly indicate the content of each section. The introduction should provide background information and state the research question or hypothesis. The methods section should describe the procedures used in the study. The results section should present the findings of the study, and the discussion section should interpret the results and provide conclusions.
• References: Use the ACS Style guide to format the references cited in the paper. In-text citations should be numbered sequentially throughout the text and listed in numerical order at the end of the paper.
• Figures and Tables: Figures and tables should be numbered sequentially and referenced in the text. Each should have a descriptive caption that explains its content. Figures should be submitted in a high-quality electronic format.
• Supporting Information: Additional information such as data, graphs, and videos may be included as supporting information. This should be included in a separate file and referenced in the main text.
• Acknowledgments : Acknowledge any funding sources or individuals who contributed to the research.

ASA (American Sociological Association) Style

ASA (American Sociological Association) Style Research Paper format is as follows:

• Title Page: The title page of an ASA style research paper should include the title of the paper, the author’s name, and the institutional affiliation. The title should be centered and should be in title case (the first letter of each major word should be capitalized).
• Abstract: An abstract is a brief summary of the paper that should appear on a separate page immediately following the title page. The abstract should be no more than 200 words in length and should summarize the main points of the paper.
• Main Body: The main body of the paper should begin on a new page following the abstract page. The paper should be double-spaced, with 1-inch margins on all sides, and should be written in 12-point Times New Roman font. The main body of the paper should include an introduction, a literature review, a methodology section, results, and a discussion.
• References : The reference section should appear on a separate page at the end of the paper. All sources cited in the paper should be listed in alphabetical order by the author’s last name. Each reference should include the author’s name, the title of the work, the publication information, and the date of publication.
• Appendices : Appendices are optional and should only be included if they contain information that is relevant to the study but too lengthy to be included in the main body of the paper. If you include appendices, each one should be labeled with a letter (e.g., Appendix A, Appendix B, etc.) and should be referenced in the main body of the paper.

APSA (American Political Science Association) Style

APSA (American Political Science Association) Style Research Paper format is as follows:

• Title Page: The title page should include the title of the paper, the author’s name, the name of the course or instructor, and the date.
• Abstract : An abstract is typically not required in APSA style papers, but if one is included, it should be brief and summarize the main points of the paper.
• Introduction : The introduction should provide an overview of the research topic, the research question, and the main argument or thesis of the paper.
• Literature Review : The literature review should summarize the existing research on the topic and provide a context for the research question.
• Methods : The methods section should describe the research methods used in the paper, including data collection and analysis.
• Results : The results section should present the findings of the research.
• Discussion : The discussion section should interpret the results and connect them back to the research question and argument.
• Conclusion : The conclusion should summarize the main findings and implications of the research.
• References : The reference list should include all sources cited in the paper, formatted according to APSA style guidelines.

In-text citations in APSA style use parenthetical citation, which includes the author’s last name, publication year, and page number(s) if applicable. For example, (Smith 2010, 25).

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

You may also like

Research Paper Conclusion – Writing Guide and...

Appendices – Writing Guide, Types and Examples

How to Cite Research Paper – All Formats and...

Delimitations in Research – Types, Examples and...

Scope of the Research – Writing Guide and...

Research Contribution – Thesis Guide

333 Art Research Paper Topics & Ideas

18 January 2024

last updated

Art research paper topics cover a fascinating field, where numerous themes range from the study of specific artistic movements, periods, and styles to investigations into the socio-political context of art, including the use of new technologies in contemporary artistic practices. Various topics may explore the complexities of abstract expressionism, the intricacies of Renaissance art, or the cultural implications of street art. People may delve into the controversial world of art forgery, the influence of digital media on traditional art, or the role of women in the art world. Art from non-Western traditions, such as African or Asian art, offers many research possibilities. Moreover, cross-disciplinary subjects, like psychology of art, art therapy, or art in education, hold a valid potential. With such a broad study spectrum, art research paper topics provide a rich canvas for exploration, enabling scholars to gain a deeper understanding of human expression across cultures and throughout history.

Top Art Research Paper Topics

• Artistic Influence in the Renaissance Period
• Bauhaus Movement: An Aesthetic Revolution
• Comparative Study of Western and Eastern Art Traditions
• Symbolism in Gothic Architecture
• Cubism: A Disruptive Force in Art History
• Expressionism and Its Emotional Depth
• Influence of Digital Media on Contemporary Art
• Feminism’s Resonance in Modern Art
• Unraveling the Mysteries of Abstract Art
• Exploring the Philosophy of Surrealism
• Photography as a Form of Artistic Expression
• Conceptual Art and Its Critics
• Artistic Representations of War and Conflict
• Iconography in Byzantine Art
• Origins and Transformations of Street Art
• Pop Art: Critique or Celebration of Consumer Culture?
• Art Conservation Techniques and Challenges
• Cultural Representation in Prehistoric Art
• Art Market Dynamics in the 21st Century
• Understanding the Subversiveness of Dada Art

Simple Art Research Paper Topics

• Understanding Pointillism and Its Influence
• Modernist Art: An Overview
• Impressionism: Capturing Light and Moment
• The Power of Portraiture in Art
• A Glimpse Into the World of Sculpture
• Unraveling the Intricacies of Calligraphy
• Street Art: A Modern Phenomenon
• Pop Art: Its Definition and Key Figures
• Exploring the Art of Collage
• Cubism: Breaking Down Traditional Forms
• Oil Painting Techniques Throughout History
• Watercolor: An Art Form Through the Ages
• Frescoes: A Brief History and Technique
• Art Nouveau: Characteristics and Key Artists
• Expressionism: An Emotional Art Form
• Exploration of Abstract Art Concepts
• Art of Caricature: Humor in Visual Form
• Artistic Influence of Surrealism
• Graffiti: Street Art or Vandalism?

Interesting Art Research Paper Topics

• Minimalism: The Power of Simplicity in Art
• Fashion Illustration: A Creative Dialogue
• Animation: Art in Motion
• Exploring the Styles of Japanese Manga Art
• Artificial Intelligence in the World of Art Creation
• Film: Visual Storytelling as an Art
• Analyzing the Use of Metaphors in Visual Art
• Unraveling the Mysteries of Symbolism in Art
• Digital Art: The Impact of Technology on Creativity
• Psychedelic Art: A Window Into the Subconscious Mind
• Mural Art and Community Expression
• Emotional Response Triggered by Abstract Expressionism
• Cultural Differences Reflected in Indigenous Art
• Art Therapy: Healing Through Creation
• Video Game Design: Art, Aesthetics, and Interaction
• Body Art and Tattoos: A Cultural Perspective
• Exploration of Artistic Activism
• Art Market: Valuing Creativity and Aesthetics
• Comparison of Eastern and Western Art Styles

