dissertation meaning and pronunciation

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dissertation

Definition of dissertation

Examples of dissertation in a sentence.

These examples are programmatically compiled from various online sources to illustrate current usage of the word 'dissertation.' Any opinions expressed in the examples do not represent those of Merriam-Webster or its editors. Send us feedback about these examples.

Word History

1651, in the meaning defined above

Dictionary Entries Near dissertation

dissertative

Cite this Entry

“Dissertation.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary , Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/dissertation. Accessed 23 Mar. 2024.

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• Knowledge Base
• Dissertation

What Is a Dissertation? | Guide, Examples, & Template

A dissertation is a long-form piece of academic writing based on original research conducted by you. It is usually submitted as the final step in order to finish a PhD program.

Your dissertation is probably the longest piece of writing you’ve ever completed. It requires solid research, writing, and analysis skills, and it can be intimidating to know where to begin.

Your department likely has guidelines related to how your dissertation should be structured. When in doubt, consult with your supervisor.

You can also download our full dissertation template in the format of your choice below. The template includes a ready-made table of contents with notes on what to include in each chapter, easily adaptable to your department’s requirements.

Download Word template Download Google Docs template

• In the US, a dissertation generally refers to the collection of research you conducted to obtain a PhD.
• In other countries (such as the UK), a dissertation often refers to the research you conduct to obtain your bachelor’s or master’s degree.

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Table of contents

Dissertation committee and prospectus process, how to write and structure a dissertation, acknowledgements or preface, list of figures and tables, list of abbreviations, introduction, literature review, methodology, reference list, proofreading and editing, defending your dissertation, free checklist and lecture slides.

When you’ve finished your coursework, as well as any comprehensive exams or other requirements, you advance to “ABD” (All But Dissertation) status. This means you’ve completed everything except your dissertation.

Prior to starting to write, you must form your committee and write your prospectus or proposal . Your committee comprises your adviser and a few other faculty members. They can be from your own department, or, if your work is more interdisciplinary, from other departments. Your committee will guide you through the dissertation process, and ultimately decide whether you pass your dissertation defense and receive your PhD.

Your prospectus is a formal document presented to your committee, usually orally in a defense, outlining your research aims and objectives and showing why your topic is relevant . After passing your prospectus defense, you’re ready to start your research and writing.

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The structure of your dissertation depends on a variety of factors, such as your discipline, topic, and approach. Dissertations in the humanities are often structured more like a long essay , building an overall argument to support a central thesis , with chapters organized around different themes or case studies.

However, hard science and social science dissertations typically include a review of existing works, a methodology section, an analysis of your original research, and a presentation of your results , presented in different chapters.

Dissertation examples

We’ve compiled a list of dissertation examples to help you get started.

• Example dissertation #1: Heat, Wildfire and Energy Demand: An Examination of Residential Buildings and Community Equity (a dissertation by C. A. Antonopoulos about the impact of extreme heat and wildfire on residential buildings and occupant exposure risks).
• Example dissertation #2: Exploring Income Volatility and Financial Health Among Middle-Income Households (a dissertation by M. Addo about income volatility and declining economic security among middle-income households).
• Example dissertation #3: The Use of Mindfulness Meditation to Increase the Efficacy of Mirror Visual Feedback for Reducing Phantom Limb Pain in Amputees (a dissertation by N. S. Mills about the effect of mindfulness-based interventions on the relationship between mirror visual feedback and the pain level in amputees with phantom limb pain).

The very first page of your document contains your dissertation title, your name, department, institution, degree program, and submission date. Sometimes it also includes your student number, your supervisor’s name, and the university’s logo.

Read more about title pages

The acknowledgements section is usually optional and gives space for you to thank everyone who helped you in writing your dissertation. This might include your supervisors, participants in your research, and friends or family who supported you. In some cases, your acknowledgements are part of a preface.

Read more about acknowledgements Read more about prefaces

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The abstract is a short summary of your dissertation, usually about 150 to 300 words long. Though this may seem very short, it’s one of the most important parts of your dissertation, because it introduces your work to your audience.

Your abstract should:

• State your main topic and the aims of your research
• Describe your methods
• Summarize your main results
• State your conclusions

Read more about abstracts

The table of contents lists all of your chapters, along with corresponding subheadings and page numbers. This gives your reader an overview of your structure and helps them easily navigate your document.

Remember to include all main parts of your dissertation in your table of contents, even the appendices. It’s easy to generate a table automatically in Word if you used heading styles. Generally speaking, you only include level 2 and level 3 headings, not every subheading you included in your finished work.

Read more about tables of contents

While not usually mandatory, it’s nice to include a list of figures and tables to help guide your reader if you have used a lot of these in your dissertation. It’s easy to generate one of these in Word using the Insert Caption feature.

Read more about lists of figures and tables

Similarly, if you have used a lot of abbreviations (especially industry-specific ones) in your dissertation, you can include them in an alphabetized list of abbreviations so that the reader can easily look up their meanings.

Read more about lists of abbreviations

In addition to the list of abbreviations, if you find yourself using a lot of highly specialized terms that you worry will not be familiar to your reader, consider including a glossary. Here, alphabetize the terms and include a brief description or definition.

Read more about glossaries

The introduction serves to set up your dissertation’s topic, purpose, and relevance. It tells the reader what to expect in the rest of your dissertation. The introduction should:

• Establish your research topic , giving the background information needed to contextualize your work
• Narrow down the focus and define the scope of your research
• Discuss the state of existing research on the topic, showing your work’s relevance to a broader problem or debate
• Clearly state your research questions and objectives
• Outline the flow of the rest of your work

Everything in the introduction should be clear, engaging, and relevant. By the end, the reader should understand the what, why, and how of your research.

Read more about introductions

A formative part of your research is your literature review . This helps you gain a thorough understanding of the academic work that already exists on your topic.

Literature reviews encompass:

• Finding relevant sources (e.g., books and journal articles)
• Assessing the credibility of your sources
• Critically analyzing and evaluating each source
• Drawing connections between them (e.g., themes, patterns, conflicts, or gaps) to strengthen your overall point

A literature review is not merely a summary of existing sources. Your literature review should have a coherent structure and argument that leads to a clear justification for your own research. It may aim to:

• Address a gap in the literature or build on existing knowledge
• Take a new theoretical or methodological approach to your topic
• Propose a solution to an unresolved problem or advance one side of a theoretical debate

Read more about literature reviews

Theoretical framework

Your literature review can often form the basis for your theoretical framework. Here, you define and analyze the key theories, concepts, and models that frame your research.

Read more about theoretical frameworks

Your methodology chapter describes how you conducted your research, allowing your reader to critically assess its credibility. Your methodology section should accurately report what you did, as well as convince your reader that this was the best way to answer your research question.

A methodology section should generally include:

• The overall research approach ( quantitative vs. qualitative ) and research methods (e.g., a longitudinal study )
• Your data collection methods (e.g., interviews or a controlled experiment )
• Details of where, when, and with whom the research took place
• Any tools and materials you used (e.g., computer programs, lab equipment)
• Your data analysis methods (e.g., statistical analysis , discourse analysis )
• An evaluation or justification of your methods

Read more about methodology sections

Your results section should highlight what your methodology discovered. You can structure this section around sub-questions, hypotheses , or themes, but avoid including any subjective or speculative interpretation here.

Your results section should:

• Concisely state each relevant result together with relevant descriptive statistics (e.g., mean , standard deviation ) and inferential statistics (e.g., test statistics , p values )
• Briefly state how the result relates to the question or whether the hypothesis was supported
• Report all results that are relevant to your research questions , including any that did not meet your expectations.

Additional data (including raw numbers, full questionnaires, or interview transcripts) can be included as an appendix. You can include tables and figures, but only if they help the reader better understand your results. Read more about results sections

Your discussion section is your opportunity to explore the meaning and implications of your results in relation to your research question. Here, interpret your results in detail, discussing whether they met your expectations and how well they fit with the framework that you built in earlier chapters. Refer back to relevant source material to show how your results fit within existing research in your field.

Some guiding questions include:

• What do your results mean?
• Why do your results matter?
• What limitations do the results have?

If any of the results were unexpected, offer explanations for why this might be. It’s a good idea to consider alternative interpretations of your data.

Read more about discussion sections

Your dissertation’s conclusion should concisely answer your main research question, leaving your reader with a clear understanding of your central argument and emphasizing what your research has contributed to the field.

In some disciplines, the conclusion is just a short section preceding the discussion section, but in other contexts, it is the final chapter of your work. Here, you wrap up your dissertation with a final reflection on what you found, with recommendations for future research and concluding remarks.

It’s important to leave the reader with a clear impression of why your research matters. What have you added to what was already known? Why is your research necessary for the future of your field?

Read more about conclusions

It is crucial to include a reference list or list of works cited with the full details of all the sources that you used, in order to avoid plagiarism. Be sure to choose one citation style and follow it consistently throughout your dissertation. Each style has strict and specific formatting requirements.

Common styles include MLA , Chicago , and APA , but which style you use is often set by your department or your field.

Create APA citations Create MLA citations

Your dissertation should contain only essential information that directly contributes to answering your research question. Documents such as interview transcripts or survey questions can be added as appendices, rather than adding them to the main body.

Read more about appendices

Making sure that all of your sections are in the right place is only the first step to a well-written dissertation. Don’t forget to leave plenty of time for editing and proofreading, as grammar mistakes and sloppy spelling errors can really negatively impact your work.

