dna essay questions

Realizing the benefits of human genetics and genomics research for people everywhere.

Annual DNA Day Essay Contest

ASHG is proud to support National DNA Day through the Annual DNA Day Essay Contest. DNA Day commemorates the completion of the Human Genome Project in April 2003 and the discovery of the double helix of DNA in 1953.

This contest is open to students in grades 9-12 worldwide and asks students to examine, question, and reflect on important concepts in genetics. Essays are expected to be well-reasoned arguments that indicate a deep understanding of scientific concepts related to the essay question. They are evaluated by ASHG members through three rounds of scoring.

The submission deadline has passed. Winners will be announced on Thursday, April 25. 

2024 Question

Many human diseases have a genetic component. Some diseases result from a change in a single gene or even multiple genes. Yet, many diseases are complex and stem from an interaction between genes and the environment. Environmental factors may include chemicals in the air or water, nutrition, microbes, ultraviolet radiation from the sun and social context. Provide an example of how the interplay of genetics and environment can shape human health.

Important Dates

• Early January, 2024: Submission site opens
• March 6, 2024: Submission site closes
• April 25, 2024: DNA Day! Winners and Honorable Mentions announced

1st Place Winner: $1,000 for student $1,000 genetics materials grant

2nd Place Winner: $600 for student $600 genetics materials grant

3rd Place Winner: $400 for student $400 genetics materials grant

Honorable Mentions : 10 student prizes of $100 each

Questions? Email [email protected]

The rubric below is used by judges to evaluate every essay in the second and third rounds of judging.

Rules & Requirements

• No LLM (large-language model) tool will be accepted as a credited author on this essay. That is because any attribution of authorship carries with it accountability for the work, and AI tools cannot take such responsibility. Students using LLM tools should document this use in the citations section.
• Essays must be submitted by a teacher or administrator and written by high school students (grades 9-12) in the U.S. and internationally. Parents may submit essays if the student is home schooled.
• Essays must be written by one individual student; group submissions are not permitted.
• Essays must be in English and no more than 750 words. Word count includes in-text citations, but not reference lists.
• Submissions should not include the student’s name in the essay text. This helps with impartial judging.
• Essays must include at least one reference. References should be clearly documented with both in-text citations and in the references list. The reference list should be separately entered in the “References” section of the submission page.
• APA or MLA style can be used for citations. There is no limit on how many references students may use, but they should avoid too many references, as judges want to know the student’s opinion on the question and not the opinion of the resources.
• Quality of references will be considered by judges when scoring.
• Only classroom teachers are eligible for the equipment grant.
• Teachers of first-place winners from 2020, 2021, 2022, and 2023 are not eligible for equipment grants in 2024.

Please Note Text from essays may be used for research purposes to identify misconceptions, misunderstandings, and areas of student interest in genetics. Student text may be published on the ASHG website, newsletter, or in other ASHG publications.

Plagiarism will not be tolerated. The text of the student’s essay must be his or her own words unless quotations are explicitly noted. If plagiarism is suspected during any point of the contest, the essay in question will be examined. Essays found to contain the uncited work of others will be disqualified and the student’s teacher will be notified. Plagiarism.org gives a helpful explanation of what plagiarism is.

How many essays can one student submit? Only one entry per student.

How many essays can one teacher submit on behalf of students? Each teacher may submit up to six student essays per class, for up to three classes.

What are low-quality a high-quality sources? A low-quality source is one that doesn’t guarantee accurate information, such as Wikipedia. High-quality sources include research journals, such as those accessible through PubMed.

What is included in the 750-word count, and what is not?

• All text in the essay, in-line citations/references, headings and titles, and image captions are included in the word count
• The reference list is the only text not included in the word count.

Should references have a separate page? The reference list will be submitted separately in the “references” section of the submission site. Everything will be included on one page once the essay is submitted.

Is there a standard font or margin size preferred? No. Once the essay is copied and pasted into the submission site, it will be formatted to fit our standard margins and fonts.

How do I submit my essay if my teacher cannot do it for me? Try to find any other teacher or guidance counselor at your school who can submit for you. If this isn’t an option, please email us at [email protected] .

Can my guidance counselor or another school administrator submit my essay for me? Yes.

Can I submit for my student who is currently studying abroad? Students must be studying at the same school as the teacher who submits their essays.

Can I change information after I have submitted? No, please make sure all information is correct before submitting because it will be final.

How does the teacher vouch for the originality of the student’s work? Your submission represents your authentication that the essays are the original work of your students.

I submitted late. Will my essay still be judged? Late submissions will not be judged.

Where’s the confirmation email? It may take some time for the email to get to you. If you haven’t received it by the end of the day, either check your junk mailbox or double check that the email address you provided is correct. If neither of those options work, email [email protected] .

Summarized below are some of the most common issues judges note in reading submitted essays.

• Too much focus on details. A focus on details to the detriment of demonstrating a clear understanding of the big picture. Judges are much more forgiving of errors in details than errors in fundamental concepts and larger ideas.
• Overstating. Sweeping and grandiose overstatements of the current/future state and/or utility of biotechnology or biomedical science.
• Inaccuracy in technical language. Judges know you do not know all the “science jargon,” so don’t feel obligated to use it.
• Lack of in-text citations in, or lack of citations for information that is not considered common knowledge. If you got the information from somewhere else, cite the source.
• Using out-of-date references. Scientific understanding changes very rapidly, and references that are more than five years old are likely to have outdated ideas.
• Using too many quotes. Although occasional use is warranted, too many quotes lead judges to think the author doesn’t grasp the topic.

Check out the links below for excerpts from past winners’ essays!

Want to become a judge? If you are a current-year ASHG member, you will receive an email each February inviting you to volunteer. If you did not receive the email or cannot locate it, please contact [email protected] . You can also volunteer by the visiting the ASHG involvement page. You may forward the judge recruiting email ONLY to fellow ASHG current members. The deadline to sign up as a judge is the usually the end of February for that year’s Contest. If you have questions about future years, please contact [email protected]

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111 DNA Essay Topics

🏆 best essay topics on dna, ✍️ dna essay topics for college, 🎓 most interesting dna research titles, 💡 simple dna essay ideas, ❓ questions about dna.