Modern Art Research Topics

• Decoding Cubism: Understanding Picasso and Braque
• Surrealism: An Investigation Into the World of Dreams
• Expressionism: Manifestation of Emotions in Modern Art
• Analyzing Futurism: Speed, Technology and the Modern World
• Exploring Dadaism: A Reaction to World War I
• Conceptual Art: Ideas Over Aesthetics
• Postmodern Art: Challenging Modernist Authority
• Cybernetic Art: Intersection of Art and Technology
• Street Art: An Unconventional Modern Canvas
• Visual Culture and Gender in Modern Art
• Digital Media’s Influence on Contemporary Art Practices
• Art Installations: An Environment-Based Interpretation of Modern Art
• Transformative Aspects of Performance Art
• Appropriation in the Postmodern Art
• Bauhaus Movement: Revolutionizing Art and Design
• Abstract Expressionism: Freedom in Large-Scale Canvas
• Study of Neo-Dada and Its Reflection on Society
• Hyperrealism: The Imitation Game in Modern Art
• Understanding the Pop Art Movement
• Exploration of Minimalism: Art in Reduction

Art Research Topics on Ancient Civilizations

• Egyptian Art: Symbolism and the Afterlife
• Influence of Art on the Mayan Civilization
• Decoding Symbols in Aztec Art
• Analysis of Frescoes in Ancient Crete
• Sculptural Art of the Ancient Greeks
• Artistic Representation in Roman Architecture
• Aesthetic Principles of Persian Art
• Art in the Indus Valley Civilization
• Carving Traditions in Ancient Polynesia
• Unraveling the Art of the Ancient Incas
• Exploring the Artistic Styles of Ancient Mesopotamia
• Bronze Age Art in Scandinavia
• Hellenistic Influence on Roman Art
• Visual Narratives in Chinese Tomb Art
• Art and Hieroglyphics in Ancient Egypt
• Religious Influence on Byzantine Mosaics
• Depiction of Gods in Ancient Hindu Art
• Iconography in Ancient Celtic Art
• Minoan Culture: Art and Archaeology

Artist Biography Research Topics

• Vincent Van Gogh: A Life in Art
• Artistic Vision of Leonardo da Vinci
• Pablo Picasso: Cubism and Beyond
• Exploration of Frida Kahlo’s Works
• Salvador Dali: Surrealism Personified
• Career Analysis of Rembrandt van Rijn
• Personal Experiences in Georgia O’Keeffe’s Art
• M.C. Escher: Master of Impossible Spaces
• Depictions of Reality in Caravaggio’s Works
• Life and Art of Claude Monet
• Henri Matisse: The Joy of Fauvism
• Artistic Innovations of Wassily Kandinsky
• El Greco: Fusion of Byzantine and Western Art
• Unraveling the Mysteries of Bosch’s Paintings
• Paul Gauguin: From Paris to Tahiti
• Exploring the Abstract Universe of Jackson Pollock
• Journey through the Impressionism of Renoir
• Analysis of Edward Hopper’s American Realism
• Michelangelo’s Contribution to the Renaissance Art
• The Life and Art of Auguste Rodin

Art Research Topics in Different Epochs

• Baroque Art: Drama and Grandeur
• Defining Characteristics of Romanticism in Art
• Gothic Art: From Architecture to Illuminated Manuscripts
• Byzantine Art and Its Cultural Significance
• Transition Into Renaissance: A Shift in Artistic Style
• Exploring Mannerism: Between Renaissance and Baroque
• Art Deco: Elegance and Technological Progress
• Impressionism: More than Light and Momentary Impressions
• Abstract Expressionism: Freedom of Expression in Art
• Fauvism: Bold Colors and Simplified Designs
• Cubism: Changing Perspectives in Art
• Surrealism: Unleashing the Power of the Unconscious
• Art Nouveau: Nature in the Urban Environment
• Pop Art: The Intersection of Art and Popular Culture
• Neoclassicism: Rebirth of Ancient Traditions
• Dada: An Art Movement of Protest
• Expressionism: Emotions Over Realistic Representation
• Futurism: Embracing the Energy of the Future
• Post-Impressionism: Beyond the Limitations
• Art of the Middle Ages: A Spiritual Journey

Compelling Renaissance Art Research Topics

• Da Vinci’s Innovations in Art and Science
• Botticelli and the Visual Interpretation of Mythology
• Michelangelo’s Sculptures: Unraveling the Human Form
• Portrayal of Women in Renaissance Art
• Patronage System and Its Influence on Renaissance Art
• Influence of Humanism on Renaissance Art
• Differences in Northern and Italian Renaissance Art
• Iconography in the Work of Hieronymus Bosch
• Religious Themes in Renaissance Art
• Exploring Perspective in the Paintings of Masaccio
• Contrasting the Early and High Renaissance
• Titian’s Contribution to Venetian Renaissance Art
• Anatomy in Art: Lessons from Leonardo da Vinci
• Understanding Raphael’s Use of Composition
• Interpreting Allegory in Renaissance Art
• The Architecture of the Renaissance: Brunelleschi’s Innovations
• Renaissance Artistic Techniques: Chiaroscuro and Sfumato
• El Greco’s Unique Approach in the Late Renaissance
• Petrarch’s Influence on Renaissance Artists

Fascinating Photography in Art Research Topics

• Pictorialism: Bridging Painting and Photography
• Candid Street Photography: Reflections of Urban Life
• Ansel Adams and the Majesty of Nature
• History of Photojournalism: Truth in Images
• Understanding Photomontage: From Dada to Today
• Andy Warhol’s Use of Photography in Art
• Diane Arbus: Confronting Norms Through Portraiture
• War Photography: Documenting Humanity’s Dark Side
• Evolution of Fashion Photography
• Cinematic Aesthetics in Contemporary Photography
• Study of Abstract Photography
• Cindy Sherman and the Art of Self-Portraiture
• HDR Photography: Artistic Merits and Criticisms
• Photography’s Role in Constructing Identity
• Exploring Ethereal Quality in Surrealist Photography
• Vivian Maier: The Mystery of the Nanny Photographer
• Exploring the Ethnographic Photography of Edward Curtis
• Magnum Photos: Power of Collective Photography
• Color Theory in Photography

Art Research Topics in Architecture

• Gothic Architecture: Symbolism and Interpretation
• Modernism in Architectural Design: Case Studies
• Sustainable Architecture: Ecological Design Principles
• Neoclassical Structures: Harmony and Order
• Frank Lloyd Wright and the Concept of Organic Architecture
• Brutalist Architecture: Power and Materiality
• Architectural Marvels of Ancient Rome
• Islamic Architecture: Geometric Patterns and Spiritual Symbolism
• Deconstructivism: Challenging Traditional Architecture
• Feng Shui Principles in Eastern Architecture
• Revival Architectural Styles: Romanticism and Identity
• Digital Architecture: Advances and Implications
• Critical Regionalism: Adapting Modernism to Local Contexts
• Bauhaus Movement: Intersection of Art, Craft, and Technology
• Architectural Acoustics: Sound Design in Concert Halls
• Sacred Spaces: Religious Influence on Architecture
• Adaptive Reuse in Architecture: Redefining Existing Structures
• Biomimicry in Architecture: Inspiration From Nature
• Futurist Architecture: Imagining the City of Tomorrow
• Art Nouveau Architecture: Organic Forms and Decorative Detailing