Dissertations can take up to five years to write, so you will definitely want to make sure that everything is perfect before submitting. You may want to consider using a professional dissertation editing service , AI proofreader or grammar checker to make sure your final project is perfect prior to submitting.

After your written dissertation is approved, your committee will schedule a defense. Similarly to defending your prospectus, dissertation defenses are oral presentations of your work. You’ll present your dissertation, and your committee will ask you questions. Many departments allow family members, friends, and other people who are interested to join as well.

After your defense, your committee will meet, and then inform you whether you have passed. Keep in mind that defenses are usually just a formality; most committees will have resolved any serious issues with your work with you far prior to your defense, giving you ample time to fix any problems.

As you write your dissertation, you can use this simple checklist to make sure you’ve included all the essentials.

Checklist: Dissertation

My title page includes all information required by my university.

I have included acknowledgements thanking those who helped me.

My abstract provides a concise summary of the dissertation, giving the reader a clear idea of my key results or arguments.

I have created a table of contents to help the reader navigate my dissertation. It includes all chapter titles, but excludes the title page, acknowledgements, and abstract.

My introduction leads into my topic in an engaging way and shows the relevance of my research.

My introduction clearly defines the focus of my research, stating my research questions and research objectives .

My introduction includes an overview of the dissertation’s structure (reading guide).

I have conducted a literature review in which I (1) critically engage with sources, evaluating the strengths and weaknesses of existing research, (2) discuss patterns, themes, and debates in the literature, and (3) address a gap or show how my research contributes to existing research.

I have clearly outlined the theoretical framework of my research, explaining the theories and models that support my approach.

I have thoroughly described my methodology , explaining how I collected data and analyzed data.

I have concisely and objectively reported all relevant results .

I have (1) evaluated and interpreted the meaning of the results and (2) acknowledged any important limitations of the results in my discussion .

I have clearly stated the answer to my main research question in the conclusion .

I have clearly explained the implications of my conclusion, emphasizing what new insight my research has contributed.

I have provided relevant recommendations for further research or practice.

If relevant, I have included appendices with supplemental information.

I have included an in-text citation every time I use words, ideas, or information from a source.

I have listed every source in a reference list at the end of my dissertation.

I have consistently followed the rules of my chosen citation style .

I have followed all formatting guidelines provided by my university.

Congratulations!

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Learn how to pronounce dissertation

Dissertation.

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IPA : dɪsəˈteɪʃn

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Phonetic spelling of dissertation

dis-ser-ta-tion 1 rating rating ratings Sherman Crooks dis-er-tey-shuh n 0 rating rating ratings Private dis-ser-ta-tion 0 rating rating ratings Private

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Meanings for dissertation

a treatise advancing a new point of view resulting from research; usually a requirement for an advanced academic degree 0 rating rating ratings Mason Heaney

Synonyms for dissertation

thesis 0 rating rating ratings Cloyd Trantow treatise 0 rating rating ratings Marquise Kemmer dissertations 0 rating rating ratings Natasha Bell

Learn more about the word "dissertation" , its origin, alternative forms, and usage from Wiktionary.

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In 1727 he gained the prize given by the Academie des Sciences for his paper On the best manner of forming and distributing the masts of ships; and two other prizes, one for his dissertation On the best method of observing the altitude of stars at sea, the other for his paper On the best method 0 rating rating ratings Lonnie Prohaska Knowing that alum cannot be obtained in crystals without the addition of potash, he began to suspect that this alkali constituted an essential ingredient in the salt, and in 1797 he published a dissertation demonstrating that alum is a double salt, composed of sulphuric acid, alumina and potash (Ann 0 rating rating ratings Laney Runolfsson 1007), whose fame rests on a dissertation on amicable numbers, and on the schools which were founded by his pupils at Cordova, Dania and Granada. 0 rating rating ratings Kristin The author gives a romantic description of the meeting with Cleopatra, with an interpolated dissertation on amour courtois as understood by the trouveres. 0 rating rating ratings Delia Morar The Excise Bill in 1733 and the Septennial Bill in the following year offered opportunities for further attacks on the government, which Bolingbroke supported by a new series of papers in the Craftsman styled A Dissertation on Parties; but the whole movement collapsed after the new elections, whic 0 rating rating ratings Palma Emmerich

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What Exactly Is A Dissertation (Or Thesis)?

If you’ve landed on this article, chances are you’ve got a dissertation or thesis project coming up (hopefully it’s not due next week!), and you’re now asking yourself the classic question, “what the #%#%^ is a dissertation?”…

In this post, I’ll break down the basics of exactly what a dissertation is, in plain language. No ivory tower academia.

So, let’s get to the pressing question – what is a dissertation?

A dissertation (or thesis) = a research project

Simply put, a dissertation (or thesis – depending on which country you’re studying in) is a research project . In other words, your task is to ask a research question (or set of questions) and then set about finding the answer(s). Simple enough, right?

Well, the catch is that you’ve got to undertake this research project in an academic fashion , and there’s a wealth of academic language that makes it all (look) rather confusing (thanks, academia). However, at its core, a dissertation is about undertaking research (investigating something). This is really important to understand, because the key skill that your university is trying to develop in you (and will be testing you on) is your ability to undertake research in a well-structured structured, critical and academically rigorous way.

This research-centric focus is significantly different from assignments or essays, where the main concern is whether you can understand and apply the prescribed module theory. I’ll explain some other key differences between dissertations or theses and assignments a bit later in this article, but for now, let’s dig a little deeper into what a dissertation is.

A dissertation (or thesis) is a process.

Okay, so now that you understand that a dissertation is a research project (which is testing your ability to undertake quality research), let’s go a little deeper into what that means in practical terms.

The best way to understand a dissertation is to view it as a process – more specifically a research process (it is a research project, after all). This process involves four essential steps, which I’ll discuss below.

Step 1 – You identify a worthy research question

The very first step of the research process is to find a meaningful research question, or a set of questions. In other words, you need to find a suitable topic for investigation. Since a dissertation is all about research, identifying the key question(s) is the critical first step. Here’s an example of a well-defined research question:

“Which factors cultivate or erode customer trust in UK-based life insurance brokers?”

This clearly defined question sets the direction of the research . From the question alone, you can understand exactly what the outcome of the research might look like – i.e. a set of findings about which factors help brokers develop customer trust, and which factors negatively impact trust.

But how on earth do I find a suitable research question, you ask? Don’t worry about this right now – when you’re ready, you can read our article about finding a dissertation topic . However, right now, the important thing to understand is that the first step in the dissertation process is identifying the key research question(s). Without a clear question, you cannot move forward.

Step 2 – You review the existing research

Once the research question is clearly established, the next step is to review the existing research/literature (both academic and professional/industry) to understand what has already been said with regard to the question. In academic speak, this is called a literature review .

This step is critically important as, in all likelihood, someone else has asked a similar question to yours, and therefore you can build on the work of others . Good academic research is not about reinventing the wheel or starting from scratch – it’s about familiarising yourself with the current state of knowledge, and then using that as your basis for further research.

Simply put, the first step to answering your research question is to look at what other researchers have to say about it. Sometimes this will lead you to change your research question or direction slightly (for example, if the existing research already provides a comprehensive answer). Don’t stress – this is completely acceptable and a normal part of the research process.

Step 3 – You carry out your own research

Once you’ve got a decent understanding of the existing state of knowledge, you will carry out your own research by collecting and analysing the relevant data. This could take to form of primary research (collecting your own fresh data), secondary research (synthesising existing data) or both, depending on the nature of your degree, research question(s) and even your university’s specific requirements.

Exactly what data you collect and how you go about analysing it depends largely on the research question(s) you are asking, but very often you will take either a qualitative approach (e.g. interviews or focus groups) or a quantitative approach (e.g. online surveys). In other words, your research approach can be words-based, numbers-based, or both . Don’t let the terminology scare you and don’t worry about these technical details for now – we’ll explain research methodology in later posts .

Step 4 – You develop answers to your research question(s)

Combining your understanding of the existing research (Step 2) with the findings from your own original research (Step 3), you then (attempt to) answer your original research question (s). The process of asking, investigating and then answering has gone full circle.

Of course, your research won’t always provide rock-solid answers to your original questions, and indeed you might find that your findings spur new questions altogether. Don’t worry – this is completely acceptable and is a natural part of the research process.

So, to recap, a dissertation is best understood as a research process, where you are:

• Ask a meaningful research question(s)
• Carry out the research (both existing research and your own)
• Analyse the results to develop an answer to your original research question(s).

Depending on your specific degree and the way your university designs its coursework, you might be asking yourself “but isn’t this just a longer version of a normal assignment?”. Well, it’s quite possible that your previous assignments required a similar research process, but there are some key differences you need to be aware of, which I’ll explain next.

Same same, but different…

While there are, naturally, similarities between dissertations/theses and assignments, its important to understand the differences  so that you approach your dissertation with the right mindset and focus your energy on the right things. Here, I’ll discuss four ways in which writing a dissertation differs substantially from assignments and essays, and why this matters.

Difference #1 – You must decide (and live with) the direction.

Unlike assignments or essays, where the general topic is determined for you, for your dissertation, you will (typically) be the one who decides on your research questions and overall direction. This means that you will need to:

• Find a suitable research question (or set of questions)
• Justify why its worth investigating (in the form of a research proposal )
• Find all the relevant existing research and familiarise yourself with the theory

This is very different from assignments, where the theory is given to you on a platter, and the direction is largely pre-defined. Therefore, before you start the dissertation process, you need to understand the basics of academic research, how to find a suitable research topic and how to source the relevant literature.