• DNA Retention: Advantages and Disadvantages for DNA Collection
• The Structure of Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)
• DNA Cloning and Sequencing: The Vector pTTQ18
• DNA Physical Properties and Viscosity: A Lab Study
• DNA and RNA Transcription
• Cell DNA and Protein Synthesis
• Relationships Between Reproduction, Heredity, and DNA
• A Practical Report on DNA Fingerprinting DNA fingerprinting also known as DNA testing or profiling is used to identify individuals based on their DNA profiles.
• DNA and Proteins as Evolutionary Tape Measures DNA and proteins can be used as tape measures of evolution but their usage depends on the concept of a linear sequence of nucleotides.
• Genetics Seminar: The Importance of Dna Roles DNA has to be stable. In general, its stability becomes possible due to a large number of hydrogen bonds which make DNA strands more stable.
• Differences Between Human and Chimpanzee DNA When it is necessary to learn some physiological characteristics of human health conditions, scientists and researchers address genetic studies.
• Evidence of Non-Random Mutations in DNA Although the results discussed prove that non-random mutations occur in thale cress, there is a high probability that similar processes will happen in other live organisms.
• Encoding and Saving Data in DNA for Business The desire for constant development might become a basis for the innovation implementation and integration the DNA information technology into business operations.
• DNA and the Birth of Molecular Genetics Molecular genetics is critical in studying traits that are passed through generations. The paper analyzes the role of DNA to provide an ample understanding of molecular genetics.
• Is DNA a Foolproof Way of Identifying a Person? This post aims to discuss different ways of using DNA to determine if it is a reliable source of identification.
• Complete Mapping of DNA‐Protein Interactions by Liu et al. The regulation of genetic information is important and must occur within the confines of specific conditions to ensure the expression of the target genes.
• Genomic Data: The Role of Deoxyribonucleic Acid Deoxyribonucleic acid commonly referred to as DNA is a heredity carrier in living organisms containing genetic information on growth and development.
• Genomic Analysis DNA of Bacillus Subtilis In the case, there is the genomic DNA of Bacillus Subtilis given to compare the utility of different types of DNA sequencing technologies.
• Transcription and DNA Replication DNA replication is the most important process in the regulation of cell life, contributing to efficient cell division and preservation of genetic material through generations.
• DNA Fingerprinting Technology: Description and Use . Invented in 1984, DNA fingerprinting still remains relevant to this day, and it is used in many fields, including criminology.
• Privacy Concerns Over DNA Sequences This essay will review the presented issue of privacy concerns over DNA sequences from the position of the scientific community and lawmakers.
• DNA for Identifying Convicts: Article Response In his 2006 article, Danny Hakim addresses a somewhat controversial issue of using DNA to identify possible suspects among known convicts in case of a crime.
• Short Tandem Repeat (STR) DNA Analysis and the CODIS Database Short tandem repeat (STR) is a molecular biology tool mainly exploited in forensic science in order to determine certain locations known as loci present on the nuclear material DNA.
• An Experiment in DNA Cloning and Sequencing The aim of this experiment is to clone a fragment of DNA that includes the Green Fluorescent Protein (GFP) gene into the vector pTTQ18, which is an expression vector.
• Types and Causes of the DNA Mutations Mutations occur when mistakes occur in DNA duplication and are classified based on different premises; all of them are rare and lead to abnormal alleles.
• DNA Analysis in Forensic Science This paper aims to describe its details, such as the PCR process, loci and their relation to CODIS, and the functions of touch DNA.
• Digital Forensics and Deoxyribonucleic Acid The practice of digital forensics involves analysis of data collected computing devices from a particular crime scene.
• DNA Analysis: A Crime-Fighting Tool or Invasion of Privacy? The paper argues that DNA analysis is an important crime-fighting tool and bring great benefit despite the likelihood of an invasion of privacy.
• Ancient DNA Studies and Current Events Analysis The study of DNA, starting with the human genome, has broadened to allow researchers to explore changes in various animal patterns.
• DNA Manipulation in Control of Mosquitoes and Gene The DNA sequence specific to the mutated PLA2 (PLA2) would be finally placed in the downstream region of a mosquito midgut-specific promoter.
• DNA Profiling: Genetic Variation in DNA Sequences The paper aims to determine the importance of genetic variation in sequences in DNA profiling using specific techniques.
• The Relevance of DNA Computers in the Modern World The researchers propose as an alternative to use natural biomolecules contained in the organisms of all living things, namely, DNA.
• The Usage of DNA Technology in Forensic Science DNA typing technology gives the forensic science an opportunity to uncover the information considered by the society “intensely private”.
• Cancer Interference With Dna Replication Reports indicate that a greater percentage of human cancers originate from chemical substances as well as environmental substances.
• Natural Sciences: Junk DNA Has an Important Role The paper examines the phenomenon of the junk DNA and provides the agruments why it is truly not junk and acts as a key role in the evolution of mankind.
• Detection of Pathogens With Cell-Free Dna Extracting and studying cfDNA not only led to breakthrough achievements in pathogen diagnosis but also replaced difficult and dangerous invasive methods, such as amniocentesis.
• DNA Profiles in the Golden State Killer Case One of the most recent tools available for crime investigations is a DNA match of one’s profile in a publicly available genealogy database.
• The Cloning of a DNA Fragment, and a Southern Blot . Southern blotting can either be used in the determination of small fragment of a single gene or a large DNA sequence such as part of the genome of an organism.
• Major Experiments and Scientists Involved in the Discovery of DNA as Our Hereditary Material and Its Structure
• DNA Mutations and Their Effects on Humans
• Bacterial Chromosome Replication and DNA Repair During the Stringent Response
• Using Integrative Analysis of DNA Methylation and Gene Expression Data in Multiple Tissue Types
• Advanced DNA-Based Point-of-Care Diagnostic Methods for Plant Diseases Detection
• Bioinformatics Tools and Databases to Assess the Pathogenicity of Mitochondrial DNA Variants
• Cell-Free Fetal DNA Testing Market to Make Great Impact in Near Future by 2026
• Age-Related DNA Methylation Changes: Potential Impact on Skeletal Muscle Aging in Humans
• DNA Analysis Using Polymerase Chain Reaction: Implications for the Study of Ancient DNA
• Aging Neurovascular Unit and Potential Role of DNA Damage and Repair in Combating Vascular Disorders
• DNA Damage: From Chronic Inflammation to Age-Related Deterioration
• Complete Pattern Matching for DNA Computing
• AIDS Virus and Possible Control Through a DNA Vaccine
• DNA Fingerprinting and Polymerase Chain Reaction
• Alternative Splicing and DNA Damage Response in Plants
• Correcting for Errors Inherent in DNA Pooling Methods
• Beyond DNA Repair: Additional Functions of PARP-1 in Cancer
• Moral and Ethical Issues Associated With Recombinant DNA Technology
• Analyzing Cloned Sequences: What Exactly Is a DNA Sequence
• Cancerous Genes: Their Presence in Human DNA
• Anti-double Stranded DNA Antibodies: Origin, Pathogenicity, and Targeted Therapies
• Chromatin Modifications and DNA Repair: Beyond Double-Strand Breaks
• Assessing DNA Sequence Alignment Methods for Characterizing Ancient Genomes and Methylomes
• Binary Auto-Regressive Geometric Modelling in a DNA Context
• Associations Between Behavioral Effects of Bisphenol A and DNA Methylation in Zebrafish Embryos
• High-Quality DNA From Peat Soil for Metagenomic Studies: A Minireview on DNA Extraction Methods
• Cost-Effective Method for DNA Purification
• DNA Analysis and Facial Reconstruction of Human Skull
• Blood-Based DNA Methylation Biomarkers for Type 2 Diabetes: Potential for Clinical Applications
• How Recombinant DNA Techniques May Be Used to Correct a Point Mutation
• Bioethical Issue: Mandatory DNA Fingerprinting
• DNA Abnormalities That Manifest as Disorders
• Asymmetric Cell Division and Template DNA Co-Segregation in Cancer Stem Cells
• How the Discovery of Non-coding DNA and RNA Can Change Our Understanding of Addiction
• The Origin of DNA and Molecular Structure
• DNA and Seed Developmental Genes
• Analyzing Conserved Non-Coding DNA Sequences
• Barry Scheck’s Innocent Project and DNA
• DNA Vaccination and How It Can Greatly Impact the Medical World
• Convicted Criminals and DNA Mandatory Testing
• Analytical Techniques for DNA Extraction
• Differences Between Plasmid and Chromosomal DNA in Bacteria
• Cloning: DNA and Artificial Embryo Twinning
• DNA-Based Markers Throughout the World of Molecular Plant Breeding
• Cell Biology: The DNA of Both Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes
• Adjusting for Batch Effects in DNA Methylation Microarray Data
• DNA Studies Using Atomic Force Microscopy: Capabilities for the Measurement of Short DNA Fragments
• Genetic Engineering and DNA Technology in Agricultural Productivity
• Does DNA Profiling Live Up to Its Expectations?
• How Accurate Are DNA Paternity Tests?
• What Are DNA Sequence Motifs? Why Are They Important?
• How Are the Structures of DNA and RNA Similar?
• What Are DNA Vaccines?
• How Are the Young People in DNA Affected by the Crimes They Commit?
• What Are the Base-Pairing Rules for DNA?
• How Can Paint and Fiber Evidence Be Overshadowed by the More Glamorous DNA Evidence in Cases Today?
• What Are Three Key Structural Chemical Differences Between RNA and DNA?
• How Could the Ethical Management of Health Data in the Medical Field Inform Police Use of DNA?
• What Are the Principles of DNA Fingerprinting?
• How Does DNA and DNA Profiling Work?
• What Can DNA Exonerations Tell Us About Racial Differences in Wrongful Conviction Rates?
• How Is DNA Technology Used in Solving Crimes?
• What Data Obtained From the Chemical Analysis of DNA?
• How Does DNA Control Cell Activity?
• Which Technique Rapidly Replicates Specific DNA Fragments?
• How Does DNA Play a Role in Inheritance?
• Does Radiation Damage DNA?
• How Does Recombinant DNA Differ From Normal DNA?
• What Can DNA Sequencing Detect?
• How Does Recombinant DNA Technology Work?
• Can Plant DNA Be Patented?
• How Is DNA Sequencing Used in Identifying Organisms?
• Who Is the Mother of DNA?