Art Research Topics About Theater

• Elizabethan Theater: Innovation and Influence
• Brechtian Theatre: Alienation Effect and Its Significance
• Musical Theatre: Fusion of Art Forms
• Greek Tragedy: Power and Catharsis
• Commedia Dell’arte: Improvisation and Character Masks
• Kabuki Theatre: Cultural Symbolism in Japan
• Shakespearean Plays: Intricate Character Analysis
• Modernist Theatre: Interpretation and Vision
• Noh Theatre: Minimalist Aesthetics and Spirituality
• Symbolism in French Theater: Maeterlinck and Claudel
• Realism in Ibsen’s Theater: Social Critique
• Absurdist Drama: Beckett, Ionesco, and Pinter
• Ancient Roman Theater: Performance and Spectacle
• Black Theater Movement: Social Change and Expression
• Postmodern Performance: Hybridity and Intertextuality
• Theater of the Oppressed: Augusto Boal’s Revolutionary Technique
• Puppet Theater: Artistry Beyond Actors
• Theater Criticism: Methods and Perspectives
• Contemporary Immersive Theater: Audience Participation

Art Research Topics for Different Cultures

• African Art: Aesthetics and Meaning in Yoruba Sculpture
• Japanese Art: Wabi-Sabi and the Beauty of Imperfection
• Australian Indigenous Art: Symbols and Dreamtime Stories
• Russian Avant-Garde: Transformation of Artistic Language
• Middle Eastern Islamic Art: Geometry and Calligraphy
• Native American Art: Symbolism and Spiritual Traditions
• Cuban Art: Politics and Expression after the Revolution
• Chinese Art: Brushwork in Traditional Ink Painting
• Mexican Muralism: Rivera, Orozco, and Siqueiros
• South Asian Art: The Divine in Hindu Iconography
• Greek Art: Harmony and Proportions in Classical Sculpture
• Polynesian Art: Tattoos and Cultural Identity
• Art of Ancient Egypt: Ritual and the Afterlife
• Korean Art: Celadon Ceramics and Buddhist Influence
• European Medieval Art: Illuminated Manuscripts
• Art of the Inuit: Life and Mythology in Sculpture
• Brazilian Graffiti: Street Art as Political Commentary
• Art of the Maori: Carving, Weaving, and Tattooing
• Byzantine Art: Icons and Mosaics in Christian Worship
• Modern Persian Art: Negotiating Tradition and Modernity

Art History Research Paper Topics

• Artistic Paradigms in Late Antiquity: A Shift towards Christianity
• Baroque Art: Caravaggio’s Naturalism and Dramatic Lighting
• Impressionism: Monet’s En Plein Air Technique
• Surrealism: Dali’s Dreamscapes and the Subconscious Mind
• Postmodernism: Koons and the Commodification of Art
• Abstract Expressionism: Pollock’s Action Painting
• Cubism: Picasso’s Deconstruction of Form
• Renaissance Humanism: Anatomy in Leonardo’s Drawings
• Romanticism: Turner’s Sublime Landscapes
• Neoclassicism: David’s Use of Greco-Roman Themes
• Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood: Rejection of Industrial Age Aesthetics
• Art Nouveau: Mucha and the Integration of Art and Life
• Fauvism: Matisse’s Bold Use of Color
• German Expressionism: Kirchner’s Response to Urbanization
• Dadaism: Duchamp’s Readymades and the Challenge to Artistic Convention
• Pop Art: Warhol’s Reflections on Consumer Culture
• Gothic Architecture: Chartres Cathedral’s Stained Glass
• Arts and Crafts Movement: Morris’s Return to Handicrafts
• Futurism: Boccioni’s Dynamism and the Machine Age

Art Therapy Research Topics

• Art Therapy in Alzheimer’s Disease: A Creative Approach
• Artistic Expression as a Coping Mechanism for Trauma Survivors
• Psychoanalytic Perspectives on Art Therapy
• Cognitive Behavioral Art Therapy for Anxiety Disorders
• Integrating Mindfulness Techniques in Art Therapy
• Art Therapy in Pediatric Oncology: Aiding Expression and Understanding
• Clinical Art Therapy and Autism Spectrum Disorder
• Art Therapy Interventions for Individuals with Schizophrenia
• Artistic Creation as a Medium for Self-Expression in Depression
• Group Art Therapy in Substance Abuse Treatment
• Phototherapy: Exploring Personal Narratives through Photography
• Art Therapy and Neurological Rehabilitation: A Stroke Case Study
• Utilizing Art Therapy in Grief Counseling
• Art Therapy as a Modality in the Treatment of Eating Disorders
• Clinical Assessment through Art Therapy: Indicators and Interpretations
• Sand Tray Therapy: A Nonverbal Therapeutic Approach
• Expressive Art Therapy in Palliative Care: Enhancing Quality of Life
• Biblio-Art Therapy: Integrating Literature in Therapeutic Practice
• Virtual Reality and Art Therapy: Exploring New Horizons
• Holistic Healing: Integrating Yoga and Art Therapy

Pop Art Research Topics

• Andy Warhol: King of Pop Art
• Consumerism in Pop Art: A Critical Analysis
• Exploring Roy Lichtenstein’s Comic Strip Aesthetics
• Pop Art and Its Reflection on Post-War Culture
• Influence of Media and Advertising on Pop Art
• Cultural Shifts Reflected in 1960s Pop Art
• Pop Art and Its Interpretation of Femininity: Analysis of Works
• Exploring Pop Art’s Impact on Fashion
• British Pop Art: Distinct Features and Notable Artists
• From Collage to Canvas: Techniques of Pop Art
• How Pop Art Challenged Traditional Fine Art Values
• Japanese Pop Art: Influence of Manga and Anime
• Pop Art and Political Commentary: Works of Richard Hamilton
• The Use of Irony and Parody in Pop Art
• Crossover between Pop Art and Minimalism
• Pop Art’s Influence on Music: Album Cover Designs
• A Closer Look at Keith Haring’s Subway Drawings
• Ed Ruscha and Pop Art Typography
• Understanding Claes Oldenburg’s Soft Sculptures in Pop Art
• Pop Art’s Impact on Modern and Contemporary Art