Difference #2 – It’s a long project, and you’re on your own.

A dissertation is a long journey, at least compared to assignments. Typically, you will spend 3 – 6 months writing around 15,000 – 25,000 words (for Masters-level, much more for PhD) on just one subject. Therefore, successfully completing your dissertation requires a substantial amount of stamina .

To make it even more challenging, your classmates will not be researching the same thing as you are, so you have limited support, other than your supervisor (who may be very busy). This can make it quite a lonely journey . Therefore, you need a lot of self-discipline and self-direction in order to see it through to the end. You should also try to build a support network of people who can help you through the process (perhaps alumni, faculty or a private coach ).

Difference #3 – They’re testing research skills.

We touched on this earlier. Unlike assignments or essays, where the markers are assessing your ability to understand and apply the theories, models and frameworks that they provide you with, your dissertation will be is assessing your ability to undertake high-quality research in an academically rigorous manner.

Of course, your ability to understand the relevant theory (i.e. within your literature review) is still very important, but this is only one piece of the research skills puzzle. You need to demonstrate the full spectrum of research skills.

It’s important to note that your research does not need to be ground-breaking, revolutionary or world-changing – that is not what the markers are assessing. They are assessing whether you can apply well-established research principles and skills to a worthwhile topic of enquiry. Don’t feel like you need to solve the world’s major problems. It’s simply not going to happen (you’re a first-time researcher, after all) – and doesn’t need to happen in order to earn good marks.

Difference #4 – Your focus needs to be narrow and deep.

In your assignments, you were likely encouraged to take a broad, interconnected, high-level view of the theory and connect as many different ideas and concepts as possible. In your dissertation, however, you typically need to narrow your focus and go deep into one particular topic. Think about the research question we looked at earlier:

The focus is intentionally very narrow – specifically the focus is on:

• The UK only – no other countries are being considered.
• Life insurance brokers only – not financial services, not vehicle insurance, not medical insurance, etc.
• Customer trust only – not reputation, not customer loyalty, not employee trust, supplier trust, etc.

By keeping the focus narrow, you enable yourself to deeply probe whichever topic you choose – and this depth is essential for earning good marks. Importantly, ringfencing your focus doesn’t mean ignoring the connections to other topics – you should still acknowledge all the linkages, but don’t get distracted – stay focused on the research question(s).

So, as you can see, a dissertation is more than just an extended assignment or essay. It’s a unique research project that you (and only you) must lead from start to finish. The good news is that, if done right, completing your dissertation will equip you with strong research skills, which you will most certainly use in the future, regardless of whether you follow an academic or professional path.

Wrapping up

Hopefully in this post, I’ve answered your key question, “what is a dissertation?”, at least at a big picture-level. To recap on the key points:

• A dissertation is simply a structured research project .
• It’s useful to view a dissertation as a process involving asking a question, undertaking research and then answering that question.
• First and foremost, your marker(s) will be assessing your research skills , so its essential that you focus on producing a rigorous, academically sound piece of work (as opposed to changing the world or making a scientific breakthrough).
• While there are similarities, a dissertation is different from assignments and essays in multiple ways. It’s important to understand these differences if you want to produce a quality dissertation.

In this post, I’ve gently touched on some of the intricacies of the dissertation, including research questions, data types and research methodologies. Be sure to check out the Grad Coach Blog  for more detailed discussion of these areas.

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32 Comments

Hello Derek

Yes, I struggle with literature review and am highly frustrated (with myself).

Thank you for the guide that you have sent, especially the apps. I am working through the guide and busy with the implementation of it.

Hope to hear from you again!

Regards Micheal

Great to hear that, Michael. All the best with your research!

Thank you. That was quite something to move forward with. Despite the fact that I was lost. I will now be able to do something with the information given.

That’s great, Pheladi. Good luck!

Thank you so much for your videos and writing research proposal and dissertation. These videos are useful. I was struggling, but now I am starting to write. I hope to watch your more videos to learn more about the dissertation.

Before this post, I didn’t know where to start my research, today I have some light and do certain % of my research. I may need for direction on literature review. Big thanks to you.

Very very good Derek

Thanks immensely Derek

You’re welcome 🙂 Good luck with your dissertation/thesis.

Thank you Derek for widening my scope on research, this can be likened to a blind man whose eyes can now see.

Remain bless sir🙏

You guys are doing really great… I am extremely grateful for your help… Keep going.. Please activate that research help for indian students as well I couldn’t access it being an indian.

Hello Derek,

I got stuck in the concept paper because I changed my topic. Now I don’t know where to pick up the pieces again. How can I focus and stay on track. I am getting scared.

Thank you so much Derek, I am a new comer, learning for the first time how to write a good research. These in information’s to me is a mind opener, I hope to learn more from you in the future, Thanks and God bless.

Thanks Guys this means so much to me

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Definition of 'dissertation'

• dissertation

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• French : mémoire
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• Korean : 논문 학위
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• Dissertation

What Is a Dissertation? | 5 Essential Questions to Get Started

Published on 26 March 2020 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on 5 May 2022.

A dissertation is a large research project undertaken at the end of a degree. It involves in-depth consideration of a problem or question chosen by the student. It is usually the largest (and final) piece of written work produced during a degree.

The length and structure of a dissertation vary widely depending on the level and field of study. However, there are some key questions that can help you understand the requirements and get started on your dissertation project.

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Table of contents

When and why do you have to write a dissertation, who will supervise your dissertation, what type of research will you do, how should your dissertation be structured, what formatting and referencing rules do you have to follow, frequently asked questions about dissertations.

A dissertation, sometimes called a thesis, comes at the end of an undergraduate or postgraduate degree. It is a larger project than the other essays you’ve written, requiring a higher word count and a greater depth of research.

You’ll generally work on your dissertation during the final year of your degree, over a longer period than you would take for a standard essay . For example, the dissertation might be your main focus for the last six months of your degree.

Why is the dissertation important?

The dissertation is a test of your capacity for independent research. You are given a lot of autonomy in writing your dissertation: you come up with your own ideas, conduct your own research, and write and structure the text by yourself.

This means that it is an important preparation for your future, whether you continue in academia or not: it teaches you to manage your own time, generate original ideas, and work independently.

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During the planning and writing of your dissertation, you’ll work with a supervisor from your department. The supervisor’s job is to give you feedback and advice throughout the process.

The dissertation supervisor is often assigned by the department, but you might be allowed to indicate preferences or approach potential supervisors. If so, try to pick someone who is familiar with your chosen topic, whom you get along with on a personal level, and whose feedback you’ve found useful in the past.

How will your supervisor help you?

Your supervisor is there to guide you through the dissertation project, but you’re still working independently. They can give feedback on your ideas, but not come up with ideas for you.

You may need to take the initiative to request an initial meeting with your supervisor. Then you can plan out your future meetings and set reasonable deadlines for things like completion of data collection, a structure outline, a first chapter, a first draft, and so on.

Make sure to prepare in advance for your meetings. Formulate your ideas as fully as you can, and determine where exactly you’re having difficulties so you can ask your supervisor for specific advice.

Your approach to your dissertation will vary depending on your field of study. The first thing to consider is whether you will do empirical research , which involves collecting original data, or non-empirical research , which involves analysing sources.

Empirical dissertations (sciences)

An empirical dissertation focuses on collecting and analysing original data. You’ll usually write this type of dissertation if you are studying a subject in the sciences or social sciences.

• What are airline workers’ attitudes towards the challenges posed for their industry by climate change?
• How effective is cognitive behavioural therapy in treating depression in young adults?
• What are the short-term health effects of switching from smoking cigarettes to e-cigarettes?

There are many different empirical research methods you can use to answer these questions – for example, experiments , observations, surveys , and interviews.

When doing empirical research, you need to consider things like the variables you will investigate, the reliability and validity of your measurements, and your sampling method . The aim is to produce robust, reproducible scientific knowledge.

Non-empirical dissertations (arts and humanities)

A non-empirical dissertation works with existing research or other texts, presenting original analysis, critique and argumentation, but no original data. This approach is typical of arts and humanities subjects.

• What attitudes did commentators in the British press take towards the French Revolution in 1789–1792?
• How do the themes of gender and inheritance intersect in Shakespeare’s Macbeth ?
• How did Plato’s Republic and Thomas More’s Utopia influence nineteenth century utopian socialist thought?

The first steps in this type of dissertation are to decide on your topic and begin collecting your primary and secondary sources .

Primary sources are the direct objects of your research. They give you first-hand evidence about your subject. Examples of primary sources include novels, artworks and historical documents.

Secondary sources provide information that informs your analysis. They describe, interpret, or evaluate information from primary sources. For example, you might consider previous analyses of the novel or author you are working on, or theoretical texts that you plan to apply to your primary sources.

Dissertations are divided into chapters and sections. Empirical dissertations usually follow a standard structure, while non-empirical dissertations are more flexible.

Structure of an empirical dissertation

Empirical dissertations generally include these chapters:

• Introduction : An explanation of your topic and the research question(s) you want to answer.
• Literature review : A survey and evaluation of previous research on your topic.
• Methodology : An explanation of how you collected and analysed your data.
• Results : A brief description of what you found.
• Discussion : Interpretation of what these results reveal.
• Conclusion : Answers to your research question(s) and summary of what your findings contribute to knowledge in your field.

Sometimes the order or naming of chapters might be slightly different, but all of the above information must be included in order to produce thorough, valid scientific research.