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StudyCorgi . "111 DNA Essay Topics." June 5, 2022. https://studycorgi.com/ideas/dna-essay-topics/.

StudyCorgi . 2022. "111 DNA Essay Topics." June 5, 2022. https://studycorgi.com/ideas/dna-essay-topics/.

These essay examples and topics on DNA were carefully selected by the StudyCorgi editorial team. They meet our highest standards in terms of grammar, punctuation, style, and fact accuracy. Please ensure you properly reference the materials if you’re using them to write your assignment.

This essay topic collection was updated on December 28, 2023 .

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121 DNA Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

Inside This Article

DNA, short for deoxyribonucleic acid, is a molecule that carries the genetic instructions for the development, functioning, growth, and reproduction of all living organisms. It is often referred to as the "building blocks of life" due to its crucial role in determining our traits and characteristics.

Given the importance of DNA in understanding our biology and genetics, it is no surprise that it is a popular topic for essays and research papers. If you are looking for inspiration for your next DNA essay, here are 121 topic ideas and examples to get you started:

• The structure and function of DNA
• The discovery of DNA by James Watson and Francis Crick
• The role of DNA in genetics
• DNA replication and its importance in cell division
• The impact of mutations on DNA and genetic disorders
• The use of DNA in forensic science
• DNA profiling and its applications in criminal investigations
• The ethical implications of DNA testing
• The history of DNA research
• The Human Genome Project and its significance
• The relationship between DNA and evolution
• DNA sequencing technologies and their advancements
• The role of epigenetics in gene expression
• DNA methylation and its effects on gene regulation
• The role of telomeres in DNA replication and aging
• The use of DNA in gene therapy and genetic engineering
• The potential benefits and risks of genetically modified organisms
• The impact of DNA testing on personalized medicine
• The role of DNA in cancer research and treatment
• The use of DNA in agriculture and food production
• The ethical considerations of gene editing technologies like CRISPR
• The influence of environmental factors on DNA expression
• The role of non-coding DNA in gene regulation
• The relationship between DNA and RNA in protein synthesis
• The role of DNA in cell signaling and communication
• The impact of DNA mutations on evolution
• The use of DNA in ancestry testing and genealogy
• The role of DNA in determining traits like eye color and hair texture
• The potential applications of DNA nanotechnology
• The role of DNA in immune system function
• The effect of lifestyle choices on DNA health
• The role of mitochondrial DNA in inherited diseases
• The use of DNA barcoding in species identification
• The impact of DNA damage on aging and disease
• The role of DNA in embryonic development
• The use of DNA in wildlife conservation
• The potential applications of DNA computing
• The impact of DNA on behavior and personality
• The role of DNA in drug response and metabolism
• The ethical implications of genetic screening and designer babies
• The use of DNA in paleontology and evolutionary studies
• The role of DNA in biotechnology and bioengineering
• The impact of DNA on human diversity and population genetics
• The potential applications of synthetic DNA
• The role of DNA in epigenetic inheritance
• The use of DNA in environmental monitoring and pollution control
• The impact of DNA on brain development and function
• The role of DNA in plant breeding and agriculture
• The potential applications of DNA vaccines
• The use of DNA in drug discovery and development
• The role of DNA in stem cell research and regenerative medicine
• The impact of DNA on neurodegenerative diseases
• The ethical considerations of cloning and genetic engineering
• The use of DNA in biometrics and identity verification
• The role of DNA in aging and longevity
• The potential applications of DNA repair technologies
• The impact of DNA on mental health and psychiatric disorders
• The role of DNA in immune system disorders
• The use of DNA in personalized nutrition and diet planning
• The ethical implications of genetic modification in agriculture
• The role of DNA in organ transplantation and tissue engineering
• The impact of DNA on cardiovascular diseases
• The potential applications of DNA-based therapeutics
• The use of DNA in environmental remediation and bioremediation
• The role of DNA in biosecurity and bioterrorism prevention
• The impact of DNA on infectious diseases and pandemics
• The ethical considerations of genetic privacy and data security
• The use of DNA in predicting and preventing genetic diseases
• The role of DNA in the diagnosis and treatment of rare diseases
• The potential applications of DNA in personalized skincare
• The impact of DNA on metabolic disorders like diabetes
• The role of DNA in reproductive health and fertility
• The use of DNA in the conservation of endangered species
• The ethical implications of using DNA in criminal investigations
• The role of DNA in understanding human migration and evolution

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by Dennis Kelly

Dna essay questions.