Visual Art Research Topics

• Decoding Symbols in Medieval Visual Art
• Concepts of Beauty in Renaissance Visual Art
• Impressionism: Capturing the Moment in Visual Art
• Street Art: Vandalism or Visual Culture?
• Understanding Abstract Expressionism in Visual Art
• Color Theory in Visual Art: A Comprehensive Study
• Art Nouveau and its Influence on Visual Art
• Depictions of War in Visual Art
• Examining Surrealism in Visual Art
• Cubism: Changing Perspectives in Visual Art
• Visual Art in Advertising: An Analysis
• Contemporary Visual Art: Trends and Techniques
• Sculpture: 3D Perspectives in Visual Art
• Depictions of Mythology in Visual Art
• Bauhaus Movement and its Influence on Visual Art
• Visual Art as a Tool for Social Commentary
• Futurism: Anticipating the Future in Visual Art
• Exploring Romanticism in Visual Art
• Religious Iconography in Byzantine Visual Art

Classical Greek Art Research Topics

• Classical Greek Sculpture: Aesthetic Analysis
• Iconography in Classical Greek Vase Painting
• Architectural Innovations of Classical Greek Temples
• Classical Greek Art in the Context of Democracy
• Mythology Depictions in Classical Greek Art
• Mosaics and Frescoes: Detailed Examination of Classical Greek Mediums
• Development of Human Figure Representation in Classical Greek Art
• Classical Greek Theatre: An Artistic Perspective
• Artistic Techniques Used in Classical Greek Coin Design
• Classical Greek Art: An Inquiry Into Cultural Exchange
• Metopes and Friezes: Sculptural Elements of Classical Greek Architecture
• Gender Portrayal in Classical Greek Art
• Classical Greek Art: Exploring Burial Customs
• Artistic Conventions of Classical Greek Pottery
• Aesthetic Values in Classical Greek Art: Detailed Analysis
• Exploration of Classical Greek Military Art
• Deciphering Messages in Classical Greek Art
• Classical Greek Art: Analyzing Patterns and Motifs
• Reflection of Philosophy in Classical Greek Art
• Pediment Sculpture in Classical Greek Architecture

To Learn More, Read Relevant Articles

512 definition essay topics & good ideas, 293 good nutrition research topics & ideas.

Art and Art History Research Guide

• Terminology
• Background research and finding books
• Advanced searching in databases and Google
• Evaluating sources
• Chicago / Turabian Style

What is MLA?

Mla resources, citing your sources in mla style, cite right in mla library workshop, microsoft word templates, mla handbooks in the library.

Each academic discipline has its own rules for presenting research and citing ideas and words borrowed from other writers and researchers.

• Courses in English and the humanities use the  Modern Language Association  (MLA) style rules.
• The  MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers  contains comprehensive rules and examples for citing.
• MLA 9 Quick Guide
• MLA Style Sample Paper
• Excelsior OWL MLA Guide
• ZoteroBib Citation Generator
• How to Create a Hanging Indent in Word
• How to Create a Hanging Indent in Google Docs

How does citing in MLA work?

Step 1: Create a Works Cited page

• Include a Works Cited page at the end of your research paper. It should contain a full citation for each source referenced within your paper. The full citation should include the specific publication information required by the MLA rules. This allows your reader to find the sources, if desired.

Step 2: Use in-text citations throughout your paper

• Use an  in-text citation  to acknowledge that you are quoting or paraphrasing another author's words or ideas in the text of your research paper.
• Your reader will use the information provided in the signal phrase and in-text citation to find additional information about the source in your  Works  Cited  page.

Critser noted that despite growing numbers of overweight Americans, many health care providers still “remain either in ignorance or outright denial about the health danger to the poor and the young” (5). If the author is not named in the signal phrase, place the author’s name and the page number in parentheses after the quotation or paraphrase like this (Critser 5). 

Step 3: Double-check your formatting

• The MLA Handbook dictates the rules for formatting your in-text citations, Works Cited page, and your final research paper.
• Review the links in the " MLA Resources " box on this page to see formatting examples.

• Take the Quiz: Cite Right in MLA Complete this online quiz after watching the video above. A certificate of completion will be emailed to you.

Use MLA templates in Word and Google Docs

When creating a new Microsoft Word document (or Google Doc), search for "MLA" to see  MLA-style research paper templates. 

• << Previous: Chicago / Turabian Style
• Next: Get help >>
• Last Updated: Feb 13, 2024 2:41 PM
• URL: https://researchguides.elac.edu/art

Have a language expert improve your writing

Run a free plagiarism check in 10 minutes, generate accurate citations for free.

• Knowledge Base
• Research paper

How to Create a Structured Research Paper Outline | Example

Published on August 7, 2022 by Courtney Gahan . Revised on August 15, 2023.

A research paper outline is a useful tool to aid in the writing process , providing a structure to follow with all information to be included in the paper clearly organized.

A quality outline can make writing your research paper more efficient by helping to:

• Organize your thoughts
• Understand the flow of information and how ideas are related
• Ensure nothing is forgotten

A research paper outline can also give your teacher an early idea of the final product.

Instantly correct all language mistakes in your text

Upload your document to correct all your mistakes in minutes

Table of contents

Research paper outline example, how to write a research paper outline, formatting your research paper outline, language in research paper outlines.

• Definition of measles
• Rise in cases in recent years in places the disease was previously eliminated or had very low rates of infection
• Figures: Number of cases per year on average, number in recent years. Relate to immunization
• Symptoms and timeframes of disease
• Risk of fatality, including statistics
• How measles is spread
• Immunization procedures in different regions
• Different regions, focusing on the arguments from those against immunization
• Immunization figures in affected regions
• High number of cases in non-immunizing regions
• Illnesses that can result from measles virus
• Fatal cases of other illnesses after patient contracted measles
• Summary of arguments of different groups
• Summary of figures and relationship with recent immunization debate
• Which side of the argument appears to be correct?

Scribbr Citation Checker New

The AI-powered Citation Checker helps you avoid common mistakes such as:

• Missing commas and periods
• Incorrect usage of “et al.”
• Ampersands (&) in narrative citations
• Missing reference entries

Follow these steps to start your research paper outline:

• Decide on the subject of the paper
• Write down all the ideas you want to include or discuss
• Organize related ideas into sub-groups
• Arrange your ideas into a hierarchy: What should the reader learn first? What is most important? Which idea will help end your paper most effectively?
• Create headings and subheadings that are effective
• Format the outline in either alphanumeric, full-sentence or decimal format

There are three different kinds of research paper outline: alphanumeric, full-sentence and decimal outlines. The differences relate to formatting and style of writing.

• Alphanumeric
• Full-sentence

An alphanumeric outline is most commonly used. It uses Roman numerals, capitalized letters, arabic numerals, lowercase letters to organize the flow of information. Text is written with short notes rather than full sentences.

• Sub-point of sub-point 1

Essentially the same as the alphanumeric outline, but with the text written in full sentences rather than short points.

• Additional sub-point to conclude discussion of point of evidence introduced in point A

A decimal outline is similar in format to the alphanumeric outline, but with a different numbering system: 1, 1.1, 1.2, etc. Text is written as short notes rather than full sentences.