Other dissertation structures

If your dissertation doesn’t involve data collection, your structure is more flexible. You can think of it like an extended essay – the text should be logically organised in a way that serves your argument:

• Introduction: An explanation of your topic and the question(s) you want to answer.
• Main body: The development of your analysis, usually divided into 2–4 chapters.
• Conclusion: Answers to your research question(s) and summary of what your analysis contributes to knowledge in your field.

The chapters of the main body can be organised around different themes, time periods, or texts. Below you can see some example structures for dissertations in different subjects.

• Political philosophy

This example, on the topic of the British press’s coverage of the French Revolution, shows how you might structure each chapter around a specific theme.

This example, on the topic of Plato’s and More’s influences on utopian socialist thought, shows a different approach to dividing the chapters by theme.

This example, a master’s dissertation on the topic of how writers respond to persecution, shows how you can also use section headings within each chapter. Each of the three chapters deals with a specific text, while the sections are organised thematically.

Like other academic texts, it’s important that your dissertation follows the formatting guidelines set out by your university. You can lose marks unnecessarily over mistakes, so it’s worth taking the time to get all these elements right.

Formatting guidelines concern things like:

• line spacing
• page numbers
• punctuation
• title pages
• presentation of tables and figures

If you’re unsure about the formatting requirements, check with your supervisor or department. You can lose marks unnecessarily over mistakes, so it’s worth taking the time to get all these elements right.

How will you reference your sources?

Referencing means properly listing the sources you cite and refer to in your dissertation, so that the reader can find them. This avoids plagiarism by acknowledging where you’ve used the work of others.

Keep track of everything you read as you prepare your dissertation. The key information to note down for a reference is:

• The publication date
• Page numbers for the parts you refer to (especially when using direct quotes)

Different referencing styles each have their own specific rules for how to reference. The most commonly used styles in UK universities are listed below.

You can use the free APA Reference Generator to automatically create and store your references.

APA Reference Generator

The words ‘ dissertation ’ and ‘thesis’ both refer to a large written research project undertaken to complete a degree, but they are used differently depending on the country:

• In the UK, you write a dissertation at the end of a bachelor’s or master’s degree, and you write a thesis to complete a PhD.
• In the US, it’s the other way around: you may write a thesis at the end of a bachelor’s or master’s degree, and you write a dissertation to complete a PhD.

The main difference is in terms of scale – a dissertation is usually much longer than the other essays you complete during your degree.

Another key difference is that you are given much more independence when working on a dissertation. You choose your own dissertation topic , and you have to conduct the research and write the dissertation yourself (with some assistance from your supervisor).

Dissertation word counts vary widely across different fields, institutions, and levels of education:

• An undergraduate dissertation is typically 8,000–15,000 words
• A master’s dissertation is typically 12,000–50,000 words
• A PhD thesis is typically book-length: 70,000–100,000 words

However, none of these are strict guidelines – your word count may be lower or higher than the numbers stated here. Always check the guidelines provided by your university to determine how long your own dissertation should be.

At the bachelor’s and master’s levels, the dissertation is usually the main focus of your final year. You might work on it (alongside other classes) for the entirety of the final year, or for the last six months. This includes formulating an idea, doing the research, and writing up.

A PhD thesis takes a longer time, as the thesis is the main focus of the degree. A PhD thesis might be being formulated and worked on for the whole four years of the degree program. The writing process alone can take around 18 months.

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dissertation

• 1.1 Etymology
• 1.2 Pronunciation
• 1.3.1 Alternative forms
• 1.3.2 Derived terms
• 1.3.3 Translations
• 1.4 Further reading
• 2.1 Etymology
• 2.2 Pronunciation
• 2.3.1 Descendants
• 2.4 Further reading

English [ edit ]

Etymology [ edit ].

From Latin dissertātiō , from dissertō .

Pronunciation [ edit ]

• ( Received Pronunciation ) IPA ( key ) : /ˌdɪsəˈteɪʃən/
• ( General American ) IPA ( key ) : /ˌdɪsɚˈteɪʃən/
• Rhymes: -eɪʃən

Noun [ edit ]

dissertation ( plural dissertations )

• A formal exposition of a subject , especially a research paper that students write in order to complete the requirements for a doctoral degree in the US and a non-doctoral degree in the UK; a thesis . write a dissertation write up a dissertation hand in a dissertation complete a dissertation
• A lengthy lecture on a subject; a treatise ; a discourse ; a sermon .

Alternative forms [ edit ]

• diss ( clipping )

Derived terms [ edit ]

• all but dissertation
• dissertational
• dissertationist
• dissertator
• doctoral dissertation
• predissertation

Translations [ edit ]

Further reading [ edit ].

• John A. Simpson and Edmund S. C. Weiner , editors (1989), “dissertation”, in The Oxford English Dictionary , 2nd edition, Oxford: Clarendon Press , →ISBN .

French [ edit ]

Borrowed from Latin dissertātiōnem , from dissertō .

• IPA ( key ) : /di.sɛʁ.ta.sjɔ̃/

dissertation   f ( plural dissertations )

• dissertation , essay Synonyms: essai , composition , rédaction

Descendants [ edit ]

• “ dissertation ”, in Trésor de la langue française informatisé [ Digitized Treasury of the French Language ] , 2012.

• English terms derived from Proto-Indo-European
• English terms derived from the Proto-Indo-European root *ser- (bind)
• English terms borrowed from Latin
• English terms derived from Latin
• English 4-syllable words
• English terms with IPA pronunciation
• English terms with audio links
• Rhymes:English/eɪʃən
• Rhymes:English/eɪʃən/4 syllables
• English lemmas
• English nouns
• English countable nouns
• English terms with collocations
• French terms borrowed from Latin
• French terms derived from Latin
• French 4-syllable words
• French terms with IPA pronunciation
• French terms with audio links
• French lemmas
• French nouns
• French countable nouns
• French feminine nouns
• Mandarin terms with redundant transliterations
• Japanese terms with redundant script codes
• Vietnamese terms with redundant script codes
• Requests for translations into Mandarin

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What is a Dissertation? Everything You Need to Know 

Cait Williams is a Content Writer at Scholarships360. Cait recently graduated from Ohio University with a degree in Journalism and Strategic Communications. During her time at OU, was active in the outdoor recreation community.

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Your dissertation, the final piece of the puzzle that stands between you and the completion of your doctoral degree . Okay, so that’s not the actual definition of the word “dissertation,” but when you’re writing one, that can feel true at times! Keep reading to learn the academic definition and take a more in depth look at what a dissertation is and how to navigate writing one. So, let’s go!  

Related : Top fully funded PhD programs

Dissertation vs. thesis  

While dissertation and thesis are sometimes used interchangeably, they actually refer to two different pieces of writing. A thesis is traditionally completed at the end of a masters program . It is based on pre-existing research and showcases your ability to understand the information you have been learning about in your program.   

A dissertation is much longer than a thesis and is completed at the end of a PhD or doctorate program . It is the last thing you need to complete in order to earn your doctorate in your chosen field. It will be about a topic of your choosing that is within your field of study. Instead of using all pre-existing information though, you will conduct a portion of your own research and propose new ideas.

See also : Top scholarships for graduate students   

What do you write about when completing a dissertation?

What you write about will depend on what field of study you are in. A dissertation is designed to be your own. Meaning that what you write about should be a new idea, a new topic, or question that is still unanswered in your field. Something that you will need to collect new data on, potentially interview people for and explore what information is already available.  

Generally, an idea will need to be approved or at least discussed with whoever is overseeing your dissertation before you begin writing. It’s important to put time and effort into choosing a topic that you will be able to find either existing research for and add to, or a topic that you will be able to establish your own methods of data collection for. Again, the goal of your dissertation is to add to your field.   

How long does a dissertation need to be?  

Your dissertation length will vary, but you can generally count on it to be around 2-3 times the length of your thesis. A standard thesis is roughly 80 to 100 pages. So, on the short end you’re looking at a 200 pages dissertation, while the longer end can reach as high as 400 pages.  

How long does it take to write?  

The page count for a dissertation is enough to scare even the best writers away, but take a breath and rest easy knowing that this is not something you complete in just one semester or even two. On the short end you will have a year to write your dissertation, while the longer end can offer as much as two years to complete your dissertation. During this time, you will work with an advisor who can watch over you and help you along the way.  

The parts of a dissertation   

A dissertation is not just one long paper you must write. Thankfully, it is broken down into manageable pieces that you complete over time.  

Choosing a topic  

The first thing you will do is come up with your topic. Again, your topic will need to be approved by whoever is overseeing your dissertation. If they think that it may not be a strong topic, they will let you know. Even if a topic is approved though, you’ll need to do research around that topic first to make sure that it has not already been covered, or if it has that you take into consideration what has been done and add to the topic in a new way.  

Research  

Research can mean looking at what already exists, as well as conducting your own research to add to a proposed idea of yours. Your research can take many different forms depending on what field you are in. Research can be costly at times, so be sure to check out what funding opportunities are available for doctoral research. There are even post PhD research grants you should be familiar with if you intend to continue researching.  

Chapter break down  

A dissertation generally consists of five chapters. We’ve written them out below with a brief description of each and what they include.   

Introduction – Just as you would expect, this is where you will introduce your topic and what you plan to discuss  

Literature review – This section will address the research you have found that has already been done, or found has not been done, that pertains to your topic  

Methodology – How you go about collecting information for your dissertation, whether it be conducting your own research or delving deep into what has already been done, will be discussed in the methodology section 

Results – Your results will analyze the information you gathered  in regard to your topic 

Discussion – Finally, your discussion section will assess the meaning of your results and it is also where you will add your own ideas, rooted in research, about what those results mean in a broader context in regard to your field 

There will be more parts of your dissertation that are not included in the chapters, but the bulk of your dissertation will be made up by these five chapters. Things like title pages, references, appendices, and table of contents will also be included.  