What role does the concept of sadism play in DNA ?

As one of the play's major themes, sadism plays a significant role in DNA. Defined as deriving pleasure from another's suffering or humiliation, sadism emerges as a theme when Cathy makes her initial appearance on stage. Instead of displaying sorrow like Brian or reacting with alarm like the rest of the group, Cathy wears a grin of excitement. Dennis Kelly further develops the theme as Mark elaborates on the perverse enjoyment he and others derived from witnessing Adam's fear as they threw stones at him until he presumably died. While Phil exhibits a troubling absence of conscience marked by his indifference, Cathy stands out for deriving a thrill from immoral actions. As the play progresses, Cathy's sadistic tendencies intensify to the point where Brian says, "She loves violence now." Richard tells Phil at the end of the play that Cathy rules the social hierarchy at school; it is rumored that she severed a first-year student's finger.

How is the concept of exploitation relevant to DNA ?

Exploitation—the act of taking advantage of someone who is being treated unjustly—is a significant theme in DNA . This theme first becomes evident as Mark recounts how the group exploited Adam's desire to impress them by "taking the piss"—i.e. mocking and humiliating Adam at his expense. The theme resurfaces when the friends learn that a postman matching Brian's description has been arrested because his DNA was found on Adam's sweater. Instead of stepping in to clear the name of the innocent man, the group uses the development to their advantage because it reduces the likelihood of their culpability being discovered. The theme of exploitation also comes to the forefront when Phil decides that Adam, found alive, must be killed if the rest of them want to avoid getting in trouble. Rather than risk his own freedom, Phil gets Brian to suffocate Adam, taking advantage of Brian's heavily medicated lack of awareness.

What role does the concept of conspiracy play in DNA ?

Defined as clandestinely plotting within a group to engage in unlawful or harmful actions, conspiracy is explored through the collective decision of the teenagers to conceal the truth regarding Adam's disappearance. Faced with the realization that they all played a part in Adam's fall into the ventilation shaft, the group opts to follow Phil's intricate plan to deceive the police with a fabricated child-abduction case. The group's conspiracy becomes more intricate when Cathy frames a postman rather than getting a random man's DNA on Adam's jumper. Subsequently, another complication arises when the group discovers Adam has been surviving in the wilderness for weeks. Instead of confessing to their cover-up, the group, at Phil's persuasion, decides to have Brian suffocate Adam. In this way, Kelly illustrates how a conspiracy typically involves not only an initial falsehood or criminal act but many subsequent illicit acts that are necessary to prevent the conspiracy from unraveling.

What role does peer pressure play in DNA ?

Peer pressure, the phenomenon in which individuals within a peer group exert influence on one another, is a central theme in DNA . Kelly explores the theme most explicitly with the play's premise: A group of teens, having peer pressured Adam to his death, continue to use peer pressure to cover up their actions. Rather than notify the authorities, the school, or Adam's parents, the teenagers succumb to peer pressure and opt to conceal the truth to evade potential repercussions; when Brian or Leah express a desire to do what is morally right and confess, they find themselves pressured by their peers to uphold the facade. However, while the group manages to evade legal consequences for their actions, Kelly shows how the collective pressure they exert on each other ultimately leads to the disintegration of the group. By the play's conclusion, Richard reflects on how each friend has splintered off on his or her own, with most seemingly driven to madness by their involvement in the cover-up.

Why is it significant that the teens throw stones at Adam when he is standing on the grille?

Kelly depicts the teens throwing stones at Adam as an allusion to the sadistic capital punishment method known as death by stoning. In Mark's retelling of Adam's demise, he describes how members of their friend circle threw stones at Adam until he was knocked off the metal grille. Despite Mark's portrayal of the group's actions as innocent and playful, they were, in essence, engaging in an impromptu form of stoning—an ancient method of capital punishment where the public hurls stones at a condemned person until they succumb to blunt-force trauma. Regardless of how the group perceives their deeds, they cannot deny the fact that they consciously imperiled Adam's life, having succumbed to the sadistic thrill of exercising cruelty against a fellow being.

DNA Questions and Answers

The Question and Answer section for DNA is a great resource to ask questions, find answers, and discuss the novel.

Study Guide for DNA

DNA study guide contains a biography of Dennis Kelly, literature essays, quiz questions, major themes, characters, and a full summary and analysis.

• DNA Summary
• Character List

Critical Thinking Questions

• No, they cannot be identical because the T nucleotide in DNA is replaced with U nucleotide in RNA and AUG is the start codon.
• No, they cannot be identical because the T nucleotide in RNA is replaced with U nucleotide in DNA.
• They can be identical if methylation of the U nucleotide in RNA occurs and gives T nucleotide.
• They can be identical if de-methylation of the U nucleotide in RNA occurs and gives T nucleotide.
• 2 because the minimum length of an exon is 500 base pairs. In order to fit all 200 amino acids onto the minimum exon the maximum codon length is 2.5 (500 divided by 200). However codons length must be a whole number.
• 3 because by the law of degeneracy there is currently 20 times fewer amino acids than are possible as most codons are redundant. There could be up to 400 amino acids with the current codon length of 3.
• 4 because 4 to the 4th power is 256. 4 to the 3rd power is 64; not enough combinations
• 5 because 4 to the 4th power is only 256. This is not enough combinations because by the law of degeneracy every amino acid must have at least one redundant codon. With 5 codons 1,024 combinations is more than enough.
• The flow of information in HIV is from RNA to DNA, then back to RNA to proteins. Influenza viruses never go through DNA.
• The flow of information is from protein to RNA in HIV virus, while the influenza virus converts DNA to RNA.
• The flow of information is similar, but nucleic acids are synthesized as a result of translation in HIV and influenza viruses.
• The flow of information is from RNA to protein. This protein is used to synthesize the DNA of the viruses in HIV and influenza.