• 1.1.1 Sub-point of first point
• 1.1.2 Sub-point of first point
• 1.2 Second point

To write an effective research paper outline, it is important to pay attention to language. This is especially important if it is one you will show to your teacher or be assessed on.

There are four main considerations: parallelism, coordination, subordination and division.

Parallelism: Be consistent with grammatical form

Parallel structure or parallelism is the repetition of a particular grammatical form within a sentence, or in this case, between points and sub-points. This simply means that if the first point is a verb , the sub-point should also be a verb.

Example of parallelism:

• Include different regions, focusing on the different arguments from those against immunization

Coordination: Be aware of each point’s weight

Your chosen subheadings should hold the same significance as each other, as should all first sub-points, secondary sub-points, and so on.

Example of coordination:

• Include immunization figures in affected regions
• Illnesses that can result from the measles virus

Subordination: Work from general to specific

Subordination refers to the separation of general points from specific. Your main headings should be quite general, and each level of sub-point should become more specific.

Example of subordination:

Division: break information into sub-points.

Your headings should be divided into two or more subsections. There is no limit to how many subsections you can include under each heading, but keep in mind that the information will be structured into a paragraph during the writing stage, so you should not go overboard with the number of sub-points.

Ready to start writing or looking for guidance on a different step in the process? Read our step-by-step guide on how to write a research paper .

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.

Gahan, C. (2023, August 15). How to Create a Structured Research Paper Outline | Example. Scribbr. Retrieved March 18, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/research-paper/outline/

Is this article helpful?

Courtney Gahan

Other students also liked, research paper format | apa, mla, & chicago templates, writing a research paper introduction | step-by-step guide, writing a research paper conclusion | step-by-step guide, "i thought ai proofreading was useless but..".

I've been using Scribbr for years now and I know it's a service that won't dissappoint. It does a good job spotting mistakes”

Enjoy a completely custom, expertly-written dissertation. Choose from hundreds of writers, all of whom are career specialists in your subject.

A List of Unique Art Research Paper Topics

Art is an exciting field of study, and research in this area is fun to do. We have identified the different areas and the possible topics you can research on. Art is a broad area of study but choosing a topic is not as difficult as you think. With the right guide, you can find interesting topics for your thesis. We have some tips to get you on the right path. We also provide you with some tips on how to choose a research topic in the arts.

How to Choose the Right Art Topic

Choosing a project topic in arts requires careful thought. To make things easier for you, we have noted some areas to consider before picking a research topic.

·         Consider Your Interest

Art is a field of study that emphasizes creativity. It is a field that will require you to bring your creativity to bear. What happens if you search your mind and nothing comes out?

This problem can happen if you do not have an interest in the area. Even if you can come up with something, the ideas will not flow if you write about your area of interest.

There are areas of difficulty in every research, but you will be more inclined to find working solutions if it is your area of interest. If you are working on your area of study, you will be better attuned to the research. It also helps the overall look of your research. Your enthusiasm is essential in every project work.

·         Access to Material

Before you decide to take on a topic for research in arts, you should consider the availability of materials and your access to them. Materials may be available, but you may not have access to them.

Essential questions to ask are, are there materials on this topic? Have books been published in this area? Are there articles online on this topic? You may also want to check if your school library has materials on the topic.

Then you have to ask if you have access to these materials. Can you download the material online? Or read them online? Are the books available for sale? If you answer yes, then you are good to go.

·         Identify a Gap

Research is called so because someone else has researched that area before. So, what you are doing is a “re-search.” However, previous research could not have covered every aspect of that field or topic. Therefore, you have to identify that gap and fill it.

Without proper research, you will not come up with a viable topic. In academics, you do not have to repeat what someone has done already.

Expert Consulting for Art Research Paper Topics

Looking to excel in your art research paper? Our professional dissertation consultant is here to support you. With their expertise in the field of art, they can provide personalized guidance and advice on selecting engaging topics, conducting thorough research, and crafting a compelling art research paper. Benefit from the knowledge and experience of our dissertation consultants to enhance the quality and impact of your work. Contact us today to unlock the full potential of your art research paper with our expert consulting services.

Modern Art Topics

• Themes in 21 st century paintings
• Themes in 20 th century paintings
• The new media and arts
• Filmography in the 21 st century
• Emerging forms in modern arts
• Modern art as a viable tool for activism
• Impact of technology on modern arts
• Themes in modern poetry
• What is the influence of feminism on modern art?
• Gendered roles in modern arts

Media Art History Research Paper Topics

• Art development and the media
• Dynamics of art produced using the media
• Globalization, digital art, and emerging discusses
• Globalization, electronic art, and activism
• Literature and the new media
• Poetic rendition in the new media
• The impact of digital technologies on art
• Advertising in the 21 st century
• Filmic art in the 21 st century
• Computer games as art

Pop Art Research Paper Topics

• Comic books as tools for social criticism
• Advertising and sublimation: a study of the human psyche
• Pop art as a platform for activism
• Popular pop artists in the 21 st century
• Thematic and stylistic trends in pop art
• Technology and ethics in pop art
• Pop art as high and low art
• Pop art as an economy booster
• Principles of pop art
• Interaction and connection between pop art and other art forms

Visual Art Research Topics

• Painting as pedagogy
• Sculpture in the modern age
• The creative works of popular artists
• Aesthetics of painting: a study of an artist’s creations
• A comparison of style of different artists
• Trends in photography in different generations
• Impact of technology on visual art
• Socioeconomic impact of animation
• Impact of visual art on culture
• Visual art and feminism

Art Therapy Research Paper Topics

• The interworking of therapy and art
• The use of art for therapeutic effects
• Technological approaches to art therapy
• The use of virtual reality in art therapy
• Theories of art therapy
• Dance therapy for the treatment of anxiety
• Color therapy for children with learning disabilities
• Music as therapy for depression
• The evolution of art therapy

Art History Research Paper Topics

• Impact of the industrial revolution on art
• Themes and styles of painting in the 20 th and 21 st centuries
• Aesthetics and styles in Francisco de Goya’s works
• The place of art in human civilization
• A comparison of the work of two prominent painters
• Themes and styles of music in the 20 th and 21 st centuries
• Influence of ancient philosophers on art
• The aesthetics and style of Michelangelo’s works
• The place of erotica in the arts
• History of paintings in different cultures

Ancient Art History Research Paper Topics

• Art forms and styles in Greece
• Compare the artworks of different artists
• Biblical motives in the works of Leonardo da Vinci
• Early African arts and history
• The history behind early roman arts
• Chinese arts and lifestyle before the 21 st century
• Ancient Egyptian arts and lifestyle
• History of the pyramid of Egypt
• The contribution of the Greek theatre to dramatic arts
• Early arts and religion

Classical Greek Art Research Paper Topic

Classical Greek art-related topics for a research paper is an intelligent choice. There are several areas you can focus on including:

• The different styles of Greeks pottery
• Myths in classical Greek sculpture
• Aesthetics and style of Greek architecture
• Compare the works of legendary sculptors
• Impact of religion on Greek artworks
• Compare ancient Greek art with the present
• The influence of science in Greek arts
• Styles of Phidias sculptor
• Imagery and symbolism in classical Greek arts
• Relationship between classical Greek arts and Greece lifestyle

Renaissance Art Topics

• A comparison of renaissance art in different parts of Europe
• What was the influence of renaissance art on man’s worldview?
• How is renaissance art different from those of the medieval age?
• What are the aesthetics of the art of the time?
• How is the nobility of man portrayed in the art forms of the age?
• How was the renaissance a revival of classical Roman and Greek art?
• What are the forms and styles of renaissance art?
• History, evolution, and preservation of renaissance arts
• How do the renaissance arts portray humanism and individualism?
• What are the theories of renaissance art?