Defending your dissertation  

Believe it or not, it’s not enough just to write your dissertation–you also have to defend your dissertation. This is another reason why taking a thorough amount of time to choose your topic is so important. You’ll likely need to propose your initial dissertation idea, but that will be much simpler and shorter. Your final defense will be much lengthier and in depth.  

During your defense, you will present your dissertation to a committee. It’s likely that you’ll be at least somewhat familiar with those on the committee; they are not just randomly picked. They will ask you questions about your research, and you will need to respond to each question. A defense generally takes around two hours. The point of a defense is not to have people try to undermine your work, but for you to exemplify your expertise in your field.  

Failing your dissertation  

Nobody wants to think about failing, but unfortunately, you can fail your dissertation. However, let’s talk about a few things before we just leave it at that. First, if you are afraid of failing your dissertation, this is something that you should speak to your advisor about. They can help you determine if there should be legitimate concerns or if you are getting in your own head.  

Second, even if you do fail your dissertation, you are usually allowed to resubmit one time. This of course is not ideal, but it does give you a little room to breathe. Your goal is to do great from the start, but remember this is not an easy task. You’ll likely have plenty of bumps along the way! 

Again, if you have concerns about failing, address them sooner rather than later and seek help. There are bound to be plenty of people and services around you, as well as additional services that you can pay for which will help review your materials and guide you along.

Key Takeaways

• Dissertations are completed as the last step of your PhD or doctorate degree 
• Your dissertation will be related to a topic or question in your field of study that you choose 
• Dissertations take anywhere from one to two years to complete and can be upwards of three hundred pages long 
• Your dissertation is designed to showcase your expertise in your field and your addition of new ideas to the field about a particular question or area 

Frequently asked questions about dissertations  

Do all doctorates require a dissertation, how difficult is a dissertation, who reads your dissertation, scholarships360 recommended.

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dissertation noun

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What does the noun dissertation mean?

There are three meanings listed in OED's entry for the noun dissertation , one of which is labelled obsolete. See ‘Meaning & use’ for definitions, usage, and quotation evidence.

Entry status

OED is undergoing a continuous programme of revision to modernize and improve definitions. This entry has not yet been fully revised.

How common is the noun dissertation ?

How is the noun dissertation pronounced, british english, u.s. english, where does the noun dissertation come from.

Earliest known use

early 1600s

The earliest known use of the noun dissertation is in the early 1600s.

OED's earliest evidence for dissertation is from 1611, in the writing of John Speed, historian and cartographer.

dissertation is a borrowing from Latin.

Etymons: Latin dissertātiōn-em .

Nearby entries

• dissentment, n. a1699–
• dissentory, n. 1658
• disseparable, adj. a1849–
• disseparate, v. 1550
• dissepiment, n. 1727–
• dissepimental, adj. 1857–
• dissept, v. 1657
• dissepulchred, adj. 1800–
• dissert, v. 1623–
• dissertate, v. 1766–
• dissertation, n. 1611–
• dissertational, adj. 1833–
• dissertationist, n. 1844–
• dissertative, adj. 1816–
• dissertator, n. 1698–
• disserve, v. 1637–
• disservice, n. 1599–
• disservice, v. 1837–
• disserviceable, adj. 1645–
• disserviceableness, n. 1635–
• disserviceably, adv. a1670–

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Meaning & use

Pronunciation, compounds & derived words, entry history for dissertation, n..

dissertation, n. was first published in 1896; not yet revised.

dissertation, n. was last modified in September 2023.

Revision of the OED is a long-term project. Entries in oed.com which have not been revised may include:

• corrections and revisions to definitions, pronunciation, etymology, headwords, variant spellings, quotations, and dates;
• new senses, phrases, and quotations which have been added in subsequent print and online updates.

Revisions and additions of this kind were last incorporated into dissertation, n. in September 2023.

Earlier versions of this entry were published in:

OED First Edition (1896)

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OED Second Edition (1989)

• View dissertation in OED Second Edition

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Factsheet for dissertation, n., browse entry.

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Definition of dissertation noun from the Oxford Advanced American Dictionary

dissertation

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The British government wants to define extremism. Critics say it risks creating more division

Britain’s Prime Minster Rishi Sunak departs 10 Downing Street to go to the House of Commons for his weekly Prime Minister’s Questions in London, Wednesday, March 13, 2024. (AP Photo/Alberto Pezzali)

Britain’s Minister for Levelling Up, Housing and Communities, Michael Gove, leaves the Millbank Studios in central London after taking part in the morning interview rounds, Thursday March 14, 2024. The British government published an official definition of “extremism” on Thursday, and said groups that get the label will be barred from receiving government funding. The government did not provide examples of extremist groups, and is not expected to publish a list of such organizations for some weeks. But Gove pointed to the threat from the extreme right and Islamic “extremists who are seeking to separate Muslims from the rest of society and create division within Muslim communities.” (Jordan Pettitt/PA via AP)

FILE - Protesters hold up flags and placards during a demonstration in support of Palestinian people in Gaza, in London, on Feb. 17, 2024. The British government published an official definition of “extremism” on Thursday, March 14, 2024 and said groups that get the label will be barred from receiving government funding. Mass pro-Palestinian protests have drawn hundreds of thousands of people to central London to call for a cease-fire. The protests have been overwhelmingly peaceful, though there have been dozens of arrests over signs and chants that police say showed support for the militant Hamas group, a banned organization in Britain. (AP Photo/Alberto Pezzali, File)

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LONDON (AP) — The British government published a new official definition of “extremism” on Thursday, and said groups that get the label will be barred from receiving government funding.

The move is in response to a surge in reports of antisemitism and anti-Muslim hate speech and what authorities call an increase in radicalization in Britain since Hamas’ Oct. 7 attack on Israel, which triggered the war and Israel’s invasion of Gaza .

But critics say branding nonviolent groups as extremist could undermine freedom of speech and worship, or risk unfairly targeting some people, such as Muslims, and create more division.

The government defined extremism as “the promotion or advancement of an ideology based on violence, hatred or intolerance” that aims to destroy others’ rights and freedoms or “undermine, overturn or replace the U.K.'s system of liberal parliamentary democracy and democratic rights.”

Communities Secretary Michael Gove pointed in particular to threats from the extreme right and Islamic “extremists who are seeking to separate Muslims from the rest of society and create division within Muslim communities.”

“We are in no way intending to restrict freedom of expression, religion or belief, but the government cannot be in a position where, unwittingly or not, we sponsor, subsidize or support in any way organisations or individuals opposed to the freedoms we hold dear,” Gove told lawmakers.

Groups that raise concerns under the new definition include the British National Socialist Movement, a neo-Nazi organization, and the Muslim Association of Britain, the U.K. affiliate of the Muslim Brotherhood, Gove said.

Authorities are expected to publish a list of such organizations in coming weeks. The new guidelines will not criminalize or ban the groups.

Islamic and civil liberties groups said they worried the definition would be used disproportionately on Muslims.

Qari Asim, chairman of the Mosques and Imams Advisory Board, said the proposed definition may not be applied consistently.

“If it’s left to people to apply any definition of extremism and call anyone extremist at their whim, then that is going to create huge division in our society,” he told the BBC.

The Muslim Council of Britain warned that the proposals were “undemocratic, divisive, and potentially illegal” and “may involve defining established Muslim organizations as extremist.”

“With elections looming, it’s unsurprising that the government is resorting to this desperate tactic in the culture war,” said Zara Mohammed, the group’s secretary general.

The Church of England’s most senior clerics also criticized the government’s plans, warning that the new definition of extremism threatens the right to worship and peaceful protest.

The announcement comes two weeks after Prime Minister Rishi Sunak made a rare televised speech outside 10 Downing Street to denounce “a shocking increase in extremist disruption and criminality,” which he linked to the Israel-Hamas war.

Reports of both antisemitic and anti-Muslim abuse in Britain have surged since Hamas’ Oct. 7 attack on Israel, which triggered the war and Israel’s invasion of Gaza.

Mass pro-Palestinian protests have drawn hundreds of thousands of people to central London to call for a cease-fire. The protests have been overwhelmingly peaceful, though there have been dozens of arrests over signs and chants that police say showed support for the militant Hamas group, a banned organization in Britain. Police also arrested some right-wing counter-protesters and charged them with inciting racial hatred.

Jewish organizations and many lawmakers say the mass marches have created an intimidating atmosphere for Jewish Londoners, though members of the Jewish community have been among those on pro-cease-fire marches.

Gove said the new definition isn’t aimed at stopping protests.

“Today’s definition applies only to government and makes it clear that we will keep these organizations at arm’s length so they can’t benefit from access to government and its funds,” he said.

What does 'no cap' mean? Here's the definition of the slang term and how to use it.

Feel like you're missing out on knowing abbreviations and slang used in texts and on social media? Or maybe a meme has left you stumped.

These internet terms may be quick and to the point for some but for others they're not so easy to decipher.

" ICYMI ", USA TODAY has been breaking down text slang. We've already covered various explainers on different phrases, such as " rizz " and " WTV ." 

Now, it's time to learn a new one. Here is the meaning and how to use the slang "no cap".  

What does 'no cap' mean?

" No cap " means "no lie" or "for real", according to Dictionary.com. "Cap" is another word for lie, so "no cap" emphasizes when someone is being truthful. If someone is "capping," they are lying.