Suppose a gene has the sequence ATGCGTTATCGGGAGTAG. A point mutation changes the gene to read ATGCGTTATGGGGAGTAG. How would the polypeptide product of this gene change?

• In prokaryotes the polymerase is composed of five polypeptide subunits, two of which are identical. Four of these subunits, denoted α , α , β , and β ’, comprise the polymerase core enzyme. The fifth subunit, σ , is involved only in transcription initiation. The polymerase comprised of all five subunits is called the holoenzyme.
• In prokaryotes the polymerase is composed of four polypeptide subunits, two of which are identical. These subunits, denoted α , α , β , and β ’, comprise the polymerase core enzyme. There is a fifth subunit that is involved in translation initiation. The polymerase comprised of all four subunits is called the holoenzyme.
• In prokaryotes the polymerase is composed of five polypeptide subunits, two of which are identical. Four of these subunits, denoted α , α , β , and β ’, comprise the polymerase holoenzyme. The fifth subunit, σ , is involved only in transcription initiation. The polymerase comprised of all five subunits is called the core enzyme.
• In prokaryotes the polymerase is composed of five polypeptide subunits, two of which are identical. Four of these subunits, denoted α , α α, β , and β ’, comprise the polymerase core enzyme. The fifth subunit, σ , is involved only in termination. The polymerase comprised of all five subunits is called the holoenzyme.
• Rho-dependent termination is controlled by rho protein and the polymerase stalls near the end of the gene at a run of G nucleotides on the DNA template. In rho-independent termination, when the polymerase encounters a region rich in C-G nucleotides the mRNA folds into a hairpin loop that causes the polymerase to stall.
• Rho-independent termination is controlled by rho protein and the polymerase stalls near the end of the gene at a run of G nucleotides on the DNA template. In rho-dependent termination, when the polymerase encounters a region rich in C-G nucleotides, the mRNA folds into a hairpin loop that causes polymerase to stall.
• Rho-dependent termination is controlled by rho protein and the polymerase begins near the end of the gene at a run of G nucleotides on the DNA template. In rho-independent termination, when the polymerase encounters a region rich in C-G nucleotides, the mRNA creates a hairpin loop that causes polymerase to stall.
• Rho-dependent termination is controlled by rho protein and the polymerase stalls near the end of the gene at a run of G nucleotides on the DNA template. In rho-independent termination, when the polymerase encounters a region rich in A-T nucleotides, the mRNA creates a hairpin loop that causes polymerase to stall.
• Rho-independent termination involves the formation of a hairpin.
• Rho-dependent termination involves the formation of a hairpin.
• Rho-dependent termination stalls when the polymerase begins to transcribe a region rich in A-T nucleotides.
• Rho-independent termination stalls when the polymerase begins to transcribe a region rich in G nucleotides.
• The initiation step in eukaryotes requires an initiation complex with enhancers and transcription factors. Also, the separation of the DNA strand is different as histones are involved.
• The initiation step in prokaryotes requires an initiation complex with enhancers and transcription factors. Also, the separation of the DNA strand is different as histones are involved.
• The elongation step in eukaryotes requires an initiation complex with enhancers and transcription factors. Also, the separation of the DNA strand is different as histones are involved.
• The initiation step in eukaryotes requires an initiation complex with enhancers and transcription factors. Also, the separation of the DNA strand is different as histones are not involved.
• No, because they have the same α -amanitin sensitivity in all products.
• No, quantitative analysis of products is done to determine the type of polymerase.
• Yes, they can be determined as they differ in α -amanitin sensitivity.
• Yes, they can be determined by the number of molecules that bind to DNA.
• No, alternative splicing can lead to the synthesis of several proteins from a single gene.
• Yes, alternative splicing can lead to the synthesis of several forms of mRNA from a single gene, building more complex proteins.
• No, alternative splicing can lead to the synthesis of several forms of codons from a set of genes.
• Yes, alternative splicing can lead to the synthesis of several forms of ribosomes from a set of genes, but only one protein per gene.
• exporting the mRNA across the nuclear membrane
• importing the mRNA across the nuclear membrane
• the mRNA staying inside the nuclear membrane
• the mRNA translating into proteins within seconds
• The transcript would degrade when the mRNA moves out of the nucleus to the cytoplasm.
• The mRNA molecule would stabilize and start the process of translation within the nucleus of the cell.
• The mRNA molecule would move out of the nucleus and create more copies of the mRNA molecule.
• The mRNA molecule would not be able to add the poly-A tail on its strand at the 5’ end.
• The mRNA would be 5’-AUGGCCGGUUAUUAAGCA-3’ and the protein will be MAGY.
• The mRNA would be 3’-AUGGCCGGUUAUUAAGCA-5’ and the protein will be MAGY.
• The mRNA would be 5’-ATGGCCGGTTATTAAGCA-3’ and the protein will be MAGY.
• The mRNA would be 5’-AUGGCCGGUUAUUAAGCA-3’ and the protein will be MACY.
• rRNA has catalytic properties in the large subunit and it assembles proteins.
• rRNA is a protein molecule that helps in the synthesis of other proteins.
• rRNA is essential for the transcription process.
• rRNA plays a major role in post-translational processes.
• The anticodon will match the codon in mRNA.
• The anticodon will match with the modified amino acid it carries.
• The anticodon will lose the specificity for the tRNA molecule.
• The enzyme amino acyl tRNA synthetase would lose control over the amino acid.

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The structure and function of dna.

Biologists in the 1940s had difficulty in accepting DNA as the genetic material because of the apparent simplicity of its chemistry. DNA was known to be a long polymer composed of only four types of subunits, which resemble one another chemically. Early in the 1950s, DNA was first examined by x-ray diffraction analysis, a technique for determining the three-dimensional atomic structure of a molecule (discussed in Chapter 8). The early x-ray diffraction results indicated that DNA was composed of two strands of the polymer wound into a helix. The observation that DNA was double-stranded was of crucial significance and provided one of the major clues that led to the Watson-Crick structure of DNA. Only when this model was proposed did DNA's potential for replication and information encoding become apparent. In this section we examine the structure of the DNA molecule and explain in general terms how it is able to store hereditary information.

• A DNA Molecule Consists of Two Complementary Chains of Nucleotides

A DNA molecule consists of two long polynucleotide chains composed of four types of nucleotide subunits. Each of these chains is known as a DNA chain , or a DNA strand . Hydrogen bonds between the base portions of the nucleotides hold the two chains together ( Figure 4-3 ). As we saw in Chapter 2 ( Panel 2-6 , pp. 120-121), nucleotides are composed of a five-carbon sugar to which are attached one or more phosphate groups and a nitrogen-containing base. In the case of the nucleotides in DNA, the sugar is deoxyribose attached to a single phosphate group (hence the name deoxyribonucleic acid ), and the base may be either adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine ( G ), or thymine (T) . The nucleotides are covalently linked together in a chain through the sugars and phosphates, which thus form a “backbone” of alternating sugar-phosphate-sugar-phosphate (see Figure 4-3 ). Because only the base differs in each of the four types of subunits, each polynucleotide chain in DNA is analogous to a necklace (the backbone) strung with four types of beads (the four bases A, C, G, and T). These same symbols (A, C, G, and T) are also commonly used to denote the four different nucleotides—that is, the bases with their attached sugar and phosphate groups.