20th Century Research Paper Topics Art History

• Specific museum and its art collection
• Harlem renaissance as a springboard for art activism
• Aesthetics and styles of Pablo Picasso’s arts
• Influence of Jackson Pollock’s arts
• Influence of religion and science on the 20 th century arts
• Compare earlier art styles with those of the 20 th century
• Artistic movements in the 20 th century
• Political cartoons and their influence in 20 th century politics
• Influence of earlier art style on 20 th art styles
• The prominent art movement of the 20 th century

Great Thai Art Topic for a Research Paper

• The culture and artistic heritage of Thailand
• Influence of religion on Thai arts
• Representation of Thai social life in Thai arts
• Folk heritage of Thailand
• Aesthetic and stylistic import of Thai arts
• Ancient and prehistoric art forms
• A diachronic study of Thai arts from prehistoric times to the present
• Signs and symbols in Thai arts
• The influence of globalization on contemporary Thai arts
• Messages in line, color, and space in Thai art.

Medieval Art History Research Paper Topics

• Aesthetics and style of Raphael’s paintings
• Religious and non-religious art forms that originated from the time
• The evolution and sustenance of art forms
• Compare the artworks of Michelangelo and Raphael
• History of renaissance arts
• Symbols and motif in medieval paintings
• Religious motifs in Leonardo de Vinci’s paintings
• Aesthetics and styles of Byzantine art style
• Evolution of early Christian arts,
• Elements of Gothic arts

Mexican Revolutionary Art Research Paper Topics

• Impact of the Mexican revolution on Mexican lifestyle
• History and effects of revolutionary arts
• Compare the artworks of Frida Kahlo, Diego, Rivera
• Surrealism in Mexican arts
• Mural paintings during the Mexican revolution
• The place of arts in Mexican revolution
• Different phases of the Mexican revolution and the artworks created during that time
• Impact of the Mexican revolution on people’s perception of art
• Compare Mexican revolutionary arts with those created after the revolution
• Aesthetics and style of David Alfaro Siqueiros’s artworks

Argumentative Art Topics

Some art research paper topics in these areas include:

• The most significant artwork in the 20th century
• Is graffiti art or vandalism?
• Which city has the most remarkable art history and why?
• The relevance of medieval art in contemporary times
• How has the museum preserved art culture and enthusiasm
• Modern pop culture does not measure up to earlier times. Argue for or against
• Do ethics limit art?
• Has technology limited creativity in art?
• Is the role of the artist in society relevant?
• Do cartoons fuel or mediate in political issues?

Good South East Asia Art Topics for a Research Paper

• Asia is a place of high artistic creations. Discuss
• Compare ancient and contemporary Asian arts
• History of calligraphy arts in East Asia
• What is the philosophy behind ancient artistic creations of different ages?
• The evolution of Bollywood
• How does Chinese circus art reflect the Chinese tradition?
• Jewelry styles and meaning in India
• Aesthetics and styles in Japanese calligraphy art
• Religious relevance of art in south India
• The evolution of pop culture in India

Researches in art are not difficult if taken the right way. With this guide, picking an area of study and identifying the gap is not tedious. We have helped you out in this regard with the information provided above.

Frequently Asked Questions

Richard Ginger is a dissertation writer and freelance columnist with a wealth of knowledge and expertise in the writing industry. He handles every project he works on with precision while keeping attention to details and ensuring that every work he does is unique.

Succeed With A Perfect Dissertation

Leave a Reply Cancel reply

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *

Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment.

As Putin continues killing civilians, bombing kindergartens, and threatening WWIII, Ukraine fights for the world's peaceful future.

Ukraine Live Updates

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

• View all journals
• Explore content
• About the journal
• Publish with us
• Sign up for alerts
• 12 March 2024

How OpenAI’s text-to-video tool Sora could change science – and society

• Jonathan O'Callaghan

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Sora is one of several AI tools that generates video from text prompts Credit: OpenAI

The release of OpenAI’s Sora text-to-video AI tool last month was met with a mix of trepidation and excitement from researchers who are concerned about misuse of the technology. The California-based company showcased Sora’s ability to create photorealistic videos from a few short text prompts, with examples including clips of a woman walking down a neon-lit street in Tokyo and a dog jumping between two windowsills.

Tracy Harwood, a digital-culture specialist at De Montfort University in Leicester, UK, says she is “shocked” by the speed at which text-to-video artificial intelligence (AI) has developed. A year ago, people were laughing at an AI-produced video of the US actor Will Smith eating spaghetti . Now some researchers are worried that the technology could upend global politics in 2024.

OpenAI, which also developed ChatGPT and the text-to-image technology DALL·E, debuted Sora on 15 February, announcing that it was making the technology “available to red teamers to assess critical areas for harms or risks”. ‘Red teaming’ refers to the process of conducting simulated attacks or exploitation of a technology to see how it would cope with nefarious activity, such as the creation of misinformation and hateful content, in the real world.

Sora isn’t the first example of text-to-video technology; others include Gen-2, produced by Runway in New York City and released last year, and the Google-led Lumiere, announced in January. Harwood says she has been “underwhelmed” by some of these other offerings. “They are becoming more and more vanilla in what they present to you,” she says, adding that the programs require very specific prompts to get them to produce compelling content.

Misinformation is a major challenge for these text-to-video technologies, Harwood adds. “We’re going to very quickly reach a point in which we are swamped with a barrage of really compelling-looking information. That’s really worrying.”

Election fears

That poses particular problems with upcoming elections, including the US presidential election in November and an impending general election in the United Kingdom. “There will be colossal numbers of fake videos and fake audio circulating,” says Dominic Lees, who researches generative AI and filmmaking at the University of Reading, UK. Fake audio of the leader of the UK Labour Party, Keir Starmer, was released in October 2023 , and fake audio of US President Joe Biden encouraging Democrats not to vote circulated in January .