The phrase is rooted in African American Vernacular English (AAVE), or  Black speech separate from standard English . As early as the 1900s, "to cap" meant to brag, exaggerate or lie about something, according to Dictionary.com.

Additionally, "no cap" can be used to describe something that has no limit. In the "Green’s Dictionary of Slang" in the 1940s , "to cap" meant "to surpass." Therefore, "cap" could be defined as the "top" or "upper limit", according to Dictionary.com.

How to use 'no cap'

Here are some examples of how to use "no cap":

• "You can't be serious right now." "I really am, no cap."
• "I know he's capping right now. There's no way he makes that much money."
• "It's almost like there's no cap on what she'll do to impress them."

Just Curious for more? We've got you covered

USA TODAY is exploring the questions you and others ask every day. From " What is the olive theory? " to " What is a 'stan'? " to " How many Zodiac signs are there? " − we're striving to find answers to the most common questions you ask every day. Head to our  Just Curious section  to see what else we can answer.

Want to learn? Catch up on more text slang explainers: 

• What does 'rizz' mean? Here's the definition of social media slang term and how to use it.
• What does 'MBN' mean?   Here's what it means and how to use for texts, social media.
• What does 'tbh' mean?  Here's what the acronym means and how to use it in conversation.
• What does 'AFK' mean?  And examples of how to use it when texting friends.
• What does 'OTP' mean?  Breaking down the fandom term, slang

Fantasy Baseball

Talking sleepers: The definition, the approach, and players — like Liover Peguero — to target

So, what happened here is a little bit different than what you’re used to seeing here at The Athletic — or with any fantasy site, really.

As you’ve noticed throughout spring training, we’ve been doing co-authored stories based on assignments from our editors.

My pal John Laghezza and I were assigned to talk about some sleepers — hitting sleepers, specifically — so I reached out to him about our approach to the article.

In what was supposed to be a simple email to set up the logistics, the email turned out to be a thread back and forth between the two of us, spilling our approaches to sleepers, the term sleeper in general, and some various wrestlers from back in the day (the latter is part of our regular conversations, for what it’s worth).

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So John and I said, “Screw it, let’s do something different.” Instead of the block of sleepers that you’ll see in traditional sleeper articles, we are, instead, going to use our email communication back and forth as the article so that you can get a behind-the-curtain look at our process for tackling not only these articles, but our approaches in tackling sleepers.

Sit back, put on an old-school Coliseum Video WWF PPV, and enjoy!

michael.wat******@***.com

What’s going on, man? Hope the family and all are well.

I was excited when Nando assigned us this column. I think it’s a cool tag-team idea (who would we be? The Power of Pain? The Steiners?).

I’ll be honest, though. When I saw the topic was top sleepers, I did sigh a bit. I mean, what is a sleeper? It meant more before, but now, it’s just, like, an SEO-driven term, no?

A sleeper in a 12-teamer is different from a sleeper in an NFBC league vs. a home league, ya know?

I have some guys in mind for this, but I wanted to get your thoughts a bit on how you approach this topic, and how we can make this column stand out for the readers.

Let’s chat soon, man!

lagh*******@***.com

Everyone’s doing so great, Michael, thanks. We’re all enjoying the weather, you can almost feel the energy building up to a crescendo… sometimes I swear we’re solar-powered. Mornings here in sunny south Brooklyn smell of dew, which can only mean one thing my friend — opening day is right around the corner. Of course, as a fellow old-school WWF guy and (way) outside-the-box thinker, we were simpatico from the jump. My brain immediately raced to the all-time great tag teams, though I was always partial to Demolition (maybe Nando can play Mr. Fuji — LOL). Alright, enough musings on the squared circle, let’s get this train back on the tracks.

I hear you loud and clear, trying to be the first to crack the code on some unknown sleeper in today’s age of information feels impossible. Like you said, what’s a sleeper anyway? It used to be a player no one ever heard of, and since fantasy research started so much later, it widely remained that way. I think if we’re going to land our finisher, come home with the belts, and impact the readers, we need to define our terms.

To me, league size comes first and foremost due to replacement rate — I’m willing to take bigger swings more frequently in smaller leagues where production on the wire is plentiful. For NFBC leagues where skills rarely fall too far, not only are sleepers tougher to identify, but also harder to implement. It’s not much of a value if we’re overpaying for it. That said, the biggest mistake by home leaguers happens when they try to outsmart the room and take those 15-team sleepers in a 12-team draft.

Before I forget, I was also wondering what you thought about saving sleepers for certain categories or positions? What do you think, Michael? Any chance we come up with an actual original idea for a sleeper article?

I think we can, John. I think Mr. Nando Di Fuji would agree with us, too. I mean, what’s the immediate reaction when you see someone post a sleeper on X/Twitter or in an article? It’s the jobbers saying, “Ha! He’s not a sleeper. I have him in 14 of my 30-team leagues.” Like, OK. We get it, but that’s why it’s so hard to identify one. It’s all league and format dependent. Some people don’t know who Wyatt Langford is, and in a 10-team league, his value is different.

So it’s about applying some type of weighted metric or a data point that you can apply to their ROI as a way to call them a sleeper. You said it, but that late sleeper we love in NFBC drafts shouldn’t be going in your standard 12-team home league. It’s a waste of a draft spot and draft capital – even if he hits.

I think there’s something there to saving sleepers for categories or positions, instead of players overall, and reciting off stats that we’ve found to back it up. Sleepers are players who can help you in specific categories or positions where their projected value and numbers outweigh their adjusted ADP by a specific amount.

But what is that amount, and how can it be adjusted per each league size or format? I think that’s the key, John.

Am I off here?

I may not be known to whack my colleagues with a cane like Mr. DiFuji but I do have a little bit of The Devious One in me — I start fantasy baseball drafts by Thanksgiving. Each offseason is so different though — success is about malleability. Especially considering the changing rules and how it impacted speed, I’ve wound up relying more on positions than categories. Free agency, trades, waivers, drafts, and minor-league promotions all create ripple effects in the playing time continuum. The best way to frame my personal definition of a sleeper is a relatively disregarded player who shapes my earlier decisions based on position scarcity. Every year, which position that is changes, so it’s repetition that builds drafting muscle memory. Then, in the words of the inimitable Gorilla Monsoon, you need to tap into intestinal fortitude to execute the move.

This year, there happen to be tons of comparable shortstops and first basemen I like, some going substantially later than others. We’re talking +500 picks in some cases! Check this out, Michael… Ha-Seong Kim has a March ADP of 88 with a Steamer600 projection of .248 BA, 71 R, 64 RBI, 16 HR, 24 SB, while Pirates projected starter Liover Peguero has a March ADP of 595 (!) with an eerily similar outlook — .247 BA, 68 R, 66 RBI, 16 HR, 18 SB. Or how about Christian Walker with a 91 ADP and a .255 BA, 78 R, 89 RBI, 27 HR, 5 SB per 600 PA projection up against Anthony Rizzo at pick 245  with a .248 BA, 77 R, 84 RBI, 27 HR, 5 SB projection? They’re nearly identical! Knowing I can fall back on a handful of sleepers really helps me better evaluate opportunity cost in the early rounds.

Have you found anything similar regarding SS and 1B? Perhaps at another position?

Oh, listen here, Mean Gene, I absolutely love that! I don’t do any actual drafts that early (you are all absolute lunatics and I love it), but I do begin my research around that time each year. I wish we were associates a decade or so ago, John. I used to run these things that I called  — get this — Too Early Mock Drafts. Genius, right? It was done on an email chain (LOL) with different writers just as a way to develop #content and set the market early.

I put some of my early findings out on the always kind X/Twitter in January to identify some gaps in value that I found.

Which catcher do you prefer? Steamer Projections A. .272 AVG, 20 HR, 89 R, 72 RBI, 3 SBs, NFBC ADP (Jan.) 48 B. .273 AVG, 24 HR, 85 R, 80 RBI, 5 SBs, NFBC ADP (Jan.) 71 C. .270 AVG, 18 HR, 61 R, 68 RBI, 3 SBs, NFBC ADP (Jan.) 163 #FantasyBaseball — Pitch Mr. Perfect (@MichaelWaterloo) January 18, 2024

Which 1B do you prefer? Steamer Projections A. .259 AVG, 29 HR, 85 R, 88 RBI, 2 SBs, NFBC ADP (Jan.) 99 B. .263 AVG, 26 HR, 82 R, 81 RBI, 1 SBs, NFBC ADP (Jan.) 227 C. .258 AVG, 23 HR, 81 R, 78 RBI, 1 SBs, NFBC ADP (Jan.) 286 #FantasyBaseball — Pitch Mr. Perfect (@MichaelWaterloo) January 18, 2024

Which SS do you prefer? Steamer Projections A. .246 AVG, 21 HR, 66 R, 86 RBI, 30 SBs, NFBC ADP (Jan.) 23 B. .251 AVG, 25 HR, 84 R, 68 RBI, 21 SBs, NFBC ADP (Jan.) 76 C. .233 AVG, 21 HR, 74 R, 78 RBI, 22 SBs, NFBC ADP (Jan.) 171 #FantasyBaseball — Pitch Mr. Perfect (@MichaelWaterloo) January 18, 2024

We’ve been around the block, John, so we get how this works. It’s obviously listing a stud, a starting option, and then someone going later who can provide similar production based on projections.

So I’m with you in identifying shortstop and first base as two positions where there are players who can provide similar value and numbers later. I think the keyword here is value, no?