DNA and its building blocks. DNA is made of four types of nucleotides, which are linked covalently into a polynucleotide chain (a DNA strand) with a sugar-phosphate backbone from which the bases (A, C, G, and T) extend. A DNA molecule is composed of two (more...)

The way in which the nucleotide subunits are lined together gives a DNA strand a chemical polarity. If we think of each sugar as a block with a protruding knob (the 5′ phosphate) on one side and a hole (the 3′ hydroxyl ) on the other (see Figure 4-3 ), each completed chain, formed by interlocking knobs with holes, will have all of its subunits lined up in the same orientation. Moreover, the two ends of the chain will be easily distinguishable, as one has a hole (the 3′ hydroxyl) and the other a knob (the 5′ phosphate) at its terminus. This polarity in a DNA chain is indicated by referring to one end as the 3 ′ end and the other as the 5 ′ end .

The three-dimensional structure of DNA — the double helix —arises from the chemical and structural features of its two polynucleotide chains. Because these two chains are held together by hydrogen bonding between the bases on the different strands, all the bases are on the inside of the double helix, and the sugar -phosphate backbones are on the outside (see Figure 4-3 ). In each case, a bulkier two-ring base (a purine ; see Panel 2-6 , pp. 120–121) is paired with a single-ring base (a pyrimidine ); A always pairs with T, and G with C ( Figure 4-4 ). This complementary base-pairing enables the base pairs to be packed in the energetically most favorable arrangement in the interior of the double helix. In this arrangement, each base pair is of similar width, thus holding the sugar-phosphate backbones an equal distance apart along the DNA molecule . To maximize the efficiency of base-pair packing, the two sugar-phosphate backbones wind around each other to form a double helix, with one complete turn every ten base pairs ( Figure 4-5 ).

Complementary base pairs in the DNA double helix. The shapes and chemical structure of the bases allow hydrogen bonds to form efficiently only between A and T and between G and C, where atoms that are able to form hydrogen bonds (see Panel 2-3, pp. 114–115) (more...)

The DNA double helix. (A) A space-filling model of 1.5 turns of the DNA double helix. Each turn of DNA is made up of 10.4 nucleotide pairs and the center-to-center distance between adjacent nucleotide pairs is 3.4 nm. The coiling of the two strands around (more...)

The members of each base pair can fit together within the double helix only if the two strands of the helix are antiparallel —that is, only if the polarity of one strand is oriented opposite to that of the other strand (see Figures 4-3 and 4-4 ). A consequence of these base-pairing requirements is that each strand of a DNA molecule contains a sequence of nucleotides that is exactly complementary to the nucleotide sequence of its partner strand.

• The Structure of DNA Provides a Mechanism for Heredity

Genes carry biological information that must be copied accurately for transmission to the next generation each time a cell divides to form two daughter cells. Two central biological questions arise from these requirements: how can the information for specifying an organism be carried in chemical form, and how is it accurately copied? The discovery of the structure of the DNA double helix was a landmark in twentieth-century biology because it immediately suggested answers to both questions, thereby resolving at the molecular level the problem of heredity. We discuss briefly the answers to these questions in this section , and we shall examine them in more detail in subsequent chapters.

DNA encodes information through the order, or sequence, of the nucleotides along each strand. Each base —A, C, T, or G —can be considered as a letter in a four-letter alphabet that spells out biological messages in the chemical structure of the DNA. As we saw in Chapter 1, organisms differ from one another because their respective DNA molecules have different nucleotide sequences and, consequently, carry different biological messages. But how is the nucleotide alphabet used to make messages, and what do they spell out?

As discussed above, it was known well before the structure of DNA was determined that genes contain the instructions for producing proteins. The DNA messages must therefore somehow encode proteins ( Figure 4-6 ). This relationship immediately makes the problem easier to understand, because of the chemical character of proteins. As discussed in Chapter 3, the properties of a protein , which are responsible for its biological function, are determined by its three-dimensional structure, and its structure is determined in turn by the linear sequence of the amino acids of which it is composed. The linear sequence of nucleotides in a gene must therefore somehow spell out the linear sequence of amino acids in a protein. The exact correspondence between the four-letter nucleotide alphabet of DNA and the twenty-letter amino acid alphabet of proteins—the genetic code —is not obvious from the DNA structure, and it took over a decade after the discovery of the double helix before it was worked out. In Chapter 6 we describe this code in detail in the course of elaborating the process, known as gene expression , through which a cell translates the nucleotide sequence of a gene into the amino acid sequence of a protein.

The relationship between genetic information carried in DNA and proteins.

The complete set of information in an organism's DNA is called its genome , and it carries the information for all the proteins the organism will ever synthesize. (The term genome is also used to describe the DNA that carries this information.) The amount of information contained in genomes is staggering: for example, a typical human cell contains 2 meters of DNA. Written out in the four-letter nucleotide alphabet, the nucleotide sequence of a very small human gene occupies a quarter of a page of text ( Figure 4-7 ), while the complete sequence of nucleotides in the human genome would fill more than a thousand books the size of this one. In addition to other critical information, it carries the instructions for about 30,000 distinct proteins.

The nucleotide sequence of the human β-globin gene. This gene carries the information for the amino acid sequence of one of the two types of subunits of the hemoglobin molecule, which carries oxygen in the blood. A different gene, the α-globin (more...)

At each cell division , the cell must copy its genome to pass it to both daughter cells. The discovery of the structure of DNA also revealed the principle that makes this copying possible: because each strand of DNA contains a sequence of nucleotides that is exactly complementary to the nucleotide sequence of its partner strand, each strand can act as a template , or mold, for the synthesis of a new complementary strand. In other words, if we designate the two DNA strands as S and S′, strand S can serve as a template for making a new strand S′, while strand S′ can serve as a template for making a new strand S ( Figure 4-8 ). Thus, the genetic information in DNA can be accurately copied by the beautifully simple process in which strand S separates from strand S′, and each separated strand then serves as a template for the production of a new complementary partner strand that is identical to its former partner.

DNA as a template for its own duplication. As the nucleotide A successfully pairs only with T, and G with C, each strand of DNA can specify the sequence of nucleotides in its complementary strand. In this way, double-helical DNA can be copied precisely. (more...)