One solution might be to require text-to-video AI to use watermarks, either in the form of a visible mark on the video, labelling it as AI, or as a telltale artificial signature in the video’s metadata, but Lees isn’t sure this will be successful. “At the moment watermarks can be removed,” he says, and the inclusion of a watermark in a video’s metadata relies on people actively researching whether a video they’ve watched is real or not. “I don’t think we can honestly ask audiences across the world to do that on every video they’re looking at,” says Lees.

There are potential benefits to the technology, too. Harwood suggests it could be used to present difficult text, such as an academic paper, in a format that is easier to understand. “One of the biggest things it could be used for is to communicate findings to a lay audience,” she says. “It can visualize pretty complex concepts.”

Another potential use might be in health care, with text-to-video AI able to talk to patients in place of a human doctor. “Some people might find it disconcerting,” says Claire Malone, a consultant science communicator in the United Kingdom. “Others might find it extremely convenient if they want to ask a medical professional questions multiple times a day.”

Data management

Text-to-video AI tools such as Sora could help researchers to wade through huge data sets, such as those produced by the European particle-physics laboratory CERN near Geneva in Switzerland and other large scientific projects, says Malone. Generative AI could “sift out code and do the mundane tasks of research”, she adds, but also do “much more sophisticated work [such as] giving it data and asking it to make predictions”.

Concerns have also been raised by people working in creative industries. The US actor Tom Hanks suggested last year that AI could enable him to continue appearing in films “from now until kingdom come” after his death. “If you were a young ambitious actor thinking about their future, and you were told ‘I’m sorry, Tom Hanks is always going to play the leading roles’, would you plan a future in that?” says Lees.

Text-to-video AI will throw up broad issues for society to face. “We’re going to have to learn to evaluate the content we see in ways we haven’t in the past,” says Harwood. “These tools put the opportunity to be a media content creator in the hands of everybody,” she says. “We’re going to be dealing with the consequences of that. It’s a fundamental shift in the way material will be consumed.”

doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-024-00661-0

Reprints and permissions

Four years on: the career costs for scientists battling long COVID

Career Feature 18 MAR 24

Chatbot AI makes racist judgements on the basis of dialect

News 13 MAR 24

Bullied in science: I quit my job and launched an advocacy non-profit

Career Column 12 MAR 24

Giant plume of plasma on the Sun’s surface and more — February’s best science images

News 01 MAR 24

Passion, curiosity and perseverance: my mission to capture women in science on camera

Career Q&A 01 FEB 24

Mysterious exploding star and more — January’s best science images

News 31 JAN 24

A year in the life: what I learnt from using a time-tracking spreadsheet

Career Column 15 MAR 24

How AI is being used to accelerate clinical trials

Nature Index 13 MAR 24

No installation required: how WebAssembly is changing scientific computing

Technology Feature 11 MAR 24

Sydney Horizon Educators (Faculty of Medicine and Health)

An opportunity for the best and brightest talented educators to be part of our future at the Faculty of Medicine and Health.

Sydney (LGA), New South Wales (AU)

University of Sydney

Sydney Horizon Educators (Faculty of Engineering)

Opportunity for the best and brightest talented educators to be part of our future at the Faculty of Engineering.

Backend/ DevOps Engineer – National Facility for Data Handling and Analysis

APPLICATION CLOSING DATE: April 2nd, 2024. About the institute Human Technopole (HT) is a new interdisciplinary life science research institute, cr...

Human Technopole

Professorship for Pneumology (W3)

The Jena University Hospital (JUH) invites applications for a Professorship for Pneumology (W3) to be filled at the earliest possible date. The pro...

07743 Jena, Thüringen (DE)

Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena

Faculty Positions at Great Bay University, China

We are now seeking outstanding candidates in Physics, Chemistry and Physical Sciences.

Dongguan, Guangdong, China

Great Bay University, China (GBU)

Sign up for the Nature Briefing newsletter — what matters in science, free to your inbox daily.

Quick links

• Explore articles by subject
• Guide to authors
• Editorial policies

• Share full article

Advertisement

Supported by

How To: Style Bookshelves

There’s an Art to Arranging a Bookshelf. Here’s How It’s Done.

Jeremiah Brent, the newest cast member of Netflix’s “Queer Eye,” shows how he styles the shelves in the home he shares with his husband, Nate Berkus.

By Tim McKeough

In a public library, styling a bookshelf is easy: Just fill it with books. At home, a bookcase needs to do a lot more than hold books.

So how do the pros do it?

Start by thinking of your shelves as a kind of three-dimensional wallpaper that adds visual interest to a room. The things you choose to display should express your personality.

“It’s like a little cabinet of curiosities,” said Jeremiah Brent , an interior designer and the newest cast member of Netflix’s “Queer Eye.” Your bookshelves, he added, offer “an opportunity for people to look in and see where you’ve been and where you’re going.”

In the Manhattan home he shares with his husband, Nate Berkus — a much-photographed space featured in Mr. Brent’s new book, “The Space That Keeps You,” and often seen on Instagram , as well — the bookshelves in the den are always changing. But they’re usually filled with stacks of favorite design books, photos of loved ones and pieces of art made by their children, Poppy and Oskar.

“It’s about having fun and playing around with different ways to layer things in and tell your story,” Mr. Brent said. Here’s how he does it.

How to Style Bookshelves: Jeremiah Brent’s Dos and Don’ts

Artfully arranged shelves can add visual interest to a room. “It’s about having fun,” said the interior designer Jeremiah Brent.

But that doesn’t mean there aren’t some basic rules →

DO: Use unexpected objects. “Make sure everything doesn’t feel formulaic,” Brent said. His guests may expect to find chic objects on his shelves, but “currently there’s pottery that our children are making, which are multicolored and look like they’re melting.”

DON’T: Edit too much. “It drives me crazy when people place just one object on a shelf,” Brent said. “That doesn’t feel like it’s expressing anything.”

DO: Add photos of loved ones. “It’s nice to have pictures of the babies when they were babies,” Brent said. “It takes you back.” (No one will dock you style points.)

DON’T: Stack books with the spines facing in. “That stresses me out, because how do you know what you’re grabbing?” Brent said. “It’s always interesting to walk into a home and see what people read.”

DO: Change things frequently. “Our shelves are always evolving, because so are we,” Brent said. “The kids bring something home, my husband moves things around or I move things around. That’s how it should be.”

DON’T: Stagger the placement of your shelves . “I have a really hard time when shelves are staggered,” he said. “I like chaos inside, but the actual bookshelves should all be lined up.”

Want more decorating ideas from the pros? Check out this helpful advice:

Choose Your Favorite Books

Stuffing your shelves completely full of books can look great, especially in a home library. But if you want to mix in objects, art and photos, you may have to pick and choose which books to display.

Start by choosing ones with good-looking covers. “We try to keep the colors coordinated in groupings,” Mr. Brent said, hastening to add: “We also try to keep them within their category: art, history, décor, jewelry or whatever it may be.”

Well-worn paperbacks and other less attractive books can be stored elsewhere. In Mr. Brent’s home, cabinets with doors at the bottom of the bookshelves hold the overflow.