Rizzo and Peguero are great calls! People don’t care about our fantasy leagues, but I acquired a few shares of Peguero this offseason in deeper dynasty leagues because there is something there. Hell, you probably don’t care either, but it felt good to say it.

The answers to my SS and 1B poll, by the way, were Elly De La Cruz , Oneil Cruz (so long to that sweet, sweet ADP), and Trevor Story , and then Triston Casas , Andrew Vaughn , and Josh Bell .

But then, you have the catchers. And don’t get me wrong, Laghezza, I am not Jimmy Hart out here hyping up catchers and telling you to draft one early. Nah, man. I wait until the last round to take mine in a one-catcher league (which is what all leagues should be — maybe we should pitch something like a Fantasy Showdown to Nando Di Fuji and “The Nature Boy” Brandon Funston where two writers go head to head on various topics such as one- or two-catcher leagues? Remind me to email them about this). The catchers listed here were Adley Rutschman , William Contreras , and Keibert Ruiz . That value that you early-drafting sickos were able to get on Ruiz was just the chef’s kiss.

So is there an exact like value you put on the positions then that’s quantifiable where you tier them or rank them by where you should take them, or do you just include that in with your draft prep and adjust as the draft goes on, keeping it in mind? I’ve also noticed neither one of us has mentioned a pitcher yet haha. We should probably touch on the approach to them, too, to serve the readers.

I really do love hashing this stuff out with other fantasy sharps — I feel much better about presenting sleepers in an impactful way. I’m not so sure my approach is granular enough to call it quantifiable, although that does sound pretty smart. To me, it’s more about beginning with a subjective assessment of the positional landscape and then applying my world-famous pragmatism — before battle-testing the heck out of my theories.

Funny you should mention catchers. First off, I think there are as many fantasy-viable backstops as ever, so home-leaguers can, and should, wait on a catch in a 1-C format. Second is one of my favorite projection-based tricks for finding my favorite sleeper… you’re going to love this. Projection systems generally use 450 PAs for catchers, baking shared playing time into their calculus. However, certain situations can arise where the universal DH gets a player closer to 600 PA, which tremendously affects expectations. This year, Logan O’Hoppe projects for a pretty respectable .252 BA, 58 R, 64 RBI, 22 HR, 3 SB line as the 12th catcher off the board. That’s before considering how bad the Angels are — he could easily take over regular DH duties when not behind the dish. Add 25-33% across the board to that 5×5 line and you’ve got yourself a windfall profit from the back of the draft.

You know me, Michael… once I start talking, I can’t stop. And we still have a deadline to make! Before I turn this into my usual dissertation, my pitching process is simple enough. Find swing-and-miss ability late and roll the dice. I’ll give you a perfect example. Of all the starters in MLB last year, only 14 (!) had more than one individual pitch with a +30% Whiff rate… and the Angel’s Chase Silseth is in that bucket at a +350 ADP. I especially like that the slider and split-finger are effective against different-handed hitters, so he’s got a legitimate out-pitch regardless of the batter.

That’s entirely enough from me… ring the bell.

Haha, this is fantastic. You know what, John? I have an idea. Let me email Nando and Brandon.

The Waterloo/Laghezza Consensus Sleeper Lineup

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Advocates say it's time to expand the definition of domestic violence

• flossy_loss

Massachusetts could join a small group of states expanding the definition of domestic violence to include acts of coercive control.

The Senate bill passed on Thursday not only amends the state's criminal harassment law and establishes clear penalties for sharing sexually explicit images or videos without the subject's consent, it would also expand the definition of domestic violence to include coercive control, which advocates say is at the heart of domestic abuse.

“The act of sharing intimate images without someone's consent is a way of degrading, humiliating, holding some kind of power over another individual. So it is a form of coercive control,” said Hema Sarang-Sieminski, the deputy director of Jane Doe Inc., a local domestic violence survivor advocacy coalition.

Coercive control can also appear as isolating a person from friends and family, controlling their finances, or tracking their movement and communications. Advocates say these kinds of controlling behaviors often lead to later violence.

Currently, Massachusetts restraining orders require a survivor to provide a sworn statement in court that they were subjected to physical abuse, the threat of physical abuse or forced sexual relationships. Under the law as it is now, a person cannot receive a restraining order for other reasons, including their abuser controlling their finances to prevent them from leaving, stalking them, or threatening to take children away.

Both the Senate legislation and a similar bill passed by the House in January would allow survivors to pursue restraining orders based on controlling behavior.

“Going in front of a judge and to be able to … explain the situation and why it's so harmful and not to have to wait until the physical abuse starts is an important step for the safety of survivors,” said Jamie Sabino, deputy director of advocacy at the Massachusetts Law Reform Institute.

The two chambers must now work toward a final bill to send to Gov. Maura Healey. Sabino and Sarang-Sieminski said they are optimistic that Healey will sign the final version, who made domestic violence a priority as attorney general, although she has not publicly expressed support for these bills.

If enacted, Massachusetts would join California, Connecticut and Hawaii in passing legislation on coercive control. A number of other states — including Florida, Washington, New York, Maryland and South Carolina — also have bills pending in their state legislatures that would expand definitions of domestic violence.

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Definition of dissertation – Learner’s Dictionary

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(Definition of dissertation from the Cambridge Learner's Dictionary © Cambridge University Press)

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Word of the Day

Punch and Judy show

a traditional children's entertainment in which a man, Mr Punch, argues with his wife, Judy. It was especially popular in the past as entertainment in British towns by the sea in summer.

Paying attention and listening intently: talking about concentration

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• Society and culture
• Community and society

Government strengthens approach to counter extremism

Definition of extremism updated to respond to increased extremist threat since October 7 terror attacks in Israel.

• Definition of extremism updated to respond to increased extremist threat since October 7 terror attacks in Israel
• New engagement principles published to ensure government does not legitimise extremist groups 
• Follows Prime Minister’s commitment to stamp out extremism to ensure we keep our citizens safe and our country secure                 

An updated, more focused definition designed to help tackle the ever-evolving threat of extremism in the UK has been published by the government today (14 March 2024).

The updated and more precise definition of extremism will be used by government departments and officials alongside a set of engagement principles , to ensure they are not inadvertently providing a platform, funding or legitimacy to groups or individuals who attempt to advance extremist ideologies that negate our fundamental rights and freedoms and overturn the UK’s system of liberal parliamentary democracy. This definition is not statutory and has no effect on the existing criminal law – it applies to the operations of government itself.

Since the 7 October Hamas terror attacks in Israel concerns have been raised about the wide-ranging risk of radicalisation. On hate crime, since 7 October the Community Security Trust recorded 4,103 antisemitic incidents in the UK in 2023, an increase of 147% compared to 2022, and Tell MAMA recorded a 335% increase in anti-Muslim hate cases in the last four months. 

As the Prime Minister said recently, this kind of behaviour and intimidation is unacceptable, does not reflect the values of the United Kingdom and must be resisted at all times.

The new definition and engagement principles will make sure those who promote extreme ideologies or spread hate in their communities are not legitimised through their interactions with government. Following publication, the government will undertake a robust process to assess groups for extremism against the definition, which will then inform decisions around government engagement and funding.

It is the first in a series of steps to promote social cohesion, democratic resilience, and to counter extremism and religious hatred. 

Michael Gove, Secretary of State for Levelling Up, Housing and Communities said: 

The United Kingdom is a success story – a multi-national, multi-ethnic, multi-faith democracy. It is stronger because of its diversity.   But our democracy and our values of inclusivity and tolerance are under challenge from extremists. In order to protect our democratic values, it is important both to reinforce what we have in common and to be clear and precise in identifying the dangers posed by extremism.  The pervasiveness of extremist ideologies has become increasingly clear in the aftermath of the 7 October attacks and poses a real risk to the security of our citizens and our democracy. This is the work of Extreme Right-Wing and Islamist extremists who are seeking to separate Muslims from the rest of society and create division within Muslim communities. They seek to radicalise individuals, deny people their full rights, suppress freedom of expression, incite hatred, and undermine our democratic institutions. Today’s measures will ensure that government does not inadvertently provide a platform to those setting out to subvert democracy and deny other people’s fundamental rights. This is the first in a series of measures to tackle extremism and protect our democracy.

The new definition provides a stricter characterisation that government can use to make sure that extremist organisations and individuals are not being legitimised or given a platform through their interactions with government. It reads: 

Extremism is the promotion or advancement of an ideology based on violence, hatred or intolerance, that aims to: 

• negate or destroy the fundamental rights and freedoms of others; or
• undermine, overturn or replace the UK’s system of liberal parliamentary democracy and democratic rights; or
• intentionally create a permissive environment for others to achieve the results in (1) or (2).

The new definition is narrower and more precise than the 2011 Prevent definition, which did not provide the detail we now need to assess and identify extremism. This new definition helps clearly articulate how extremism is evidenced through the public behaviour of extremists that advance their violent, hateful or intolerant aims.

It draws on the work of Dame Sara Khan and Sir Mark Rowley’s 2021 Operating with Impunity Report and addresses key recommendations from the 2023 Independent Review of Prevent .

The definition is clear that extremism involves advancing or promoting an ideology based on violence, hatred or intolerance, a high bar that only captures the most concerning of activities. It is not about silencing those with private and peaceful beliefs – nor will it affect free speech, which will always be protected.

It does not create new powers, it instead helps the government and our partners better to identify extremist organisations, individuals and behaviours. 