The ability of each strand of a DNA molecule to act as a template for producing a complementary strand enables a cell to copy, or replicate , its genes before passing them on to its descendants. In the next chapter we describe the elegant machinery the cell uses to perform this enormous task.

• In Eucaryotes, DNA Is Enclosed in a Cell Nucleus

Nearly all the DNA in a eucaryotic cell is sequestered in a nucleus , which occupies about 10% of the total cell volume. This compartment is delimited by a nuclear envelope formed by two concentric lipid bilayer membranes that are punctured at intervals by large nuclear pores, which transport molecules between the nucleus and the cytosol . The nuclear envelope is directly connected to the extensive membranes of the endoplasmic reticulum . It is mechanically supported by two networks of intermediate filaments: one, called the nuclear lamina , forms a thin sheetlike meshwork inside the nucleus, just beneath the inner nuclear membrane ; the other surrounds the outer nuclear membrane and is less regularly organized ( Figure 4-9 ).

A cross-sectional view of a typical cell nucleus. The nuclear envelope consists of two membranes, the outer one being continuous with the endoplasmic reticulum membrane (see also Figure 12-9). The space inside the endoplasmic reticulum (the ER lumen) (more...)

The nuclear envelope allows the many proteins that act on DNA to be concentrated where they are needed in the cell, and, as we see in subsequent chapters, it also keeps nuclear and cytosolic enzymes separate, a feature that is crucial for the proper functioning of eucaryotic cells. Compartmentalization, of which the nucleus is an example, is an important principle of biology; it serves to establish an environment in which biochemical reactions are facilitated by the high concentration of both substrates and the enzymes that act on them.

Genetic information is carried in the linear sequence of nucleotides in DNA . Each molecule of DNA is a double helix formed from two complementary strands of nucleotides held together by hydrogen bonds between G -C and A-T base pairs. Duplication of the genetic information occurs by the use of one DNA strand as a template for formation of a complementary strand. The genetic information stored in an organism's DNA contains the instructions for all the proteins the organism will ever synthesize. In eucaryotes, DNA is contained in the cell nucleus .

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Essays on DNA

The DNA (abbreviation for deoxyribonucleic acid) molecule has a very special place in life science, making a DNA essay a worthy study. Essays on DNA teach us how DNA stores complete information about the structure and properties of the organism. Therefore, knowledge of all the structural features of DNA is fundamentally important. DNA essays often explore the structure of DNA – a famous double helix It was discovered by Watson and Crick in 1953, which started a new era in the history of human civilization – the era of molecular biology and genetics, biotechnology, and molecular medicine. Our DNA essay samples will make you well-equipped for writing your own essay. Simply check out samples of DNA essays below.

The use of biometric identifiers in security systems is an enticing idea and has been embraced by the public following its use in banking systems where the data from iris scanners, facial recognition, and fingerprint scanners is utilized. Biometric identifier locates the user’s details from the central database, whereas the...

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DNA Evidence and its Application in Forensic Investigations DNA evidence is among many scientific tools that have been provided for the investigation of forensic evidence via the analysis of DNA which is a material that makes up one's genetic code. DNA can be retrieved from their hair, blood, skin cells as...

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CRISPR was first discovered by Ishino and coworkers at Osaka University in Japan while cloning a peculiar gene-repeat (Ishino et al. 5429-30). Nearly two decades later, a group of researchers at the food ingredient producer Danisco in Madison, United States, discovered that these CRISPR repetitions in bacteria offered defense against...

From its humble beginnings, forensic science has come a long way. For identification purposes, fingerprints have been used for a very long period. The breadth of forensic discoveries and advancements will be extended by this discipline. The tools used today to identify criminal offenders include DNA testing, impressions, and even...

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Recently, it has been proposed that human DNA and RNA are structurally distinct. As the scientific theory of the origin and evolution of man indicates, the structure, a double helix, of these two salts, i.e., both the RNA and the DNA, has actually been present for billions of years. Numerous...

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Introduction After the use of fingerprints, the use of DNA testing for forensic investigations can be considered the most important invention in the area of criminal investigations. The word "DNA" stands for deoxyribonucleic acid. DNA utilizes biological components like skin, hair, blood, and bodily fluids to identify people. A distinctive genetic...

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The film Gattaca is set in the future, where DNA plays an important part in defining social class and genetic modification of people is common. Vincent, according to Brezina, Enrico, and Amelia, is born and conceived without the assistance of technology (338). Vincent is subjected to strong genetic prejudice and...

The jurors made a critical error in their evaluation of the evidence. With all of the evidence shown to the jurors, it is easy to conclude that there was no tampering with or framing of the evidence in order to frame "the kid" of the crime against his blood father....

The term "signature-tagged mutagenesis" (STM) refers to a technique that allows for the simultaneous screening of numerous different mutants. The method is accomplished by applying a special DNA sequence known as a signature tag to each of the implicated bacteria. Initially, this method was referred to as TN mutagenesis screening...

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An organism classified as a genetically modified organism (GMO) has had its DNA altered or transformed. Recombinant DNA is a process that includes transferring genetic material from one plant or animal to another to create these organisms. The genetic engineering method produced GMOs (Zhang, 2016). The method involves inserting the...

DNA sequence changes can result from cell mutations passed down from a parent organism to its children. Some cell mutations can be advantageous, but the majority are damaging because they result in the cell's ability to perform a specific function being lost. Bacteria naturally experience base pair mutations at a...

Introduction Media, scientists, and governmental agencies have all expressed interest in and opinions about the use of genetic engineering and biotechnology. There are no definitive solutions to the question of what lies ahead for genetically engineered creatures. Organisms that have had their genetic makeup altered by genetic engineering are referred to...

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DNA Essay Titles

• Does An Entrepreneurial Gene Exist? – The DNA of An Entrepreneur
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• The Function of DNA Analysis In Criminal Investigation
• DNA Computing and the Future of Computers
• Will the Creation of A National DNA Database Result In Less Crime?
• DNA Patenting and the Human Genome Project
• The Watson-Crick Model on DNA’s Crucial Elements
• The Future of Genetic Engineering: The DNA’s Structure
• The Usefulness of DNA Evidence In the Pursuit of Criminal Convictions
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• The Origins, Purpose, and Development of DNA Technologies
• The Numerous Applications and Value of DNA Replication
• The Development of DNA Testing In Criminal Proceedings and Its Advantages
• The Concept of Cloning Humans and Animals Since the Discovery of DNA
• The Biochemical Description of DNA and Cloning’s Requirement For It
• The Rules of DNA Explain Why Aging Occurs.
• The Upcoming Computer Breakthrough Is Self-Assembling Circuits Using DNA.
• The Importance of Genetic and DNA Discovery
• Recognizing Technology For Recombinant DNA
• The Impact of DNA Profiling on the Criminal Justice System
• Understanding the Mechanisms of Genetic Engineering Through the Lens of DNA