Stack Them Up

Don’t line up your books in endless rows. Instead, try building stacks.

“There are things we do that really help” to create a collected look, Mr. Brent said, “like mixing books horizontally and vertically.”

When you’re adding a horizontal stack to a shelf, “usually, piles of three or more feels nice,” he said. Also, “think about mixing different heights.”

On some shelves, Mr. Brent may stack lots of books to create a stepped pyramid that fills the space. On others, he may use only a few to create a pedestal for other objects.

Add Objects That Mean Something

Your bookshelves shouldn’t resemble something out of a catalog: Forget about displaying anything impersonal, even if it looks nice. This is the place to show off things you have collected over many years.

“We’ve got artifacts that my husband and I have collected since we met,” Mr. Brent said. “Everywhere we go, we pick up pottery or funny little sculptures. We’ve got tassels from curtains in old homes that we’ve kept and laid across books. We’ve got feathers that my daughter grabbed. It’s a mishmash of everything that we find beautiful, or an expression of somewhere we’ve been.”

“The existential step I have for people,” Mr. Brent explained, “is to try to figure out a way they can incorporate their past and present, but still leave room for the future.”

Create Balance

Once you’ve selected most of the books and objects you want to display, you’re still only halfway there.

Now, Mr. Brent said, “you’ve got to play around with balance and scale.”

The goal is to spread the pieces across the shelves equally — mixing tall and short, light and weighty objects — so you don’t end up with some sections that looked stuffed while others feel emptier.

“If you’ve got a shelf that’s heavy with books,” Mr. Brent suggested, “lighten it up with some objects next to it.”

Even for design pros, he said, “there are no rules.” Balance can be achieved only through trial and error.

“It only really happens,” he continued, “when you get up there and play with it.”

Hang Interesting Pieces on Top

For the ultimate layered look, use picture hangers to mount one or a few special pieces of art on the front of the bookcase.

“I love to hang art on the face of the bookshelf,” Mr. Brent said, “so it almost feels like things are spilling out.”

And not just framed artwork: Sometime he’ll adorn a bookcase with other pieces, like ceramic beads or a mirror finished in shell.

“I love the organized chaos of a bookshelf that spills over with story,” Mr. Brent said.

For weekly email updates on residential real estate news, sign up here .

How to Buy a Home

With careful research and determination, the keys to that dream house can be yours..

Start by organizing your finances  and asking the right questions: Is homeownership right for you ? What are the best markets for first-time buyers ? And can you afford to buy a house ?

From buying real estate with friends  and family  to owning a house before finding a spouse , people are exploring creative paths to homeownership  that also make financial sense.

For most, the down payment is the primary hurdle keeping them from buying a home, but you may have options .

Are you confused by all the new mortgage gimmicks being offered by lenders? Don’t worry, our guide can help .

Buying a vacant lot offers the chance to build a home on your own terms. Here is what to know if you choose that option .

To those looking to buy property as an investment, a tenant-occupied apartment can be appealing. Weigh the pros and cons carefully .

Bad credit? No savings? There are still ways for you to buy a home .

Promptchan - AI Girl Generator 17+

Limitless ai image generator, ai research group limited, designed for ipad.

• #194 in Photo & Video
• 4.5 • 507 Ratings
• Offers In-App Purchases

Screenshots

Description.

Limitless AI Image Generator Turn words into your perfect AI girl with the official Promptchan app! Just enter a prompt and generate any AI image you can imagine. Enjoy free and high quality AI image creation in a range of different styles, from Anime, Cinematic and Art. Promptchan features the most advanced models for AI girlfriend, AI anime and AI art creation. It allows you to design your perfect AI girl with the best results. Features: Create Bring your ideal girl to life with Promptchan AI, the best AI art generator for mobile. With the most high quality AI images, dive into styles like Anime, Cinematic, and Art. Harness the latest AI tech and shape the perfect AI companion. Edit Easily upload and fine-tune any image to create your ideal AI girl. Just choose a section and modify it as you wish. Experience the simplest AI girl photo editing yet. AI Character Simply upload an AI photo, type in any situation or setting, and watch as it generates a lifelike AI-generated character. Choose from Realistic, Anime or Artistic art styles. Explore A vast library of over 10 million AI girls, crafted by our community. Clone and customize any image to your liking, and unleash your creativity. Terms of Service: https://promptaiapp.com/termsofservice Privacy Policy: https://promptaiapp.com/privacypolicy Fair Use Policy: https://promptaiapp.com/fairusepolicy

Version 1.2.1

Bug fixes: Resolved bugs in Edit mode to improve your experience.

Ratings and Reviews

507 Ratings

New revenue for developers

Solid app but the only ways to get gems is to share the app (sorry but no thanks) or buy them (it’s better than most similar products & at a better price) but it could have another feature to benefit both parities As a task you could watch ads to earn gems, that way those who quit the app after the first free gems will keep producing revenue over time & those who already buy it don’t have to wait the longer time. Also I was thinking about getting a subscription but I’m quite hesitant to because it says “advanced features” or “all features” but I’m not quite sure what that means. I saw that an ai bot was available but I’m not sure if gifs or videos are possible. If you could clarify that on the app that would probably encourage a lot more people to actually get it. Overall an amazing quality app but an ad system that gives gems in exchange for viewing advertisements & clarification on what the subscriptions provide would greatly benefit the experience & increase profit margins.

Solid app but have to use gems to use it, but the gems aren’t free but you are able to get more by doing tasks or watching ads

Using the app scrapped my account

Not sure how this has any good reviews, first of all you can’t even use it. I was prompted to join from the browser version with the promise of getting extra gems to my account. I open the app and log in, and not only are there zero gems at all, making it completely unusable, but all my history is gone too. Both in app and in the browser version now. Not just unviewable without the pro version, but gone entirely. It is unusable, and all my pics are just gone forever it seems.

App Privacy

The developer, AI Research Group Limited , indicated that the app’s privacy practices may include handling of data as described below. For more information, see the developer’s privacy policy .

Data Used to Track You

The following data may be used to track you across apps and websites owned by other companies:

Data Linked to You

The following data may be collected and linked to your identity:

• Contact Info
• User Content
• Identifiers

Data Not Linked to You

The following data may be collected but it is not linked to your identity:

Privacy practices may vary, for example, based on the features you use or your age. Learn More

Information

• 50 Gems $3.99
• Plus $11.99
• 250 Gems $9.99
• 900 Gems $19.99
• Premium $18.99
• 1800 Gems $41.99
• 3000 Gems $79.99
• 10000 Gems $259.99
• App Support
• Privacy Policy

More By This Developer

EditApp: AI Photo Editor

You Might Also Like

NYMF: Art Nude Feminine Beauty

Superlook AI

Hotify - Hot Body Editor

Deepfake Swap

FaceSwapper - AI Swap Videos

VID AI: AI Video Generator