Alongside the new definition, the government is also publishing a set of engagement principles which are designed to help officials to engage more widely whilst mitigating the risk of undertaking engagement that undermines government’s core aims to:

• maintain public confidence in government
• uphold democratic values
• protect the rights and freedoms of others

UK Ministerial departments will be expected to consider the engagement standards when deciding whether to move forward with engagement with groups that meet the new definition. This will ensure the government does not meet, fund or provide a platform to extremist groups or individuals. It will also apply to the honours system and due diligence for public appointments. Non-central government institutions, such as arms-length bodies, higher education institutions and independent organisations including the police and CPS, will not be obliged to adopt the definition or apply the engagement principles initially.

To ensure that government has the tools it needs to effectively counter extremism, a new counter-extremism centre of excellence has been established in the Department for Levelling Up, Housing and Communities. This unit will provide leadership for the cross-government counter-extremism community, ensure consistent application of the definition and engagement standards, and take the lead on producing strategic assessments of extremism.

This team will draw on the expertise of the Commission for Countering Extremism as well as counter extremism policy fellows – some of the country’s foremost counter-extremism experts – will join the centre of excellence to ensure the very best academic insight is shaping our approach.  

Lord Walney, Independent Adviser on Political Violence and Disruption, said: 

The threat to Britain from extremists includes those who may not use violence directly yet target our core values, so it is welcome that this updated definition includes those who seek to undermine or replace liberal democracy.  Greater clarity in defining extremism can underpin a concerted approach across civil society to protect our country.

Professor Ian Acheson, Senior Advisor, Counter Extremism Project said: 

These are necessary next steps to confront and deter those who advocate for violent extremism. Hateful anti-British ideas that undermine our democracy creating intimidation and fear need ideologues to drive them. It is intolerable that the state underwrites people and organisations poisoning community life in one of the most successful multi-ethnic countries in the world.

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What Is Antisemitism? A Columbia Task Force Would Rather Not Say.

Definitions of the term are highly contested, so a group monitoring antisemitism on Columbia University’s campus has avoided picking sides. It is still facing criticism.

By Sharon Otterman

A Columbia University task force set up to combat antisemitism on campus in the wake of the Oct. 7 Hamas attacks is attempting to avoid one of the most contentious issues in university debates over the war: Its members have refused to settle on what the definition of “antisemitism” is.

Competing factions on campus and beyond are pushing for two different definitions. The first , favored by the U.S. State Department and many supporters of Israel, says “targeting of the state of Israel” could be antisemitic, a definition that could label much of the pro-Palestinian activism sweeping campus as antisemitic.

The second is narrower. It distinguishes between anti-Zionism and antisemitism and could lead to criticism that the school is not taking antisemitism seriously enough.

The debate over the definitions has become a lightning rod for the Columbia task force and for other universities around the country. The task force is charged with “understanding how antisemitism manifests on campus” and improving the climate for Jewish faculty and students. But the refusal to pick a definition has also been met with harsh criticism on both sides.

“If you don’t diagnose the problem, you don’t have to deal with it,” said Shai Davidai, a Columbia professor who is Israeli and favors the more sweeping definition. He added, “Saying we don’t want to define it so we don’t have a problem, that’s copping out.”

Pro-Palestinian and anti-Zionist faculty and students, quite a few of whom are Jewish, fear that without a definition, the antisemitism task force could be too sweeping in the speech and activity it seeks to regulate.

Columbia’s dilemma illustrates the broad challenge universities are facing as they attempt to walk a line between protecting free speech and avoiding discrimination lawsuits from Jewish students.

Universities are also facing enormous outside pressure. Columbia’s president, Nemat Shafik, and the co-chairs of its board of directors have been called to testify at a congressional hearing on antisemitism on April 17. Ms. Shafik did not attend the contentious December hearing where the presidents of Harvard University, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and the University of Pennsylvania struggled to answer questions about whether a call for the genocide of Jews would violate school policies.

Columbia has already been sued in a federal civil rights lawsuit , filed by more than a dozen Jewish students, which describes the university as an institution where “mobs of pro-Hamas students and faculty march by the hundreds shouting vile antisemitic slogans, including calls to genocide.”

Pro-Palestinian demonstrators dispute that chants like “By any means necessary” and “There is only one solution, intifada, revolution” are antisemitic calls to genocide.

For the task force, the university chose three Jewish professors as co-chairs because they are seasoned senior faculty who know how Columbia works. They are not academic experts in antisemitism research, however.

The professors argue that their 15-member task force does not need to define antisemitism, because they don’t see it as their task to label things as antisemitic or not. Rather, they want to hear why Jewish students and faculty are upset and see if there are practical solutions that can be found to help them feel more comfortable.

“I get letters from parents every single day, just regular people, students,” one of the co-chairs, Nicholas Lemann , a former dean of the journalism school, said in an interview. He said that many of them ask: “‘Why aren’t you listening? Why aren’t you doing anything?’”

“Our job is not to define antisemitism,” he said, adding, “Our job is to listen to them, make them feel that somebody at Columbia cares about them, and to try to figure out what is causing this great discomfort and distress, and whether anything can be done to ameliorate it that’s consistent with the values of the university.”

Pro-Israel Jewish advocacy groups have been pushing for years for organizations and governments to adopt the more sweeping definition developed by the International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance , which wraps in anti-Zionist speech. Since 2016, it has been endorsed by more than 40 countries, including Israel.

There is no dispute about the core of the definition — antisemitism, it states, is a “certain perception of Jews that may be expressed as hatred” toward them. But its examples about Israel can be broadly interpreted, in ways that critics say would unfairly silence political criticism.

For example, the definition says that “denying the Jewish people their right to self-determination, e.g., by claiming that the existence of a State of Israel is a racist endeavor” could be antisemitic.

Left-wing Jews often support the newer, Jerusalem Declaration definition, which takes a more tolerant approach toward criticism of Israel, including toward boycotts and sanctions of the Jewish state. Another definition, known as the Nexus Document , stands in the uneasy middle.

At Harvard and Stanford, antisemitism task force members have faced harsh criticism for not supporting the more sweeping definition; that tension was one reason the co-chair of the task force at Stanford decided to resign .

At Columbia, the task force chairs are trying to avoid falling into a similar trap. But fighting something without defining it could prove difficult.

“If you want to understand any issue and any problem, you need to have an understanding of what it is,” said Dov Waxman, an expert on antisemitism at UCLA. “You can’t count something if you’re not able to understand what it is.”

He recommended that the Columbia task force refer to more than one definition, as the Biden administration did last year in outlining its antisemitism strategy . The task force has not ruled out such a step, Mr. Lemann said.

Some of the Columbia task-force listening sessions on campus have become tense. At a March 1 session with graduate students, for example, several anti-Zionist Jews demanded to know what the definition of antisemitism would be and whether their views would be included in it.

Ester Fuchs , an urban policy professor and task force co-chair, interrupted them and became hostile, four students charged in a subsequent letter to Ms. Shafik and other administrators in which they called on Professor Fuchs to be replaced on the task force by an anti-Zionist.

Caitlin Liss, a Jewish graduate student who signed the letter, said she is part of a “long Jewish tradition of anti-Zionism” that includes many students at the school. But, she said, “you would never know that on campus from the way that the administration talks about it, from the way that the task force talks about it.”

Professor Fuchs said the students “attempted to disrupt the session and ignore its purpose — to listen to students’ concerns and experiences with antisemitism on campus.”

Joseph Howley, a Jewish classics professor and supporter of Columbia’s pro-Palestinian movement, was invited to attend a listening session, but didn’t go. “I have no reason to believe I’ll be taken seriously,” he said. In the end, only a few of the roughly 40 faculty members who had been invited to a listening session intended for critics of Israel attended.

In another session, Amy Werman, a professor at the School of Social Work who supports Israel, brought up a question about whether the task force might just be window dressing to appease Congress.

“Ester, oh, boy, she did not take to that kindly,” she said, referring to Professor Fuchs. “I would almost say I felt like she was attacking me.”

Professor Fuchs disputed that and said she had replied: “You obviously don’t know us. We have never been window dressing, and we don’t intend to be now.”

Still, at least some Jewish students who have felt ostracized or unsafe on campus have found the listening sessions helpful, said Rebecca Massel , a sophomore who covers antisemitism for The Columbia Spectator.

“It’s been an outlet for students to raise concerns,” she said.

The task force is now hiring a research director to develop a study on antisemitism at Columbia and recommend training materials for the university.

Earlier this month, it issued its first report. The 24-page document called for additional limits on protests and better enforcement of existing rules, to address a key complaint of Jewish students who say the environment at Columbia has become intolerable.

Protests were the first focus, Professor Fuchs said, because they are the “most overtly disruptive to life on campus and make people feel like they’re unsafe, like they’re unwelcome and they should find another place to go to school.”

As for whether some common anti-Israel protest chants like “Death to the Zionist State” could amount to discriminatory harassment of Jewish or Israeli students, the report largely punted, saying that was ultimately a question for lawyers.

In its report, the task force suggested the university take on the issue. “We urge the university to provide more guidance on the meaning of ‘discriminatory harassment,’ including antisemitic harassment,” the report said.

Under federal law, “our policy definition of discriminatory harassment needs to be general, not tailored only to protect Jews and Israelis,” said David M. Schizer, another co-chair and former dean of Columbia’s law school, explaining why the report didn’t define antisemitism in that context. “Otherwise, our policy might treat protected classes differently, which itself is a problem under federal law.”

Sharon Otterman is a Times reporter covering higher education, public health and other issues facing New York City. More about Sharon Otterman