Essay Topics On DNA

• Uses of Recombinant DNA Technology
• The Reaction of Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA Polymerase
• The History of DNA Profiling and Modern Applications
• Gene Editing’s Impact on Human DNA
• DNA Analysis Used In Criminal Investigations
• Tools and Methods For Manipulating DNA
• The Evolution of Our Knowledge of DNA and Heredity
• Rosalind Franklin: The DNA Revolution’s Unsung Hero
• The Effects of Forensic Analysis Using DNA Analysis
• Who Has Access To Your DNA and How Should It Be Used
• DNA Structure, Analysis, and Social Implications
• The Positive and Negative Aspects of DNA Technology
• DNA’s Roles In Protein Synthesis and Their Effects
• The Unearthing of the Structure of DNA By Watson and Crick
• DNA Technology Applications In Forensic Science
• James Watson and Francis Crick’s Discovery and Understanding of the Structure of DNA
• The Investigation of DNA Structure By James Watson and Francis Crick
• Applications To Crime Scene Investigation of DNA and Fingerprints
• The Risks Associated With Understanding DNA’s Structure
• The Idea Behind DNA Fingerprinting and Its Use In Criminal Investigation

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Study the following questions to prepare for your exam. The answers provided by your classmates in class can be viewed by clicking on the "Answer" link.

1) Living organisms use DNA as their genetic material. Outline how DNA is replicated within the cells of living organisms. [8] ..... ( Answer )

2) Outline what occurs during transcription. [10] ..... ( Answer )

3) Outline what occurs during translation. [9] ..... ( Answer )

4) Explain how complementary base pairing is used in replication, transcription and translation.  [10] ..... ( Answer )

5) Draw and label a simple diagram to show how DNA is constructed from sugars, phosphates and bases [6] ..... ( Answer )

6) Outline the structure of a DNA nucleotide. [5] ..... ( Answer )

7)  Outline the structure of a RNA nucleotide [5] ..... ( Answer )

8) List three differences between the structure of DNA and RNA. [3] ..... ( Answer )

9) Define the term degenerate as it applies to the genetic code. [1] ..... ( Answer )

10) Define the term universal as it applies to the genetic code. [1] ..... ( Answer )

11) Outline differences between eukaryotic and prokaryotic chromosomes. [8] ..... ( Answer )

12) Explain the one gene, one polypeptide rule. [1] ..... ( Answer )

13) Define the purpose of each of the three types of RNA. [3] ..... ( Answer )

DNA as an Evidence From a Crime Scene Report

Forensic science information, describe the difference between nuclear and mitochondrial dna, what types of evidence might be analyzed for nuclear dna from crime scenes, what types of evidence might be analyzed for mitochondrial dna, definition of terms.

Scientists use DNA to create an individual’s profile using samples from the individual. The sample could be bone, body tissue, hair, blood, or excretions. During criminal investigations there is need to obtain samples from the crime scene so that DNA can be extracted and compared to that of suspects or from a database (Siege & Houck, 2010).

If a sample profile created from evidence from a crime scene does not match that of a suspect, then the person was not at the crime scene or was careful enough not to leave their DNA at the crime scene. If they match then the person did contribute their DNA at the crime scene.

Although there exists the possibility of different people having the same DNA profile under a particular probe set, the chances of this happening are very small. Scientiest and crime experts agree that DNA forensic technology gives more reliable evidence than accounts given by witnesses (Saferstein, 2010).

The Nuclear DNA is the DNA that a person will inherit from both his parents. This is not a duplicate of either parent DNA, but is a mixture of both. Some chromosomes from the offspring may be closer to the father’s chromosomes than chromosomes of the mother and vice versa.

Mitochondrial DNA is the DNA that will be contained, as the name suggests, in the mitochondria. The mitochondrial DNA is transferred directly from the mother to the offspring and in this case, there is no DNA of the father present here. The Mitochondrial DNA does not change or get mixed up from generation to generation. It is an exact replica unlike the nuclear DNA (Turvey & Chisum, 2011).

After the evidence has been collected from a crime scene for example a blood sample, it is taken to the lab where a DNA analysis is carried out. During the nuclear DNA analysis, the STR (Short Tandem Repeat) analysis is carried out to establish and distinguish DNA profiles of individuals.

The nuclear DNA analysis is helpful in solving cases that involve former convicted offenders, missing persons and cases that were unsolved and the nuclear DNA was carried out, but no match has been found to the profile. The FBI uses the STR to feed information to CODIS, a program that is used to house the database of DNA from crime scenes and suspects (Turvey & Chisum, 2011).

Mitochondrial DNA analysis is done to examine the DNA from the evidence collected from the crime scene. Unlike the nuclear DNA analysis, the mitochondrial DNA analysis can be carried out on samples collected that do not have a nucleus such as teeth, bones, nails, and hairs.

The mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) analysis can also be used to solve cases that go unsolved for years. When a body in a crime scene is un identified, the mtDNA of the body can be used to look for a maternal relative, therefore this method of analyzing the DNA is very helpful in solving missing persons cases (Harris,& Lee, 2000).

These are drugs that are going to belong to the opiate family. The drugs are extracted from the seedpods of the plant (opium poppy) or can be prepared in the laboratory. Examples of these drugs include cocaine. The drug will reduce any opain experienced and will make the user feel very happy( Potter & Litman ,2010).

Hallucinogens

These drugs are going to mess the mind of the users. Users begin to see, feel, and hear things that are not real. The drugs are addictive and include LSD, certain mushrooms, and cactus juice (Kennedy & Khan, 2008).

Depressants

These substances are going to slow down the functions of the body. They mainly affect the central nervous system. These drugs include alcohol, marijuana and some prescription pills.

These are the drugs that are going to improve either the mental capability or physical capability or both of a person using the drug. They cause enhanced alertness as well as wakefulness. Drugs in this category include nicotine, caffeine and amphetamines (Kennedy & Khan, 2008).

Harris, H. A & Lee, H. C. (2000). Physical evidence in forensic science. Tucson : Lawyers & Judges Pub. Co.

Kennedy, T. J. & Khan, J. (2008). Basic Principles of Forensic Chemistry . London : Springer distributo

Potter, G. W. & Litman M. D. (2010). Drugs in Society: Causes, Concepts and Control. Cincinnati : Anderson Publishing.

Saferstein, R. (2010). Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science. Upper Saddle River, NJ : Prentice Hall.

Siege, J. A. & Houck, M. M. (2010). Fundamentals of Forensic Science. Burlington, MA : Academic Press

Turvey, B. E. & Chisum, W. J. (2011). Crime Reconstruction . Burlington, MA : Academic Press.

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